Topic 6 The World of Work

X INTRODUCTION
As you read Franklins quote on work ethics, to what extent does it reflect the
way you work? What is your attitude towards work tasks that have been
assigned to you? Do you start on them immediately, or do you adopt this
attitude, Whats the hurry? I can always start working on it tomorrow.

Work while it is called today, for you know not how much you will be
hindered tomorrow. One today is worth two tomorrows: never leave that
till tomorrow which you can do today.
~ Benjamin Franklin ~
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X The World of
Work
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of motivation to work;
2. Differentiate between need theories and cognitive theories;
3. Describe the three processes of career development;
4. Analyse the importance of making career adjustments; and
5. Evaluate the occupational and economic changes that occur during
midlife.
TOPIC 6 THE WORLD OF WORK W

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Based on your experience, I am sure there are certain days when you find
yourself all geared up to start on an assigned task. What could have been the
possible reason? To gain your superiors favour? To receive extra allowance, or
words of praise from your colleagues? Or just simply to get a feeling of pride for
good workmanship? Do heed Franklins words of advice of not procrastinating
until tomorrow what we can do today. We can never be sure what tomorrow will
bring.

Have you ever given a thought to what the term work means? The Free
Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides a general definition of work as:

This activity encompasses one of the following:
(a) The sustained physical or mental effort to overcome obstacles and achieve
an objective or result;
(b) The labour, task, or duty that is ones accustomed means of livelihood; and
(c) A specific task, duty, function, or assignment often being a part or phase of
some larger activity.

Given this conceptualisation of work, let us now read about the various aspects
related to work and the world of work in this topic.
MOTIVATION TO WORK
Before we proceed further into learning about motivation to work, read the
scenario as follows:

6.1
Work is an activity in which one exerts strength or faculties to do or
perform something.
Rrrrringggg ... Mano reached over and shut off his alarm. Gosh, is it 6.30 am
already? he mumbled sleepily to himself. Never mind. Ill give myself
another ten minutes. Suddenly he heard his mothers voice calling, Mano,
are you still in bed? Its already 6.45 am. Get ready and come down for
breakfast. Mr. Hamid will be here in twenty minutes to pick you up. Oh,
Ma. Must I really go to school today? I am so tired this morning, Mano
responded. Of course, you must, Mano. All 40 pupils in your Mathematics
class are waiting for your lesson this morning! replied Manos mother.
X TOPIC 6 THE WORLD OF WORK

154
After reading the scenario, how often do you find yourself behaving like Mano?
Often times, we complain of students lacking in motivation to go to school. Now,
you realise that teachers can also become demotivated as well. For one reason or
another, we just feel like taking French leave. Why does this happen? The
answer to this question lies in our level of work motivation.

The next section will discuss various aspects related to work motivation such as
the concept and various work motivation theories.
6.1.1 Work Motivation
What is work motivation? To better understand this term, we need to, first of
all, define motivation.

Let us examine each of the three concepts: Arousal of behaviour concerns the
reason for us to do anything at all; direction of behaviour asks why we do a
particular thing that we do; and persistence of behaviour enquires why we
keep on doing that particular thing.
(a) Based on the above conceptual definition, major theorists in work
motivation pose the following questions:
(b) Why do we work?
(c) Why do we do a particular kind of work?
(d) Why do we continue working at the same job year after year?
(e) Why do we quit?
(Berry: 1998:234)

As we all know, organisations today face the issue of how best to motivate their
employees to work without counting the cost, as well as enhance job satisfaction,
involvement and commitment. Lately, the automobile industry has come under
fire for producing motor vehicles with faulty parts that have resulted in tragic
road accidents and loss of lives. Similarly, the shoddy work of certain
construction companies has also produced similar consequences.

Upon analysis of such incidents, can we point the accusing finger at employees
who no longer seem to care about doing a good job? Are they not motivated
enough to do the best job possible under the given circumstances? On a personal
Motivation is said to be the arousal, direction and persistence of an
individuals behaviour.

155
note, what is your level of work motivation? Are you happy at work? Do you
give your level best? If that is so, congratulations. Otherwise, you should make
an effort to find out what is causing you to be frustrated, dissatisfied and
unhappy at work. Hopefully, the following discussion about the different
theories of work motivation may offer options for making your work fulfilling
and satisfying, rather than boring and dissatisfying.

In the context of this topic, emphasis will be given to two categories of
motivation, namely Need Theories and Cognitive Theories. Need theories, also
known as Content theories, primarily focus on four elements related to work,
namely the importance of work, work challenges, career growth opportunities
and work responsibilities of employees. In short, these theories are concerned
with the content of motivation and how our specific human needs prompt and
lead our behaviour.

On the other hand, Cognitive Theories are not related directly to work. Rather,
they emphasise the cognitive processes involved when we make particular work
choices and decisions. Table 6.1 summarises the two categories of work
motivation theories as well as the theories contained in each category.

Table 6.1: Two Categories of Work Motivation Theories
Category Examples
Need
Theories
x Maslows Needs Hierarchy Theory Motivation is influenced by the
gratification of lower order deprived needs progressing to higher order
deprived needs in the hierarchy.
x Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory Hygiene and motivator factors are
outcomes that influence motivation.
x McClellands Achievement Theory- The need for achievement
produces motivating effects.
Cognitive
Theories
x Vrooms Expectancy Theory Cognitive elements motivates a person
to perform a given task.
x Adams Equity Theory Work motivation is determined by the results
obtained through the comparison of a persons job input and outcomes
with that of their colleagues or other people doing the same task.
x The High Performance Cycle External and internal rewards that
satisfy our needs lead to high job performance and high employee job
satisfaction.

Let us now discuss about the Need Theories of Motivation and Cognitive
Theories of Motivation in greater detail.

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6.1.2 Need Theories of Motivation
As we all know, our behaviour is largely driven by our needs. Generally, we
become motivated for the simple reason that we are trying to satisfy a need. In
the context of this section, three Need Theories will be discussed, namely:
x Maslows Needs Hierarchy Theory;
x Herzbergs Two Factor Theory; and
x McClellands Achievement Theory.

