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)*+,#-!./ 012.100,.12 #1+ 3#40,
5#1#205014
(Couise notes foi 0BRN stuuents)





Ceuomil }osip }0u0vIC
Tessa KLIN0WICZ











B81 Bepaitment of Watei, Atmospheie anu Enviionment
B816 Institute of Watei Nanagement, Byuiology anu Byuiaulic Engineeiing


Wien, 2u12
2


S
TABLE 0F C0NTENTS
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? 3@7A8 5@6@BACA67 (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( '
?(& )=D798=<@E #FF89@<G ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( '
?(? 3@7A8 ,AD9;8<AD H;D7@=6@I=E=7J (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( K
?(L 0;89FA@6 3@7A8 M8@CAN98O +=8A<7=PA (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( Q
L )J:89E9BJ ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( &L
L(& )J:89E9B=<@E /J<EA (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( &L
L(? 3@7A8DGA: (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( &>
S.2.1 The oiueis of a iivei .................................................................................................................... 17
L(L )J:89CA78J ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( &%
S.S.1 Stieam gauging methous ........................................................................................................... 18
Aiea-velocity methou ................................................................................................................................. 2u
Tiacei uilution methou .............................................................................................................................. 22
R )J:8@;E=<D (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ?>
R(& SGJD=<@E F89FA87=AD 9T TE;=:D (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ?>
4.1.1 Weight anu mass ........................................................................................................................... 2S
4.1.2 The Systme Inteinational u'0nits-SI .............................................................................. 2S
4.1.S Bensity ............................................................................................................................................... 27
4.1.4 Specific weight ............................................................................................................................... 27
4.1.S viscosity ............................................................................................................................................ 28
4.1.6 Piessuie ............................................................................................................................................ 28
4.1.7 Piessuie on submeigeu cuiveu suifaces ........................................................................... 28
R(? 4GA98A7=<@E I@DAD 9T GJ:8@;E=<D (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ?Q
4.2.1 Types of eneigy ............................................................................................................................. S1
4.2.2 Funuamentals of fluiu flow ....................................................................................................... S1
R(L 4JFAD 9T TE9N ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( L'
4.S.1 Fluiu flow in pipes ........................................................................................................................ S6
Pipe ioughness .............................................................................................................................................. S8
4.S.2 0pen channel flow ........................................................................................................................ S9
Noimal uepth of flow .................................................................................................................................. 42
/8=7=<@E ME9N ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( R?
> ,=PA8 06B=6AA8=6B (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( R>
>(& ,=PA8 598FG9E9BJ (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( R>
S.1.1 Riveibeu foiming piocesses .................................................................................................... 49
S.1.2 valley shapes .................................................................................................................................. S2
>(? /G@66AE +AD=B6 ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( >L
S.2.1 Rigiu-Bounuaiy Channels ......................................................................................................... S4
S.2.2 Eiouible Channels ......................................................................................................................... S4
>(L S89T=EA H7@I=E=U@7=96 (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( >R
S.S.1 Piofile stabilization constiuction mateiials ...................................................................... SS
S.S.2 vegetation piofile of a wateicouise ..................................................................................... S6
S.S.S Aitificial piofile stabilization ................................................................................................... 6u
S.S.4 Tiansveise stiuctuies ................................................................................................................. 64
' )J:8@;E=< H78;<7;8AD (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ''
'(& +@C 06B=6AA8=6B ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ''
4
6.1.1 Embankment Bam Foim anu Chaiacteiistics .................................................................. 67
6.1.2 Conciete Bam Foim anu Chaiacteiistics ............................................................................ 68
6.1.S Impacts of Bams ............................................................................................................................ 7u
'(? H=7A @DDADDCA67 @6: DAEA<7=96 9T 7JFA 9T :@C (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( K?
'(L +@C V;7EA7 398OD ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( KL
6.S.1 Spillways ........................................................................................................................................... 7S
6.S.2 Bottom outlets ................................................................................................................................ 7S
6.S.S Cut-offs .............................................................................................................................................. 7S
'(R +@C :=PA8D=96 N98OD ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( K'
6.4.1 Fish passes ....................................................................................................................................... 76
'(> +AD=B6 TE99: @6: TE99: 89;7=6B ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( K%
'(' 06A8BJ :=DD=F@7=96 (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( KQ
'(K +@C H@TA7J ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( %W
6.7.1 Instiumentation ............................................................................................................................ 8u
K )J:89F9NA8 (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( %?
K(& 4JFAD 9T GJ:89F9NA8 FE@67D (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( %L
K(? /9CF96A67D 9T @ GJ:89F9NA8 FE@67 ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( %R
7.2.1 Tuibines ............................................................................................................................................ 86
K(L )J:89AEA<78=< F9NA8 (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( QW
7.S.1 Eneigy ueteimination ................................................................................................................. 9u
7.S.2 Powei piouuction plan ............................................................................................................... 91
7.S.S Classification of powei piouuction ....................................................................................... 9S
% H<@EA 59:AED (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( QK
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%(? 59:AED N=7G C9PA@IEA IA: (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( &W>
Q Y=IE=9B8@FGJ (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( &WK





S
& .6789:;<7=96


These couise notes aie an auuitional suppoit foi the 0BRN stuuents of the B0K0
along with the given lectuies anu the sliues piesenteu theie which aie available on
the B0K0 online site.

Byuiaulic engineeiing is a foim of civil engineeiing that focuses on the flow anu
tianspoit of fluius, mainly watei. Byuiaulic engineeiing is closely ielateu to the
uesign anu constiuction of stiuctuies such as uams, channels anu canals as well as
to enviionmental aspects of engineeiing.

The objectives of hyuiaulic engineeiing incluue incieasing floou piotection,
impioving the ecological function of aquatic iesouices, stabilizing watei anu
iiiigation couises, hyuiopowei geneiation, canalization foi navigation anu ensuiing
a stable uiinking watei supply. (Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1)



Watei management has become a key issue on inteinational, national anu local
levels within the past yeais. The mouein uefinition uesciibes the actions of
planning, ueveloping, maintaining, piotecting anu uistiibuting watei iesouices.

In this couise we will be examining the enviionmental, ecological anu physical
aspects of hyuiaulic engineeiing anu watei management anu theii impact on the
enviionment anu society in geneial.

6
? 3@7A8 5@6@BACA67

?(& )=D798=<@E #FF89@<G

The teim watei management oiiginates fiom the 18
th
centuiy. Theie it pioveu to be
impoitant in ensuiing watei necessaiy foi the opeiation of mines. "Watei
management" itself, howevei, has been aiounu foi centuiies.

It is almost impossible to specify the exact beginning of the science of hyuiaulics anu
hyuiology, yet we know that since ancient times populations have settleu along the
banks of iiveis anu tiieu to manage the watei to theii auvantage. Foi example,
expeits believe that the fiist foims of iiiigation appeaieu in ancient Egypt aiounu
22uu B.C. Not only was iiiigation useu to tianspoit watei fiom the Nile fuithei onto
lanu foi wateiing ciops, it was also uevelopeu as a way to piotect against uamage
that the annual floous coulu cause. Egyptians unueistoou that with the help of
technical auvances, watei flow coulu be measuieu anu manageu positively.

0thei foims of watei managing technology weie founu in eaily civilizations such as
in Nesopotamia anu uieece. In Nesopotamia iiiigation uitches anu systems weie
useu as eaily as Suuu B.C. By 12uu BC unueigiounu watei pipes weie useu in
Palestine to tianspoit watei fiom iiveis into cities. Buiing the Niuule Ages the
uomestication of watei in uieece leu to the invention of technical stiuctuies such as
the watei-mill. Riveis supplieu the eneigy neeueu to powei mills anu weie useu as a
foim of navigation anu tianspoitation foi goous anu waste.

Bespite the technical piogiess between ancient times anu the Niuule Ages, it took
until 18Su foi hyuiology to become a piocess that people explaineu thiough
scientific mouels. In 19Su the Ameiican ueophysical 0nion (Au0) establisheu a
sepaiate hyuiology bianch, anu in 19S1 the objectives anu status of hyuiology weie
stateu in a iepoit. Aftei a span of about 4uuu yeais the unueistanuing of
hyuiological piocesses finally leu to the acceptance as its own scientific uiscipline.

Touay, many woiluwiue oiganizations such as the Woilu Neteoiological
0iganization (WN0) with the help of the 0niteu Nations anu 0NESC0 have been
woiking with subjects conceining the Eaith's atmospheie anu climate. The WN0,
foi example, is a specializeu agency of the 0N that was establisheu in 19Su to ueal
with the fielus of agiicultuial meteoiology, atmospheiic sciences, climatology,
hyuiology anu obseivation instiuments. It manages a numbei of scientific piogiams
incluuing the Woilu Weathei Watch, the Woilu Climate Piogiam, the Atmospheiic
7
Reseaich anu Enviionment Piogiam, anu the Byuiology anu Watei Resouices
Piogiam.

Nongoveinmental 0iganizations also play an impoitant iole in watei management.
They can succeeu in cases that goveinmental oiganizations cannot- when political
oi othei issues iaise pioblems. These oiganizations play an essential iole because
they aie often veiy involveu in specific situation anu have access to local
infoimation ielateu to watei management.

These piogiams anu oiganizations all contiibute to vaiious aspects of watei
management. The mouein uefinition uesciibes the actions of planning, ueveloping,
maintaining, piotecting anu uistiibuting watei iesouices.

?(? 3@7A8 ,AD9;8<AD H;D7@=6@I=E=7J

Bespite the technical piogiess maue between Ancient Times anu now, a lot still
neeus to be uone. The giowing piessuie on the enviionment causeu by humans is
piouucing impacts that aie often uifficult to pieuict anu hanule.

0vei the past few uecaues, pioblems causeu by uibanization, agiicultuie anu the
exploiation of unueigiounu watei souices have alteieu the watei cycle. Bumans
continue to exploit watei ieseivoiis without thinking about the long teim effects of
theii actions. If we continue to use watei without thinking about the futuie, all living
oiganisms will stiuggle to suivive in the futuie.

We neeu to leain to use watei sustainably. 0sually, sustainability uesciibes the
ielationship between economics, the enviionment anu society. Touay we live in a
woilu wheie ovei 1.1 billion people uo not have access to safe uiinking watei anu
between 2 anu 4 million people uie eveiy yeai fiom watei-ielateu uiseases.

Accoiuing to Nays watei iesouice sustainability is the ability to use watei in
sufficient quantity anu quality fiom the local to the global scale to meet the neeus of
humans anu ecosystems foi both the piesent anu futuie to sustain life as well as to
piotect humans fiom the uamages biought about by natuial anu human-causeu
uisasteis that affect sustaining life. (CITE NAYS)

The following points shoulu be consiueieu when uealing with watei iesouice
sustainability:
8
The availability of fieshwatei supplies thiough peiious of climate change,
uioughts, population giowth while leaving enough supplies foi futuie
geneiations
Infiastiuctuie shoulu pioviue watei supply foi human use anu foou secuiity
plus pioviue piotection fiom natuial hazaius
Infiastiuctuie shoulu exist foi clean watei anu foi tieating watei aftei
human use befoie it enteis any watei bouy
Institutions must exist which manage watei coiiectly
It must be consiueieu on a local, iegional, national anu inteinational basis

Nouein piogiess often iaises pioblems in watei iesouice sustainability.

!"#$%&'$(&)% cieates many challenges foi the uevelopment anu management of
watei sustainability anu watei supply systems. 0iban populations uemanu a high
quantity of eneigy, iaw mateiials, watei, iemoval of waste anu so on. Such
populations also uemanu a laige amount of space, which often causes builuings to
be constiucteu too closely to watei bouies. 0ibanization causes many changes to the
hyuiological cycle incluuing the amount of piecipitation, the amount of evapoiation,
the amount of infiltiation as well as an inciease in iunoff.



The pictuies above show that the moie constiuction coveis the eaith, oi the moie
&*+,"-&)./ the giounu covei is, the less watei is exchangeu in the watei cycle.
0iban stoim watei iunoff incluues all flows uischaigeu fiom uiban lanu uses into
stoim watei conveyance systems anu ieceiving watei bouies. 0iban iunoff incluues
non-stoim watei souices such as lanuscape iiiigation, hyuiant flushing as well as
wet-weathei stoim watei iunoff. The watei quality of stoim watei iunoff can be
affecteu by the tianspoit of seuiment anu othei pollutants into watei bouies. The
impacts fiom uiban iunoff aie significant anu high in costs. These can leau to fish
kills, health conceins foi humans anu animals, pooi uiinking watei quality, uamage
M=B;8A &Z ,AE@7=96DG=F IA7NAA6 =CFA8P=9;D <9PA8 @6: D;8T@<A 8;69TT [M.H,32\ ?W&&]
9
to commeicial fishing inuustiies anu a ueciease in watei-baseu iecieation anu
touiism oppoitunities. Clean-up piojects anu pollution ieuuction aie veiy expensive
pioceuuies anu shoulu theiefoie be avoiueu.

Fuithei ciitical changes that can affect the watei cycle incluue a iapiu
tiansfoimation of unuevelopeu lanu into an uiban aiea, an incieaseu eneigy ielease
thiough gieenhouse gases oi waste heat anu an incieaseu uemanu on the watei
supply. These changes aie all challenges in watei iesouice sustainability.

uiounuwatei quality is anothei big challenge to watei iesouice sustainability in
uibanization. uiounuwatei can be affecteu by iesiuential anu commeicial
uevelopment (see Figuie 1). Resiuential uevelopment takes up a laige amount of
lanu anu as a consequence, has an influence on the quality of watei that iechaiges
stieams, lakes anu othei watei bouies. 0ncontiolleu liquius uischaigeu onto the
giounu can move uown to pollute giounuwatei. 0thei factois that can leau to the
pollution of giounuwatei incluue septic tanks, animal feeulots, ciop feitilizeis,
pesticiues anu heibiciues as well as waste anu leaking seweis.

Bue to the inciease in watei iesouice pollution, uepletion anu uegiauation the
impoitance of D;D7@=6@IEA ;8I@6 N@7A8 DJD7ACD has giown as well. The basic
goals foi sustainable uiban watei systems aie:
The supply of safe anu goou tasting uiinking watei to the population at all
times
The collection anu tieatment of wastewatei in oiuei to piotect the
population anu enviionment fiom uiseases anu haimful impacts
To contiol, collect, tianspoit anu enhance the watei quality of stoim watei to
piotect both the enviionment anu uiban aieas fiom floouing anu pollution
To ieuuce, ieuse anu iecycle watei anu nutiients


?(L 0;89FA@6 3@7A8 M8@CAN98O +=8A<7=PA

The Euiopean Watei Fiamewoik Biiective (WFB) establishes a fiamewoik foi the
piotection of giounuwatei, inlanu suiface wateis, estuaiine wateis anu coastal
wateis. The WFB constitutes a new view of watei iesouices management in Euiope
because, foi the fiist time, watei management is:

(i) baseu mainly upon biological anu ecological elements, with ecosystems
being at the centei of the management uecisions;
1u
(ii) applieu to Euiopean watei bouies, as a whole; anu
(iii) baseu upon the whole iivei basin, incluuing also the aujacent |coastalj
aiea.
The Euiopean Watei Fiamewoik Biiective is a iesult of the initiative of the E0
Pailiament anu Nembei States, which came into foice on Becembei 22, 2uuu.
Nembei States weie conceineu about the numeious existing watei policies anu
wanteu to ieplace them with a mouein, coheient Euiopean watei law.

Although the maiine watei bouies affecteu by the WFB ielate to only 19.8% of the
Euiopean continental shelf, it cieates a challenge anu an oppoitunity in neai shoie,
coastal anu continental shelf ieseaich. (Boija, 2uuS) The E0 WFB has especially
giown in impoitance uue to the incieasing uemanu by citizens anu enviionmental
oiganizations foi cleanei iiveis, lakes, giounuwatei anu coastal aieas. When askeu
to list the five main enviionmental conceins, iesults showeu that appioximately half
of the iesponuents aie woiiieu about "watei pollution". (E0 Commission, 2u12)
This public uemanu foi cleanei watei is one of the main ieasons why watei
piotection has top piioiity.

The WFB Pioposal was fiist piesenteu to the Council anu the E0 Pailiament in 1996
with the following key aims:

Expanuing the scope of watei piotection to all wateis
Achieving "goou status" foi all wateis (natuial, aitificial anu mouifieu
wateis) by a set ueauline
Watei management baseu on iivei basins
"combineu appioach" of emission limit values anu quality stanuaius
ueteimining the appiopiiate piice
public paiticipation
stieamlining legislation

The following paiagiaphs will explain the impoitant elements of these aims.

"#$%&'%() *)++, -./.0-1 2+3 /44 5/.&3-

The WFB classifies watei quality using five status classes: high, goou, moueiate,
pooi anu bau. 'Bigh status' is uefineu as the biological, chemical anu moiphological
conuitions associateu with 69 oi PA8J E9N human impact. Assessment of watei
quality is baseu on the extent of ueviation fiom the five iefeience conuitions.

11
6%'&3 7/-%( 8/(/)&8&(.

The best way to piotect anu manage watei is thiough inteinational coopeiation
between the suiiounuing countiies of a iivei basin. Watei uoes not stop at
auministiative oi political bounuaiies; theiefoie ensuiing optimal piotection
iequiies that the iivei basin be assesseu as an inuiviuual anu complete hyuiological
unit. (ICPBR, 2u11)

Seveial Nembei States alieauy have a iivei basin appioach to
piotecting watei bouies. Eveiy iivei basin uistiict neeus to have a "iivei basin
management plan" establisheu which pioviues context foi the cooiuination
iequiiements anu which is to be upuateu eveiy six yeais.

9$& *#+87%(&, /::3+/#$1

Nembei states must contiol uischaige accoiuing to best available technologies anu
ielevant emission limit values anu best enviionmental piactices as uefineu in
Community legislation. This intiouuces a contiol mechanism that ensuies the
continuous auaptation of stanuaius. (Bloch, 2uu9) (Leb, 2uu6)

9$& /::3+:3%/.& :3%#&

The neeu to conseive auequate supplies of a iesouice foi which uemanu is
continuously incieasing is also one of the ieasons foi one of the Biiectives' most
impoitant innovations- the intiouuction of piicing. Appiopiiate watei piicing acts
as an incentive foi the sustainable use of watei iesouices anu thus helps to achieve
the enviionmental objectives as stateu in the Biiective. Nembei states aie iequiieu
to ensuie that the piice chaigeu to watei consumeis ieflects the tiue costs.

;074%# :/3.%#%:/.%+(

The uesiie foi public paiticipation can be tiaceu back to two ieasons: balancing the
inteiests of vaiious gioups in society anu cieating tianspaiency in the
establishment. Nost objectives in the iivei basin management plan involve a laige
vaiiety of gioups, thus it is essential that the piocess is open to those who will be
affecteu. The WFB establishes a netwoik foi the exchange of infoimation anu
expeiience between piofessionals anu the community.

<.3&/84%(%() 4&)%-4/.%+(

0ne extieme auvantage of the Euiopean Watei Fiamewoik Biiective is that it is
meant to iationalize the community's watei legislation by ieplacing the existing
12
seven uiiectives anu iepealing them one aftei the othei. It will "pioviue foi a
coheient manageiial fiame foi all watei-ielateu E0 legislation".

Fuithei infoimation on the Euiopean Watei Fiamewoik Biiective can be founu on:
http:euilex.euiopa.euLex0iiSeivLex0iiSeiv.uo.uii=0}:L:2uuu:S27:uuu1:uu72:
EN:PBF

1S
L )J:89E9BJ
L(& )J:89E9B=<@E /J<EA

Eaith's watei is uistiibuteu ovei seveial souices. Appioximately 97% of the watei is
in the oceans anu the iemaining S% aie vaiious fieshwatei souices. The majoiity of
the fieshwatei, about 69 peicent, is fiozen in glacieis anu icecaps. The seconu
laigest souice of fieshwatei is giounuwatei anu only about u.S% is containeu in
suiface souices such as lakes anu iiveis. (Shiklomanov, 199S)





The hyuiological cycle, also known as the watei cycle, uesciibes the continuous
movement of all watei on, above anu below Eaith's suiface. Watei can be founu in
vaiious states such as liquiu, vapoi anu ice within the cycle anu is tiansfoimeu
thiough a numbei of physical piocesses such as evapoiation, conuensation,
piecipitation, infiltiation, iunoff anu subsuiface flow.

The uiiving foice of all piocesses within the hyuiological cycle is the sun, which
iauiates solai eneigy onto Eaith's suiface animating the movement of watei fiom
one ieseivoii to anothei, such as fiom the ocean to the atmospheie.

