Geometry Theorems

AMIYA
GEOMETRY CONCEPTS &

THEOREMS
3 E L E A R N I N G , 3 R D F L O O R
H. B . R O A D

GEOMETRY CONCEPTS &
REMS COMPILATION
MATHS BY AMIYA
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Barbier's theorem

In geometry, Barbier's theorem states that every curve of constant width
regardless of its precise shape.

Curve of constant width :- In geometry, a curve
(defined as the perpendicular distance between two distinct parallel lines each having at least one point in
common with the shape's boundary but none with the shape's interior) is the same regardless
orientation of the curve.

More generally, any compact convex planar body D has one pair of parallel supporting lines in any given
direction. A supporting line is a line that has at least one point in common with the boundary of D but no
points in common with the interior of D. The width of the body is defined as before. If the width of D is the
same in all directions, the body is said to have constant width and its boundary is a curve of constant width;
the planar body itself is called an orbiform.

The width of a circle is constant: its diameter. On the other hand, the width of a square varies between the
length of a side and that of a diagonal, in the ratio
constant in all directions, is it necessarily a circle? The surprising answer is that there are many non
circular shapes of constant width. A nontrivial example is the Reuleaux triangle. To construct this, take an
equilateral triangle with vertices ABC and draw the arc BC on the circle cen
circle centered at B, and the arc AB on the circle centered at C. The resulting figure is of constant width.

The Reuleaux triangle lacks tangent continuity at three points, but constant
constructed without such discontinuities (as shown in the second illustration on the right). Curves of
constant width can be generated by joining circular arcs centered on the vertices of a regular or irregular
convex polygon with an odd number of sides (triangle, penta

The most familiar examples of curves of constant width are the circle
and the Reuleaux triangle. For a circle, the width is the same as the
diameter; a circle of width w has perimeter w. A Reuleaux triangle
of width w consists of three arcs of circles of radius w. Each of these
arcs has central angle /3, so the perimeter of the Reuleaux triangle
of width w is equal to half the perimeter of a circle of radius w and
therefore is equal to w. A similar analysis of other simple exampl
such as Reuleaux polygons gives the same answer.

The analogue of Barbier's theorem for
false. In particular, the unit sphere has surface area
while the surface of revolution of a Reuleaux triangle
constant width has surface area
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These Reuleaux polygons have
constant width, and all have the
same width; therefore by
Barbier's theorem they also have
equal perimeters.
In geometry, Barbier's theorem states that every curve of constant width* has perimeter times its width,
In geometry, a curve of constant width is a convex planar shape whose width
common with the shape's boundary but none with the shape's interior) is the same regardless
common with the interior of D. The width of the body is defined as before. If the width of D is the
the planar body itself is called an orbiform.
length of a side and that of a diagonal, in the ratio

. Thus the question arises: if a given shape's width is

necessarily a circle? The surprising answer is that there are many non
equilateral triangle with vertices ABC and draw the arc BC on the circle centered at A, the arc CA on the
The Reuleaux triangle lacks tangent continuity at three points, but constant-width curves can also be
thout such discontinuities (as shown in the second illustration on the right). Curves of
convex polygon with an odd number of sides (triangle, pentagon, heptagon, etc.).
The most familiar examples of curves of constant width are the circle
and the Reuleaux triangle. For a circle, the width is the same as the
diameter; a circle of width w has perimeter w. A Reuleaux triangle
three arcs of circles of radius w. Each of these
arcs has central angle /3, so the perimeter of the Reuleaux triangle
of width w is equal to half the perimeter of a circle of radius w and
therefore is equal to w. A similar analysis of other simple examples
such as Reuleaux polygons gives the same answer.
The analogue of Barbier's theorem for surfaces of constant width is
has surface area ,
Reuleaux triangle with the same

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These Reuleaux polygons have
constant width, and all have the
same width; therefore by
Barbier's theorem they also have
equal perimeters.
has perimeter times its width,
of constant width is a convex planar shape whose width
common with the shape's boundary but none with the shape's interior) is the same regardless of the
common with the interior of D. The width of the body is defined as before. If the width of D is the
. Thus the question arises: if a given shape's width is
necessarily a circle? The surprising answer is that there are many non-
tered at A, the arc CA on the
width curves can also be
thout such discontinuities (as shown in the second illustration on the right). Curves of
gon, heptagon, etc.).