(a) Maslows Needs Hierarchy Theory
Abraham Maslow who developed the needs-hierarchy theory of motivation
asserts that as human beings, we are always striving to satisfy our needs.
When a need has been gratified, it will no longer serve as motivation for
our behaviour. When this happens, new needs will emerge that prompt us
to action.

As shown in Figure 6.1, our needs in the context of the workplace from
lowest to highest are as follows:

Figure 6.1: Maslows Needs-Hierarchy Theory
Source: http://www.successcircuit.com/articles
/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/


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(i) Physiological needs (Survival)basic human needs that include food,
water, physical amenities such as medical, electricity, transport and
telecommunication.

(ii) Safety/Security needs physical shelter, psychological security and
stability and insurance.

(iii) Social/Belonging needs friendship, love and affection from friends
and co-workers.

(iv) Self-esteem needs social recognition, admiration and respect.

(v) Self-actualisation needs self-fulfilment, self realisation and
achievement of our full potential.

Based on the needs hierarchy in Figure 6.1, the lower order needs should be
satisfied first. To illustrate, in times of economic recession when there is
scarcity of jobs, we will be more concerned about survival, rather than
attending to our higher order needs such as self-actualisation. Once we are
assured of the physical and economic security of not losing our jobs, then,
we will be motivated to focus on the next level of needs.

As you will note, our social and belonging needs serve as important
motivators. We often strive to develop a social support network amongst
our fellow workers and establish a sense of belonging through our
interaction with them. Having fulfilled these needs, we move on to our
esteem needs where we aspire to own a bigger house or car, receive praises
from our superior, be assigned a room to work in privacy and be allocated a
reserved parking lot. Once these esteem needs are gratified, we endeavour
to be given the opportunity for professional growth in the form of short
courses, workshops, seminars, conferences and so on. The input obtained
will ease our climb up the career ladder.

In sum, knowledge of Maslows Needs-Hierarchy Theory gives human
resource management ideas to enhance worker motivation. As employees,
this knowledge will make us become more aware of the fundamental
elements that serve to motivate us and to respond accordingly in our
workplace.


158

(b) Herzbergs Two Factor Theory
In comparison to Maslows Needs-Hierarchy Theory, Herzbergs Two-
Factor Theory is concerned with both motivation and the outcome of
motivated behaviour or job satisfaction.

Basically, we have two sets of needs (refer to Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2:Two sets of needs in Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

1. List down Maslows hierarchy of human needs.

2. How will you relate this needs-hierarchy theory in the context of
work and the working environment?
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Imagine you are asked to attend an emergency meeting immediately
after school. You have not had your lunch and your six-year old son is
waiting for you to pick him up from school. Explain your feelings and
relate them to Maslows Needs-Hierarchy Theory.
(a) During the next tutorial, role-play this situation with another
coursemate.
(b) What have you learned from this role-play? Share your
experiences with your coursemates and tutor.
ACTIVITY 6.1

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According to Herzberg, the hygiene factor motivates us away from job
dissatisfaction, thus leaving us feeling not dissatisfied. In contrast, the
motivator factor motivates toward job satisfaction, thus causing us to feel
satisfied. Of the two outcomes, Herzberg asserted that intrinsic job outcomes
were the more influential motivating force for all employees. What is your
opinion? Let us look at Figure 6.3 which illustrates Herzbergs Two-Factor
Theory prediction.

Figure 6.3: Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Source: Berry, 1998:242


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Further Reading
Excerpt: What is it that Drives Us?
On September 8 1995, a baseball player made history. He did it by showing up
for work. In fact, Cal Ripken, Jr., showed up exactly 2, 131 times every time his
team, the Baltimore Orioles, played a major league baseball game. He has
never recorded a single absence.
What is it that drives, pushes, goads and motivates workers like Cal Ripken to
work hard to do the best job they can, to be on time and to show up for work
everyday? If you are curious about the great driving force of the 19th and 20th
centuries that led to unimaginable heights of industrial, agricultural and
commercial productivity and economic success, then work ethics is where you
should begin. To many progressive economies, work is not a four-letter word.
It was John Calvin who came up with the term work ethics, where work was
an emblem of faith. Old-fashioned, puritanical, nose-to-the-grindstone toil for
its own sake became the motivation that drove millions of people to work
hard all their lives and to feel virtuous for doing so. And it still drives millions
of us each and every day to so the best job we can. And to show up for every
game!
Source: odd, R (in Schultz & Schultz, 1998:242
Reflect on the excerpt. In your opinion, besides work ethics, what
could be other underlying motivating forces behind Ripkens
excellent work attendance record? Discuss this question from the
perspective of Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory, giving reasons for
your answer. During your next tutorial, share your answers with your
coursemates and tutor. Compare your answer with that of your
coursemates.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Explain Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory.

2. How is Herzbergs theory similar or different from Maslows
Needs-Hierarchy Theory?
SELF-CHECK 6.2

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(c) McCellands Achievement Theory
Let us now read about the third needs theory of work motivation that is,
McClellands Achievement Theory. The main principle of this theory is The
Need for Achievement (N-Ach). In relation to this, McClelland proposed
that if we possess a high need for achievement, then we will aim to have a
high ability for certain activities that are characterised by the following:
(i) A standard for excellence; and
(ii) Possible success or failure.

In elaborating, N-Ach is a combination of two related needs, namely: a need
to achieve success and a need to avoid failure. Generally, we are said to
have varying amounts of these two needs. However, one of them is usually
more dominant.

Review Table 6.2 and try to understand how the achievement theory
predicts individuals with a need to achieve success, or to avoid failure.

Table 6.2: Achievement Theory Predictions of Individuals with a Need to Gain
Success or to Avoid Failure
Objective Nature of Achievement Personal Value of Achievement
Difficulty
of Task
Probability
of Success
Value of
Outcome
For Person with
Need to Gain
Success
For Person with
Need to Avoid
Failure
Difficult Low High Low High
Moderate Moderate Moderate High Low
Easy High Low Low High
Source: Berry (1998:243)

With reference to Table 6.2, you can distinguish tasks by their difficulty
level, as well as potential reward value. As you are aware, the chances of
success for an easy task are high, but the reward value in terms of
accomplishment is low. Conversely, if you succeed in doing a difficult task,
accomplishment will be very rewarding, but it is highly unlikely to happen
as the success rate is low.


