Performance of Bituminous Coats for Dragload Reduction in Precast Piles

M.G. Khare
Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
E-mail: makarandkhare@yahoo.com

S.R. Gandhi
Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
E-mail: srg@civil.iitm.ernet.in







ABSTRACT: The dragload is the load transferred to the pile due to negative skin friction developed on the pile
shaft where surrounding soil settles more compared to the pile. Field measurements in the past have recorded
magnitude of dragload ranging from 300 kN to 7600 kN. Dragload on precast piles can be reduced by applying
a coat of bituminous compound on pile shaft. This paper investigates performance of commercially available
bituminous compound Shalikote (T-25) and 30-40 grade bitumen to reduce the skin friction between pile and
soil. Direct shear tests were carried out to quantify the reduction in interface friction between soil and pile
material. Poorly graded sand was sheared against coated and uncoated mild steel surface in direct shear test
apparatus. Steel surface was coated with Shalikote (T-25) and 30-40 grade bitumen of 2, 3 and 5 mm
thicknesses. Test results indicate that Shalikote (T-25) compound reduced the interface friction between sand
and mild steel up to 50 %. Bitumen coat achieved maximum reduction in shear stress. The reduction in shear
stress ranged from 85% to 97% depending on normal stress and coat thickness. For all practical purposes
bitumen coat of 3mm thickness appears to be sufficient to reduce dragload. Coating pile with bitumen coat is
the most practical and economical method reducing dragload on precast piles.



1 INTRODUCTION
The dragload is the load transferred to the pile due to
negative skin friction developed on the pile shaft
where surrounding soil settles more compared to the
pile. Pile foundations may fail because of dragload.
Literature shows failure of pile foundations when
dragload is not accounted in pile design. Several field
measurements have recorded the enormous magnitude
of dragload experienced by piles ranging from 300
KN (Fellenius, 1972) to as high as 7600 KN (Bozozuk
and Labreque, 1969). These measurements have
shown that dragload on piles can exceed the design
loads and may lead to structural failure of piles and/or
bearing capacity failure in the bearing soil stratum.
Dragload could have adverse effect on the economy
of the project and reduction of dragload may become
necessary.


2 METHODS OF DRAGLOAD REDUCTION

Field experience have shown that dragload on short
piles (of length 8m or less) is small and can be
neglected in design. Dragload on piles of
intermediate length can be resisted by increasing pile
capacity, by providing additional piles, or by reducing
pile spacing. However, when large dragloads are
anticipated dragload mitigation by one of the
following methods is necessary:

2.1 Preloading
Preloading the site with fill before pile installation
reduces relative settlement of soil to pile and the
dragload. Preloading technique can be employed in
projects with long term planning to accomplish the
preconsolidation of soft soil. The time required for
preconsolidation can be reduced considerably with
sand drains, band drains or granular columns.

2.2 Electro Osmosis
The technique of electro osmosis is commonly
employed to temporarily reduce the adhesion between
clay and steel piles to be pulled out of ground.
Bjerrum et al. (1969) demonstrated the technique of
electro osmosis to reduce the dragload wherein piles
act as cathodes. During the field tests when the direct
current passing through the cathode pile was increased
from 4 amperes to 80 amperes dragload reduced to
negligible values. The treatment of electro osmosis
must be continued until the settlement of surrounding
soil is completed. Electro osmosis is expensive
compared to other methods and therefore rarely used.

2.3 Separation of Soil and Pile Shaft
Negative skin friction can be eliminated by installing
pile inside a predriven casing. Use of casing is not
advisable when the piles are required to provide
lateral support. Separation of soil and pile can also be
achieved with tapered piles. Model tests conducted
by Sawaguchi (1982) showed 90% reduction in
dragload for tapered piles compared to straight piles.

2.4 Protection Piles around Pile Group
The technique consists of a system of closely spaced
inner toe bearing driven piles surrounded by
protection piles to carry dragload. Okabe (1977)
reported successful application of protection pile
technique in construction of a marshalling yard in
J apan. The protection piles installed at the perimeter
of pile group were vertically separated from the
footing. Dragload of 3500 KN was recorded on outer
protection piles while inner piles supporting the
foundation were virtually free from dragload.