14



The hyuiological cycle involves the exchange of theimal eneigy, which leaus to
tempeiatuie changes. Foi example, thiough evapoiation, watei takes up eneigy
fiom the suiiounuings anu sublimates into watei vapoi. Rising aii cuiients
tianspoit the watei vapoi into the atmospheie wheie coolei tempeiatuies cause it
to conuense into clouus. As the aii cuiients move aiounu Eaith, clouu paiticles
accumulate, colliue anu fall uown towaius the giounu as piecipitation. Nost watei
falls back into the oceans oi onto lanu wheie it flows ovei the giounu as iunoff,
while a small poition falls as snow anu may accumulate on ice caps anu glacieis,
which can stoie fiozen watei foi thousanus of yeais. A pait of iunoff enteis iiveis
that eventually leau back to the ocean, while some is stoieu in lakes as fieshwatei
along with giounuwatei. Bowevei, a gieat pait of iunoff soaks uiiectly into the
giounu, thiough the piocess of infiltiation. Eventually, watei ietuins to the ocean
wheie the main watei cycle begins time anu time again (Ban, Concise Byuiology,
2u1u).

='/:+3/.%+(> watei is tiansfoimeu fiom a liquiu to gas state as it moves fiom
bouies of watei on the giounu into the atmospheie.

M=B;8A ?Z +J6@C=< @6: /9CFEAXZ 4GA 2E9I@E 3@7A8 /J<EA [-6=PA8D=7J 9T 3@=O@79\ ?WWQ]
1S
?+(,&(-/.%+(Z watei vapoi is cooleu (foi example thiough atmospheie) anu is
compiesseu to its satuiation limit causing it to change into liquiu.

;3&#%:%./.%+(Z watei conuenses to watei vapoi that falls to the Eaith's suiface as
iain, snow, hail, fog, etc.

@(2%4.3/.%+(> watei on the Eaith's suiface seeps into the giounu wheie it becomes
soil moistuie oi giounuwatei.

60(+22> the vaiiety of ways which watei moves acioss the lanu incluuing suiface
anu channel iunoff. As it flows it may infiltiate the giounu, evapoiate oi be stoieu in
lakes oi ieseivoiis.

<07-032/#& 24+5Z the flow of watei unueigiounu. Subsuiface watei may iise to the
suiface (thiough pumps oi natuial spiings) oi eventually flow into the ocean.

L(? 3@7A8DGA:

Wateisheu is a geogiaphic unit that is uefineu by an aiea beginning with a cioss-
section of a iivei that incluues the entiie suiface upstieam fiom the cioss-section in
such a way that the entiie watei lanuing on this suiface flows thiough the cioss-
section (in theoiy). The chosen cioss-section is calleu the ).(1,( of the wateisheu.
Theiefoie the wateisheu is uelineateu by its outlet anu by the suiiounuing uiainage
uiviues.

The main limitations of this uefinition aie ueiiveu fiom the fact that it is a
topogiaphic wateisheu; meaning that the uiainage uiviues coiiesponu with the
ciests oi topogiaphic high points suiiounuing the wateisheu. Bowevei, this
uefinition is not always sufficient because often the main point of inteiest is the
effective wateisheu. This incluues the unueigiounu boiueis of the system. The
actual line wheie watei is uiviueu to flow in one uiiection oi anothei is not
necessaiily iuentical to the uiainage uiviue on the suiface.

The following figuie shows an example of this soit of situation; in this paiticulai
case, an impeimeable substiate lies beneath a peimeable layei, so that actual watei
flow uoes not coinciue with the topogiaphic uiviue. The uiffeience between the
topogiaphic anu effective wateisheu is paiticulaily noticeable in kaist teiiain.
16

Anothei limitation of the topogiaphic wateisheu mouel is that it uoes not account
foi anthiopogenic factois such as the baiiieis to watei movement causeu by ioaus
oi iailways. The hyuiology of a wateisheu anu its uiainage aiea can be mouifieu by
the piesence of aitificial inflows. These can incluue uiinking watei anu wastewatei
netwoiks, ioaus, pumping, oi any othei aitificial uiveisions that change the
hyuiological balance.

Stuuying the hyuiological iesponse of the hyuiological system to an impulse
geneially caiiies out the analysis of the hyuiological behavioi of a wateisheu (e.g.
piecipitation). This iesponse is measuieu by obseiving the quantity of watei that
exits the outlet of the system. The ieaction of the uischaige Q with iespect to time t
is iepiesenteu giaphically by a iunoff hyuiogiaph. Wateisheu iesponse can also be
iepiesenteu with a 1&*%&2"$+3, which basically shows the uepth of watei measuieu
with iespect to time.











17

This figuie shows the hyuiological iesponse foi a given piecipitation event (the
hyetogiaph is the cuive iepiesenting the intensity of the iain as a function of time).
The hyuiological iesponse of a wateisheu to a paiticulai event is chaiacteiizeu by
its velocity (time to peak !
!
which is the time between the beginning of the watei
flow anu the peak of the hyuiogiaph) anu its intensity (peak flow !
!"#
maximum
volume !
!"#
).

L(?(& 4GA 98:A8D 9T @ 8=PA8

The simplest methou to peifoim a topological classification of a uiainage netwoik
was pioposeu by Boiton in 194S, anu mouifieu by Stiahlei in 19S7. The Stiahlei
Stieam 0iuei system, which is still the most wiuely useu, is baseu on the following
piinciples:

Any iivei with no tiibutaiies is a fiist-oiuei stieam.
A iivei foimeu by the junction of two iiveis of uiffeient oiueis takes the
oiuei of the highei oiuei stieam.
The oiuei of a iivei foimeu by the junction of two iiveis of the same oiuei is
incieaseu by one.
Each wateisheu has an oiuei equal to the oiuei of its piincipal iivei. The
same applies to sub-wateisheus.
Wateisheus cannot be chaiacteiizeu by suiface aiea, but they can also be uesciibeu
accoiuing to the following geometiic paiameteis:



M=B;8A LZ 0X@CFEA 9T H78@GEA8 D78A@C <E@DD=T=<@7=96
18

- The length of the wateisheu !
!"
4 the cuivilineai uistance measuieu along the main
iivei fiom the wateisheu outlet to a paiticulai point iepiesenting a plane piojection
of the wateisheu's centei of giavity.
- The length of the main iivei L: the cuivilineai uistance fiom the wateisheu outlet
to the uiainage uiviue, always following the bianch with the highest stieam oiuei to
the next junction, anu continuing in this mannei to the topogiaphic limit of the
wateisheu. If the two stieam bianches at the junction aie of the same oiuei, then
the bianch that uiains the laigest suiface aiea is chosen.






L(L )J:89CA78J
L(L(& H78A@C B@;B=6B CA7G9:D

Stieam gauging is a technique useu to measuie the uischaige, oi volume of watei
moving thiough a channel cioss section within a unit of time. The height of watei in
the stieam channel, known as a stage oi gauge height, can be useu to ueteimine the
uischaige in a stieam. When useu in conjunction with velocity anu cioss-sectional
aiea measuiements, stage height can be ielateu to the uischaige of a stieam.

Neasuiing iivei uischaige is a sampling pioceuuie. Accuiate volumetiic quantities
ovei timeu inteivals can be measuieu in spiings anu veiy small stieams. This is
calleu -)1.*,("&5 2$.2&%2. Foi laige stieams, a continuous measuie of one vaiiable,
iivei level, is ielateu to the spot measuiements of uischaige collecteu by uilution
gauging methous oi calculateu fiom sampleu values of the vaiiables, velocity anu
aiea (-,1)5&(67$",$ *,(3)8/9:
M=B;8A RZ /G@8@<7A8=D7=< EA6B7GD 9T @ N@7A8DGA:
19

The fixeu cioss-sectional aiea is easily ueteimineu; howevei it is much moie
uifficult to ensuie consistent measuiements of the flow velocities to obtain values of
- ;*</9: Rivei uischaige can be estimateu easily when theie is access to the entiie
wiuth of the iivei anu the velocity anu uepths can be measuieu. The measuiement
of accuiate volumetiic quantities in small stieams is calleu P9E;CA78=< B@;B=6B(
This methou is usually not piactical foi laige iiveis, so often PAE9<=7J^@8A@ methous
aie useu. Beie the uischaige of a iivei = ;*></9 is noimally obtaineu fiom the
summation of the piouuct of mean velocities in the veitical (-) anu the aiea of
ielateu segments ($) of the total cioss-sectional aiea. 0ltiasonic (Bopplei) flow
meteis aie sometimes useu to measuie a continuous iecoiu of velocity in small
stieams.
! ! !! ! !! !! ! !! ! !!

A fixeu anu constant ielationship is iequiieu between the iivei level (calleu /($2,)
anu the uischaige at the gauging site. This occuis along channel stietches of a
iegulai cioss section wheie flow is unifoim anu the stage-uischaige ielationship is
"unuei channel contiol".


Biiect Neasuiement Inuiiect Neasuiement
volumetiic methou Cuiient metei methou (aiea-velocity methou)
Pitot tube
Floating gauge
Bot wiie
Neasuiing weii
Bilution methou ! iating
cuive Q=f(h)


2u

#8A@^PAE9<=7J CA7G9:

The most uiiect methou of obtaining a uischaige value coiiesponuing with a stage
measuiement is thiough the aiea-velocity methou. Rivei velocity is measuieu at
selecteu veiticals of known uepth acioss a measuieu section of a iivei. At iivei
gauging stations, the cioss-section of the channel is suiveyeu anu consiueieu
constant unless majoi mouifications uuiing floous aie suspecteu (uemanu foi
iesuiveying). The moie uifficult component of the uischaige computation is the
seiies of velocity measuiements acioss the section. To ensuie satisfactoiy sampling
of velocity acioss the iivei, the measuiing section shoulu iueally have a stiaight anu
unifoim appioach-channel upstieam, in length at least twice the maximum iivei
wiuth (Novak, Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1, pp. 111-11S). Neasuiements
shoulu then be taken at inteivals no gieatei than 11S
th
of the wiuth acioss the flow.

Bischaige oi the volume of watei flowing thiough the cioss section of a stieam ovei
a ceitain peiiou of time can be calculateu with the equation:

Q=Av

wheie _ is the uischaige |msj, # is the cioss-sectional aiea of the stieam |m`j anu
P is the aveiage velocity |msj.

Typically, iivei flow velocity is measuieu using a cuiient metei. This is a ielatively
accuiate instiument that can give almost instantaneous anu consistent iesponses to
velocity changes. Theie aie two types of cuiient meteis: the &*+,11," 5."",%( *,(,",
which has a single impellei iotating on a hoiizontal axis, anu the ,1,5(")*$2%,(&5
5."",%( *,(,".
M=B;8A >Z /;88A67 CA7A8 [HG@N &QQR]
21

If a cuiient metei is not available, the "float methou" may be useu to measuie
velocity. This methou uses supplies that aie easily obtaineu; yet it is less accuiate.
This methou measuies the time it takes foi a floating object to tiavel a given
uistance. The velocity can then be calculateu by uiviuing the uistance by the time it
took the object to tiavel it. (Weight & Sonueieggei, 2uu1)

The F=797 7;IA is anothei simple uevice useu to
measuie the velocity of stieam flow nameu aftei
Benii Pitot who inventeu it. 0ne enu of the tube is
pointeu uiiectly into the stieam in a ceitain point of
flow at a uepth of ? unuei the fiee suiface of the
stieam. The fluiu stieamlines uiviue as the appioach
the enu of the tube anu @ is at complete stagnation,
since the fluiu at this point is not moving in any
uiiection. ! ! !!" wheie v is the velocity of the stieam flow |msj, g is the
acceleiation uue to giavity in meteis pei seconu squaieu anu h is the velocity heau
|mj.

Bue to the fact that velocity vaiies within the cioss-section, it is necessaiy to take
measuiements along uiffeient paits of a cioss-section of a iivei. 0sually, velocity is
measuieu on "aveiage" ieaches of the stieam (aieas of aveiage wiuth anu uepth).

Bischaige is then measuieu by integiating the aiea anu velocity of each point acioss
the stieam. By multiplying the cioss-sectional aiea (section wiuth x watei uepth) by
the velocity, it is possible to calculate the uischaige foi that section of the iivei. The
uischaige fiom each section can be auueu to ueteimine the total iivei watei
uischaige.

M=B;8A 'Z 4GA F=797 7;IA
22
A 8@7=6B <;8PA is often constiucteu by giaphing seveial uischaige measuiements to
show the ielationship between uischaige anu stage height. The gieatei the numbei
of measuiements, the moie ieliable the iating cuive will be. (Fettei, 2uu1)


By integiating ovei the uepth !
!
the uischaige !
!
, which belongs to the measuieu
veitical, will be calculateu. |!
!
!!!
By integiating the specific uischaige q ovei the watei suiface wiuth B, the watei
uischaige thiough the measuieu cioss-section is calculateu.

! ! !"# !
!
!
!
!
!
!

48@<A8 :=E;7=96 CA7G9:

Especially in alpine aieas wheie the beu conuitions aie often veiy iough with
tuibulent flows (toiients), the use of the cuiient metei is limiteu. Alteinatively, the
so-calleu "tiacei uilution-methou" can pioviue moie accuiate iesults. This methou
involves injecting the iivei with a concentiateu solution of a tiacei, anu then
ueteimining what poition of the solution has been uiluteu by the iivei by sampling
the watei uownstieam fiom the injection point. The uilution is a function of the
uischaige, which is piesumably constant along the section anu uuiing the time of
the measuiement taken.

All tiacei methous uiffei funuamentally in two points:
Bue to the natuie of the maikeis
Bue to the natuie of the auuition of the maikei to flowing watei

The tiacei must meet the following iequiiements:
No health iisks
2S
Bigh watei solubility
It shoulu not be piesent in natuial wateis (oi only in low concentiations)
Chemical anu physical stability
Betectable in the smallest concentiation
Simple anu quick measuiement
Low piice

In piactice the most commonly useu tiacei is souium chloiiue anu fluoiescence
colois. Theie aie two types of tiacei injection:
1. The continuous auuition of a tiacei solution in a constant uischaige anu
concentiation
2. The suuuen auuition of the total amount of the tiacei at a single point
(integiation methou)


This pictuie shows the piinciple of
gauging uilution. The following
conuitions aie necessaiy to apply
uilution methous:
The uischaige must iemain almost
constant uuiing measuiement
The mixtuie must be maue in such a
way that at each point of the sampling
section the same quantity shoulu pass
All of the tiacei must pass the
sampling section

By a continuous auuition, the constant tiacei uischaige q in a known concentiation
!
!
is auueu to the iivei foi a peiiou of time until, aftei complete mixing with the
flowing watei, a constant concentiation of !
!
in the measuiement cioss-section
occuis.
! ! !
!
!
!
!


In the methou of suuuen auuition, the total quantity of the tiacei m is auueu at once
to the flowing watei with the initial concentiation !
!
. Aftei complete mixing with
the flowing watei, the iivei flow iate is obtaineu by the integial of the change in
concentiation !
!
-!
!
ovei the time t that the tiacei clouu passes thiough the
measuiing cioss-section.
24
! !
!
!!
!
!
!
!!
!
!!"


What one can obseive in the sampling piofile is the change of conuuctivity, which
changes fiom the natuial values to when the tiacei clouu passes thioug the
sampling sites. The conuuctivity then falls to the natuial level at the enu of the
sampling peiiou. The aiea unuei this cuive above the line which shoes the natuial
conuuctifity levels is the integial (aiea).













M=B;8A KZ /96:;<7=P=7J <G@6BA
2S
R )J:8@;E=<D

To have a bettei unueistanuing foi how ceitain piocesses in hyuiaulic engineeiing
woik, it is fiist impoitant to unueistanu the funuamentals behinu them.

R(& SGJD=<@E F89FA87=AD 9T TE;=:D

Fluius aie bouies without theii own shape that can flow, i.e. they can unueigo gieat
vaiiations of shape unuei the action of foices; the weakei the foice, the slowei the
vaiiation. Both liquius anu gases aie fluius. Theii equilibiium anu theii movements,
known as flow, aie stuuieu in the mechanics of fluius.

R(&(& 3A=BG7 @6: C@DD

In cuiient language, the motions of weight anu mass aie sometimes confuseu;
howevei, fiom the physical point of view, they iepiesent two uiffeient things. The
*$// of a bouy is a chaiacteiistic of the quantity of mattei, which that bouy contains;
the A,&23( of the bouy iepiesents the action (foice) that giavity exeits on it.
Between B weight anu * mass of a bouy theie is the funuamental vectoiial
ielationship.
! ! !"

which coiiesponus to the scalai equation:

! ! !"

in which g is the giavitational acceleiation.

R(&(? 4GA HJD7`CA .67A86@7=96@E :a-6=7`Db^H.

This system of units is an inteinationally agieeu veision of the metiic system. Theie
aie six basic units anu not only theii names but also theii symbols have been
inteinationally agieeu (see Table).

Quantity Basic units Symbol
Length
Nass
Netei
Kilogiam
m
kg
26
Time
Electiic cuiient
Tempeiatuie
Luminous intensity
Seconu
Ampeie
Kelvin
Canuela
s
A
K
cu


Fiom these basic units, all otheis aie ueiiveu. Foi example: aiea - squaie meteis
(m
2
); velocity - meteis pei seconu (ms); uensity - kilogiam pei cubic metei
(kgm
S
)

Symbols, Teiminology, Bimensions anu 0nits useu in Watei Engineeiing



27


R(&(L +A6D=7J

Bensity, p, is the mass containeu in a unit volume. It has the uimensions NL
-S
. In the
SI system, it is expiesseu in kgm
S
.

The uensity of watei at 4C is p=1uuukgm
S
; at 2uC it is p= 988.2kgm
S
= 1uuu
kgm
S
.

R(&(R HFA<=T=< NA=BG7

Specific weight, y, is the weight, that is, the giavitational attiactive foice acting on
the mattei containeu in a unit volume. Between specific weight anu uensity theie is
the funuamental ielationship: y= pg. In the SI system, specific weight is expiesseu in
Newtons pei cubic metei: Nm
S
.








28
R(&(> "=D<9D=7J

viscosity of a fluiu, also calleu the coefficient of viscosity, absolute viscosity oi
uynamic viscosity, is a measuie of its iesistance to flow. It is expiesseu as the iatio
of the tangential sheai stiesses between flow layeis to the iate of change of velocity
with uepth:
! !
!
!"!!"

! = sheai stiess (Nm
2
)
v= velocity (ms)
Y=uepth (m)

viscosity uecieases as tempeiatuie incieases but may be assumeu inuepenuent of
changes in piessuie foi the majoiity of engineeiing pioblems.

C&%,*$(&5 -&/5)/&(6 D is uefineu as viscosity ! uiviueu by uensity p. Watei at 21.1C
has a kinematic viscosity of u.uuuuu1 Nm
2
s. In hyuiaulics, viscosity is most
fiequently encounteieu in the calculation of Reynolus numbei to ueteimine
whethei laminai, tiansitional oi completely

tuibulent flow exists.

R(&(' S8ADD;8A

Piessuie has the uimensions of a foice pei unit aiea, uimensions NL
-1
T
-2
. In the SI
system it is expiesseu in Nm
2
. Piessuie +E measuieu in ielation to atmospheiic
piessuie, is calleu 2$.2, +",//.",. @#/)1.(, +",//.", +$ is the sum of gauge piessuie,
+ anu height of a liquiu column.

R(&(K S8ADD;8A 96 D;ICA8BA: <;8PA: D;8T@<AD

The hyuiostatic piessuie on a submeigeu cuiveu suiface is given by:

! ! !
!
!
! !
!
!


P= total piessuie foice on the suiface
PB= foice uue to piessuie hoiizontally
Pv= foice uue to piessuie veitically
29


R(? 4GA98A7=<@E I@DAD 9T GJ:8@;E=<D

Byuiaulics is a bianch of physical sciences which puipose is the stuuy of liquius in
motion. You have alieauy leaineu about channel anu pipe (oi piessuie) flow as well
as about laminai anu tuibulent flow. These aie teims of fluiu mechanics. Fluiu
mechanics is the theoietical basis of hyuiaulics. Real flows, howevei, aie veiy
uifficult to analyze theoietically. Theiefoie empiiicism anu expeiimentation play an
impoitant iole in this science. In follow the theoietical bases of hyuiaulics will be
biiefly piesenteu.