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Thus, if your dominant need is to achieve success, then a moderately
difficult task is the best way for you to achieve success. If, on the other
hand, your need is to avoid failure, then you should give top priority to an
easy task although the outcome value is low. You should not think of
considering a difficult task at this point, as success, although valuable,
would be highly unlikely. The same goes for a moderate task where the
chances of avoiding failure are also low.

Based on the discussion so far, how do you perceive yourself? Is your
dominant need to achieve success, or to avoid failure? Are you a high
achiever? To find out, ask yourself if you have the following characteristics:
(i) Like a work environment where you can take personal responsibility
for solving problems;
(ii) Likely to take calculated risks and set moderately difficult
achievement goals; and
(iii) Need early and continuing feedback on your work progress.

1. Explain the central feature in McClellands work motivation
theory.

2. How do you propose to enhance the N-Ach level of those who
only strive to avoid failure?
SELF-CHECK 6.3
Based on your observation of your colleagues need for achievement,
identify those who fall under the category of high achievers. To what
extent do they demonstrate the three characteristics enumerated
above? Post your ideas online. Read the responses of your
coursemates. How are they similar or different from yours?
ACTIVITY 6.3

163
6.1.2 Cognitive Theories of Motivation
We will now turn our attention to the second category of work motivation
theories, that is Cognitive Theories. As mentioned earlier, cognitive theories
maintain that we have thoughts, feelings and expectations with respect to the
actions that we take, as well as the outcomes of such actions. The focus of
discussion in this section will be on the following theories:
x Vrooms Expectancy Theory;
x Adams Equity Theory; and
x The High Performance Cycle.

(a) Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Have you heard of Vrooms Expectancy Theory? Also known as Valence-
Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) Theory, it maintains that the choices we
make are based on our perceived expectancy that we will obtain certain
rewards for a particular behaviour.

To calculate the motivational force behind our work behaviour, Vroom
formulated an equation that encompasses three cognitive components to
calculate our motivational force:

Force = Expectancy u Instrumentality u Valence

Let us now consider each of the cognitive components featured in the
equation.
(i) Expectancy refers to the subjective estimate we make about the odds
that we can perform a particular task successively, as well as the
amount of effort needed to do it;
(ii) Instrumentality is our assessment of what will occur if we succeed in
performing that task; and
(iii) Valence is our emotional response to an anticipated outcome.

To illustrate, before sitting for an examination, do you always consider the
outcome of your performance? What is the possibility of you accomplishing
a 90 percent score? How much effort do you need to put in? How will you
feel if you succeed in obtaining that score?


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Based on the given equation, it is clear that if your aim is to obtain a
motivational force that is greater than zero, then all the three components
must be more than zero. In other words, you must believe that:
(i) You can achieve success (E > 0);
(ii) Success will lead to a positive outcome (I > 0); and
(iii) You really want the outcome (V> 0).

In order to better understand how the VIE theory works, review Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: Expectancy theory predictions of effort toward task under varied conditions of
Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence (V)
Source: Berry (1998:247)

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Based on Figure 6.4, you can draw four conclusions:
(i) A high expectancy of success combined with a high perception of
instrumentality and a highly desirable outcome will result in a high
motivating force towards performing the task;
(ii) A low expectancy of success combined with a high perception of
instrumentality and a highly desirable outcome will result in a low
motivating force towards performing the task;
(iii) A high expectancy of success combined with a low perception of
instrumentality and a highly desirable outcome will result in a low
motivating force towards performing the task; and
(iv) A high expectancy of success combined with a high perception of
instrumentality but an undesirable outcome will result in a low
motivating force towards performing the task.

How does Vrooms Expectancy Theory apply in our professional life?

Firstly, we will decide if certain job behaviours, for example: punctuality or
increased productivity will result in a particular outcome (E).

Secondly, we try to find out if that outcome will extend to other outcomes,
for example: increased productivity leads to a year-end bonus (I).

Finally, we will also decide if the outcome, that is the bonus, has enough
value to motivate us to continue exhibiting in that particular manner (V).

(b) Adams Equity Theory
The Expectancy Theory that you have just learned, our thoughts, feelings
and opinions have a direct effect on our work. However, the difference is
that the central feature of the Equity Theory is the relationship between the
cognitive elements.
Describe how Vrooms VIE theory applies in your working life? Post
your responses on myVLE. Read about your coursemates experiences
and provide them with some constructive feedback during your next
tutorial.
ACTIVITY 6.4

166
According to Adam, we tend to make certain types of social comparisons
related to pay levels that can affect our work performance. Thus, if we are
able to alter the consistency of how people think and feel about pay, this
will bring about changes in motivation and work performance.

Before proceeding further, it is important for you to understand two
concepts: consonance and dissonance. Thoughts and feelings are said to be
consonant when they are consistent, stable and balanced. For example:
when asked to move to another school, you refuse giving the excuse that
you enjoy working in your present school. Dissonance occurs when you
turn down a transfer to another school, even though you are unhappy
working in your present school.

How do the two concepts of consonance and dissonance feature in the
social comparison process? What are the steps involved in this process? For
your information, the first step in the social comparison process is self-
assessment. We start to calculate the cognitive ratio of job inputs to job
outputs. By job inputs, we mean academic qualifications, job experience
and diligence. On the other hand, job outputs refer to what we gain from
the job, such as money, position and recognition. The output/input (O/I)
ratio indicates the degree of the exchange we are getting.

Generally, there are three types of exchanges:
(i) Fair exchange: where O = I;
(ii) Overpayment: where O > I; and
(iii) Underpayment: where O < I.