Brahmagupta theorem

In geometry, Brahmagupta's theorem
has perpendicular diagonals), then the perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the
diagonals always bisects the opposite side.

More specifically, let A, B, C and D
lines AC and BD are perpendicular. Denote the intersection of
AC and BD by M. Drop the perpendicular from
the intersection E. Let F be the intersection of the line
edge AD. Then, the theorem states that

Proof :-
We need to prove that AF = FD. We will prove that both

To prove that AF = FM, first note that the angles
because they are inscribed angles that intercept the same arc of the circle.
Furthermore, the angles CBM and CME
angle BCM (i.e., they add up to 90), and are therefore equal. Finally,
the angles CME and FMA are the same. Hence,
triangle, and thus the sides AF and FM

The proof that FD = FM goes similarly: the
angles FDM, BCM, BME and DMF
triangle, so FD = FM. It follows that

Brahmagupta's formula

Brahmagupta's formula gives the area

where s, the semiperimeter, is defined to be

Brahmagupta theorem
Brahmagupta's theorem states that if a cyclic quadrilateral is orthodiagonal
diagonals), then the perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the
the opposite side.
be four points on a circle such that the
are perpendicular. Denote the intersection of
. Drop the perpendicular from M to the line BC, calling
be the intersection of the line EM and the
e theorem states that F is the midpoint AD.
. We will prove that both AF and FD are in fact equal to
, first note that the angles FAM and CBM are equal,
that intercept the same arc of the circle.
CME are both complementary to
(i.e., they add up to 90), and are therefore equal. Finally,
are the same. Hence, AFM is an isosceles
FM are equal.
goes similarly: the
DMF are all equal, so DFM is an isosceles
. It follows that AF = FD, as the theorem claims.
Brahmagupta's formula
Brahmagupta's formula gives the area A of a cyclic quadrilateral whose sides have lengths

semiperimeter, is defined to be
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orthodiagonal (that is,
diagonals), then the perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the
are in fact equal to FM.
whose sides have lengths a, b, c, d as

This formula generalizes Heron's formula
regarded as a quadrilateral with one side of length zero. From this perspective, as
approaches zero, a cyclic quadrilateral converges into a cyclic triangle (all triangles are
cyclic), and Brahmagupta's formula simplifies to Heron's formula.

If the semiperimeter is not used, Brahmagupta's formula is

Another equivalent version is

Extension to non-cyclic quadrilaterals

In the case of non-cyclic quadrilaterals, Brahmagupta's formula can be extended by considering the
measures of two opposite angles of the

where is half the sum of two opposite angles. (The choice of which pair of opposite angles is irrelevant: if
the other two angles are taken, half their
cos
2
(180 ) = cos
2
.) This more general formula is known as

It is a property of cyclic quadrilaterals
quadrilateral sum to 180. Consequently, in the case of an inscribed quadrilater
It follows from the latter equation that the area of a cyclic quadrilateral is the maximum possible area for
any quadrilateral with the given side lengths.

A related formula, which was proved by
is
where p and q are the lengths of the diagonals of the quadrilateral. In a
according to Ptolemy's theorem, and the formula of Coolidge reduces