2.5 Slip Layer Technique to Reduce Soil-Pile
Friction using Bentonite Slurry and Bitumen Coat
Test results reported by Brons et al. (1969) and by
Bjerrum et al. (1969) indicate that bentonite slurry
around the piles can reduce the negative skin friction.
Edwards and Visser (1969) have reported a case
where the negative skin friction was reduced with
bentonite. The investigated pile was protected by a 30
mm to 40 mm thick bentonite layer. The dragload on
protected pile was 120 KN compared to 700 to 800
KN for unprotected piles.
Coating the pile with bitumen is the most
economical method for reducing negative skin friction
(Baligh et al., 1978). Measurements by Brons et al.
(1969) and by Bjerrum et al. (1969) indicate that a
thin layer of bitumen coating is sufficient to reduce
the negative skin friction. Test results reported by
Bjerrum et al. (1969) show that 1 mm thick bitumen
coating reduced the dragload to a magnitude less than
10% of that of uncoated piles. Field tests indicate that
bitumen behaves as a nonlinear viscous fluid and
viscosity of bitumen depends on the ground
temperature. The thickness of the bitumen coating is
generally 1 mm to 5 mm. Bitumen coating is
susceptible to deformation during storage in hot
weather. Cold water sprays or storage of piles under
water may become necessary to prevent the melting of
the bitumen and effects of temperature variations. It
is important to protect the bitumen coating from being
scraped off during pile driving in rock or gravel fills.
The thickness of the bitumen layer may be increased
as a precaution in cases where there is potential of
scrapping of bitumen during driving.

3 LABORATORY STUDY TO INVESTIGATE
EFFECTIVENESS OF BITUMINOUS
COATINGS IN REDUCING DRAGLOAD
The effectiveness of coating in reducing dragload
depends on characteristics of the pile, the soil and the
coating material itself. In case of fine grained soils,
the shearing behavior of the coating depends on the
average rate of settlement of soil. In case of coarse
grained soils, soil particles slowly penetrate into the
coat causing significant increase in the negative skin
friction. Test results have shown that the negative
skin friction for bitumen coated piles in coarse
grained soils reaches a maximum value in less than a
month and that bitumen at this stage behaves as visco-
frictional material with complex properties (Baligh et
al. 1981). Coating material should have low viscosity
to permit the slippage of soil surrounding pile shaft
and at the same time it should adhere to pile shaft
during storage and pile driving. A soft and thicker
coating results in small dragloads. In India there are
no guidelines available to select the coat type and
thickness for dragload reduction. The purpose of this
laboratory investigation was to find suitable type and
thickness of coat for dragload reduction.

3.1 Methodology
The maximum unit negative skin friction develops on
pile shaft where pile is passing through granular soil.
The particle penetration of granular soil in to coating
material during pile driving may result in scrapping
off the coat. Therefore it is necessary to study the
efficiency of coating material in reducing the interface
friction between granular soil and pile shaft.
The methodology involved modeling of
interface friction between granular soil and pile shaft
using direct shear apparatus. Pile shaft was
represented by a solid mild steel box with size of 8.5
by 8.5 by 2.8 cm. The conventional direct shear
apparatus was modified to conduct interface friction
tests as shown in Figure 1. The properties of granular
soil used in study are listed in Table 1.

Table1. Properties of Granular Soil
D
50

(mm)
D
10

(mm)
C
u
C
c
G
s
max

(KN/m
3
)

min

(KN/m
3
)
0.58 0.28 2.5 1.18 2.63 18.2 15.5
The granular soil was classified as poorly
graded sand (SP) as per IS 1498-1970 and hereafter
referred as sand.
Two types of coating materials were used in
this study namely Shalikote (T-25) and bitumen.




Figure1. Schematic diagram of direct shear test on
coated mild steel box and sand.