At the second stage, we assess the O/I ratios of our co-workers before
making comparisons with our own self-ratios. This is where consonance or
dissonance will occur. If our self-ratio is consistent with other-ratio, we feel
consonant and comfortable. If, however, a difference occurs between our
self-ratio and other-ratio, we will experience the tension of dissonance.

How do we resolve this tension of dissonance? Some of Adams
suggestions are outlined as follows:
(i) Quit your job;
(ii) Change the person with whom you are making the comparison;
(iii) Tell yourself that you have underestimated your own talents; and
(iv) Change the quality or quantity of your work performance.


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To help you better understand how performance changes can reduce the
tension of dissonance that is created as a result of underpayment or
overpayment, you may refer to Table 6.3.

Table 6.3: Equity Theory Predictions for Performance Change Resulting from Dissonant
Cognitions about Pay
Dissonance Pay Basis Quality of Work Quantity of Work
Underpaid Hourly Reduce Reduce
Piece rate Reduce Maintain or increase

Overpaid Hourly Increase Increase
Piece rate Increase Maintain or reduce

Recall an incident when you experienced dissonance in your
workplace.
(a) What was the cause?
(b) Who was responsible?
(c) How did you resolve it?
(d) Did you employ any of the recommendations that you have just
learned?

Share your experience with your coursemates and tutor during your
next tutorial.
ACTIVITY 6.5
1. Explain the characteristics of Vrooms Expectancy Theory and
Adams Equity Theory of work motivation.

2. How are these two theories of work motivation similar or
different?
SELF-CHECK 6.4

168
(c) The High Performance Cycle
In order to obtain a high job performance, we need to go through various
stages of the cycle.

Firstly, we need to consider the demands, goals and challenges related to
our job. As you know, the goals we set will motivate us to improve our job
performance. In reality, this may not be true as we may be facing challenges
from demanding authority figures such as our superiors, or peer pressure
from our colleagues. Nevertheless, the presence of other factors, commonly
known as moderators can contribute to high job performance. Examples of
moderators include the following:
(i) Commitment to the goal;
(ii) Progressive feedback about efforts demonstrated towards achieving
the goal; and
(iii) High self-efficacy for excellent performance.

Secondly, we need to nurture certain attributes that include attention, effort
and persistence towards our job. Another important consideration is the
rewards we receive that serve as a motivator to maintain job performance.
Generally, there are two types of reward as shown in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: Types of reward

Typically, external and internal rewards are expected to satisfy our needs
thus resulting in high job performance and high employee job satisfaction.
High job satisfaction will, ultimately, lead to greater commitment to the
organisation and a better willingness and openness of new challenges and
goals. Conversely, if the rewards we receive do not satisfy our need, we will
experience feelings of dissatisfaction, low organisational commitment and a
negative attitude towards new job challenges and goals. From this
explanation, you can clearly see the cyclical nature of this high performance
model.


169

Further Reading
This story is about an old man and some young children who played football
in front of the old mans house every afternoon after school. He did not like
the joyful noises the young children made as they played football each day.
Since he was quite a sage, he thought of a way to reduce their motivation to
play in front of his house. One Monday, he called the children over to the gate
and asked them if they would like to earn a certain sum of money for each
game they played. Naturally, the children thought that was a great idea. Then,
for several weeks the old man paid the children for playing. The next Monday,
following their usual excitement, fun and joy of playing football, the children
noticed that the old man was not at the gate with the, now usual and expected
loot. So they entered the gate and knocked on the old mans door. When he
answered the door, they inquired why he had not been at the gate to give
them their money. His response surprised them. He said that he no longer
intended to pay them for playing in front of his house. They responded that if
he would not pay, they would not play!

Source: T. C. Mawhinney (in Berry, 1998:234)
Based on the story you have just read, how did the old man change
the childrens behaviour? Why is it important for us to identify
peoples motives for accomplishing a task? Can you relate a similar
incident in your workplace where money functioned as an extrinsic
motivation? Post your reflections online and share with your
coursemates and tutor. Respond to their experiences.
ACTIVITY 6.6
Based on what you have learned about the different categories of
work motivation theories and the examples contained in each
category, generate a suitable mindmap showing the primary
characteristics and features of each theory.
SELF-CHECK 6.5

170
CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
The discussion in the earlier section has focused on what motivates us to work
from various theoretical perspectives. In this section, we will examine three
processes involved in the career development that encompasses the following:
(a) Choosing a career;
(b) Planning a career; and
(c) Obtaining employment.
6.2.1 Choosing a Career
To start off the discussion, read the following scenario.

At age 25, Li-Sen graduated with a postgraduate teaching diploma from a
local teacher training institute. She was posted as a mathematics teacher to a
rural school in the interior of Sarawak. At age 26, Dinesh graduated as a
medical doctor and took on a job as an intern at a government hospital in the
capital city. At age 20, Borhan finished his building construction course in a
college and started his first job in a multinational construction company.
Within six months, he was asked to go to Dubai and work on a building
project there.

What is your reaction to the scenario you have just read? Each of them, namely
Li-Sen, Dinesh and Borhan took up a course in various educational institutions,
graduated from their course, chose an occupation that was directly related to
their studies and embarked on their career.

How did each of them achieve this? How did they select their career? Did they
adhere to their childhood ambition, or did they change their minds as they were
growing up? Fortunately, for some of us, we already knew from an early age
what we wanted to be when we grow up. So, we just followed a direct route
towards achieving our career goal. Some of us, however, preferred to keep our
options open for a considerable amount of time before settling down to a
particular profession. Sadly, this privilege to explore before making a career
decision is not accorded to the economically disadvantaged amongst us.

6.2

171
Theorists like Super assert that most of us, typically, go through various phases
of vocational development at different stages of our lives as shown in Table 6.4.
As you read about these phases, note how they relate to your own personal
experience.