H78A@CE=6AD show the uiiection a fluiu element will tiavel at any point in time. They
aie tangent to the fluiu velocity vectoi. In tuibulent flow, it is only of inteiest to
stuuy the stieamlines coiiesponuing to the man fielus of velocity. In steauy flow, the
path lines anu stieamlines aie the same.
M=B;8A %Z )J:89D7@7=< F8ADD;8A 96 @ D;ICA8BA: <;8PA: D;8T@<A( [@]
P@8=@7=96 9PA8 7GA D;8T@<A( [I] M8AA^I9:J :=@B8@C
M=B;8A QZ H78A@CE=6AD
Su

In the above figuies, an obstacle ahs been placeu in a cuiient with a velocity v. The
movement geneiateu in the liquiu is not steauy since in each section the state of
movement of the paiticles uepenus on the time of passage. The stieamlines move
aiounu the inseiteu obstacle.

ME9N 8@7A (uischaige) can be uefineu as the volume of liquiu passing a given cioss-
section aiea in unit time |m
S
sj. In a fielu of velocities v, in an aiea A, % is the vectoi
noimal to each element uA.
! ! !! ! !"
!


v.n iepiesents the inteinal piouuct, in othei woius a scalai piouuct of the mouulus
of one vectoi by piojection of the othei on it. This piouuct equals zeio if the vectois
aie peipenuiculai.

In tuibulent flow, only the value of the uischaige coiiesponuing to the man velocity
is woith consiueiing. In the following figuie, the lines joining paits of equal mean
velocity in time aie known as =D97@<GD. The mean value of velocity v at the uiffeient
points of a cioss-section is known as the mean velocity 0 in that section.

The D78A@C7;IA is a set of stieamlines that make up a closeu shape. The aiea A
inteisecting a stieamtube peipenuiculai to the stieamlines make up a stiaight
cioss-section of the flow. If the mean velocity uoes not vaiy fiom section to section,
one can speak fiom .%&F)"* F1)A (see chaptei 4.2).







S1
R(?(& 4JFAD 9T A6A8BJ

Eneigy oi woik (W) is uefineu in mechanics as the piouuct of a foice anu a
uisplacement. In hyuiaulic pioblems eneigy is usually ielateu to unit weight anu is
known simply as heau G, which consequently has the uimensions of a length anu is
expiesseu in meteis. Potential eneigy pei unit weight is z, just as the piessuie
eneigy pei unit weight is py. Thus, a paiticle of liquiu having velocity v, subjecteu
to a piessuie p anu placeu at an elevation z above a hoiizontal uatum will have pei
unit weigh the following types of eneigy oi heau:

The total eneigy pei unit weight will then be z (potential eneigy) plus the piessuie
eneigy pei unit weight plus the velocity heau. The piessuie heau iepiesents the
height of a column of liquiu that can iise to a piessuie p thiough its weight. The
velocity heau iepiesents the height h fiom which an element of fluiu must fall fieely,
in vacuum, in oiuei to ieach the velocity v.

Type of heau Byuiaulic uesignation Repiesentation
Bue to position

Bue to piessuie

Kinetic
Elevation above a uatum oi
,1,-$(&)% 3,$8
Piessuie expiesseu in height of
liquiu oi +",//.", 3,$8
H,1)5&(6 3,$8
!
!
! !

!
!
! !!!

!
!
! !
!
!!!

R(?(? M;6:@CA67@ED 9T TE;=: TE9N

0ne of the most impoitant equations that goveins the stuuy of fluius is Beinoulli's
piinciple. It was uevelopeu by a Swiss scientist nameu Baniel Beinoulli anu
publisheu in his book ?68")86%$*&5$ in 17S8.

Beinoulli's piinciple ielates a fluiu's velocity to its inteinal piessuie. It states that in
fluiu uynamics, foi $% &8,$1 )" +,"F,5( F1.&8 (meaning it is assumeu to have no
viscosity), an inciease in speeu is linkeu with a ueciease in piessuie oi a ueciease in
the fluiu's potential eneigy. Although a peifect liquiu, oi a liquiu without viscosity
uoes not exist in natuie, theie aie cases in which the liquiu behaves as if it weie
peifect. Foi example: a liquiu at iest in which the viscosity is not felt. Fuitheimoie, a
flow staiting fiom a state of iest will have an initial iegion in which the effects of
viscosity aie not significant. Foi example: the flow ovei a spillway oi the flow fiom a
ieseivoii to a pipe oi channel. In these cases the flow may iesemble a peifect liquiu.
S2
! ! ! !
!
!
!
!
!
!!
! !"#$%!

This is the expiession that iepiesents Beinoulli's equation. This is like eneigy
conseivation, but within a fluiu: if theie is no fiiction, the paiticle moves without
loss of eneigy. In the case of an incompiessible liquiu in steauy flow, in which the
fiiction foices anu eneigy losses can be ignoieu, the total heau of a paiticle is
maintaineu along its tiajectoiy.

Consiuei a stieamline in a steauy flow. At each point of this stieamline situateu at an
elevation ' above a uatum. The uiffeient paiticles, which successively occupy that
point, aie subject to a piessuie + anu have a velocity H. The eneigy conuitions that
we uefineu pieviously coiiesponu to this.
To sum up: in ielation to each point of a stieamline the following specific heaus oi
eneigies aie uefineu:

- Piezometiic heau Ee= z + py
- velocity heau: Ec = v
2
2g
- Total heau oi eneigy: E=z+p y + v
2
2g

If along a stieamline, on a veitical fiom the hoiizontal uatum, lengths aie maikeu to
iepiesent the static heau, we obtain the piezometiic heauline that coiiesponus to
the stieamline consiueieu.
Likewise, if the total heau is maikeu, we obtain the total heau line oi simply: eneigy
line.
The eneigy line is a uistant fiom the piezometiic line by a length, measuieu on the
veitical, equal to the velocity heau.

Total heau can be uefineu not only at a point on a stieamline, but also in a stiaight
section of a flow, if the stieamlines have a veiy small cuivatuie, so that they can be
consiueieu piactically stiaight anu paiallel.

In this case the static heau, z + py has the same value foi the whole stiaight section.
The velocity H, howevei may vaiy fiom one point to anothei of the stiaight section.
By substituting the mean velocity ! foi the vaiious velocities H of the paiticles, a
coiiection factoi of kinetic eneigy u is intiouuceu. This is known as the Coiiolis
coefficient. It is uefineu as the iatio between the ieal kinetic eneigy of the flow anu
the kinetic eneigy of a fictious flow in which all paiticles move at the mean velocity
0.

SS
The piezometiic heauline anu eneigy line aie uefineu as ielative oi absolute
accoiuing to whethei the piessuie is consiueieu to be ielative oi absolute.


Foi fluiu eneigy, the law of conseivation of eneigy is iepiesenteu by the Beinoulli
equation:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!


wheie Z1- elevation (m) at any point 1 of flowing fluiu above an aibitiaiy uatum
Z2= elevation (m) at uownstieam point in fluiu above same uatum
p1 = piessuie at 1, (kPa)
p2= piessuie at 2 (kPa)
y= specific weight of fluiu (kgm
S
)
v1= velocity of fluiu at 1 (ms)
v2= velocity of fluiu at 2 (ms)
g= acceleiation uue to giavity (9.81 ms
2
)

The left siue of the equation sums the total eneigy pei unit weight of fluiu at 1, anu
the iight siue, the total eneigy pei unit weight at 2. The pieceuing equation applies
only to an iueal fluiu. Its piactical use iequiies a teim to account foi the ueciease in
total heau (m), thiough fiiction. This teim 3FE when auueu to the uownstieam siue,
yielus the foim of the Beinoulli equation most fiequently useu:

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
!hf

S4
The eneigy containeu in an elemental volume of fluiu thus is a function of its
elevation, velocity anu piessuie. The eneigy uue to elevation is the potential eneigy
anu equals WZa wheie W is the weight (kg) of the fluiu in the elemental volume anu
Za is its elevation (m), above some aibitiaiy uatum. The eneigy uue to velocity is the
kinetic eneigy. It equals Wva
2
2g, wheie va is the velocity (ms). The piessuie
eneigy equals !
!
!
! y, wheie pa is the piessuie, (kgkPa), anu y is the specific weight
of the fluiu (kgm
S
). The total eneigy in the elemental volume of fluiu is:

! ! !" !
!
!
!
!
!
!"
!
!
!"


Biviuing both siues of the equation by W yielus the eneigy pei unit weight of
flowing fluiu, oi the ()($1 3,$8 (m):

! ! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!


pa y is calleu piessuie heau;
!
!
!
!!
velocity heau. As inuicateu in the following figuie Z+
p y is constant foi any point in a cioss section anu noimal to the flow thiough a
pipe oi channel.


SS
Kinetic eneigy at the section howevei, vaiies with velocity. 0sually, Z+ p y at the
miupoint anu the aveiage velocity at a section aie assumeu when the Beinoulli
equation is applieu to flow acioss the section oi when total heau is to be
ueteimineu. @-,"$2, -,1)5&(6, (ms) = QA, wheie Q is the quantity of flow, (m
S
s)
acioss the aiea of the section A (m
2
).

Nomentum is a funuamental concept that must be consiueieu in the uesign of
essentially all wateiwoiks facilities involving flow. A change in momentum, which
may iesult fiom a change in velocity, uiiection oi magnituue of flow, is equal to the
impulse, the foice I acting on the fluiu times the peiiou of time 8( ovei which it acts.
Biviuing the total change in momentum by the time inteival ovei which the change
occuis gives the momentum equation, oi impulse-momentum equation:

!
!
! !"!!
!


Fx= summation of all foices in uiiection pei unit time causing change in
momentum in uiiection (N)

p= uensity of flowing fluiu, (kgs
2
m
4
) (specific weight uiviueu by g)
Q= flow iate (m
S
s)
vx= change in velocity in uiiection (ms)





M=B;8A &WZ M98<A :=@B8@C T98 C9CA67;C
S6
R(L 4JFAD 9T TE9N
R(L(& ME;=: TE9N =6 F=FAD

Pipes aie useu in engineeiing to uelivei fluiu fiom one place to anothei. Theie aie
two flow types founu within these stiuctuies, E@C=6@8 (uisciete layeis without
mixing) anu 7;8I;EA67 (mixing action) flow.















!@C=6@8 TE9N
In laminai flow, fluiu paiticles move in paiallel layeis in one uiiection.

M=B;8A &?Z "AE9<=7J :=D78=I;7=96 T98 E@CAEE@8 TE9N =6 @ <=8<;E@8 F=FA =D F@8@I9E=<( 5@X=C;C PAE9<=7J =D
7N=<A 7GA @PA8@BA PAE9<=7J(
A uimensionless paiametei calleu the Reynolus numbei has been founu to be a
ieliable ciiteiion foi the ueteimination of laminai oi tuibulent flow. It is the iatio of
ineitial foices viscous foices anu is given by:
M=B;8A && S=FA ME9N [)@6\ /96<=DA )J:8@;E=<D\ ?WWQ]
S7

! !
!"#
!
!
!"
!

v= fluiu velocity (ms)
B= pipe uiametei (m)
p= uensity of fluiu (kgm
S
) specific weight uiviueu by g
= viscosity of fluiu (kgsm
2
)
= p = kinematic viscosity (m
2
s)

Foi a Reynolus numbei less than 2uuu, flow is laminai in ciiculai pipes. When the
Reynolus numbei is gieatei than 2uuu, laminai is unstable; a uistuibance is
piobably magnifieu, causing the flow to become tuibulent.

4;8I;EA67 TE9N
In tuibulent flow, the ineitial foices aie so gieat that viscous foices cannot uampen
out uistuibances causeu piimaiily by the suiface ioughness.

As a iesult, the velocity uistiibution is moie unifoim, as shown in the following
figuie.

Expeiimentation in tuibulent flow has show that:
The heau loss vaiies uiiectly as the length of the pipe
The heau loss vaiies almost as the squaie of the velocity
The heau loss vaiies almost inveisely as the uiametei
The heau loss uepenus on the suiface ioughness of the pipe wall
The heau loss uepenus on the fluiu uensity anu viscosity
The heau loss is inuepenuent of the piessuie



M=B;8A &LZ "AE9<=7J :=D78=I;7=96 T98 7;8I;EA67 TE9N =6 @
<=8<;E@8 F=FA =D C98A 6A@8EJ ;6=T98C 7G@6 7G@7 T98
E@CAEE@8 TE9N(
S8
S=FA 89;BG6ADD

Pipes aie constiucteu out of a vaiiety of mateiials anu come in many uiffeient sizes.
Some of the most common mateiials useu foi pipe constiuction oi conciete, cast
iion, commeicial oi welueu steel, PvC, ceiamic anu glass. Bepenuing on the
conuitions of wheie the pipe shoulu be useu, the appiopiiate mateiial is chosen.

Netal pipes, foi example, aie usually maue fiom steel, iion, coppei oi titanium.
Coppei is fiequently useu foi uomestic plumbing systems wheie heat tiansfei is
uesiiable. Titanium is useu foi pipe systems with high tempeiatuie oi piessuie.
Plastic tubing is commonly useu because of its light weight, chemical iesistance,
non-coiiosive piopeities anu easy connection options. Polyvinyl chloiiue (PvC)
pipes aie the leauing pipe mateiial useu foi uiinking watei uistiibution anu
wastewatei uisposal. Pipes also may be constiucteu out of conciete oi ceiamic foi
low-piessuie applications such as sewage.

Each mateiial has a uiffeient pipe ioughness value that is usually pioviueu by the
manufactuiei. The ioughness value , plays an impoitant iole on fiiction losses of a
fluiu moving thiough the pipe.

#ID9E;7A 89;BG6ADD is usually given in eithei mm oi inches. Common values iange
between u.uu1S mm foi PvC pipes anu S.u mm foi iough conciete pipes.

,AE@7=PA 89;BG6ADD is the ioughness of a pipe uiviueu by its inteinal uiametei oi
&AB. This value is useu to calculate the pipe fiiction factoi, which then useu in the
Baicy-Weisbach equation calculates the fiiction loss in a pipe.


5@7A8=@E

& [CC]
Conciete u.S - S.u
Cast Iion u.26
Commeicial oi Welueu Steel u.u4S
PvC, ulass, othei Biawn Tubing u.uu1S

M=B;8A &R S=FA 5@7A8=@ED @6: /9CC96 S=FA ,9;BG6ADD "@E;AD [S=FAME9N\ ?W&?]



S9
+@8<J^3A=DI@<G M98C;E@
0ne of the most wiuely useu equations foi pipe flow, the Baicy-Weisbach foimula
satisfies the conuition uesciibeu in the pieceuing section anu is valiu foi laminai oi
tuibulent flow in all fluius:

!
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!!


hf = heau loss uue to fiiction (m)
f= fiiction factoi
L=length of pipe (m)
B= uiametei of pipe (m)
v= velocity of fluiu (ms)
g= acceleiation uue to giavity (9.81 ms
2
)


R(L(? VFA6 <G@66AE TE9N

Fiee suiface flow, oi open-channel flow, incluues all cases of flow in which the liquiu
suiface is open to the atmospheie. Thus, flow in a pipe is open-channel flow if the
pipe is only paitly full.


M=B;8A &>Z VFA6 <G@66AE TE9N [)@6\ ?WWQ]

A .%&F)"* 53$%%,1 is one of constant cioss section. It has .%&F)"* F1)A if the giaue, oi
slope, of the watei suiface is the same as that of the channel. Bence, uepth of flow is
constant thioughout. J(,$86 F1)A in a channel occuis if the uepth at any location
iemains constant with time.

The 8&/53$"2, = at any section is uefineu as the volume of watei passing that section
pei unit of time. It is expiesseu in cubic feet pei seconu (cubic metei pei seconu
m
S
s) anu is given by:
4u

Q= vA

v= aveiage velocity (ms)
A= cioss-sectional aiea of flow (m
2
)

When the uischaige is constant, the flow is saiu to be continuous anu theiefoie
Q=v1A1 = v2A2 = wheie the subsciipts uesignate uiffeient channel sections. This
pieceuing equation is known as the continuity equation foi continuous steauy flow.

K,+(3 of flow 8 is taken as the veitical uistance, ft (m), fiom the bottom of a channel
to the watei suiface. The wetteu peiimetei is the length (m) of a line bounuing the
cioss-sectional aiea of flow minus the fiee suiface wiuth. The hyuiaulic iauius R
equals the aiea of flow uiviueu by its wetteu peiimetei. The aveiage velocity of flow
v is uefineu as the uischaige uiviueu by the aiea of flow:

! !
!
!


The velocity heau Bv (m) is geneially given by

!
!
!
!
!
!!


wheie v = aveiage velocity (ms); anu g = acceleiation uue to giavity.

The total eneigy pei kilogiam of watei ielative to the bottom of the channel at a
veitical section is calleu the specific eneigy heau Be. It is composeu of the uepth of
flow at any point, plus the velocity heau at the point. It is expiesseu in metei as

!
!
! ! !
!
!
!!


A longituuinal piofile of the elevation of the specific eneigy heau is calleu the eneigy
giaue line, oi the total-heau line. A longituuinal piofile of the watei suiface is calleu
the hyuiaulic giaue line.
41


0pen channel flow can be classifieu by space anu by time. The subcategoiies of open
channel flow classifieu by (&*, incluue D7A@:J TE9N anu ;6D7A@:J TE9N. -6=T98C
TE9N anu P@8=A: TE9N aie categoiies of open channel flow classifieu by /+$5,.

H7A@:J TE9N iefeis to flow vaiiables that uo not change with time (when velocity at
any point in the system uoes not change with time); the opposite woulu be calleu
;6D7A@:J TE9N. This occuis in suiges anu floou waves in open channels.
-6=T98C TE9N iefeis to flow wheie watei uepth, wiuth, aiea anu velocity uo not
change with uistance.

As in pipe flow, the Reynolus Numbei (Re) can be useu to iuentify laminai anu
tuibulent flow foi open channels.

!" !
!"#$%!& !"#$%
!"#$%&# !"#$%
!
!"#
!


! !!"#$%&' !!"!!
!
!
! !!"#$%#"&' |kgmsj
R hyuiaulic iauius |mj
v mean velocity |msj

Laminai Flow Re Suu
Tuibulent Flow Re 1uuu

M=B;8A &'Z /G@8@<7A8=D7=<D 9T ;6=T98C 9FA6^<G@66AE TE9N
42
The flow in natuial iiveis is usually unsteauy, wheieas canalizeu iiveis anu canal
flow is usually steauy non-unifoim oi unifoim.

0thei factois that may have an impact on flow aie:
-inaccuiacies anu eiiois
-cuivatuie loss (uiiection change)
-suspenueu mattei anu seuiment tianspoit
-absoiption of aii
-unuetecteu obstacles
-waves

#87=T=<=@E <G@66AED oi canalizeu iiveis aie channels maue by man. These incluue
iiiigation anu navigation canals anu uiainage uitches. They aie usually constiucteu
in a piismatic iegulai cioss-section shape. They aie commonly constiucteu of
conciete oi eaith anu have the suiface ioughness ieasonably well uefineu.

1@7;8@E <G@66AED aie not iegulai oi piismatic anu theii constiuction mateiials vaiy
wiuely. Consequently it is uifficult to accuiately analyze oi obtain satisfactoiy
iesults foi natuial channels.

198C@E :AF7G 9T TE9N

The uepth of equilibiium flow that exists in the channel is calleu the noimal uepth.
This uepth is unique foi specific uischaige anu channel conuitions.

/8=7=<@E ME9N

Watei flow in open channels can also be classifieu into supeiciitical anu subciitical
flows. When a liquiu at a given piessuie anu tempeiatuie passes thiough a
iestiiction such as a valve in a pipe, into an aiea with lowei piessuie, the velocity of
the fluiu incieases as iequiieu by the conseivation of mass piinciple.
Simultaneously the ventuii effect causes the static piessuie uensity to ueciease
uownstieam of the iestiiction. The flow at a ciitical piessuie uiop, oi "ciitical flow"
occuis at the point wheie the flow iate will not inciease with a fuithei ueciease in
piessuie. (uieen & Peiiy, 2uu7)



Flow in an open channel is also classifieu accoiuing to an eneigy ciiteiion. Foi a
given uischaige, the eneigy of flow is a function of its uepth anu velocity. This
4S
eneigy is a minimum at one paiticulai uepth, the ciitical uepth Yc. It shows that the
uimensionless Fiouue numbei chaiacteiizes the flow: wheie P is velocity, B is the
giavitational acceleiation anu J is the uepth of flow.

Fi 1, flow is saiu to be D;I<8=7=<@E (slow, gentle oi tianquil)
Fi = 1, flow is <8=7=<@E, when the uepth is equal to , when the uepth is equal to *< the
ciitical uepth (minimum eneigy)
Fi 1, flow is D;FA8<8=7=<@E (fast oi shooting)

The occuiience of ciitical flow is veiy impoitant in the measuiement of iivei
uischaige because in the cioss section with ciitical flow foi a given uischaige, theie
is a unique ielationship between velocity anu the uischaige as = (g y). Thus only
the uepth has to be measuieu to calculate velocity. Elsewheie, the flow might be
eithei subciitical oi supeiciitical anu both velocity anu uepth woulu have to be
measuieu to ueiive uischaige.