Heron's formula for the area of a triangle. A triangle may be
a quadrilateral with one side of length zero. From this perspective, as
cyclic), and Brahmagupta's formula simplifies to Heron's formula.
not used, Brahmagupta's formula is

cyclic quadrilaterals
cyclic quadrilaterals, Brahmagupta's formula can be extended by considering the
measures of two opposite angles of the quadrilateral:

the sum of two opposite angles. (The choice of which pair of opposite angles is irrelevant: if
their sum is the supplement of . Since cos(180
.) This more general formula is known as Bretschneider's formula
cyclic quadrilaterals (and ultimately of inscribed angles) that opposite angles of a
quadrilateral sum to 180. Consequently, in the case of an inscribed quadrilateral, = 90, whence the term
giving the basic form of Brahmagupta's formula.
any quadrilateral with the given side lengths.
hich was proved by Coolidge, also gives the area of a general convex quadrilateral. It
are the lengths of the diagonals of the quadrilateral. In a cyclic uadrilateral
, and the formula of Coolidge reduces to Brahmagupta's formula.
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. A triangle may be
a quadrilateral with one side of length zero. From this perspective, as d

cyclic quadrilaterals, Brahmagupta's formula can be extended by considering the
the sum of two opposite angles. (The choice of which pair of opposite angles is irrelevant: if
sum is the supplement of . Since cos(180 ) = cos, we have
Bretschneider's formula.
) that opposite angles of a
al, = 90, whence the term
giving the basic form of Brahmagupta's formula.
, also gives the area of a general convex quadrilateral. It

cyclic uadrilateral,
to Brahmagupta's formula.

Butterfly theorem

The butterfly theorem is a classical result in
which can be stated as follows:

Let M be the midpoint of a chord
which two other chords AB and
drawn; AD and BC intersect chord
at X and Y correspondingly. Then

Proof:-
Let the perpendiculars and
and respectively. Similarly, let
from the point perpendicular to the straight lines
respectively.
Now, since

From the preceding equations, it can be easily seen that

since =
Now,
So, it can be concluded that


is a classical result in Euclidean geometry,
chord PQ of a circle, through
and CD are
chord PQ
correspondingly. Then M is the midpoint of XY.
be dropped from the point on the straight lines
respectively. Similarly, let and be dropped
perpendicular to the straight lines and

From the preceding equations, it can be easily seen that

or is the midpoint of
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on the straight lines


Casey's theorem

In mathematics, Casey's theorem, also known as the
generalized Ptolemy's theorem, is a theorem in
geometry named after the Irish mathematician

Let be a circle of radius . Let
that order) four non-intersecting circles that
tangent to it. Denote by the length of the exterior common
tangent of the circles .
Then:

Note that in the degenerate case, where all four circles reduce
to points, this is exactly Ptolemy's theorem

De Gua's theorem

De Gua's theorem is a three-dimensional analog of the
Gua de Malves.

If a tetrahedron has a right-angle corner (like the corner of a
square of the area of the face opposite the right
the squares of the areas of the other three faces.

The Pythagorean theorem and de Gua's theorem are special cases (
a general theorem about n-simplices

, also known as the
Ptolemy's theorem, is a theorem in Euclidean
mathematician John Casey.
be (in
intersecting circles that lie inside and
the length of the exterior common

Note that in the degenerate case, where all four circles reduce
Ptolemy's theorem.

dimensional analog of the Pythagorean theorem and named for
angle corner (like the corner of a cube), then the
square of the area of the face opposite the right-angle corner is the sum of
the squares of the areas of the other three faces.

and de Gua's theorem are special cases (n = 2, 3) of
simplices with a right angle corner.
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and named for Jean Paul de


Descartes' theorem

In geometry, Descartes' theorem states that for every four
the circles satisfy a certain quadratic equation. By solving this equation, one can construct a fourth circle
tangent to three given, mutually tangent circles. The theor
in 1643.

Definition of curvature
Kissing circles. Given three mutually tangent circles (
fourth tangent circle have? There are in general two possible answers (
Descartes' theorem is most easily stated in terms of the circles'
The curvature (or bend) of a circle is defined as
radius. The larger a circle, the smaller is the
and vice versa.

The plus sign in k = 1/r applies to a circle that is
other circles, like the three black circles in the image. For an
internally tangent circle like the big red circle, that
circles, the minus sign applies.