Table 6.4: Vocational Development from Early Childhood to Early Adulthood
Developmental
Stages
Vocational
Developmental
Phases
Characteristic
Early and
middle
childhood
Fantasy Period x Insights are gained through fantasising about
them;
x Preferences are guided by familiarity and
glamour;
x Bears little or no relation to eventual career
decisions.
x For example: Aspire to be Batman, movie
star.
Early and
middle
adolescence
Tentative Period x Evaluate vocational options based on
interests;
x Become aware of personal and educational
requirements for each vocation;
x Make considerations for their abilities and
values.
Late
adolescence and
early adulthood
Realistic Period x Narrow down options by engaging in further
exploration;
x Gather additional information about
possibilities consistent with personal
attributes;
x Focus on a general occupational category
(Crystallisation);
x Engage in experimentation before deciding
on a particular job.


172
It is important for you to be aware that your career choice is largely influenced by
certain factors. The factors are as follows which will be discussed in greater
detail.
x Personality types;
x Family influences; and
x Access to vocational information.

(a) Personality Types
Holland (in Santrock, 2002) conceived that when we choose a career that
matches our personality type, there is a greater likelihood that we will be
happy at the job, derive job satisfaction and remain in it longer when
compared with one that clashes with our personality.

For this purpose, Holland has classified career-related personality types
into six categories as summarised in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5: Hollands Career-related Personality Types
Personality
Type
Characteristic Suggested Job Fields
Realistic x Prefer real-world problems
x Tends to select a mechanical job
x Plumbing
x Construction
x Engineering
Investigative x Enjoys working with ideas
x Likely to select a scientific
occupation.
x Physicist
x Anthropology
x Biologist
Artistic x Creative
x Emotional
x Prefers an artistic field
x Visual Arts
x Writing
x Music
Social x Loves interacting with people
x Tends towards human services
x Teaching
x Counselling
x Social work
Enterprising x Adventurous
x Persuasive
x Sales
x Politics
x Management
Conventional x Likes well-structured tasks
x Prefers material possessions
x Accounting
x Banking

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Based on Table 6.5, can you identify your personality type? Does it match
with your present occupation? If so, good. If otherwise, what do you
propose to do?

(b) Family Influences
Research findings reveal that our young peoples vocational aspirations
have a positive strong correlation with their parents jobs. In simple terms,
this means that children from high socio-economic backgrounds tend to
select white-collar jobs with high status and wages, such as doctors,
engineers, lawyers and so on. In comparison, children from lower income
families are highly likely to choose blue-collar jobs with low status, such as
plumbers, construction workers and other types of manual jobs.

Can you say if your present career bears any resemblance to your parents
profession? Did either one or both of them ever exert any influence with
respect to your career choice earlier?

(c) Access to Vocational Information
Based on your experience, I am sure you will agree that access to vocational
information is a critical factor in career choice. Recollect the effort you made
to seek information from your parents and other family members, school
teachers and counselling teacher about a particular profession that you
were interested in. Perhaps you even went to the extent of talking to people
holding that same job. Over and above, you would have also searched the
Internet for additional information about appropriate tertiary courses to
enrol for, job prospects, salary, perks and other fringe benefits.

Research findings reveal that if our young people have high ambitions but
low knowledge of their selected vocation, they end up being drifting
dreamers who are unable to make wise choices about signing up for
relevant courses, enrolling in established and recognised tertiary
institutions and so on. In contrast, the high ambition/high knowledge
youths are better able to make wise occupational choices that meet the
requirements of the current job market.

In view of this, it is of utmost importance for teachers and school
counsellors at both the primary and secondary level to guide pupils and
students and equip themselves with basic vocational knowledge in a wide
variety of fields.

In addition, they can also organise various activities related to careers. For
example: inviting professionals in different fields to talk about their line of
work, encouraging student involvement in relevant co-curricular activities,

174
and arranging for practical training in various work settings, such as
industries, hospitals, retirement homes, nurseries and preschools, music
schools, welfare homes, hotels and restaurants in order to provide firsthand
on-the-job experiences for interested and potential employees in a
particular profession.

We cannot deny the fact that thinking about our career starts from
childhood, but we also know that the critical stages of our lives for
embarking into a career are during late adolescence and early adulthood.
Hence, it is of utmost importance for our youths to be well-prepared for a
rewarding work life later on. In this respect, the family, school, community
and organisations have an equally important role to play.

Further Reading

Ten Myths about Choosing a Career

Myth 1: Choosing a career is simple.
Fact: Far from it. Choosing a career actually takes a lot of time, as you
learn about yourself and the occupations you are interested in order
to make a wise decision.

Myth 2: A career counsellor can tell me what occupation to pick.
Fact: No. He can only guide you the final decision is yours.

Myth 3: I cant make a living from my hobby.
Fact: ot true. It is perfectly alright to choose a career that is closely related
to what you enjoy doing in your free time.

Myth 4: I should choose a career from a Best Careers list.
Fact: You may use this list as a form of reference, as things may change
with time. More importantly, you need to consider your interests,
values and skills related to a particular career.

Myth 5: Making a lot of money will make me happy.
Fact: Money does not equate with job satisfaction, although salary is an
important consideration in vocational choice.

Source: Adapted from
http://careerplanning.about.com/od/careerchoicechan/a/mythschoice.htm

175

6.2.2 Planning a Career
Now that you have learned about some of the factors that influence career choice,
the next thing in the career development process is planning how to achieve it. In
this respect, you have two options. Either you consult with a career development
professional to help guide you through the process, or you work through it on
your own. Whatever option you take, you need to consider three factors: self,
options and match.

(a) Self
Do a self-assessment of your interests, values, skills/aptitudes, preferred
work environment, developmental needs and realities. Ideally, you should
give serious consideration to all the important information you have thus
gathered about yourself.

(b) Options
Explore all the prospective job areas that you have a keen interest in.
Possibly, do some online or field research about the job specifications and
environments in which you prefer to work in. Additionally, survey the job
market to gain some insights into hot jobs or current best careers.

It is also suggested that you try and obtain more specific information about
possible job options to help you do effective short listing using through job
shadowing, part time or volunteer work and internship.