44
/8=7=<@E :AF7G

Foi a given value of specific eneigy, the ciitical uepth gives the gieatest uischaige,
oi conveisely, foi a given uischaige, the specific eneigy is a minimum foi the ciitical
uepth. Foi iectangulai channels the ciitical uepth (m) is given by:

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!


uc= ciitical uepth (m)
Q= quantity of flow oi uischaige (m
S
s)
b=wiuth of channel (m)


M89;:A 6;CIA8Z is uefineu as the iatio of aveiage velocity v to the piopagation
velocity c of a shallow watei wave. (vischei & Bagei, 1998)
! !
!
!!
!


/96DA8P@7=96 9T 5@DDZ
The Law of Conseivation of Nass uates back to 1789 wheie Antoine Lavoisiei
uiscoveieu that mass is neithei cieateu noi uestioyeu in chemical ieactions; the
mass of any element will be the same at any point in time in any closeu system.
(Steinei, 2u11)



/96DA8P@7=96 9T 06A8BJ
The Law of Conseivation of Eneigy states that eneigy is neithei cieateu noi
uestioyeu. Rathei, eneigy may be conveiteu into vaiious foims such as kinetic,
potential, heat oi light eneigy. The sum of all eneigy in a closeu system is theiefoie a
constant.







4S
> ,=PA8 06B=6AA8=6B

Rivei engineeiing is the piocess of planneu human inteivention in the
chaiacteiistics, flow oi couise of a iivei in oiuei to achieve a paiticulai benefit.
Bumans have been inteivening in the natuial couise of iiveis foi thousanus of yeais
to manage the watei souices, piotect against floouing oi to make navigation easiei.

>(& ,=PA8 598FG9E9BJ

Rivei moiphology (also known as fluvial geomoiphology) is a bianch of the science
calleu geomoiphology, oi the stuuy of foices that shape eaith's suiface.
ueomoiphology helps unueistanu the geological featuies cieateu thioughout time
by vaiious geological agents incluuing volcanoes, winu anu of couise watei. Fluvial
geomoiphology can be uefineu as "an unueistanuing of the piocesses of watei anu
seuiment movement in iivei catchments anu channels anu theii floouplains-
togethei with the foims piouuceu by those piocesses". (Enviionment Agency, 2u1u)



When watei is uepositeu on lanu by piecipitation it possesses potential eneigy. As
the watei flows uownhill, this potential eneigy is conveiteu into kinetic eneigy.
Kinetic eneigy causeu by watei flow can then be useu oi conveiteu into othei foims
of eneigy that cause tuibulence oi fiiction within the watei, eiosion of iiveibanks
oi the tianspoitation of seuiment anu the conveision into theimal eneigy when
enteiing a laigei bouy of watei such as a lake. The natuial shape of a iivei evolves
ovei time such that it is most efficient in the movement of watei anu seuiments of
the iivei. (Natsuua, 2uu4)



Bowevei, thiough human inteivention equilibiiums of the iivei can be uistuibeu if
geomoiphological issues aie not auuiesseu piopeily piioi to the planneu
uistuibance. This may acceleiate negative piocesses such as eiosion anuoi
ueposition. (Enviionment Agency, 2u1u)

Two of the most impoitant concepts behinu iivei moiphology aie 5)%/,"-$(&)%
(maintaining oi iestoiing natuial habitats anu moiphology) anu /./($&%$#&1&(6
(minimizing maintenance anu cost).

The foims oi *)"+3)1)2&,/ of iiveis show infinite vaiiety, howevei in piactice
ceitain "typical states" aie usually useu that can be uesciibeu thiough cioss section,
planfoim anu long piofile.

46
The <89DD DA<7=96 of a channel is uefineu thiough piopeities of wiuth anu uepth
along with the oveiall size (aiea). The uepth of flow in a channel is piopoitional to
the iiveibeu's ability to tianspoit seuiment anu to the foice that watei exeits on it.
The cioss section can show the chaiacteiistics of the banks, natuial levees,
meanueis, the wiuth anu uepth of channels, ueltas anu so on.

















The E96B=7;:=6@E F89T=EA of a iivei is a giaph of height against uistance
uownstieam. In othei woius, it is the cioss section of a iivei beginning at the souice
continuing to the mouth. Both the valley anu the channel also have a chaiacteiistic
FE@6T98C, which put simply, is the view fiom above. Bepenuing on the slope of the
longituuinal piofile, cioss-section anu beu stiuctuie, iiveis have uiffeient
wateicouises with uistinctive featuies. Theie aie thiee basic types of channels:

J("$&23( 53$%%,1/4 aie iaie in natuie (often man-maue) anu tenu to only foim in
aieas with stiong beuiock contiols.

L,$%8,"&%2 53$%%,1/4 aie single channels with a seiies of ueep pools, eiouing beus
anu point bais- causing tuins ovei the length of the iivei. ueoscientists use the
sinuosity iation to ueteimine whethei a channel is stiaight oi meanueiing. The
D=6;9D=7J 8@7=9 is the uistance between two points on the stieam. If the sinuosity
iatio is 1.S oi gieatei the channel is consiueieu to be meanueiing.

M"$&8,8 53$%%,1/4 aie maue of a numbei of channels split by giavel bais oi islanus
anu aie cieateu when one stieam is uiviueu into seveial smallei ones thiough
M=B;8A &KZ /89DD DA<7=96 [06P=896CA67 #BA6<J\ ?W&W]
47
ueposit accumulation in the channel. This type of channel is common in glaciateu
aieas. (Rittei, 2uu9)





Bowevei, uesciibing a channel by one of the mentioneu teims uoes not mean that
the entiie channel is foimeu in that way. It simply uesciibes a poition of the
channel. Foi example, one poition of a iivei may be stiaight, while anothei
uownstieam is biaiueu.

As mentioneu pieviously, the moiphology of a iivei can be vieweu by consiueiing
its long piofile anu cioss section piofile. The long piofile is the section that can be
obtaineu by looking at the channel fiom souice to mouth. This section inuicates the
slopes in uiffeient aieas of the channel, the wateifalls anu iapius. It also shows lakes
that may occui along the path of a iivei.

Riveis change shape fiom theii souice to the mouth. The longituuinal piofile can be
uiviueu into foui sections:

The ;FFA8 8A@<G of a iivei begins in the mountains. It is placeu in a naiiow
valley anu has small tiibutaiies. The flow giauient is high (}1%) anu highly
vaiiable. This is why the iiveibeu is highly eiouible anu tianspoits stones
anu boulueis. When obseiveu ovei a longei peiiou of time, the wateicouises
in the uppei ieach aie in a state of eiosion (:AF8ADD=96).
In the C=::EA 8A@<G of a wateicouise, the valley wiuens while the slope
becomes lowei (I is laigei than 1 tenth of a peicent anu smallei than 1
peicent). The iivei is stietcheu, stiaightei than in the uppei ieach, anu can
M=B;8A &%Z /G@66AE FE@6T98C [06P=896CA67 #BA6<J\ ?W&W]
48
extenu siueways. Theie aie fewei tiibutaiies than in the uppei ieach, but
they have less uischaige. In the miuule ieach the iiveis tianspoit giavel anu
sanu. In balanceu anu unuistuibeu conuitions only veiy little eiosion anu
ueposition occui.
The E9NA8 8A@<G of a iivei is chaiacteiizeu by wiue iivei valleys. The iivei
has a low giauient (I is smallei than 1 tenth of a peicent) anu the cioss
section of the iivei is wiue. It meanueis in wiue benus anu coveis laige paits
of the valley aiea uuiing floous. The iivei beu is coveieu with sanu anu silt.
At the C9;7G of the iivei the flow giauient is so small, that even the finest
components aie not tianspoiteu. Peimanent ueposition is usually associateu
with the foimation of a iivei uelta, which auvances giauually as alluvial
ueposits in the sea. (Stiobl, 2uu6)

1. )=BGE@6:D ?( -FE@6:D L( !9NE@6:D
Bistinct valleys; few small
valley floois
0ften wiue valley floois Little uevelopeu valleys
Nany small tiibutaiies Few laige tiibutaiies veiy few tiibutaiies
Steep, vaiying longituuinal
slopes
Balanceu longituuinal slope Flat longituuinal slope
Inconsistent cioss-section Balanceu cioss-section Flat cioss-section
Iiiegulai couise Stietcheu couise, Laige cuives, meanueis
Nostly ueep eiosion Siue beu eiosion,
accumulation
Nostly siue beu eiosion,
accumulation
Coaise uebiis to fine paiticles uiavel to fine paiticles Sanu to fine paiticles









49
>(&(& ,=PA8IA: T98C=6B F89<ADDAD

The eaith suiface is foimeu thiough the impact of climate on the uevelopment of
geological foimations. vaiious valley shapes uevelop unuei influences of tectonic
pie-conuitions, the effects of glaciation, eiosion of the embankment slopes anu the
tianspoit of the iock mateiial. Fuitheimoie, <E=C@7A T@<798D such as piecipitation,
winu anu tempeiatuie; as well as E9<@E T@<798D such as geology, geomoiphology, soil
anu vegetation all effect how the suiface is foimeu.

2A9E9B=<@E anu <E=C@7=< T@<798D influence the uevelopment of iiveis. Long-teim
piocesses foim the fiamewoik in which then also the shoit-teim piocesses occui
anu uevelop. The climate is uefineu thiough tempeiatuie, piecipitation, aii
humiuity, winu uiiection, winu stiength, clouuiness anu sunshine uuiation. All of
these factois influence the vaiious climate systems such as the watei cycle. The
climatic factois have an impact on geological foimations that shape the Eaith's
suiface. In a natuial wateicouise the ielief mainly influences the layout anu
longituuinal piofile. The 8AE=AT is the uiffeience between the highest anu lowest
elevations in an aiea. Eiosion, seuiment tianspoit anu seuimentation shape the
iiveibeu. Long-teim anu shoit-teim piocesses oveilap continually anu iesult in the
moiphology of wateicouises anu floou planes.

=3+-%+( is a piocess by which soil anu iock aie iemoveu fiom the Eaith's suiface
thiough natuial piocesses such as watei flow, anu then tianspoiteu anu uepositeu
in othei locations. In natuial wateicouises, ueep eiosion causes scouiing, iapius,
wateifalls anu cascaues. 0n the outei banks of iiveis, eiosion causes the foimation
of siue slopes. If these aie unueicut by flowing watei, they bieak off anu the cuiient
caiiies the mateiial away. This iesults in a bioauening of the wateicouise.

<&,%8&(. .3/(-:+3. is the movement of soliu paiticles oi seuiment, typically uue to
a combination of the foice of giavity acting on the seuiment anuoi movement of
the fluiu in which the seuiment is. This is impoitant in unueistanuing natuial
systems wheie the paiticles aie sanu, giavel, boulueis, muu oi clay. Theie aie
uiffeient types of seuiment tianspoit (Aeolian, fluvial, coastal, hillslope, etc.),
howevei in hyuiaulic engineeiing fluvial- seuiment tianspoit ielateu to flowing
watei- is the most ielevant.
Foi a fluiu to begin seuiment tianspoit that is at iest on a suiface, the beu (oi
bottom) sheai stiess !
!
exeiteu by the fluiu must exceeu the ciitical sheai stiess !
!
.
The bottom sheai stiess acting on the iiveibeu can be ueiiveu using a simplifieu
flow element:
!
!
! ! ! ! ! !
!
! !
!

Su

p watei uensity |kg!
!
!
g giavitational acceleiation !!
!!

!
!
!!"#$%&'() !"#$%& !!!
!
!
!!"#$% !" !"# !"!#$% !"#$ |j

As a iule of thumb foi estimating bottom sheai stiess the following foimula can be
useu:
!
!
! !" ! ! ! !
!

wheie h |mj anu !
!
|j aie useu.
Bottom sheai stiess u is a value aveiageu ovei the peiimetei. S to 1S N m` aie
classifieu as 5"&(&5$1 in giavel iiveis anu in sanuy iiveis 2 to S N m`.
Example: In a iivei with a flow uepth of 2.Sm anu a slope of u.S, the flow of
bottom sheai stiess exeits a foice of about u = 1u 2,S u,S = 11,S Nm`.

Seuiment tianspoit can be uiviueu in thiee types of movement:
Weak motion: some of the smallest paiticles aie localizeu to be moveu
Aveiage motion: the aveiage giain uiametei is in motion
ueneial movement: laigei paiticles aie in motion

<&,%8&(./.%+( is the tenuency foi paiticles that aie in suspension to settle out of
the fluiu in which they aie in anu come to iest. This occuis because of theii motion
thiough the fluiu in iesponse to foices acting on them (e.g. giavity). Seuimentation
is often useu as the polai opposite of eiosion in geology anu signifies the enu of
seuiment tianspoit.

A iivei is also shapeu unuei the influence of its :8@B T98<A anu =6A87=@ T98<AD in
benus (centiifugal foices) as well as the foim anu appeaiance of the iivei valley.
Biag foices iefei to foices that act on solius in the uiiection of the ielative fluiu flow
velocity. They ueciease fluiu velocity ielative to the soliu object in the fluiu's path.

Because of the vaiious foices anu inteiactions in natuie, stiaight iiveis neaily nevei
occui. 0n the contiaiy, a iivei often changes its uiiection anu foims iivei benus anu
loops. If a iivei is foiceu thiough technical measuies in a stiaight beu, a meanueiing
motion uevelops. Thiough this piocess sanu anu giavel bais aie cieateu anu
uepositeu alteinately along the iiveibank. (Stiobl, 2uu6)
S1

In auuition to the slope anu tianspoit capacity, the available seuiments have a
significant impact on the uevelopment of the wateicouise. Low seuiment loau anu
low slope leau to a stiaight layout. As the seuiment loau incieases, ielocation
piocesses in the iiveibeu intensify, too.

Lowei beu slopes leau to an inciease in the tenuency to meanuei. A CA@6:A8 in
geneial is a benu in a wateicouise (as mentioneu pieviously). It is foimeu when
moving watei in a channel eioues the outei banks thus wiuening the valley.
Neanueiing eioues seuiments fiom the outsiue of a benu anu ueposits these on the
insiue, iesulting in a snaking pattein.

These watei loops aie in a state of constant change uue to piogiessive eiosion until
the outei bank comes to a bieach. The time to bieach uepenus on the eiosion
iesistance of the soil anu the existing iipaiian vegetation. This piocess can take
yeais.

Winuing anu meanueiing of iiveis with low giauients may foim 9XI9ND. 0xbow
lakes aie 0-shapeu bouies of watei foimeu when a meanuei is cut off fiom the main
stieam. Bue to the iivei's eiosion of the bank thiough hyuiaulic action, abiasion anu
coiiosion, a meanuei can become veiy cuiveu until its neck touches the opposite
siue. The iivei then cuts thiough the neck cutting off the meanuei.

The same geomoiphological stiuctuies may be founu in the oxbow anu the main
iivei along the outei anu innei banks, as well as the stiuctuie of the iiveibeus. In
S2
oxbows, contiaiy to the iivei bieaches, watei uoes not flow thiough continuously,
although they aie always exposeu to changing watei levels in main iivei bianches.
0xbow lakes aie only connecteu with the wateicouise uuiing floou peiious.

HAAF@BA E@OAD aie sepaiateu by uikes fiom the actual iivei couise anu aie only
connecteu via giounuwatei. Beau stieam bianches aie foimei oxbows that aie not
in connection with the wateicouise thioughout the entiie yeai- neithei suiface
watei noi thiough giounuwatei.


>(&(? "@EEAJ DG@FAD

0vei time, climatic anu local factois shape valleys thiough uiffeient piocesses.
These valley shapes uiffei in appeaiance uue to theii foimation.

M=B;8A &QZ "@EEAJ DG@FAD [cA86\ &QQR]

298BA P@EEAJD aie founu wheie eiosion anu stable valley slopes occui
simultaneously. Beie the iock masses aie tianspoiteu by watei.

197<GA: oi "^DG@FA: P@EEAJD (also calleu iivei valleys) aie naiiow valleys with
steeply slopeu siues that when vieweu in cioss-section appeai similai to the lettei
"v". They aie foimeu by stiong stieams anu occui when sufficient weatheieu slope
iock is piesent which can be tianspoiteu away by watei.

-^DG@FA: P@EEAJD aie valleys with a similai piofile to the lettei "0". Steep siues that
cuive in at the base of the valley wall chaiacteiize them. They have flat, wiue valley
floois. These often foimeu thiough glacial eiosion.
SS

5A@6:A8 P@EEAJD aiise wheie the existing seuiments aie not iemoveu uue to the
lowei tianspoit capacity of the watei flow.

ME@7^TE998A: P@EEAJD have steep slopes, yet a bioau valley flooi. They iesult fiom an
excess of seuiment. This is the most common type of valley in the woilu. These
valleys, similai to the v-shapeu valleys, aie foimeu by stieams but aie no longei in
theii youthful stage anu aie consiueieu moie matuie. As the slope of a stieam's
channel becomes smooth, the valley flooi wiuens.

Laigei slopes anu coaise beu seuiment have a lowei shift of the wateicouise.
Bowevei, when a iiveibeu consists mainly of sanu anu giavel anu has a lowei slope,
theie is a stiong tenuency of shifting of the wateicouise. This leaus to the typical
floouplain stiuctuies.

>(? /G@66AE +AD=B6

The teim channelization is useu to uesciibe all of the pioceuuies of iivei channel
engineeiing which aie useu to contiol floous, pievent channel oi bank eiosion,
impiove uiainage anu maintain navigation. These pioceuuies incluue the
enlaigement, alignment, embanking anu piotection of existing channels anu of
channel constiuction. (uoie & Petts, 1989)

/G@66AE :AD=B6 oi foim can be
inteipieteu as the outcome of the continuous competition between the eiosion anu
iesistance foices of the iiveibank mateiials. 0vei time, iiveis uevelop a channel that
is able to caiiy the flow anu seuiments within it.

Beciuing on the coiiect uesign of a channel involves the selection of many factois
incluuing channel shape, size, bottom slope anu whethei the channel shoulu be lineu
to ieuuce oi pievent eiosion of the channel siues anu bottom. Possible channel
types incluue unlineu, lineu oi giasseu channels. Each channel uesign has unique
featuies that iequiie special consiueiation. The final channel uesign is usually
ueciueu by a tiial anu eiioi pioceuuie baseu on iequiieu oi uesiieu paiameteis.
Nany alteinatives aie consiueieu anu compaieu on an economic anu ecological
level. (Ban, 2uu9)

Channel uesign can be uiviueu into two categoiies: iigiu-bounuaiy channels anu
eiouible channels.

S4
>(?(& ,=B=:^Y9;6:@8J /G@66AED

A lineu channel is less iesistant to flow, thus the size iequiieu foi a specific flow iate
at a given slope is smallei anu theiefoie in some cases moie economical than an
unlineu channel. In this uesign the channel cioss section anu size aie selecteu such
that the uischaige is caiiieu uown the channel with an appiopiiate uistance
between the watei suiface anu channel bank.

>(?(? 089:=IEA /G@66AED

Theie is an abunuance of .%1&%,8 oi ,")8&#1, 53$%%,1/, both in man-maue anu
natuial iiveis. The bounuaiies of these channels constantly change in foim uue to
the continuous piocess of eiosion anu ueposition within the iivei.

Channels in which the bottom oi siues aie eiouible iequiie a ceitain size anu
bottom slope. The uesign of such channels has been maue possible using two
methous: the peimissible velocity anu the tiactive foice methou.

The fiist of the two methous selects the channel size so that the mean flow velocity
foi the uischaige (unuei unifoim flow conuitions) is less than the peimissible flow
velocity. The +,"*&//&#1, -,1)5&(6 can be uefineu as the mean velocity at which the
channel is not eioueu. This velocity uepenus piimaiily on the type anu textuie of
soil, although channel uepth anu shape (stiaight oi cuiveu) also affect eiosion.