Shalikote (T-25) is dispersion of selected
grades of bitumen in water. It is used as a protective
coating over steel to prevent rusting. It has semi solid
consistency and can be applied cold on a surface. It
can withstand temperature variations and vibrations.
The bitumen coat used in present study had a
penetration value between 30 and 40 and softening
point between 55C and 60C.
The first set of tests was conducted to
measure the residual shear stress at the interface of
mild steel box and sand. The top half of direct shear
apparatus was placed on solid mild steel box and
secured in position with locking pins. Sand was
placed in top half of direct shear apparatus at 70
percent relative density by pluvial deposition
technique. The apparatus used for pluvial deposition
was calibrated to get the required density of sand in
direct shear apparatus. The calibration curve of height
of fall and relative density is shown in Figure 2.
Normal stress was then applied through the soil to the
sand and mild steel interface and sample was sheared.
All tests were conducted at 0.25 mm/min rate of
shear.
The second set of tests was conducted to
study the reduction in shear stress by coating the mild
steel box with 30-40 grade bitumen and Shalikote (T-
25). Bitumen was heated to 150C and poured in a
6 cm by 6 cm mould placed on top of mild steel box.
The coat was allowed to remain in mould for 24
hours. After a period of 24 hours the mould was
removed and the top half of direct shear apparatus was
carefully placed on mild steel box so as not disturb the
coat. Sand was then placed directly on top of bitumen
coated mild steel box at 70 percent relative density.
In case of Shalikote (T-25) , the semi solid coat was
thoroughly mixed and applied at uniform thickness
inside the 6 cm by 6 cm mould placed on top of mild
steel box. The Shalikote (T-25) took more than 24
hours to cure. The end of curing was indicated by
change in color of coat from brown to black. Sand
was then placed directly on top of cured coat at 70
percent relative density by pluvial deposition
technique. After placing sand on top of coat the
desired normal stress was applied through sand. The
top half of direct shear apparatus was then lifted with
the help of three lifting screws so that it remains just
above the top of coat as shown in Figure 1. The soil
was then sheared against the coated mild steel box at
0.25 mm/min rate of shear. The coating of 2, 3 and
5mm thickness were used. All tests were conducted
at an ambient temperature of 31C.

0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80 10
Height Of Fall (cm)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
%
0
)
Figure2. Pluvial deposition calibration curve


3.2 Results

The reduction in shear stress was considered as a
measure of effectiveness of coat. Tests with Shalikote
(T-25) showed initial increase in interface friction
followed by substantial reduction as sample was
sheared. In case of bitumen, interface friction
increased as particles penetrate in to coat and then
remained almost constant. Tests showed that full
interface friction is mobilized at a relative movement
of few millimeters. However where dragload
mitigation is required soil undergo large settlements
with respect to pile. Residual shear stress has more
significance than the peak shear stress in calculating
the dragload on coated piles. Therefore in present
study residual shear stresses are considered to
compare performance of Shalikote (T-25) and
bitumen. The results of Shalikote (T-25) coated
steel box and sand are presented in the form residual
shear stress versus normal stress plots in Figure 3.
Reduction in residual shear stress with respect to
thickness for Shalikote (T-25) at different normal
stresses is presented in Figure 4.
Top half of shear
Apparatus
Normal Load
Grid
Plate
Sand
Coat
8.5 cm
2.8 cm
Solid Mild
Steel
Box/Cement
Mortar Block
Results for bitumen coated steel box are presented in
Figures 5 and 6.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 25 50 75 100
Normal Stress (kPa)
S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
P
a
)
Uncoated
1mmshalikote
1.36mmshalikote
2.16mmshalikote
Figure 3. Shear stress versus normal stress plot for
sand and Shalikote (T-25) coated mild steel box.


0
5
10
15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Shalikote Thickness (mm)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
P
a
)
Normal Stress=25 kPa
Normal Stress=50kPa
Normal Stress=75 kPa
Figure 4. Variation in shear stress with thickness of
Shalikote (T-25) at different normal stresses.


Analysis of test results suggests that bitumen coat
achieved maximum reduction in residual shear stress
for all normal stresses and all thicknesses. At normal
stress of 25kPa, residual shear stresses for specimens
coated with 1mm and 1.36mm thick Shalikote (T-
25) were marginally higher than those obtained for
sand and uncoated mild steel box. This behavior may
be attributed to component of adhesion of Shalikote
(T-25).