If a straight line is considered a degenerate
theorem also applies to a line and two circles that are all three mutually tangent, giving the radius of a third
circle tangent to the other two circles and the line.
If four circles are tangent to each other at six distinct points, and the circles have
curvatures k
i
(for i = 1, ..., 4), Descartes' theorem says:
When trying to find the radius of a fourth circle tangent to three given
rewritten as:
The sign reflects the fact that there are in general
line, one solution is positive and the other is either
negative; if negative, it represents a circle that circumscribes the
first three (as shown in the diagram above).
favor one solution over the other in any given problem.

SPECIAL CASE
If one of the three circles is replaced
one k
i
, say k
3
, is zero and drops out of
(2) then becomes much simpler:
Descartes' theorem
states that for every four kissing, or mutually tangent,
quadratic equation. By solving this equation, one can construct a fourth circle
tangent to three given, mutually tangent circles. The theorem is named after Ren Descartes, who stated it
Kissing circles. Given three mutually tangent circles (black), what radius can a
fourth tangent circle have? There are in general two possible answers (red).
rem is most easily stated in terms of the circles' curvatures.
) of a circle is defined as k = 1/r, where r is its
radius. The larger a circle, the smaller is the magnitude of its curvature,
applies to a circle that is externally tangent to the
other circles, like the three black circles in the image. For an
tangent circle like the big red circle, that circumscribes the other
degenerate circle with zero curvature (and thus infinite radius), Descartes'
circle tangent to the other two circles and the line.
4), Descartes' theorem says:
..........................
When trying to find the radius of a fourth circle tangent to three given kissing circles, the equation is best

..........................

The sign reflects the fact that there are in general two solutions. Ignoring the degenerate case of a straight
line, one solution is positive and the other is either positive or
negative; if negative, it represents a circle that circumscribes the
first three (as shown in the diagram above). Other criteria may
favor one solution over the other in any given problem.
If one of the three circles is replaced by a straight line, then
, is zero and drops out of equation (1). Equation

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tangent, circles, the radii of
quadratic equation. By solving this equation, one can construct a fourth circle
Ren Descartes, who stated it
circle with zero curvature (and thus infinite radius), Descartes'
..........................(1)
kissing circles, the equation is best
..........................(2)

solutions. Ignoring the degenerate case of a straight


Japanese theorem for cyclic polygons

In geometry, the Japanese theorem
the sum of inradii of triangles is constant.

sum of the radii of the green circles = sum of the radii of the red circles

Conversely, if the sum of inradii independent from the triangulation, then the polygon is cyclic.

Carnot's theorem

In Euclidean geometry, Carnot's theorem
after Lazare Crarnot (17531823), is as follows. Let
an arbitrary triangle. Then the sum of the
distances from the circumcenter D to the sides of
triangle ABC is
where r is the inradius and R is the circumradius. Here the
sign of the distances is taken negative if and only if the
segment DX (X = F, G, H) lies completely outside the
triangle. In the picture DF is negative and
both DG and DH are positive.

Japanese theorem for cyclic polygons
Japanese theorem states that no matter how one triangulates a cyclic
constant.

sum of the radii of the green circles = sum of the radii of the red circles

Carnot's theorem, named
1823), is as follows. Let ABC be
triangle. Then the sum of the signed
to the sides of

circumradius. Here the
is taken negative if and only if the line
) lies completely outside the
is negative and
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cyclic polygon,


Pitot theorem

A tangential quadrilateral ABCD is a closed figure of four straight
sides that are tangent to a given circle
inscribed in the quadrilateral ABCD.

This conclusion follows from the equality of the tangent segments
from the four vertices of the quadrilateral. Let the tangent points be
denoted as P (on segment AB), Q (on segment BC),
CD) and S (on segment DA). The symmetric tangent segments about
each point of ABCD are equal, e.g., BP=BQ=
DR=DS=d, and AS=AP=a. But each side of the quadrilateral is composed of two such tangent segments

The converse is also true: a circle can be inscribed into every quadrilateral in which the lengths of opposite
sides sum to the same value.

This theorem and its converse have various uses. For example, they show immediately that no rectangle
can have an inscribed circle unless it is a
a general parallelogram does not.