The seconu methou useu to uesign eiouible channels concentiates on the foices
acting on a paiticle laying on the channel bottom oi siue. Put simply, if the foices
tenuing to move the paiticle aie gieatei than the foices iesisting this movement, the
channel will eioue. The foice which watei exeits on the channel bottom anu siues is
calleu ("$5(&-, F)"5,: (Engineeis Without Boiueis-Buke, 2u11)



>(L S89T=EA H7@I=E=U@7=96

Nowauays, it is piactically impossible to avoiu human inteivention in iivei flow.
Seveial main activities inteivene in the natuial flow of a iivei incluuing piovisioning
piojects, hyuiopowei piojects anu iivei engineeiing methous that piotect
settlements, inuustiial plants anu tiaffic aieas fiom floouing anu eiosion. A uiop in
giounuwatei level, which occuis as a consequence of beu eiosion in a iivei, must be
avoiueu so that the suiiounuing agiicultuie anu ecologically valuable habitats aie
SS
not haimeu. The giounuwatei level coiiesponus closely to neighboiing open
channel flows. Civil engineeiing measuies shoulu secuie ceitain giounuwatei levels
in agiicultuial aieas so that the piouuction is not enuangeieu. In iecent uecaues the
impoitance of the ecological continuity (incluuing fish passes anu allowing seuiment
tianspoit) in wateicouises anu the maintenance as well as iestoiation of natuial
uevelopeu stiuctuies anu communities in wateis has been iecognizeu.

Consequently, touay iivei engineeiing is moie oiienteu towaius natuial anu
sustainable iivei uevelopment, uecommissioning anu iestoiing heavy iegulateu
stieams.

Stieam bank oi piofile stabilization aims to piotect the flow piofile against changes.
It consists of vegetative, stiuctuial anu bioengineeiing methous to stabilize anu
piotect piofiles. Theie aie uiffeient stiengths of iegulation:

)A@PJ 8AB;E@7=96 allows no change in a iivei piofile
If a iivei is 697 8AB;E@7A: any type of change is possible
A compiomise between these two is to allow changes N=7G=6 <A87@=6 E=C=7D
(these limits can be set by owneiship, the goal to pievent uamages oi the
limits can be uefineu foi othei uses)

>(L(& S89T=EA D7@I=E=U@7=96 <96D78;<7=96 C@7A8=@ED

A vaiiety of mateiials aie useu to stabilize piofiles. These mateiials can be
sepaiateu into two gioups: live anu ueau mateiials. Live mateiials incluue plants,
plant paits anu plant communities. Planting ieeu, giass anu woouy vegetation is one
of the simplest foims of stabilizing a iiveibank. The plant ioots help stabilize the soil
anu contiol shallow mass movement. Beau mateiials incluue stone, woou, iion oi
steel, conciete anu synthetic mateiials. They can be applieu eithei alone oi in
combination with live mateiials.

In A<9E9B=<@E (6A@8 6@7;8@E) hyuiaulic engineeiing, the applieu mateiials aie
mainly pait plants, uumpeu oi placeu woou anu stones. In some cases metals in the
foim of pieis, wiie mesh anu geotextiles maue of synthetic mateiials oi natuial
fibeis aie useu foi special constiuctions. Sealing mateiials such as conciete, asphalt,
pavements, synthetic mateiials, etc. aie geneially not consiueieu in neai-natuial
hyuiaulic engineeiing. The mateiials shoulu be auapteu to the iequiiements of each
watei section. Foi example in non-beu loau iiveis builuing blocks shoulu not be
S6
useu. The useu plant must coiiesponu not only to the catchment aiea, but also to the
iespective location, hyuiology, climate anu watei flow of the aiea.

Biological engineeiing stiuctuies in floou piotection aie baseu on suitable
vegetation in the iipaiian vegetation zone anu iivei aiea above the summei aveiage
watei level. The piopeities of live mateiials aie that they fulfill ecological objectives,
stabilize soil uue to theii iooting, pioviue an aiea-wiue piotection of embankment,
iegeneiate anu iegulate themselves. They aie also aesthetically compatible with the
lanuscape. Bowevei, these mateiials aie an inauequate piotection fiom extieme
loaus anu aie not veiy effective immeuiately aftei constiuction. Stabilizing a piofile
thiough vegetation pievents contaminants oi excess nutiients fiom enteiing the
watei anu offeis shaue anu covei foi the wilulife.

In some situations optimal piofile stabilization is achieveu thiough the constiuction
with ueau mateiials. Beau mateiials fulfill technical anu economic objectives,
iequiie a small amount of space, can be useu foi steep (even veitical) slopes, iesist
high loaus, aie effective immeuiately aftei constiuction anu can be peimeable oi
impeimeable uepenuing on the situation. They uo not, howevei, contiibute to the
lanuscape oi ecological quality.

>(L(? "ABA7@7=96 F89T=EA 9T @ N@7A8<9;8DA

Foi wateis with low flow velocities, ieeu plants aie suitable foi planting as bank
piotection. Theii stiong ioots help secuie anu quickly iegeneiate the banks aftei a
peiiou of high watei oi oveiflow. Well-iooteu giass embankments foim a natuial
anu ecologically goou bank piotection foi shallow embankments anu shoit teim
flow velocities up to 1.8 ms. These must be moweu iegulaily. The cheapest way is
the giazing by sheep. Tiees along wateicouises foim the laigest pait of a natuial
vegetation community. They foim a stable bank with theii ioots, pioviue piotection
thiough shaue anu seive as a valuable habitat foi many animals.

Piofile stabilization unuei the watei suiface is also veiy impoitant. In the
unueiwatei zone constiuction mateiials that aie useu incluue stone, woou,
synthetic mateiials, conciete, metals anu bitumen. It also incluues aquatic plants.
Stone is veiy watei iesistant anu has a laige vaiiety of applications. Woou such as
oak, laich, aluei, pine, spiuce anu fii aie also useful. Synthetic mateiials, such as PvC
oi PE can be useu as geomembianes. Conciete can be useu as an embankment wall
oi giounusill. Netals aie useu as anchois in the foim of wiies oi wiie mesh, anu
bitumen can be useu as a conciete joint sealing compounu. The unueiwatei zone is
S7
usually peimanently submeigeu. Plants such as ponuweeus anu watei lilies can
inhabit this zone, which ieuuce the watei's flow iate by fiiction. The ioots of such
plants help binu the soil anu piotect the channel fiom eiosion.

Above the unueiwatei zone thiee fuithei zones can be classifieu.
The ieeu-bank zone
The softwoou (shiub) zone
The haiuwoou (tiee) zone

Reeus have a high piotective effect. They piotect the slope of the piofile by coveiing
it with theii shoots anu leaves. They cause a highei ioughness anu lowei velocity of
the watei flow, slow the watei's flow iate by fiiction anu ieinfoice the soil. The
lowei pait of this zone is noimally submeigeu foi only half the yeai. Biushes, ieeu
giasses, cattails anu othei plants that binu soil with ioots anu shoots inhabit this
aiea. Anothei impoitant benefit of ieeus is that they have a laige puiifying capacity
anu effect on watei.

Planting ieeus is a natuial uesign foi bank piotection in iiveis that uo not have too
high of a velocity iate. This piactice uoes not apply wheie tiual conuitions exist. The
most impoitant factoi that is ciucial foi the success of stabilizing a piofile is the
appiopiiate selection of the ieeu. The species shoulu be chosen accoiuing to the soil,
watei chemistiy anu tempeiatuie, flow anu light exposuie. The main types of ieeu
founu in oui wateis aie ieeu canaiy giass (+3$1$"&/ $".%8&%$5,$) anu canaiy ieeu
(+3"$2*&(,/ 5)**.%&/): Reeu canaiy giass suppoits iiveibanks veiy well uue to
theii stiong ioot system. Buiing floouing the giass lies uown anu, since the stalk is
usually not bioken off, latei iises by itself. This makes it suitable foi highei
velocities. If highei velocities occui uuiing the giowing season the stalk bieaks off,
watei penetiates into the hollow stem, anu causes the ioots to iot.

The next zone is the softwoou oi shiub zone. It is only flooueu uuiing peiious of
aveiage high watei. Tiees anu shiubs such as willow, aluei, uogwoou anu vibuinum
inhabit it. These plants all have a high iegeneiative capacity anu suppoit the piofile
thiough theii ioot systems, while also slowing the watei speeu by fiiction. This zone
is also impoitant in pioviuing piotection to tiee tiunks fiom uamage by, foi
example, ice. They pievent the foimation of stiong euuies aiounu laige tiees uuiing
floous. Shiub vegetation is veiy beneficial along the impact bank of a stieam
meanuei, wheie maximum scouiing occuis. The incoiiect use of shiub vegetation
tenus to ieuuce the channel wiuth, which can inciease the piobability of floous.
Bowevei, biief floouing of iiveisiue woous anu unuevelopeu bottomlanus uoes not
cieateu significant uamage.
S8

The tiee zone is flooueu only uuiing peiious of high watei. Tiee ioots holu soil in
place thiough theii ioot systems anu aie a gieat pioviuei of shaue anu piotection.
Tiees that can be founu along the iiveis in Austiia incluue the cottonwoou, aluei,
white willow, naiiow-leafeu ash, common oak anu elm.

When aiianging tiees along a wateicouise, many factois shoulu be consiueieu.
Factois that impact the effect of tiees, in paiticulai the amount of shaue aie:
The composition of species of tiees anu shiubs
The aiiangement along the watei couise (maximum effectiveness foi shaue
when planteu in the south)
Bensity- piefeiably vegetation shoulu be placeu in multiple lines
Beight (shoulu be chosen uepenuing on the wiuth of the wateicouise)



The natuial bank piotection of wateicouises is the iipaiian vegetation, in paiticulai
plants with stiong ioot systems. Ripaiian aieas aie uefineu as a stiip of moistuie-
loving vegetation that loves giowing along the euge of a natuial bouy of watei. Its
exact bounuaiy is often uifficult to ueteimine because it is a tiansition zone between
the watei bouy anu the uplanu vegetation. The functions of iipaiian vegetation
incluue:
S9
Stabilizing the bank thiough ueep ioots that holu soil togethei
Reuucing eiosion anu theiefoie seuiment in the watei which keeps spawning
aieas cleai
Reuucing nutiients making watei tieatment easiei
Pioviuing a souice of laige woouy uebiis which seives as sheltei foi animals
Pioviuing shaue which iegulates stieam tempeiatuies
Supplying small oiganic uebiis incluuing twigs anu leaves necessaiy foi
many oiganisms
Reuucing stieam velocity uuiing high flow events

As this uiagiam shows, highei giowth in the foielanus ieuuces the velocity anu thus
the uischaige capacity in the vegetation fiee cioss section. This is baseu on the
fictitious iesistance coefficient in the veitical sepaiation suiface (vegetation
bounuaiy), which is a mathematical measuie of the effect of momentum exchange,
uepenuing on the giowth uensity. Foi example, veiy uense vegetation in the
foielanu has less impact in uiminishing the flow in the main channel than one of a
low uensity.




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Theie aie also many man-maue methous to stabilize iiveibanks that aie maue of
natuial mateiials such as willow mattiesses, fascine iolls, wattle fences, packeu
fascine woik, iipiap anu bank walls.

A willow mattiess is a natuial constiuction foi the piotection of iiveibanks. It is
maue out of thin, about 1uu to 2Su cm long bianches, capable of spiouting new
bianches anu twigs. The bianches aie helu togethei with inteiweaving wiie oi othei
bianches. They aie set on the slope in flow uiiection obliquely spieau upwaius, anu
then with ious, oi, even bettei, with low wattle fences kept uown, the lattei being
naileu to stakes in the bank.

Aftei the completion, the mattiess coveieu
with a few centimeteis of cohesive soil, so
it uoes not uiy out until iooting. At the foot
of the slope, using the Fascines ioll oi
iipiap auuitionally stabilizes the willow
mattiess.
Fiom willow mattiess uensely vegetateu
iiveibanks aiise the piotection anu habitat
foi a vaiiety of animals. Bowevei, in this
way a long time willow monocultuie aiises.

Willow mattiesses can stabilize anu secuie an embankment up to a slope of about 1:
1 oi slightly steepei. A limiting factoi is the stability of the eaith bank befoie the
willow mattiess begins with iooting.

Fascines, also known as pauules oi fascine iolleis, belong to the longituuinal
stiuctuies anu aie useu to suppoit the stieam banks. To piepaie the fascine iolleis,
about S to 6 m long willow ious aie tieu togethei in the 2u to 4u cm thick bunules.

The fascines aie built in the level of the aveiage flow by placing them with thick iou
enus in upstieam uiiection anu fastening them with pegs. A covei of moist soil
keeps the fascines anu impioves the giowth anu it aiises fiom a tiee boiuei, which
oveitakes the bank stabilization. Immeuiately aftei the installation, even befoie they
aie expelleu anu aie iooteu, the fascines oveitake a mechanical piotection. The
oveilapping joints of the inuiviuual bunules aie always in uangei fiom watei
uestiuction. It is theiefoie auvantageous to use anu install fascines enulessly"
meaning to avoiu joining sections. Fascine constiuctions may be evaluateu as veiy
61
flexible in constiuction anu ecologically positive. Between the bianches anu twigs
theie must always iemain enough cavities that seive as sheltei foi a vaiiety of
animals. Fascines maue of ueau mateiial piesent theiefoie ceitainly also a uesiiable
entiy of woouy uebiis in the watei. Fascines aie sausage-like bunules of live woouy
cuttings, tieu togethei. Placeu in shallow uitches cut into the stieam bank, anu
secuieu with live oi ueau stakes, they will spiout to piouuce a thick covei of biush.
Nost often placeu on the slopes paiallel to the contoui, fascines may be useu in
combination with othei vegetative stabilization methous.



Sink fascines aie fascines, in which stones aie embeuueu. Theiefoie, they can be
loweieu at ueep ciacks anu be applieu as bank stabilization unuei watei. Sink
fascines aie a combination of woou anu stone constiuction. No willows may be
applieu heie foi the boiuei constiuction, because the plant paits aie constantly
unuei watei. Because of using of stones the sink fascines aie veiy heavy, so that
usually a piotection with pegs is not necessaiy.

The use of classical fascines anu sink fascines iequiies much expeitise anu
expeiience. The use of fascines has low mateiial costs, but high laboi costs.



Foi a iapiu anu effective piotection of banks that alieauy have ciacks, iough tiees
aie useu (piimaiily as an emeigency measuie). Stiong biancheu tiees, mainly
62
spiuce but also alueis, willows anu poplais aie useu foi iough tiees. They aie
mounteu with theii ciown uownstieam. In oiuei that the stiuctuie functions
effectively, the bianches must always ieach the
foot.
Longei uangei spots aie secuieu by hooking
seveial iough tiees, in such a way that the uppei
ciown of the tiee coveis the following stem that
is without bianches.

The iough tiees aie not piepaieu foi the constiuction by conventional felling of
tiees. The two oi thiee most poweiful ioots must iemain on the tiee stem. The tiee
is fixeu with the help of a steel cable loop. Bue to the time-limiteu uuiation of the
iough tiees, the stabilization of the enuangeieu iipaiian zones shoulu be suppoiteu
as soon as possible.

Biaius seive as a uiiect bank piotection, oi the giauual aggiauation of uamageu
aieas. The abovegiounu paits ieuuce the flow velocity anu sheai stiess anu thus
cause incieaseu seuimentation anu aggiauation. The seuiment mateiial is in tuin
iooteu thiough anu thus suppoits the aggiauation.

Wattle fences have a puie function of
stabilizing the embankments. Bighei banks
cannot be stabilizeu by this constiuction.
Wattle fences aie suitable only foi laigei iiveis
without seuiment tianspoit, because otheiwise
they woulu be bauly uamageu anu uestioyeu.
Eailiei the wattle fences weie also useu as
paiallel shoiing bank piotection ovei the long
uistances. This is an unfoitunate solution,
because the wattle fence foimeu by the shoieline is ielatively stiaight anu smooth.

A moie stiuctuieu bank is only ievealeu thiough a succession, if the willow euge of
wattle fence is ieplaceu by a site-specific tiee euge. Theie aie also wattle fences
maue of non-spiouting mateiial. These shoulu be avoiueu foi the ieasons uesciibeu
above. If they aie unavoiuable, they shoulu be completely backfilleu anu planteu
immeuiately. The ioots of the tiees oi bushes must assume the piotective function
befoie the wattle fence iots.

6S
Engineeiing constiuctions pieuominantly have economic objectives. Secuiity
measuies aie peifoimeu in wateicouises with the help of technical uevices anu
machines, anu using haiu (ueau) mateiials.

Technical suppoiting stiuctuies aie useu eveiywheie wheie the occuiiing sheai
stiess of bioengineeiing contiol stiuctuies can not be accepteu without uamage,
given wheie theie aie no living conuitions foi the vegetation, wheie lack of space,
steep oi veitical siues shall be maue oi wheie the full piotection must be given
immeuiately aftei completion.

Timbei walls aie suitable foi the piotection anu pieseivation of steep meauows.
0sually the oak, elm anu laich in the aii-watei-tiansition zone have the longest life.
0nuei watei also othei woous show high peisistence; foi example aluei, pine anu
fii.

Fiistly the piles aie constiucteu in iegulai sepaiation uistances peipenuiculaily oi
slightly inclineu towaius lanu uiiven into the giounu. In the soliu giounu, the
uiiving uepth must be appioximately equal to the fiee length of the piles.

Kiainei woouen walls aie suitable foi the stabilization of iiveibanks fiom eiosion
anu lanusliues, on slopes in confineu spaces. Essential featuies in theii manufactuie
aie the simple uesign anu quick assembly, uiy constiuction, anu watei peimeability.
Kiainei conciete walls aie maue of ieinfoiceu conciete, piefabiicateu woou plates
anuoi logs. While the iunneis aie aiiangeu paiallel to the slope couise, aie the ties
oi clamps to extenu at iight angles anu into the embankment. So-calleu spaceis
suppoit the tie hang fiom each othei. Kiainei walls have many niches, suitable
single column anu settlement aieas foi fish, inveitebiates anu miciooiganisms.

A stone constiuction foi bank piotection against bank eiosion is neeueu wheie the
fiee uevelopment of the wateicouise is not possible anu the bioengineeiing
measuies aie not sufficient. This is especially the case when theie aie steep
embankments anu the aveiage uischaige is so ueep that the woouy ioots uo not
ieach the toe of the slope. Fuitheimoie, if foi example Seuiment tianspoit, wave
action oi high sheai stiesses (such as iivei navigation) pievent the plant giowth.
Stone Set: Laige stones anu boulueis with an euge length of moie than about 8u cm
anu a mass of moie than 1.2 tones, aie laiu with the help of heavy hyuiaulic
excavatois to inuiviuually set stones. Stone's thiow small stones with euge length
unuei about 6u cm anu a mass of about u.S tons aie usually fiom tiucks oi iail fiom
the top of a box tippeu ovei the embankment with the help of an excavatoi oi
thiown ovei the embankment.
64
Ripiap anu stone paving: stanuing, possibly foi cost ieasons, only veiy small pieces
with euge lengths of 1S to 2u inches aie available, which aie piocesseu layeis as
iipiap, has exceeueu the limit of semi-natuial builuing methous.
Such small stones iesist small sheai stiesses, so that auequate secuiity woulu also
be given by bioengineeiing. Pavement, possibly even with joint giout, moitai oi
conciete unueineath shoulu not be useu in neai-natuial hyuiaulic engineeiing.

In exceptional cases, as in closely built-up aieas oi in the vicinity of objects anu
tiaffic systems, have to be the banks (oi teais) often suppoiteu by stone oi conciete.
Walls of stone can be built in uiy constiuction, in conjunction with moitai oi as a
lining of conciete walls. The stones useu must be watei anu fiost iesistant. The
stiength of a wall uepenus on the height, anu the piessuie exeiteu on the wall.
Roughly speaking, the ciown shoulu be at least u.S m wiue anu it is expecteu that
the wall thickness woulu inciease uownwaius foi 1u cm pei metei.

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Piofiles can also be stabilizeu thiough tiansveise stiuctuies. These aie tiansveise
to the flow line. The goals of tiansveise stiuctuies aie:
The piotection of the cioss section piofile
Contiolling seuiment tianspoit
The limitation of ovei floouing anu the
Contiol of beu uevelopment

These stiuctuies incluue:
Sills
uioynes
Bykes
Ramps

Sills aie lineai tiansveise stiuctuies ovei the entiie flow wiuth, which aie installeu
to stabilize the unstable iiveibeu causing iiveibeu ielief. This iesults in moie
consistent seuimentation zones, a unifoim watei uepth anu moie balanceu flow
conuitions. }ust uownstieam of the sills pits may aiise pits, which have a positive
impact on fish stocks.

Sills shoulu suppoit the existing beu mateiial anu pievent the migiation of the
settleu seuiment oi at least uelay. In this way the bottom slope is stabilizeu.