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 25 50 75 1
Normal Stress (kPa)
S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
P
a
)
00
Uncoated
2mmBitumen
3mmBitumen
5mmBitumen
Figure 5. Shear stress versus normal stress plot for
sand and bitumen coated mild steel box.



0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 2 4 6
Thickness of Bitumen Coat (mm)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
P
a
)
Normal Stress =25kPa
Normal Stress=50kPa
Normal Stress=75 kPa
Figure 6. Variation in shear stress with thickness of
bitumen coat at different normal stresses.


The residual stresses for specimens coated
with Shalikote (T-25) were 70% and 47% to that of
uncoated specimens for normal stresses of 50kPa and
75kPa respectively. Shalikote (T-25) coating
showed substantial reduction in coat thickness due to
shrinkage. Initial coating thickness of 2mm, 3mm and
5mm reduced to 1mm, 1.36mm and 2.16mm after
curing. Shrinkage of coat may pose problem of
cracks when applied to surface of prototype piles in
field. For Shalikote (T-25) percentage reduction in
shear stress ranged from 23% to 60%.
Bitumen coated specimen showed 85% to
97% reduction in shear stress when compared to
uncoated specimen. As the coat thickness increased
from 2mm to 5mm the shear stress decreased
substantially. For a coating thickness of 3mm the
percentage reduction in shear stress was 90% or more
and would be adequate for all practical situations.
Therefore considering the economic aspects and
design requirements 3mm coat would be efficient in
reducing the dragload.


4 CONCLUSIONS

In this study, an experimental investigation was
carried out to compare performance of Shalikote (T-
25) and 30-40 grade bitumen of 2, 3 and 5mm
thicknesses in reducing the dragload on piles. Direct
shear tests were carried out to measure reduction in
interface friction of sand and mild steel box when
coated with bitumen and Shalikote (T-25). Initial
coat thickness of 2mm, 3mm and 5mm were used.
Shalikote (T-25) achieved 30% to 50% reduction in
shear stress. Shalikote (T-25) may develop
shrinkage cracks after applying it on pile. The
bitumen coat achieved maximum reduction in shear
stress. The reduction in shear stress ranged from 85%
to 97% depending on normal stress and coat
thickness. It was found that as coating thickness
increased from 2mm to 5mm shear stress decreased
for a given normal stress. For all practical purposes
coat thickness of 3mm appears to be sufficient to
reduce dragload. Based on this study coating pile
with bitumen coat is the most practical and
economical method reducing dragloads on precast
piles.

REFERENCES
Baligh, M.M., Vivatrat V., and Figi, H. (1978).
Downdrag on Bitumen-Coated Piles. J ournal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, vol.104, No.11, pp.
1355-1370.

Bjerrum, L., J ohannessen, I.J ., and Eide, O. (1969).
Reduction of Negative Skin Friction on Steel Piles to
Rock. Proc. 7th Int. Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering. Vol.2, pp. 15-40.

Bozozuk, M. and Labrecque, A. (1969). Downdrag
measurements on 270-ft. Composite Piles.
Performance of Deep Foundations, ASTM STP No.
444, pp. 15-40.

Brons K.F., Amesz A.W., and Rinck J . (1969). The
Negative Skin Friction along Shaft of a Foundation
Pile. Specialty Session 8, Negative Skin Friction and
Settlements of Piled Foundations. 7th Int. Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Mexico City, Paper 2.

Fellenius, B.H. (1972). Downdrag on Piles in Clay
due to Negative Skin Friction. Canadian
Geotechnical J ournal, vol.9, No.4,
pp. 325-337.

Okabe, T. (1977). Large Negative Friction and
Friction-free pile methods. Proc. 9th Int. Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Tokyo, vol.1, pp. 679-682.

Sawaguchi, M. (1982). Model tests in relation to a
method reduce negative skin friction by tapering pile.
Technical Note, Soils and Foundation, vol. 22, no.3,
September 1982, pp. 130-133.