Japanese theorem for cyclic quadrilaterals

In geometry, the Japanese theorem
the incircles of certain triangles inside a
quadrilateral are vertices of a rectangle.

Triangulating an arbitrary concyclic quadrilateral by its
diagonals yields four overlapping triangle
diagonal creates two triangles). The centers of the
incircles of those triangles form a rectangle.

Specifically, let be an arbitrary concyclic
quadrilateral and let be
incenters of the triangles

Then the quadrilateral formed by

ABCD is a closed figure of four straight
sides that are tangent to a given circle C. Equivalently, the circle C is
in the quadrilateral ABCD.

This conclusion follows from the equality of the tangent segments
ces of the quadrilateral. Let the tangent points be
(on segment BC), R (on segment
(on segment DA). The symmetric tangent segments about
each point of ABCD are equal, e.g., BP=BQ=b, CQ=CR=c,
But each side of the quadrilateral is composed of two such tangent segments
a circle can be inscribed into every quadrilateral in which the lengths of opposite
various uses. For example, they show immediately that no rectangle
can have an inscribed circle unless it is a square, and that every rhombus has an inscribed circle, whereas
Japanese theorem states that the centers of
inside a cyclic
are vertices of a rectangle.
Triangulating an arbitrary concyclic quadrilateral by its
diagonals yields four overlapping triangles (each
diagonal creates two triangles). The centers of the
incircles of those triangles form a rectangle.
be an arbitrary concyclic
the
.
is a rectangle.
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But each side of the quadrilateral is composed of two such tangent segments

a circle can be inscribed into every quadrilateral in which the lengths of opposite
various uses. For example, they show immediately that no rectangle
square, and that every rhombus has an inscribed circle, whereas


Pick's theorem

Given a simple polygon constructed on a grid of equal
with integer coordinates) such that all the polygon's vertices are grid points,
simple formula for calculating the area
interiorlocated in the polygon and the number
boundary placed on the polygon's perimeter

In the example shown, we have i = 7 interior points and
points, so the area is A = 7 + 8/2 1 =

Note that the theorem as stated above is only valid for
i.e., ones that consist of a single piece and do not contain "holes". For a polygon that has
boundary in the form of h + 1 simple closed curves, the slightly more complicated formula
gives the area.

Ptolemy's theorem

In Euclidean geometry, Ptolemy's theorem
a cyclic quadrilateral (a quadrilateral whose
The theorem is named after
the Greek astronomer and mathematician
Ptolemaeus) Ptolemy used the theorem as an aid to creating
of chords, a trigonometric table that he applied to astronomy.

If the quadrilateral is given with its four vertices
order, then the theorem states that:
where the vertical lines denote the lengths of the line segments between the named

This relation may be verbally expressed as follows:
If a quadrilateral is inscribable in a circle then the product of the measures of its diagonals is equal to the
sum of the products of the measures of the pairs of opposite sides.

Moreover, the converse of Ptolemy's theorem is also true:
In a quadrilateral, if the sum of the products of its two pairs of opposite sides is equal to the product of its
diagonals, then the quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle.
constructed on a grid of equal-distanced points (i.e., points
coordinates) such that all the polygon's vertices are grid points, Pick's theorem
area A of this polygon in terms of the number i
located in the polygon and the number b of lattice points on the
placed on the polygon's perimeter
= 7 interior points and b = 8 boundary
1 = 7 + 4 1 = 10 (square units)
Note that the theorem as stated above is only valid for simple polygons,
i.e., ones that consist of a single piece and do not contain "holes". For a polygon that has
simple closed curves, the slightly more complicated formula
Ptolemy's theorem
Ptolemy's theorem is a relation between the four sides and two diagonals of
(a quadrilateral whose vertices lie on a common circle).
mathematician Ptolemy (Claudius
Ptolemaeus) Ptolemy used the theorem as an aid to creating his table
tric table that he applied to astronomy.
If the quadrilateral is given with its four vertices A, B, C, and D in

where the vertical lines denote the lengths of the line segments between the named
relation may be verbally expressed as follows:
sum of the products of the measures of the pairs of opposite sides.
olemy's theorem is also true:
diagonals, then the quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle.
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distanced points (i.e., points
Pick's theorem provides a
i of lattice points in the
i.e., ones that consist of a single piece and do not contain "holes". For a polygon that has h holes, with a
simple closed curves, the slightly more complicated formula i + b/2 + h 1
is a relation between the four sides and two diagonals of
where the vertical lines denote the lengths of the line segments between the named vertices.