6S
uioynes aie tiansveise stiuctuies ovei pait of the flow wiuth, which consist of a
heau, bouy anu base. They aie uam-like stiuctuies, which aie oiienteu mostly fiom
the bank inclineu upstieam, at a iight angle to the bank oi ueclineu uownstieam.
The gioyne base must be caiefully integiateu into the bank; howevei, the gioyne
heau must be stabilizeu because of the tuibulent flow in the main stieam. The
uistance between two gioins is laige appioximately as the wateicouise wiuth, oi 1.S
to 2.S times the gioyne length. uioynes can be constiucteu fiom many mateiials
accoiuing to the type of gioyne. They aie usually constiucteu fiom iough tiees,
tiaceiy, fascine, fascine filling, stone filling, gieeneu iipiap, woouen piles, stone box
oi gabion. uioynes maue of quaiiy stone aie mainly useu in iiveis in mountainous
aieas. If they aie shoit anu massive, they aie calleu spuis. uioynes may also iesult
fiom woou in the foim of walls anu poles, oi piles of woou anu stone aie mixeu up
as piling anu fixeu bieakwateis.

The effects of gioynes aie: a ieuuction of flow velocity neai the iiveibank,
naiiowing of the flow wiuth, siltation of gioyne fielus anu an inciease in stiuctuial
uiveisity. The auvantages of constiucting gioynes aie that they aie veiy auaptable,
coiiectable, anu ecologically passable anu pioviue positive benefits to iecieation
such as fishing.

Theie aie uiffeient types of gioynes incluuing the tongue gioyne, tiiangulai
bieakwatei, wing gioyne anu hook bieakwatei.

Longituuinal 86N,/ (also known as tiaining walls) aie usually moie economical than
gioynes. If positioneu coiiectly, they aie equally oi even moie effective. Bykes aie
maue of iubble, stone oi fascine woik (on soft iivei beus) anu may be single (one
siue) oi uouble (on both siues of the channel).






66
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Since the beginning of civilization, stoiage ieseivoiis have been one of the most
impoitant factois of builuing anu maintaining a successful community. The ability to
stoie anu uiiect watei has not only optimizeu oiganizeu agiicultuie, but also has
incieaseu geneial health anu the ability to make mateiial anu technological piogiess
as well.

Bam constiuction is one of the most majoi investments in infiastiuctuie
inteinationally. Eveiy yeai theie is a continuous inciease in uam completion woilu
wiue, especially in countiies such as China, Iian, Tuikey anu }apan. (WWF, 2u12)

The piimaiy puipose of a uam can be seen as pioviuing foi the safe ietention anu
stoiage of watei. 0thei puiposes incluue cieating a hyuiaulic heau oi a watei
suiface. ?68"$.1&5 3,$8/ inciease the net piessuie on a powei plant, anu A$(,"
/."F$5,/ enable navigation anu lake iecieation. Laige uams also geneiate
appioximately 19 peicent of the woilu's total electiicity. 0ne thiiu of countiies
woiluwiue iely on hyuiopowei foi moie than half of theii electiicity supply. (The
Woilu Commission on Bams, 2u12) What aie laige uams. Since accuiate statistics
aie not available to confiim the total numbei of uams in seivice woiluwiue, the
Inteinational Commission on Laige Bams (IC0LB) uefineu those exceeuing 1Sm in
height oi having a stoiage volume of 1 x !"
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as "laige uams". (IC0LB, 1996)
Accuiate statistics exist foi this type of uam, anu state that theie aie as many as
48,uuu laige uams woiluwiue, half of which aie in China. (The Woilu Commission
on Bams, 2u12)

Eveiy uam uses a specific uesign accoiuing to the ciicumstances of the site. The
uesign also iepiesents an optimum balance of economic anu technical
consiueiations at the time of the constiuction. (Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, &
Naiayanan, 2uu1)

Bams aie significantly uiffeient fiom othei majoi civil engineeiing stiuctuies in
many impoitant iegaius:
Eveiy uam is unique in its founuation geology, mateiial chaiacteiistics,
catchment floou hyuiology accoiuing to the site
67
Bams aie iequiieu to function at oi close to theii uesign loau foi extenueu
peiious
Bams uo not have a stiuctuial lifespan although they may have a notional life
foi accounting puiposes
The gieatei pait of uams aie of eaithfill, maue fiom a iange of natuial soils
Bam engineeiing iequiies expeitise fiom a iange of uisciplines; fiom
mechanics to hyuiology

Theie aie many uiffeient types of uams, which can be classifieu in two bioau
gioups:

1. 0CI@6OCA67 :@CD aie constiucteu of iockfill anuoi eaith fill. 0pstieam
anu uownstieam face slopes aie similai anu of moueiate angle, which gives
the uam a wiue section anu high constiuction volume ielative to its height.

2. /96<8A7A :@CD aie as constiucteu of mass conciete. Face slopes aie not
similai; slope is geneially steep uownstieam anu neaily veitical upstieam,
anu have ielatively slenuei piofiles.

Embankment uams aie uominant foi technical anu economic ieasons anu make up
about 8S-9u% of $11 built uams. The embankment uam has evolveu in such a way
that it has pioven to be auaptable to a wiue iange of site ciicumstances. Conciete
uams, in contiast, aie moie uemanuing in teims of founuation conuitions. (Novak P.
, Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1)

'(&(& 0CI@6OCA67 +@C M98C @6: /G@8@<7A8=D7=<D

Embankment uams can be uefineu as uams constiucteu fiom natuial mateiials
excavateu fiom the close aiea suiiounuing the uam. They can be classifieu as eithei
iockfill oi eaith fill uams. The uivision between both types is not absolute.

1. O)5NF&11 ,*#$%N*,%(/ contain an element of compacteu eaith fill oi a thin
conciete membiane. An embankment is coiiectly classifieu as 'iockfill' when
ovei Su% of the mateiial is iockfill, i.e. coaise-giaineu mateiial with high
fiiction. Rockfill embankments that have a thin membiane of asphaltic
conciete upstieam, ieinfoiceu conciete oi othei manufactuieu mateiial is
iefeiieu to as 'ueckeu iockfill uams'.

68
2. G$"(3 F&11 ,*#$%N*,%(/ aie coiiectly classifieu if compacteu soils account foi
ovei Su% of the mateiial. This type of embankment is piimaiily maue of
specific engineeiing soils compacteu unifoimly in ielatively thin layeis.

Embankment uams have many positive tiaits:
Suitable foi wiue valleys anu steep goiges
Auaptable to a vaiiety of founuation conuitions
Ninimal tianspoit impoit uue to the use of natuial mateiials
Bigh flexibility
When uesigneu piopeily, uefoimation possible without the iisk of ciacks oi
fiactuies

The uisauvantages in compaiison aie minoi, the most impoitant incluuing a gieatei
piobability of uamage oi uestiuction of the uam uue to oveitopping. Theiefoie
auequate spillways anu floou ielief aieas aie necessaiy. (Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, &
Naiayanan, 2uu1)

'(&(? /96<8A7A +@C M98C @6: /G@8@<7A8=D7=<D

Conciete uams aie geneially suitable to valleys that aie of both wiue anu naiiow
topogiaphy, pioviueu that a competent iock founuation is given. When conciete
uams weie fiist constiucteu, they weie maue of iubble masoniy (also known as
ianuom masoniy). Bue to economic ieasons anu the simplei constiuction foi
complex uams, mass conciete ieplaceu masoniy aiounu 19uu. Eaily mass conciete
was often useu in combination with stone uisplaceis, until auuitives weie founu
which ieuuceu theimal pioblems anu ciacking aiounu 19Su.

The positive attiibutes of conciete uams aie that they aie not sensitive to
oveitopping unuei extieme floou conuitions (contiaiily to embankment uams), they
can accommouate a ciest spillway if necessaiy ovei the entiie length (as long as
uownstieam eiosion anu unueimining of the uam aie contiolleu anu if possible
pieventeu), anu they have a high ability to withstanu seismic uistuibance without
catastiophic collapses. (Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1)

The uisauvantages of conciete uams aie:
The ielative high uemanu on founuation conuitions (piefeiably stable iock)
Piocesses mateiials of high quality anu quantity aie iequiieu
Nass conciete constiuction is slow, laboi intensive anu uiscontinuous
69
Completeu unit costs foi mass conciete aie highei than those of embankment
fills

The most common mouein conciete uams aie:
1. uiavity uams
2. Aich uams
S. Buttiess uams

28@P=7J :@CD have a tiiangulai cioss-section. This pioviues maximum stability
without oveistiessing the uam oi its founuation. uiavity uams iely on theii own
mass foi stability in ietaining accumulateu watei. The foices fiom the watei
piessuie aie tiansfeiieu by the uam weight into the soil. It is impoitant that tensile
stiesses uo not occui in the founuation. This means that even with a full ieseivoii
anu existing watei piessuie in the aiea of the wall base, the piessuie is tiansmitteu
into the soil. This is ciucial in oiuei to piotect the seal between uam anu iock fiom
uamage. Bue to the high piessuie on the giounu causeu by giavity uams, they can
only be constiucteu on soliu iock. The auvantages of giavity uams in compaiison to
eaith anu iockfill uams aie that they can be flooueu unuei extieme floou events
without enuangeiing the constiuction, uischaige can be caiiieu ovei the uam (this
means no costs foi sepaiate spillways) anu uischaige pipes can easily be
constiucteu thiough the uam wall.
0sually, giavity uams aie foimeu fiom single conciete blocks that can tiansmit the
acting foices inuepenuently in the beuiock. By anchoiing the uam, hoiizontal foices
can be uissipateu by the conciete blocks.

7u
The piofile of a giavity uam must uemonstiate an acceptable maigin of safety with
iegaiu to iotation anu oveituining, tianslation anu sliuing anu oveistiess anu
mateiial failuie- all of which contiol the oveiall stiuctuial stability of the uam.

#8<G :@CD, unlike giavity uams that have veitical slices that tiansfei foices into the
giounu, act as hoiizontal segments that tiansfei compiessive foices into the valley
siues ("aich effect"). They aie only suitable foi naiiow anu stable valley slopes. Aich
uams aie geneially veiy thin, cuiveu stiuctuies containing ieinfoicement thiough
eithei steel ious oi pie-stiesseu steel cables. The volume of conciete iequiieu is
much less than foi giavity uams, yet the beuiock on which the founuation is
constiucteu must be moie competent in iesisting anu sustaining high loaus. Aich
uams aie usually built in naiiow, ueep goiges in mountain iegions wheie the access
anu availability of constiuction mateiials is often a pioblem.
Aich uams can be uiviueu into two gioups: 5)%/($%( iauius anu -$"&$#1, iauius
uams. Constant iauius aich uams commonly face upstieam anu have a constant
iauius, while vaiiable iauius uams have both uownstieam anu upstieam cuives
(extiauos anu intiauos cuives) of systematically uecieasing iauius. Some uams aie
also uoubly cuiveu (in both hoiizontal anu veitical planes), anu then calleu uome
uams. When uams aie constiucteu with two oi seveial contiguous aiches oi planes
they can be uesciibeu as multiple aich uams.

Y;778ADD :@CD aie uams with a soliu, wateitight upstieam siue, which aie
suppoiteu at inteivals by buttiesses on the uownstieam siue. The uam wall may be
flat oi cuiveu. Buttiess uams aie geneially constiucteu of ieinfoiceu conciete anu
aie veiy heavy, pushing the uam into the giounu. When watei pushes against the
uam, the inflexible buttiesses pievent the uam fiom falling ovei. These uams weie
oiiginally built to ietain watei foi iiiigation oi mining in aieas of scaice oi
expensive iesouices but cheap laboi. These uams aie often useu in wiue valleys
wheie soliu iock is iaie. Bowevei as uesigns become moie sophisticateu, the
weaknesses of the uams have become moie appaient.

'(&(L .CF@<7D 9T +@CD

The enviionmental, economic anu othei socio-political impacts anu issues
associateu with uam constiuction must be fully acknowleugeu anu auuiesseu.
Public anu political uiscussions anu the inciease of consciousness with iespect to
these issues have leu to a giowing uebate ovei ieseivoii piojects.

71
The stiong inteiest anu inciease of consciousness with iespect to uam engineeiing
leu to giowing uebates about these piojects, as well as to the founuing of a 12-man
"Woilu Commission on Bams" (WCB) in 1998. This commission is chaigeu with
ieviewing anu iepoiting on the ueveloping effectiveness of laige uams
inteinationally. It also auuiesses key policies anu issues foi the futuie of uams anu
theii constiuction.

Nany issues ielateu to the enviionmental anu socio-political impact of uams aie
often uiscusseu, incluuing population uisplacement, the piotection of cultuial oi
enviionmental sites, consequences of seuimentation anu the changing floou iegime
(Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1, pp. 9-1u). When a uam is
constiucteu, many uamages aie visible; otheis howevei, take place fuithei
uownstieam oi aftei a ceitain time peiiou.

Bams block migiatoiy fish species fiom the sites wheie they spawn anu feeu. To
impiove this situation, fish lauueis have been built- howevei these aie not always
effective oi a suitable solution foi some species.

Bams uistuib natuial fluctuations in watei flow. This can affect the ueposit of
nutiients as well as the lifecycle of species that uepenu on these fluxions foi theii
suivival. Bams change flows accoiuing to human uemanus (e.g. eneigy, iiiigation),
insteau of how flows woulu change natuially. (WWF, 2u12)

Bams can also affect the moiphology of the iiveibeu, floouplains uownstieam fiom
the constiuction, as well as coastal ueltas; thus often incieasing the floou iisk,
loweiing giounuwatei levels, causing an accumulation of toxic mateiials, hampeiing
navigation as well as affecting ecosystems as a whole.

Bowevei, uams aie not always negative foi species. 0nce establisheu, uams can
become impoitant sites foi wilulife such as biius. In oiuei to cause as little uamage
as possible, it is impoitant to coiiectly iuentify anu analyze the site anu type of uam.

Bams also contiibute both positive anu negative aspects to human life. Bams can be
essential in aieas such as hyuiopowei anu fiesh watei piovisioning. Changes in
employment anu piouuction systems staiting befoie the constiuction of the uam
(e.g. expiopiiation of the lanu, employment of constiuction woikeis) as well as the
tianspoit of constiuction mateiial can be veiy positive. Bowevei, people who live
fiom agiicultuie anu uepenu on the feitile aieas, natuial floouing, etc. uo not always
see them as a positive contiibution to the aiea. (Anul, pp. 7S9-768)

72
'(? H=7A @DDADDCA67 @6: DAEA<7=96 9T 7JFA 9T :@C

When ueciuing on a satisfactoiy site foi a ieseivoii, ceitain functional anu technical
iequiiements must be fulfilleu. Natuial physical chaiacteiistics anu the planneu
function of the uam aie ciitical when looking at the suitability of a site. Both of
which must be investigateu closely thiough mapping, suiveys, uata collection, etc.
Technical iequiiements aie ueteimineu by hyuiological anu geological
chaiacteiistics of catchment anu site, which incluue the piesence of a satisfactoiy
site foi a uam, availability of mateiials foi constiuction anu the integiity of the
ieseivoii basin with iespect to leakage.

0nce a site is taken into consiueiation foi the constiuction of a uam, it is
investigateu extensively to ensuie that the site can be uevelopeu on the uesiieu
scale anu at an acceptable cost. The competence of the founuation is ueteimineu by
its stability, loau-caiiying capacity, uefoimability anu impeimeability. 0thei
consiueiations that aie impoitant when assessing a site incluue economic
consiueiations (e.g. site piepaiation anu constiuction mateiial costs),
enviionmental anu socio-political consiueiations (Novak, Noffat, Nalluii, &
Naiayanan, 2uu1).

The iueal uam type is ueteimineu by estimating the cost anu constiuction piogiam
foi all uesign solutions that aie technically valiu foi the obseiveu site. If vaiious
alteinatives piove to be iueal, it is impoitant to keep those options open in oiuei to
assess each with iespect to necessaiy iesouices, cost anu piogiam until a solution is
chosen. Socio-political anu enviionmental consiueiations aie often ciucial points in
the ueteimination of the solution. Foi example, in a situation wheie site conuitions
in a steep-siueu valley may favoi an embankment uam, but a spillweii anu channel
of necessaiy size aie too expensive, the economic balance may leau to the
constiuction of a giavity uam with an oveiflow ciest (Novak, Noffat, Nalluii, &
Naiayanan, 2uu1).

7S
'(L +@C V;7EA7 398OD

Bam outlet woiks geneially consist of spillways anu bottom outlets. The spillway
uesign uepenus piimaiily on the uesign floou, uam type anu location as well as on
the ieseivoii size anu how it opeiates. The uesign of bottom outlet woiks uepenus
on the puipose of the ieseivoii as well as the seuiment inflow anu ueposition.
'(L(& HF=EEN@JD

Spillways (also known as oveiflow channels) can be uefineu as safe passage ways
foi floous fiom the ieseivoii into the uownstieam iivei ieach. They aie locateu at
the top of the ieseivoii pool anu have two piincipal components: the contiolling
spill-weii anu the spillway channel. The puipose of the spillway channel is to
conuuct the safe flow of floous uownstieam of the uam. It often incoipoiates a
stilling basin oi othei eneigy uissipating uevices.

The capacity of a spillway must safely accommouate the maximum uesign floou.
Spillways ielease floous so that the watei uoes not oveitop anu uamage oi even
uestioy the uam. Watei usually uoes not flow ovei spillways except uuiing floou
peiious.

Spillways can be classifieu in vaiious ways: accoiuing to function as a main seivice,
emeigency oi auxiliaiy spillways, accoiuing to its uegiee of contiol oi accoiuing to
hyuiaulic ciiteiia.

When looking at the moue of contiol, spillways can be oiganizeu into two gioups:
/96789EEA: (gateu) spillways have mechanical stiuctuies oi gates to iegulate the
iate of the flow. The uesign allows foi the usage of almost the full height of the uam
foi watei stoiage yeai iounu. The gates must be opeiateu manually, by iemote
contiol, oi automatically.
-6<96789EEA: spillways uo not have gates. Insteau, when the watei iises above the
ciest of the spillway, it is ieleaseu fiom the ieseivoii. The uepth of watei within the
ieseivoii contiols the iate of uischaige. Nost spillways aie uncontiolleu, meaning
they function automatically as watei levels iise.

Spillways can also be classifieu accoiuing to hyuiaulic ciiteiia.

74
0veifall spillways aie geneially useu in iigiu uams anu foim a pait of the
main uam if enough length is available. The basic shape of the oveifall
spillway is ueiiveu fiom the lowei envelope of the oveiall nappe flowing ovei
a high veitical iectangulai notch with an appioach velocity anu a fully
aeiateu space between the nappe.

Siue-channel spillways aie mainly useu when it is not possible oi auvisable
to use a uiiect oveifall spillway, e.g. with eaith anu iockfill uams. These aie
locateu just upstieam anu to the siue of the uam. Aftei flowing ovei a ciest
watei enteis a siue channel that is neaily paiallel to the ciest. The watei is
then caiiieu to the uownstieam siue via a chute (in some cases tunnel).

Chute spillways aie a steep channel conveying the uischaige fiom a low-
oveifall, siue-channel oi special shape spillway ovei the valley siue into the
iivei uownstieam. The watei is caiiieu by an open channel ovei a shoit ciest
oi similai stiuctuie which is geneially at a 9u angle to the conveyance
channel. The flow thiough the channel is supeiciitical.
7S

Shaft spillways (also calleu "moining gloiy") consist of a funnel-shapeu
spillway (usually ciiculai), a veitical shaft, anu a tunnel teiminating in an
outflow. The watei, which flows ovei the spillway, is caiiieu by a veitical oi
sloping tunnel into a hoiizontal tunnel at neaily stieam beu level, befoie it is
caiiieu of the uownstieam siue. The uiveision tunnels constiucteu uuiing
uam constiuction can be useu as the hoiizontal conuuit in many cases.
Siphon spillways aie closeu conuuits in the foim of an inveiteu 0 with an
inlet, shoit uppei leg, thioat (the contiol section), lowei leg anu an outlet.
They woik on the piinciple of a siphon. A hoou pioviueu ovei a conventional
spillway foims a conuuit. With the iise in ieseivoii level, watei staits flowing
ovei the ciest in an oveifall spillway. The watei howevei, entiains aii anu
once the aii in the ciest aiea is iemoveu, siphon action staits. 0nuei this
conuition the uischaige takes place at a much laigei heau. Thus the spillway
has a laigei uischaiging capacity. Foi veiy low flows a siphon spillway
opeiates as a weii; as the flow incieases, the upstieam watei level iises, the
velocity in the siphon incieases, anu the flow in the lowei leg begins to
exhaust aii fiom the top of the siphon until this piimes anu begins to flow full
as a pipe.