(c) Match
Match (a) and (b) with possible jobs, evaluate what they can offer in terms
of remuneration, work prospects, career path and so on. Consequently, you
can explore other alternatives.
Are you curious to find out about the remaining myths related to
choosing a career? Visit the URL provided. With reference to The
Ten Myths About Choosing A Career, check the number of myths
associated with you. Do a simple survey amongst your coursemates
during your next tutorial to find out the myths they checked. How are
they similar with or different from yours?
ACTIVITY 6.7

176
6.2.3 Obtaining Employment
Having completed the career planning aspect in your career development
process, you are now ready to embark on the third and last phase, that is
obtaining employment. Have you ever given this phase any thought? What are
some of the steps you need to take in order to secure employment and
subsequently to accomplish your career goal? You need to do the following:
x Writing a cover letter;
x Writing your resume; and
x Prepare for job interviews.

(a) Writing a Cover Letter
Do you have any experience writing a cover letter for a job application?
What are some important elements in a cover letter? A cover letter should
be sent together with your resume, even if the organisation does not state
that you are required to do so. What purpose does a cover letter serve? It is
one way of demonstrating your writing and reporting skills. Read some of
the Dos and Donts associated with a cover letter:
(i) Customise your cover letter to each prospective employer.
(ii) Refrain from mentioning salary. However, if the job advertisement
calls for an expected salary, it is recommended that you state a range,
for example between RM6000RM8000 instead of RM7500.
(iii) Perhaps you may be interested to learn how a cover letter is
written. Read the following sample format sourced from:
http://jobsearch.about.com/od/coverlettersamples
/a/covertemplate.htm.

Your Contact Information
Your Name
Your Address
Your City, State, Post Code
Your Phone Number
Your Email Address
Date


177
Employer Contact Information
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, State, Post Code

Salutation
Dear Mr/Ms Last Name:

Body of Cover Letter
The body of your cover letter allows the employer to be informed about
position you are applying for, why you should be selected for an interview
and what your follow-up action is.

First Paragraph:
Inform the employer the reason for the cover letter. Be clear, concise and
precise in your writing. Enclose information of a mutual contact, if you
have one. Try to convince the reader why you should be called for the
interview or appointment.

Middle Paragraphs:
Describe what you have to offer the employer. Establish a strong
connection between your abilities and the organisations needs. Emphasise
how your skills and experience correspond with the job you are applying
for. A word of caution: Do not repeat your resume. Interpret your resume
by supporting each statement with some strong evidence. It is
recommended that you write in several shorter paragraphs or bullets,
instead of one large block of text.

Final Paragraph:
Close your cover letter with a note of thanks to the employer for
considering you for the position. Mention also what follow-up actions you
will make and when (a duration of one week will suffice).

Complimentary Close:
Respectfully yours,

Signature:
Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter)

For further information about writing cover letters, you may visit useful
websites such as About.com Guide.

178
(b) Writing your Resume
If you recall, your resume is said to complement your cover letter and vice
versa. What is a resume? How should it be written? To find out how, read
the guidelines as follows.

How To Write Your Resume

Your resume together with your cover letter provides the employer
with the information to decide whether or not to select you for an
interview. Your resume must be concise. This means that it should
be 23 pages for a younger graduate, or 34 pages for a mature
age graduate with work experience. Your resume should contain the
following:
x Personal details first and last name, residential address, postal
address (if different from residential), home phone number, mobile
phone number and e-mail address;
x Summary of skills specific technical skills, fluency in languages
other than English, research skills, management skills and so on;
x Education- tertiary and secondary qualifications (presented in
reverse chronological order);
x Employment history relevant positions (in reverse chronological
order);
x Other Courses, Qualifications, Awards or Professional
Development;
x Professional/Association affiliations membership (associate or
student membership) of professional bodies;
x Voluntary work/Other activities participation in community
work, clubs, sport or youth groups;
x Hobbies/Interests personal interests that involve collective
activities such as community, sporting, religious or cultural
pursuits;
x Referees Avoid using personal friends, family members and non-
work associates.

Source:
http://www.monash.edu.my/studentservices/index.php?authcreque
st=/Student-services/images/stories/ECD/How20to20write20your20
resume.pdf

179
If you are interested in reading about other formats for writing a resume,
you may source the Internet:
http://www.monash.edu.my/studentservices/index.php?authcrequest=/
Student-services/images/stories/ECD/How20to20write20your
20resume.pdf

(c) Prepare for Job Interviews
Based on your cover letter and resume, your potential employer notifies
you that you have been selected to attend a job interview. How do you feel?
If it is a job that you are really interested in, then I am sure you will be very
excited. How do you prepare yourself for the interview? Read the following
10 general interview tips explained in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6: Top Ten General Interview Tips
Tips Explanation
Plan
Ahead
This means you need to be prepared for the interview. Spend some time
to do a little homework before the interview. If possible, browse through
your potential employers website and gather some background
information about the company, the position you are applying for and the
people who will most likely be on the interview panel. Reassess your
work history and be prepared to relate your past career achievements
with the companys needs. Get your facts straight.
Role Play As soon as you have completed your research of the company, rehearse
your answers to questions that are most likely to be asked by employers:
Tell us something about yourself or Why should we employ you? Do
not beat around the bush, rather answer to the point. It is also
recommended that you talk to the Human Resource personnel in order to
get an idea of what your potential employers require.
First
Impression
Counts
Make sure your attire is suitable for the job you are applying for. Open-
toes sandals, slippers, jeans and T-shirts are certainly not recommended.
Be on
Time
If possible, you should check out the venue prior to the actual interview
day just to have an idea how long it may take to reach it. Give yourself
ample time if you are taking public transport. Remember bus schedules
may not be reliable and traffic jams are likely to occur in a busy city. If you
are late for an interview, you have already created a bad first impression
of yourself. If you cannot help it, then you should try and contact your
interviewers.
Be Positive Be sure you do not criticise your past employers, rather focus on positive
achievements and views.