Varignon's theorem

Varignon's theorem is a statement in
geometry by Pierre Varignon that was first
published in 1731. It deals with the construction of a
particular parallelogram (Varignon parallelogram
from an arbitrary quadrangle.

The midpoints of the sides of an arbitrary
quadrangle form a parallelogram. If the quadrangle
is convex or reentrant, i.e. not a crossing
quadrangle, then the area of the parallelogram is
half as big as the area of the quadrangle

Viviani's theorem

Viviani's theorem, named after Vincenzo Viviani,
distances from any interior point to the sides of anequilateral triangle
length of the triangle's altitude.

Proof

This proof depends on the readily-proved proposition that the area of
a triangle is half its base times its height
side.

Let ABC be an equilateral triangle whose height is
Let P be any point inside the triangle, and
each of A, B, and C, forming three triangles PAB, PBC, and PCA.
Now, the areas of these triangles are
sum of these areas is equal to the area of the enclosing triangle. So we can w

and thus u + s + t = h.

Varignon's theorem
statement in Euclidean
that was first
published in 1731. It deals with the construction of a
Varignon parallelogram)
The midpoints of the sides of an arbitrary
form a parallelogram. If the quadrangle
is convex or reentrant, i.e. not a crossing
quadrangle, then the area of the parallelogram is
half as big as the area of the quadrangle.

Vincenzo Viviani, states that the sum of the
interior point to the sides of anequilateral triangle equals the
proved proposition that the area of
es its heightthat is, half the product of one side with the altitude from that
Let ABC be an equilateral triangle whose height is h and whose side is a.
Let P be any point inside the triangle, and u, s, t the distances of P from the sides. Draw a l
each of A, B, and C, forming three triangles PAB, PBC, and PCA.
Now, the areas of these triangles are , , and . They exactly fill the enclosing triangle, so the
sum of these areas is equal to the area of the enclosing triangle. So we can write:

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that is, half the product of one side with the altitude from that
the distances of P from the sides. Draw a line from P to
. They exactly fill the enclosing triangle, so the


Barrow's inequality
Barrow's inequality is an inequality
arbitrary point within a triangle, the vertices of the triangle, and
certain points on the sides of the triangle.

Let P be an arbitrary point inside the
define U, V, and W as the points where the
and APB intersect the sides BC,CA, AB
inequality states that
with equality holding only in the case of an

Euler's theorem in geometry

Euler's theorem states that the distance
expressed as

where R and r denote the circumradius and inradius respectively (the radii of the above two circles).

From the theorem follows the Euler inequality

Weitzenbck's inequality

Weitzenbck's inequality, named after
, , , and area , the following inequality holds:
Equality occurs if and only if the triangle is equilateral.

Barrow's inequality
inequality relating the distances between
triangle, the vertices of the triangle, and
certain points on the sides of the triangle.
arbitrary point inside the triangle ABC. From P and ABC,
as the points where the angle bisectors of BPC, CPA,
AB, respectively. Then Barrow's

case of an equilateral triangle
Euler's theorem in geometry
states that the distance d between the circumcentre and incentre
denote the circumradius and inradius respectively (the radii of the above two circles).
Euler inequality:
Weitzenbck's inequality
, named after Roland Weitzenbck, states that for a triangle of
, the following inequality holds:

Equality occurs if and only if the triangle is equilateral.
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an
incentre of a triangle can be
denote the circumradius and inradius respectively (the radii of the above two circles).
Roland Weitzenbck, states that for a triangle of side lengths

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AMIYA

GEOMETRY CONCEPTS &

. Thus the question arises: if a given shape's width is

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