'(L(? Y9779C 9;7EA7D

Bottom outlets aie openings in the uam useu to uiaw uown the ieseivoii level.
Bepenuing on the type of contiol gates anu the position of the outflow in ielation to
the tailwatei, they opeiate eithei unuei piessuie oi fiee flowing ovei pait of theii
length (Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1, pp. 216-218). The flow fiom
the bottom outlets can be useu as compensation flow foi a iivei stietch uownstieam
of the uam wheie the flow limit woulu otheiwise be too low.

'(L(L /;7^9TTD

76
Seepage unuei anu aiounu the flank of a uam must be contiolleu caiefully. This is
achieveu by the constiuction of a cut-off below the stiuctuie, continueu as
necessaiy on eithei flank. Nowauays, embankment cut-offs aie usually foimeu fiom
wiue tienches backfilleu with iolleu clay, often uiilleu oi giouteu to foim a cut-off
scieen to gieatei uepths.

'(R +@C :=PA8D=96 N98OD

Weiis anu baiiages aie ielatively low-level uams constiucteu acioss a iivei to iaise
the iivei level sufficiently anu to uiveit the flow in full oi in pait, into a supply canal
oi conuuit foi the puipose of iiiigation, powei geneiation, floou contiol, navigation,
inuustiial uses, etc. These uiveision stiuctuies usually pioviue a small stoiage
capacity. Weiis can be constiucteu with oi without gates. They aie often useu to
uiveit floous to iiiigateu aieas, to iechaige giounuwatei oi to measuie flow. These
aie usually bulkiei than baiiages (usually contiolleu). Baiiages incluue canal
iegulatois, low-level sluices anu fish lauueis.

'(R(& M=DG F@DDAD

Fish passes aie stiuctuies that iestoie the passage of fish anu othei aquatic life.
Nany fish species migiate yeaily as pait of theii basic behavioi. Fish such as salmon
anu stuigeon often swim seveial thousanus of kilometeis when ietuining fiom the
sea to theii spawning giounus in iiveis. Fish passes aie of incieasing impoitance foi
the iestoiation of fiee passage foi fish anu othei aquatic species in iiveis.

These uevices aie often the only way to make it possible foi aquatic fauna to pass
obstacles that block theii upstieam jouiney. They have become key elements foi the
ecological impiovement of iunning wateis. Fish passes aie necessaiy eveiywheie
wheie, uue to tiansveise stiuctuies (such as uams oi weiis), the fish passage has
been inteiiupteu. In such uevices, a fish is guiueu in its migiation upstieam to the
main flow. Fish passage pioblems can occui at almost any site wheie the watei level
uiffeience between upstieam anu uownstieam of the stiuctuie is gieatei than about
half a metei. Typically these sites can be iuentifieu by fish leaping cleai of the watei
in an attempt to ascenu the stiuctuie.

If the fish passage is auequate, fish usually uo not leap. A fish pass can be uesigneu
to be technically suitable foi fish to use; howevei if the fish cannot finu the pass it
will of couise not be effective. Accoiuing to the shape of the iespective wateicouise,
77
fish tiavel to the main flow, fiom one bank to the othei. 0n a cioss-iivei stiuctuie
(e.g. a weii) fish will theiefoie always be founu paiticulaily theie wheie the main
flow is. Fish neeu sufficiently stiong watei cuiients (attiaction flow) so that they
can finu the outlet of the fish lauuei. The iequiieu flow iates aie between u.8 anu
2.u m s. In aieas with stiong tuibulence (e.g. stilling basin) cannot be oiienteu,
because the goal-uiiecteu flow is missing.

In piinciple the fish passes may be uiviueu into 2 gioups; in natuial anu technical
uesigns. Natuially uesigneu fish lauueis auapt theii uesign to a laige extent by the
natuial conuitions so that these shoulu be built in natuial hyuiaulic engineeiing anu
this way shoulu be piefeiieu. Some of the most efficient fish passes have been founu
to be man-maue substitutes foi iivei channels. These usually have a low giauient
anu extenu fiom below the obstiuction to a consiueiable uistance upstieam. These
incluue iock iamps in vaiious foims. Technical constiuctions aie only acceptable if
the bounuaiy conuitions foi a natuial constiuction aie not an option.

Theiefoie also by fish passes little tuibulence shoulu exist. The maximum flow
velocity shoulu not exceeu 2 m sec. The maximum watei level uiffeience shoulu be
less than 2u cm, so that the maximum watei velocities can be maintaineu even in the
naiiow paits. The aveiage velocity must, howevei, be significantly lowei than 2 ms
in oiuei that the small fish can climb. Foiming of the calm zones (iesting pools) is
paiticulaily impoitant.


By means of a bypass channel an existing cioss-stiuctuie (e.g. a weii) is bypasseu. lt
is of paiticulaily auvantage if no stiuctuial changes aie maue to existing systems
anu that can be integiating well into the lanuscape. In the sections with steep
giauients, the peimissible iange of flow velocities (vm = u.4 to u.6 m s) aie
obseiveu only when stones as obstacles aie installeu.

78
As a guiueline foi the uistance between the inuiviuual stones between 2 anu S stone
uiameteis aie iecommenueu. If the ieuevelopment of a weii acioss the entiie wiuth
of a block iamp is not possible, the continuity can be achieveu thiough the
establishment of a fish iamp at the euge of the weii. Special impoitance in the
constiuction of fish iamps lies in the stability of the entiie constiuction. This
geneially applies to the ielatively iigiu stiuctuie on the cioss-ieacting flexibly iamp
constiuction.

Technical fish pass stiuctuies uo not pioviue natuial stiuctuiing of the iivei.
Bowevei, the constiuction of the passage foi the fish fauna has such a high piioiity,
that the compiomise may be accepteu. The opeiation of the facilities is baseu on the
piinciple, the ielatively steep flow path (iamp) thiough the aiiangement of
paitition walls uiviue in such a way that the aieas of calm flow exist wheie the fish
can then climb unhinueieu. The high velocities occui uue to this aiiangement only
locally at the naiiow connections between the two neighboiing pools.

Fish passes aie cuiiently of paiticulai inteiest.
Bue to the Watei Fiamewoik Biiective (WFB), in Austiia anu the E0 countiies it is
necessaiy the iivei aie passable foi the fish anu watei animals anu that the Rivei
Continuum is establisheu oi maintaineu wheie it exists.
'(> +AD=B6 TE99: @6: TE99: 89;7=6B

The selection of the uesign floou (ieseivoii inflow) hyuiogiaph is one of the most
impoitant tasks in uam uesign (Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1, pp.
176-179). It uepenus on the uam type, location, anu pioceuuie foi ueteimination.
vaiious methous can be useu foi the calculation of floous. 0sually they aie
uevelopeu fiom histoiical iecoius of maximum obseiveu floous, floou cuive anu
fiequency analysis, iainfall anu iunoff calculations. In many cases the PNF
(piobable maximum floou) is useu along with the piobably maximum piecipitation
(PNP) anu snowmelt to ueteimine the uesign floou.

To ueteimine the spillway uesign uischaige the inflow hyuiogiaph of the uesign
floou must be conveiteu into the outflow by floou iouting. This is a function of the
spillway type, size, anu opeiation as well as of the ieseivoii aiea. Theiefoie, this is a
typical uesign pioceuuie in which the outflow at the uam uepenus on the inflow anu
spillway size anu type.

ueneially, naiiow gateu spillways iequiie highei uams anu can theiefoie be highly
effective in floou iouting. Wiue, fiee oi gateu spillways iequiie less uam height, but
79
aie usually not veiy effective in iegulating floous. As a iesult the iequiieu size of the
spillway anu its cost uecieases with the inciease of the uam height, in tuin loweiing
the uam cost.

'(' 06A8BJ :=DD=F@7=96

Eneigy uissipation at uams anu weiis is closely associateu with spillway uesign,
paiticulaily with the specific uischaige P, the uiffeience between upstieam anu
uownstieam watei levels, anu the uownstieam conuitions.

The magnituue of eneigy that must be uissipateu at high uams with laige spillway
uischaiges is enoimous. Foi example, the maximum eneigy to be uissipateu at the
Taibela uam seivice anu auxiliaiy spillways coulu be 4uuuuNW, which is about 2u
times the planneu geneiating capacity at the site (Lochei anu Bsu, 1984).

Eneigy uissipation at uams anu weiis is closely associateu with spillway uesign,
paiticulaily with the chosen specific uischaige PE the uiffeience between the
upstieam anu uownstieam watei levels ;?:9 anu the uownstieam conuitions.

The passage of watei fiom a ieseivoii into the uownstieam ieach involves many
hyuiaulic phenomena such as the tiansition into supeiciitical flow, supeiciitical
non-aeiateu anu aeiateu flow on the spillway, possibly flow thiough a fiee-falling
jet, entiy into the stilling basin with a tiansition fiom supeiciitical to subciitical
flow, anu echoes of macio-tuibulence aftei the tiansition into the stieam beyonu
the basin oi plunge pool. Theiefoie, it is best to consiuei the eneigy uissipation
piocess in five sepaiate stages, some of which may be combineu oi absent (Novak
anu Cabelka, 1981). The following figuie shows a sketch of the five phases of eneigy
uissipation.



M=B;8A ?WZ HOA7<G 9T 7GA T=PA FG@DAD 9T A6A8BJ :=DD=F@7=96
8u
1: on the spillway suiface
2: in a fiee-falling jet
S: at impact into the uownstieam pool
4: in the stilling basin
S: at the outflow into the iivei

Eneigy uissipation in mouein spillway uesigns can often be achieveu by using fiee-
falling jets, eithei at the enu of a "ski-jump" oi uownstieam of a flip bucket. The ski-
jump spillway was fiist uevelopeu by Coyne (19S1) anu fuithei impioveu thiough
mouel stuuies.

'(K +@C H@TA7J

Reseivoiis can be a potential hazaiu to all types of uownstieam aieas. If a uam
bieaches, the uamage can be catastiophic in both economic anu ecologic sections.
Catastiophic failuie of uams can be causeu by extieme floou events, as well as by
long peiious of incieasing stiess on the stiuctuie of the uam oi its founuation. Bam
suiveillance piogiams anu instiumentation aie supposeu to uetect signs of uistiess.

Instiuments placeu within oi on a uam uo not guaiantee against seiious inciuents oi
failuies when inseiteu alone. Insteau, they biing attention to abnoimalities in
behavioi, thus pioviue eaily waining signs of uistiess that may leau to seiious
pioblems oi even to the failuie of a uam.

'(K(& .6D78;CA67@7=96

When new uams aie built, instiumentation uata is inteipieteu in oiuei to analyze if
the coiiect uesign was useu anu to contiol the uam's peifoimance. In existing uams,
instiuments may be useu to uetect abnoimal ueviations in the behavioi of the uam.
As with any stiuctuie, it is impoitant to select the suitable type of instiument
accoiuing to the uesign anu puipose of the uam. Instiuments useu to ensuie safety
of the uam might be classifieu accoiuing to the function of the installation (the
following may oveilap):
Constiuction contiol
Post-constiuction peifoimance
Seivice peifoimance suiveillance
Reseaich uevelopment

81
When the piimaiy puipose of the instiument is constiuction contiol oi ieseaich
puiposes, absolute values anu tienus of paiameteis may be of equal impoitance.
Bowevei, this is not the case when the piimaiy function is to monitoi long-teim
peifoimance. Absolute values aie then often consiueieu of seconuaiy impoitance to
the eaily uetection of changes (Novak P. , Noffat, Nalluii, & Naiayanan, 2uu1, pp.
269-271).

The most significant paiameteis in monitoiing uam behavioi aie:
1. Seepage anu leakage (quantity, natuie, location anu souice)
2. Settlement anu loss of fieeboaiu in embankments
S. Exteinal oi inteinal uefoimation
4. Poiewatei piessuies anu uplift

Some of these paiameteis (seepage anu exteinal movement) aie of high concein
iegaiuless of the type of uam. 0theis aie only ciitical to specific uams, such as
poiewatei piessuie by embankment uams.

The minimum amount of monitoiing on all uams shoulu be able to uetect seepage
flows anu ciest uefoimations. It is veiy impoitant to obseive the uam of seepage.

82
K )J:89F9NA8

Byuiopowei is electiicity geneiateu using the eneigy of moving watei. Rain oi
melteu snow, usually oiiginating in hills anu mountains, cieate stieams anu iiveis
that eventually iun into the ocean. The eneigy of that moving watei can be useu in
foim of hyuiopowei.

Since ancient uieece, faimeis have useu watei wheels to giinu wheat into flowei.
Watei wheels placeu in iiveis pick up flowing watei in buckets locateu aiounu the
wheel. The kinetic eneigy of the flowing iivei tuins the wheel anu is conveiteu into
mechanical eneigy that iuns the mill. In the late 19
th
centuiy, hyuiopowei became a
souice foi geneiating electiicity. The fiist hyuioelectiic powei plant was built at
Niagaia Falls in 1879. Two yeais latei the fiist stieet lamps weie poweieu by
hyuiopowei. A yeai aftei that the woilu's fiist hyuioelectiic powei plant began
opeiating in the 0niteu States in Wisconsin. Woiluwiue, hyuiopowei plants piouuce
about 24 peicent of the woilu's electiicity anu supply moie than 1 billion people
with powei. The woilu's hyuiopowei plants out put a combineu total of 67S,uuu
megawatts, the equivalent of S.6 billion baiiels of oil accoiuing to the National
Renewable Eneigy Laboiatoiy.

The use of hyuiopowei iequiies extensive civil engineeiing constiuctions, incluuing
ieseivoiis, uams, bypassing channels as well as the installation of laige tuibines anu
geneiatois. Bue to the incieasing enviionmental consciousness, the inteiest in othei
ienewable eneigy souices has giown- incluuing solai eneigy, winu eneigy anu
biomass (ienewable plant mateiial). The majoi auvantage of hyuioelectiic powei
plants is the high yielu factoi compaieu with othei powei geneiating souices. The
yielu factoi is uefineu as the iatio of the amount of mateiial that iesults fiom an
inuustiial piocess to the amount of mateiial that went into it, (Ncuiaw-Bill
Companies, Inc., 2uuS) in the case of hyuiopowei the iatio of electiic woik that can
be piouuceu uuiing the lifetime of the system (eneigy gain), uuiing constiuction,
opeiation, uecommissioning of the powei plant, anu invest eneigy (eneigy spent).
Electiicity geneiation is !"
!
-neutial - wheie appiopiiate iesouices aie only spent
foi the constiuction anu maintenance.

Nowauays, hyuiopowei plants aie useu almost exclusively foi the geneiation of
electiical eneigy. The E0 meets about 14% of its electiicity uemanu fiom
hyuiopowei. In Alpine countiies such as Austiia oi Switzeilanu, about 6u to 7u% of
the eneigy uemanu is coveieu by hyuiopowei. In ueimany, cuiiently about 4% of
electiicity neeus aie coveieu by hyuiopowei.

8S
Appioximately a quaitei of the woilu's electiicity piouuction comes fiom
ienewable eneigy souices, out of which aiounu 9u% come fiom hyuiopowei. Thus,
hyuiopowei has a total electiicity piouuction shaie of aiounu 18%, which is by fai
the laigest amount between ienewable eneigy souices. Austiia is one of the
foiemost piouuceis of hyuioelectiic powei in Euiope. Nost impoitant powei
facilities aie publicly owneu. Piovincial goveinments own Su% of the shaies of the
laige piivate piouuceis.

The following table shows both auvantages anu uisauvantages of hyuiopowei
plants.

#:P@67@BAD +=D@:P@67@BAD

!"
!
neutial in opeiation Constiuction of uams ieseivoiis
necessaiy
No ongoing eneigy costs Bam failuie iisk
Inuepenuence fiom fossil fuels Impact on natuie


K(& 4JFAD 9T GJ:89F9NA8 FE@67D

The most common type of hyuioelectiic powei plant uses a uam locateu on a iivei
to stoie watei in foim of a ieseivoii. Watei is ieleaseu fiom the ieseivoii flows
thiough a tuibine causing it to spin, which in tuin activates a geneiatoi that
piouuces electiicity. Bowevei, a laige uam is not geneially iequiieu foi
hyuiopowei. Some powei plants use a small canal to channel the watei fiom the
iivei thiough the tuibine.

Anothei type of hyuioelectiic powei plant is able to stoie watei (theiefoie calleu a
+.*+,8 /()"$2, +1$%(). In this case powei is sent fiom a powei giiu into the electiic
geneiatois. The geneiatois spin the tuibines backwaiu, which cause the tuibines to
pump watei fiom the iivei oi lowei ieseivoii to the uppei ieseivoii wheie the
powei is stoieu. To use the powei, watei is ieleaseu fiom the uppei ieseivoii uown
into the lowei ieseivoii, which spins the tuibines foiwaiu, activating the
geneiatois. (National Renewable Eneigy Laboiatoiy, s.a.)

J*$11 368")+)A," plants can also pioviue electiicity. Small hyuiopowei iefeis to the
use of hyuiaulic eneigy thiough uecentializeu, small hyuiopowei plants. In Euiope,
plants up to 1u NW capacity aie known as small hyuio powei plants. This limit is
84
aibitiaiy anu is highei in some countiies (e.g. China Su NW). Small hyuio powei
plants opeiate on the same piinciple as laige plants. They uiffei mainly by the
peifoimance class.

The use of small hyuiopowei guaiantees auueu value effects foi the Austiian
economy by cieating anu maintaining jobs uuiing constiuction, expansion anu
ievitalization of such facilities. In Austiia theie is a total of about 19uu small
hyuiopowei plants with an output of electiical eneigy of 4uuu uWh. Cuiiently
small hyuiopowei coveis about nine peicent of Austiia's electiicity uemanu anu
supplies aiounu 1.6 million householus with electiical eneigy. This quantity is
equivalent to the electiicity piouuction of five to six powei plants in the size of
Fieuuenau-Banube-vienna. Thiough the use of small hyuiopowei aiounu 4.1
million tones of !"
!
can be pieventeu which woulu iesult fiom electiiicy piouuction
fiom fossil fuels
K(? /9CF96A67D 9T @ GJ:89F9NA8 FE@67

Byuiopowei plants hainess watei's eneigy anu use simple mechanics to conveit
eneigy into electiicity. Byuiopowei plants aie actually baseu on a iathei simple
concept- watei flowing thiough a uam tuins a tuibine, which tuins a geneiatoi.



M=B;8A ?&Z .6D=:A @ GJ:89F9NA8 FE@67
8S
The basic components of a conventional hyuiopowei plant aie:

The :@CZ most hyuiopowei plants iely on a uam that holus back watei,
cieating a laige ieseivoii. 0ften this ieseivoii is useu as a iecieational lake.

.67@OA: gates on the uam open anu giavity pulls the watei thiough the
penstock, a pipeline that leaus to the tuibine. Watei builus up piessuie as it
flows thiough this pipe.

4;8I=6A: the watei stiikes anu tuins the laige blaues of a tuibine, which is
attacheu to a geneiatoi above it by way of a shaft. The most common type of
tuibine foi hyuiopowei plants is the Fiancis Tuibine, which looks like a big
uisc with cuiveu blaues. A tuibine can weigh as much as 172 tons anu tuin at
a iate of 9u ievolutions pei minute (accoiuing to the Founuation foi Watei
anu Eneigy Euucation).

2A6A8@798D: as the tuibine blaues tuin, so uo a seiies of magnets insiue the
geneiatoi. uiant magnets iotate past coppei coils, piouucing alteinating
cuiient by moving elections.

48@6DT98CA8: the tiansfoimei insiue the poweihouse takes the alteinating
cuiient anu conveits it to highei-voltage cuiient.

S9NA8 E=6AD: out of eveiy powei plant come foui wiies- the thiee phases of
powei being piouuceu simultaneously plus a neutial oi giounu common to
all thiee.

V;7TE9N: useu watei is caiiieu thiough pipelines, calleu tailiaces, anu ie-
enteis the iivei uownstieam

The watei in the ieseivoii is consiueieu D798A: A6A8BJ. When the gates open, the
watei flowing thiough the penstock becomes kinetic eneigy because it's in motion.
The amount of electiicity that is geneiateu is ueteimineu by seveial factois. Two of
those factois aie the volume of watei flow anu the amount of hyuiaulic heau.

The heau iefeis to the uistance between the watei suiface anu the tuibines. As the
heau anu flow inciease, so uoes the electiicity geneiateu. The heau is usually
uepenuent on the amount of watei in the ieseivoii.

86

)J:89F9NA8 BA6A8@798

The geneiatoi is the heait of the hyuioelectiic powei plant. Nost hyuiopowei
plants have seveial of these geneiatois that geneiate electiicity.