180

Encourage Encourage the interviewer to share some information about the company.
This shows you are interested to work there.
Eye
Contact
During the interview, maintain eye contact with your interviewer. Convey
the message that you are interested in the job.
Adapt and
Relate
Adapt to the style of the interviewer and relate your answers to him and
the company. Focus on achievements relevant to the position.
Be Honest Tell the truth about your background and skills. Even if you succeed in
being employed, your employer is sure to discover the truth somehow.
When that happens, you will also get fired.
Dont
Give Up
Even if you fail to secure the job despite doing your best at the interview,
you should not despair. Every job interview you attend adds to your
experience and increases your self-confidence to face future interviews.
Source:
http://www.jobsdb.com.ph/MY/EN/V6HTML/jobseeker/114_career.html

After reading through the tips given in Table 6.6, are you ready to face a job
interview if you are called for one in the near future?

In summary, career planning is not an insurmountable task and the process
demands a huge amount of your time and effort to ensure that you achieve the
career goal you have set. Surprisingly, this may not only happen once in your
lifetime. As you define and redefine your career goals, you may engage in the
career planning several times in your life.

Imagine you are applying for a new job. Prepare a resume and a cover
letter for your prospective employer using the guidelines you have
learned. You may also access other relevant URLs to obtain further
information. Post your ideas on myVLE and share with your
coursemates. During the next tutorial, role-play a job interview. Share
your experiences in class and ask for comments from your tutor about
how the interviewees can further improve their performance.
ACTIVITY 6.8

181

CAREER ADJUSTMENT
To begin with, read the following scenario.

After a full 8.30 am to 5.30 pm day at the office, Lily picks up her two-year old
daughter Mei from the nursery, goes home and cooks dinner. Some nights she
has to fetch Guan, her ten year old son to and from his night tuition class.
Other nights, she has to sit with him while he does his homework, while
attending to Meis demand for attention as well. Like most women in dual
career marriages, she has to juggle her time between child care and household
chores with work that she often takes home to finish up.

Is the above scenario familiar? Does it describe what you or your spouse are
currently experiencing? Dual-earner marriages, where both husband and wife
are working, are a common phenomenon in most families today.

Undoubtedly, there is a lot of satisfaction to be gained in a dual-career marriage.
The financial rewards certainly help enhance the material comforts enjoyed by
the entire household as compared to a sole breadwinner family. Besides, most
women want to have a career in addition to a family to satisfy their need for
achievement, recognition and self-expression.

However, are you aware that in many of these families, moderate to severe
conflicts occur as women strive to meet both work and family responsibilities?
Can you explain what contributes to these conflicts? Amongst them is a sense of
work overload. Recall how Lily has to shoulder most of the household and child
care tasks. She is also probably trying to divide her time at home between
completing unfinished office tasks and spending time with her children. At the
end of the day, she will have no time for recreation or visit friends and relatives.

6.3
1. Describe the processes involved in the career development.

2. Design a career planning plan for an occupation of your choice.
SELF-CHECK 6.6

182
Given this, what are some career adjustments that dual-earner couples have to
make? Jot down some of your suggestions and then compare with the ones
briefly outlined as follows.

The bottom line is to set priorities both at home and at the office. In the context
of this subtopic, we will focus our attention on the workplace. Often times, we
bring work home to complete. Before the children came along, perhaps there
was time to spare. However, now with added child care responsibilities,
accomplishing unfinished office tasks at home may be a source of strain to the
family and marriage.

Besides this, some of our jobs require that we travel. Perhaps it is also time to see
if possible arrangements can be made to cut down on the number of out-of-town
overnight trips and turn them into half-day meetings that allow you to commute
to and fro using public transport.

Another aspect to consider is task delegation. It is important to bear in mind that
we are not indispensable. Also, we have just so much mental and physical energy
before our body systems break down and we need to seek medical and emotional
treatment. If we look hard enough amongst our colleagues, I am sure you will be
able to assign some parts of a work project to them, instead of shouldering the
entire project on your shoulders.

Nevertheless, there are some aspects of our careers that may be difficult to make
adjustments; for example: a job promotion or a new job that requires a
geographical relocation. While the extra earnings are welcome, it may require the
family having to live apart during the weekdays. The strain of separation and the
extra family responsibilities shouldered by the spouse staying behind for the sake
of the childrens schooling is one aspect to consider.

Have you seen the movie Baby Boom? The character, played by Diane
Keaton, was unable to make the necessary adjustments in her career
and family. Consequently, she got fired from her job. What is your
opinion of women having to juggle between career and family roles?
Post your opinions on myVLE.
ACTIVITY 6.9

183

OCCUPATIONAL AND ECONOMIC
CHANGES IN MIDLIFE
Read the article below about Burnout and see if it relates to you at this stage of
your career.

Burnout is a term that describes the condition of a person emotionally and
physically exhausted from too much job pressure. It can occur at any stage of
adult life, but middle-aged people seem particularly prone. Job pressures often
combine with personal and family circumstances to create an overload. Added
together, family tensions and conflicts and problems with children or other
family members can create stress. Poor health habits over a period of time can
cause havoc (Rice, 1998: 589).

Well, some of the occupational and economic changes that occur in our middle
adulthood have been briefly mentioned in the article. How is this reflected in
your workplace? How many of your colleagues in their midlife are experiencing
burnout?

Ideally, middle adulthood signifies the pinnacle of our career. This is the time
when we are holding some positions of authority and responsibility. It marks the
culmination of years of hard work up the rungs of the career ladder. Our work
productivity is said to be at its maximum in the middle years of the 40s and 50s.
Job satisfaction is said to increase with age. Hence, it is not surprising that with
higher incomes, more occupational status and prestige and greater skill, we
experience higher job satisfaction and better job security. Additionally, we also
take our jobs more seriously, show more work commitment and have a lower
rate of job absenteeism.

6.4
1. Explain the term career adjustment.

2. Describe some situations in the workplace when career
adjustments need to be made?
SELF-CHECK 6.7

184
However, in some societies, the middle wage-earner is currently facing some
important challenges in this 21st century. Amongst them include globalisation
of work, rising development of information and communication technology,
downsizing of the workforce and early retirement.

As you are aware, the influx of foreign workers in the professional and non-
professional sectors can create an occupational and economic threat to local
workers. When the former are willing to settle for lower wages for the same job,
it has resulted in retrenchment amongst the latter.

The current widespread use of computer technology in both the public and
private sectors has created computer anxiety and phobia amongst some of the
middle-aged adult workers. They either attend computer classes and become
computer literate, or pack up and leave the job they have been holding upon
graduation. Sometimes companies are forced to take in new employees who have
the necessary technological skills. When they get laid off or fired, they suffer the
impact of both economic loss and emotional stress.

With the present economic situation worldwide, many companies are merging or
restructuring resulting in the inevitable downsizing of the workforce. One
negative outcome of this policy is to offer incentives or compensation to middle-
aged employees to encourage them to opt for early retirement. Do you know that
forced retirement has been ranked among the top 10 crisis in terms of the
emotional crisis?

Whilst the discussed occupational changes are caused by certain policies in place,
some midlife occupational changes are self-motivated. Have you heard of friends
or family members who quit a job they have been holding for 20 years for the
simple reason that they are bored; they do not want to do the same work they
have been doing any longer. Another reason could be that their present job is
becoming increasingly stressful, and they are not able to withstand the stress any
longer. Sometimes, middle-aged adults find themselves side-lined for a
promotion for some unknown reason. Out of frustration, they quit for greener
pastures.

As you can see, midlife can be regarded as a time of vocational fruition for some
middle-aged, while others lose their jobs because they do not keep abreast with
the latest developments in their fields.


185

x Work refers to an activity where one exerts strength or faculties to do or
perform something.
x Work motivation refers to the arousal, direction and persistence of an
individuals behaviour.
x Need Theories of work motivation focus on four elements related to work:
importance of work, work challenges, career growth opportunities and work
responsibilities of employees.
x Cognitive Theories of work motivation emphasise the cognitive processes
involved when we make particular work choices and decisions.
x Maslows Needs-Hierarchy Theory maintain that motivation is influenced by
the gratification of lower order deprived needs progressing to higher order
deprived needs in a hierarchy.
x Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory believes that hygiene and motivator factors
are outcomes that influence motivation.
Browse the Internet and look for additional references about the
effects of forced retirement on middle-aged earners. Hold a forum
during the next tutorial to discuss this issue. Support your opinions
with cited sources.
ACTIVITY 6.10
1. Describe some occupational and economic changes that take
place in middle adulthood.

2. How can some of these changes be avoided or resolved?
SELF-CHECK 6.8

186
x Hygiene factors include extrinsic job outcomes such as salary and job
security. Motivator needs are intrinsic job outcomes that contribute to our
personal growth and professional development such as recognition and
responsibility.
x McClellands Achievement Theory maintains that the need for achievement
produces motivating effects.
x High achievers like a work environment where they can take personal
responsibility for problem-solving; take calculated risks and set moderately
difficult achievement goals; and need early, and continuing feedback on their
work progress.
x Vrooms Expectancy Theory proposes that cognitive elements like
expectancy, instrumentality and valence motivates a person to perform a
given task.
x In order to obtain a motivational force greater than zero, one must believe
that he can achieve success (E > 0); success will lead to a positive outcome
(I > 0); and you really want the outcome (V > 0).
x Adams Equity Theory asserts that work motivation is determined by the
results obtained through the comparison of a persons job input and
outcomes with that of their colleagues or other people doing the same task.
x There are three types of exchanges: fair exchange (O = I); overpayment (O > I)
and underpayment (O < I).
x The High Performance Cycle postulates that external and internal rewards
that satisfy our needs lead to high job performance and high employee job
satisfaction.
x External rewards include a pay rise or a job promotion, whilst internal or self-
administered rewards include feelings of achievement, pride or self-efficacy.
x The career development encompasses processes such as: choosing a career,
planning a career and obtaining employment.
x Super asserts that we go through various phases of vocational development
(Fantasy, Tentative and Realistic) at different stages of our lives (early and
middle childhood, early and middle adolescence and late adolescence and
early adulthood).
x Career choice is influenced by personality types, family influences and access
to vocational information.

187
x Hollands career-related personality types are divided into six categories,
namely Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and
Conventional.
x Four factors that need to be considered in planning a career include: self,
options, match and obtaining employment.
x While there are gains and satisfactions associated with dual-career marriages,
moderate to severe conflicts occur as women juggle time between career and
family responsibilities.
x Middle adulthood marks the fruition of years of hard work up the career
ladder, increased job satisfaction, higher incomes, more occupational status
and prestige.
x Some occupational changes in midlife are self-motivated as a result of
boredom, increased job stress and greener pastures.

Adams Equity Theory
Career adjustment
Career planning
Cognitive theories
Consonance
Dissonance
Economic changes in midlife
Expectancy
External rewards
Fair exchange
Family influences
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Higher order needs
Hygiene needs
Instrumentality
Internal rewards
Lower order needs
Maslows Needs Hierarchy Theory
McClellands Achievement Theory
Motivator needs
Need for achievement
Need theories
Occupational changes in midlife
Overpayment
Personality types
The high performance cycle
Underpayment
Valence
Vocational development
Vocational information
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Work motivation

188

Books and Journal Articles:

Berk, L. E. (2001). Development through the lifespan (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Berry, L. M. (1998). Psychology at work: An introduction to industrial and
organizational psychology (2nd

ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Rice, F. P. (1998). Human development: A life-span approach. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Santrock, J. W. (2002). Life-span development (8th

ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. E. (1998). Psychology and work today (7th

ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Websites

Cover letter template: Template to use when writing a cover letter. Retrieved
October 29, 2010 from
http://jobsearch.about.com/od/coverlettersamples/a/covertemplate.htm
Job application cover letter. Retrieved October 29, 2010 from
http://www.cvtips.com/cover-letter/job-application-cover-letter.html
Work. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved October 4, 2010 from
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/work
Ten myths about choosing a career. Retrieved October 4, 2010 from
http://careerplanning.about.com/od/careerchoicechan/a/myths_choice.
htm
Top 10: General interview tips. RetrievedOctober 29, 2010 from
http://www.jobsdb.com.ph/MY/EN/V6HTML/jobseeker/114_career.
html

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X INTRODUCTION

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