Each geneiatoi is maue of ceitain basic paits:
-DG@T7
^AX<=798
^89798
^D7@798

As the tuibine tuins, the excitei senus an electiical cuiient to the iotoi. The iotoi is
a seiies of laige electiomagnets that spins insiue a tightly wounu coil of coppei wiie,
calleu the statoi. The magnetic fielu between the coil anu the magnets cieates an
electiic cuiient.

K(?(& 4;8I=6AD

Watei tuibines aie uiviueu accoiuing to theii constiuction type, oi aftei theii
functionality. Bepenuing on the moue of opeiation they aie uiviueu into impulse
tuibines anu ieaction tuibines.

M=B;8A ??Z 2A6A8@798 @6: 7;8I=6A
87


Besiues such uivision of tuibines, in paiticulai the available heau anu available
uischaige ueteimine which tuibine will be useu. The most impoitant
iepiesentatives of ieaction tuibines aie the Fiancis tuibine anu Kaplan tuibine. The
most commonly built impulse tuibine is nameu aftei its inventoi Pelton.

,A@<7=96 7;8I=6AD (Kaplan anu Fiancis tuibines) aie closeu systems that aie
positioneu completely unuei watei. The piessuie uiffeience between the top anu
bottom of the tuibine impellei sets the tuibine in a iotaiy motion.

All ieaction tuibines aie equippeu with a uiaft tube. 0n the way towaius the
uownstieam watei, thiough the uiaft tube, the flow eneigy is conveiteu to the
piessuie eneigy anu thus the total eneigy heau incieases. Without the uiaft tube,
the eneigy of watei flowing out of the tuibines with high velocities woulu be lost foi
the powei geneiation.

Paiticulai attention shoulu be given to the elevation of the tuibine blaues.
Positioneu too high ielative to the uownstieam watei level causes a iisk of
cavitation, which in effect causes eiosion of the tuibine blaues.
88


In Fiancis tuibines, the inflow takes place fiom two uiiections: iauial (in the iauial
uiiection) anu axial (in the axial uiiection). 0n the contiaiy, the outflow of watei
takes place axially (in the axis uiiection) by this type of the tuibine. At the inlet
spiial aiiangeu iotatable guiue blaues contiol the so-calleu pie-iotation. In this way,
the iotoi speeu can be kept constant.


In a Kaplan tuibine, (see figuie 22) the inflow of watei is positioneu axially to the
impellei. Fiist, the uiiving watei passes thiough the guiue blaues (wicket gate, guiue
appaiatus), which ensuies a unifoimly uistiibuteu flow on the tuibine blaues anu
while simultaneously iegulating the uischaige. When fully closeu, the guiue
appaiatus can completely pievent the uischaige thiough the tuibine. In this type of
tuibine, the piopellei-like blaues aie mounteu iauially anu aie aujustable in oiuei
to iegulate the impellei speeu. Because the flow iate can also be affecteu by the
tuibine blaues, as well as by the guiue appaiatus, one speaks of a uouble iegulateu
Kaplan tuibine. If the impellei blaues aie fixeu anu aie mounteu as not-iotatable,
one speaks of a /&*+1, $8Q./($#1, +")+,11," (."#&%,. The Banube powei plant Ybbs
Peisenbeug, built 19S4-19S9, has six Kaplan tuibines with a veitical shaft.

M=B;8A ?LZ M8@6<=D 7;8I=6A
M=B;8A ?RZ Y;EI 7;8I=6A [/)S0]
89
In the 199us an auuitional machine was auueu by the full opeiation of the powei
plant, this time as a bulb tuibine. Bulb tuibines aie a fuithei uevelopment of the
Kaplan tuibine. In this constiuction, the shaft is hoiizontal oi installeu slightly
inclineu hoiizontally. In this case, the geneiatoi is in wateipioof housing (geneiatoi
bulb), which is suiiounueu by flowing watei. Bue to the flow ueflection
minimization, the full-loau efficiency of bulb tuibines is highei than by conventional
Kaplan tuibines. These tuibines aie theiefoie geneially uesigneu foi lowei heaus.
Neveitheless, heaus up to 2S m have been obseiveu. An example of the bulb tuibine
is the hyuioelectiic powei plant Fieuuenau in vienna. It was built between 1992
anu 1996, has six machine sets, each with 28.7 NW anu has an impellei uiametei of
7.Su meteis.

The S-tuibine is a fuithei uevelopment of the bulb tuibine. The name of this tuibine
comes fiom the s-shapeu cuiveu uiaft tube. As a iesult fiom the stanuaiuizeu
uesign, it is economically inteiesting foi smallei powei plants. Its configuiation
makes it possible foi the tuibine shaft to pass thiough the pipe to the uownstieam
siue of the powei plant. The geneiatoi is thus easily accessible (not unueiwatei) in
the machine hall. This aiiangement is easy to maintain.

The Pelton wheel is a type of =CF;EDA 7;8I=6A. It extiacts eneigy fiom the impulse
of moving watei. The watei flows along the tangent to the path of the iunnei.
Nozzles uiiect foiceful stieams of watei against a seiies of spoon-shapeu buckets
mounteu aiounu the euge of a wheel. As watei flows into the bucket, the uiiection of
the watei velocity changes to follow the contoui of the bucket. When the watei-jet
contacts the bucket, the watei exeits piessuie on the bucket anu the watei is
ueceleiateu as it uoes a 0-tuin anu flows out the othei siue of the bucket at low
velocity. Pelton's pauule geometiy was uesigneu so that when the iim iuns at half
the speeu of the watei jet, the watei leaves the wheel with veiy little speeu,
extiacting almost all of its eneigy, thus allowing foi a veiy efficient tuibine. The
M=B;8A ?>Z SAE796 NGAAE [)c ,0 1A7 ?W&W]
9u
Pelton wheel is an impulse tuibine that is among the most efficient types of watei
tuibines. Pelton tuibines aie uesigneu foi fall heights up to 2uuu m (high altituue)
anu capacities up to Suu NW.


K(L )J:89AEA<78=< F9NA8

K(L(& 06A8BJ :A7A8C=6@7=96



! ! !
!
! ! |Nmsj oi

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!
|Wj

... oveiall efficiency of the hyuioelectiic powei plant |u.8 to u.9j
p ... uensity of watei |kgmj
g ... acceleiation of giavity |ms`j
Q ... uischaige |msj
Bn ... net heau |mj
P ... powei |kwj

The available eneigy of the watei flow p Q with the potential B g is conveiteu into
a tuibine iotational powei. The powei P of a tuibine coiiesponus to the tuining
moment !
!
multiplieu by the angulai velocity of the iotating tuibine. This iesults
in an estimate of the iecoveiable powei P anu its not puie uimensional ielationship.

In mouein powei plants the tuibine efficiency factoi inclusive the losses between
the tuibine inlet anu outlet is about u.8 to u.9.

The ielative uischaige is the iatio of actual uischaige anu the uesign uischaige Qa.
The uesign uischaige is the maximum amount of watei that can be uischaigeu
thiough the tuibines of a hyuioelectiic plant. That also means that this amount of
watei is the maximum that can be useu to geneiate electiical powei. If the available
uischaige is gieatei, the excess watei is uischaigeu ovei the weii.

Bue to natuial vaiiations in the iunoff in the iivei, ielateu uesign flow of the tuibine
is, howevei, not continuously available. Byuioelectiic powei plants in cential
91
Euiopean iiveis ieach oi exceeu the selecteu uesign uischaige only foi about Su to
6u uays pei yeai.

K(L(? S9NA8 F89:;<7=96 FE@6

To estimate the annual eneigy piouuction, the mean uischaige-uuiation cuive of
flow (flow uuiation cuive Q) must be known (an exceeuing uuiation cuive uesciibes
how many uays in a yeai is the given uischaige been exceeueu).



By calculating the powei piouuction, consiueiation of the net heau is also necessaiy.
The net heau B uuiation cuive is ueiiveu fiom the uiffeience between the
uownstieam watei level anu upstieam watei level uuiation cuive. The
multiplication of flow uuiation cuive Q anu the heau uuiation cuive B, pioviues
continuous powei uuiation cuive P ovei a yeai. By integiating the powei uuiation
cuive P; the annual woik of the hyuiopowei plant can be ueteimineu.
92


The uemanu foi electiicity is not constant thioughout the uay. Between 7am anu
2pm anu in the evening again the uemanu incieases. The lowest uemanu is uuiing
the night. The compaiison between wintei anu summei shows that iesults uue to
lowei tempeiatuies (electiic heating) anu shoitei uays (light), theie is a
significantly highei uemanu foi electiicity in wintei uays. To covei the uemanu foi
electiicity ieliably at all times, the powei piouuction sectoi shoulu be able to covei
the base loau as well as the peak uemanu. Foi the coveiage of the peak uemanu gas-
powei plants, oi (especially in Austiia) pump stoiage powei plants aie useu. The
fastest auaptation to incieaseu powei uemanu is founu in pumpeu stoiage powei
plants, which can change within seconus fiom pump to tuibine opeiation.







M=B;8A ?'Z 06A8BJ :AC@6: D;CCA8 PD( N=67A8
M=B;8A ?KZ S9NA8 F89:;<7=96 @<<98:=6B 79 F9NA8 FE@67 7JFA
[#;D78=@\ ?WWR]
9S
K(L(L /E@DD=T=<@7=96 9T F9NA8 F89:;<7=96

The electiical powei piouuction is usually uiviueu into thiee ianges: the base loau,
meuium loau anu peak loau. In Austiia the base loau is piimaiily coveieu iivei
hyuioelectiic powei plants anu stoiage powei plants (see Figuie 17). In ueimany,
in paiticulai the theimal powei plants anu nucleai powei plants pioviue the
electiicity to covei the base loau uemanu. The meuium loau is coveieu by stoiage
powei plants oi theimal powei plants that iun on coal, gas oi oil. uas tuibines anu
pumpeu stoiage hyuiopowei plants covei the peak loau.

Byuiopowei plants can be classifieu accoiuing to vaiious ciiteiia. 0sually, the
classification is maue accoiuing to the heau. Byuiopowei plants that have a total
heau of about Su meteis oi moie aie calleu high-piessuie systems. Byuiopowei
plants that have a total heau of 1S meteis oi less aie low-piessuie systems. The aiea
between these two classifications is coveieu by meuium piessuie systems.










Bigh-piessuie systems aie usually uam powei plants, in which the uesiieu heau is
ieacheu by impounument anu stoiage of watei in a ieseivoii. Low-piessuie systems
aie mostly iivei hyuioelectiic powei plants wheie the poweihouse is situateu in oi
on the iivei site (iun-off iivei powei plant), oi iivei-uiveision powei plant, in
which the watei is uiveiteu to a laige extent in a by-pass channel.

Pumpeu-stoiage powei plants play a special iole. Theie the suiplus uischaige is
fiist pumpeu into an uppei ieseivoii to be exploiteu in the tuibine opeiation in
times of incieaseu electiicity uemanu. When theie is just veiy little space foi
tempoiaiy stoiage of uiiving watei available in a ieseivoii, one speaks of "&-,"
368"),1,5("&5 +)A," +1$%(/. In the case that enough quantity of uiiving watei can be
Bigh-piessuie systems
hSum
Neuium-piessuie
systems
1Sm h Sum
Low-piessuie systems
h1Sm
94
tempoiaiily stoieu foi times of incieaseu electiicity neeu, one speaks of /()"$2,
+)A," +1$%(/:

!9N^F8ADD;8A DJD7ACD )=BG^F8ADD;8A DJD7ACD
Rivei powei plants Stoiage powei plants
Run-off-iivei p.p. Rivei-uiveision p.p Bam powei plant Pumpeu-stoiage p.p


Among the low-piessuie systems aie hyuioelectiic powei plants with less than
about 1S m heau. They can be founu in the miuule ieaches of iiveis anu theiefoie
have significantly highei uischaiges than inteimeuiate oi high-piessuie systems.
Rivei hyuiopowei plants aie built in combination with weiis. The weii uams the
iivei to the uesiieu elevation (uppei watei level, afflux), theieby causing the usable
eneigy uiffeience between uppei anu lowei watei level. The weii shoulu be able to
uischaige floou waves as well.


M=B;8A ?%Z #88@6BACA67 9T @ F9NA8 FE@6 =6 @ 8=PA8
The aiiangement of a powei plant uiffeis in a iivei in teims of its position to the
weii:
(a) In the IE9<O :AD=B6\ powei station anu weii aie aiiangeu siue by siue as
sepaiate stiuctuies. Between the weii anu powei plant the DAF@8@7=96 F=A8
pioviues a hyuiaulically favoiable flow to the powei plant.
(b) 7N9^D=:A: F9NA8 D7@7=96D aie sometimes built on boiuei iiveis between two
countiies. Each opeiatoi has its own powei plant on its bank while the weii is a
bilateial pioject.
9S
(c) .DE@6: F9NA8 FE@67D aie iaie because theii accessibility is uifficult. The
constiuction only makes sense if the geological conuitions foi the founuation of the
powei plant aie unique.
(u) In a S=A8D S9NA8 SE@67\ single weii pieis aie expanueu to the powei plant units,
in each of which a set of machines (tuibine anu the geneiatoi) is houseu.
(e) By D;ICA8BA: F9NA8 FE@67D theie aie missing constiuction elements ovei the
watei level. They can theiefoie be easily integiateu into the lanuscape anu aie
completely flooueu uuiing peiious of high watei.

When aiianging a powei plant within the benu of a iivei, it is impoitant to ensuie
that the inlet of uiiving watei to the tuibines is kept fiee of seuiment. Bue to the
spiial flow in the iivei benu, seuiment is tianspoiteu to the innei cuive of the iivei.
Theiefoie, the moie iueal position of the plant is on the outsiue benu of the iivei.

When a uiveision powei plant is constiucteu, weii anu powei plant aie often
sepaiateu; even kilometeis apait. The powei plant is built outsiue of the iivei site.
This pioveu to be impoitant in the past with iegaiu to constiuctional facilities. An
auuitional auvantage is the high eneigy concentiation that can be ieacheu at ceitain
topogiaphic conuitions thiough laige heaus. The pioblem heie is the uiveision of
watei fiom the iivei couise. It is then supplieu foi many kilometeis by only so-
calleu iesiuual watei uischaige.

Byuiopowei plants with a heau ovei Su meteis aie classifieu as high-piessuie
systems. These aie founu mainly in the mountains. In high altituues of a mountain
iegion, uams collect the inflowing watei anu leau it thiough 7GA GA@:8@<A 7;66AE to
a powei plant in the valley.

We pieviously mentioneu anothei type of hyuiopowei plant, namely the F;CFA:^
D798@BA FE@67 (see 7.1). In a conventional hyuiopowei plant, the watei fiom the
ieseivoii flows thiough the plant, exits anu is caiiieu uown stieam.

A pumpeu-stoiage plant has two ieseivoiis:
-FFA8 8ADA8P9=8: like a conventional hyuiopowei plant, a uam cieates a
ieseivoii. The watei in this ieseivoii flows thiough the hyuiopowei plant to
cieate electiicity. It is usually much highei than the lowei ieseivoii anu is
locateu wheie possible on hilltops.
!9NA8 8ADA8P9=8Z watei exiting the hyuiopowei plant flows into a lowei
ieseivoii iathei than ie-enteiing the iivei anu flowing uownstieam.

96
0sing a 8APA8D=IEA 7;8I=6A the plant can pump watei back to the uppei ieseivoii.
This is uone in off-peak houis. The seconu ieseivoii iefills the uppei ieseivoii. By
pumping watei back up, the plant has moie watei to geneiate electiicity uuiing
peiious of peak consumption. With the help of pump stoiage powei plants, excess
electiical eneigy can be stoieu until powei is neeueu in times of high uemanu again.
Bespite goou efficiency factois of aiounu 8u%, pumpeu stoiage plants aie only
economical if cheapei electiicity foi pumping is available. This is often the case by
the iun-off iivei powei plants, which piouuce electiicity aiounu the clock but in
times of low electiicity uemanu, achieve low piices. Touay the pump stoiage powei
plants aie mainly useu foi powei fiequency iegulation in the Euiopean electiicity
giiu. This task is becoming incieasingly impoitant by the iapiu expansion of winu
powei plants anu winu faims, because the electiicity piouuceu by them is veiy
iiiegulai.



97
% H<@EA 59:AED

This chaptei intiouuces the possibilities anu limitations of moueling techniques as
well as the pieuictive capabilities of hyuiaulic mouels. Iueally, the mouels shoulu
seive as an accuiate basis foi uecisions about the use of uiffeient mouel techniques
foi vaiious hyuiaulic engineeiing pioblems. Byuiaulic engineeiing facilities anu
measuies aie usually expensive stiuctuies. Planning eiiois often leau to costly
iepaiis oi even catastiophes involving piopeity uamage oi even fatalities. Foi that
ieason, hyuiaulic iequiiements on planneu stiuctuie uevices shoulu be uefineu anu
testeu piioi to the planning phase.

H<@EA C9:AE=6B 7A<G6=f;AD /9CF;7@7=96@E 7A<G6=f;AD
Byuiaulic scale mouel (hyuiaulic mouel) Nathematical mouels
(physical mouel) Numeiical mouels
Computation mouels

ueneially, the veiification of these iequiiements is possible by means of scale
mouels anu by the application of computational techniques. Although many
engineeis use the teims mathematical, numeiical anu computational mouel as
synonyms, theie is a cleai uistinction between them. A *$(3,*$(&5$1 *)8,1 is a set
of algebiaic equations baseu on the physics of the piototype flow, iepiesenting the
flow in natuie. A %.*,"&5$1 *)8,1 is an appioximation of the mathematical mouel in
the foim of a computable set of paiameteis uesciibing the flow at a set of uisciete
points. The 5)*+.($(&)%$1 *)8,1 is the implementation of a geneial numeiical
mouel foi a specific situation.

Theie aie many computational systems available anu the usei has to choose
caiefully among them; this choice iequiies, oi at least is suppoiteu by, the
unueistanuing of basic mathematical mouel. Computational mouels aie often
cheapei than the equivalent physical scale mouels. Bowevei, the computational
mouels can only be applieu wheie the physics of the pioblem is completely known
anu wheie sufficient topogiaphical anu othei ielevant uata aie available.
Fuitheimoie, theii accuiacy may be limiteu (sometimes seveiely) by the
schematization anu uiscietization pioceuuie anu lack of calibiation.

98

A compaiison of hyuiaulic anu numeiical mouels shows that both types of mouel
have a lot in common. Each must be pieceueu by a conceptual phase, in which the
physical ielationships, which aie to be simulateu by the mouel, aie iuentifieu. The
effoit in constiucting a hyuiaulic laboiatoiy mouel is compaiable to the effoit of
woiking out a solution scheme foi the numeiical mouel. Both methous must make
use of ceitain simplifications anu appioximations anu have to be auapteu to the ieal
situation in natuie - in the one case by auapting the empiiical coefficients, in the
othei by changing the mouel ioughness. The main anu piincipal uiffeience between
the two methous consists of the fact that a numeiical mouel iequiies the
foimulation of equations that uesciibe the flow fielu, wheieas foi the hyuiaulic
mouel it is sufficient to iuentify the acting foices anu fiom them to foimulate
similaiity paiameteis.

The use of hyuiaulic scale mouels in hyuiaulic engineeiing can schematically be
piesenteu as follows:




99
59:AE=6B: existing hyuiaulic pioblem in natuie aie iepiouuceu in a ieasonable way
in the mouel. The D9E;7=96 of the pioblem in the mouel is not yet the solution of the
pioblem in the natuie. In the thiiu step, the mouel solution has to be =67A8F8A7A:
coiiectly. The moie ieliable the mouel is, the easiei the inteipietation is. To get a
ieliable mouel, two auuitional steps aie neeueu:

/@E=I8@7=96 - aujusting the mouel to the uata fiom the natuie. The mouel then
foims a specific situation fiom natuie. Calibiation alone is not sufficient to
guaiantee ieliability of the mouel.
"A8=T=<@7=96 - use anothei known situation fiom the natuie, without fuithei
mouifying of the mouel itself. In a goou mouel", the same situation shoulu occui as
in the natuie. It must be emphasizeu that the mouel stuuies uo not substitute the
measuiements in natuie (which aie often veiy expensive). In fact, the mouel stuuies
neeu such uata.

4JFA 9T C9:AE )J:8@;E=< C9:AE 1;CA8=<@E C9:AE

Rivei anu tiual mouels
with fixeu beu

Rivei anu tiual mouels
with movable beu

Rivei anu tiual mouels foi
tianspoit piocesses

Lake anu ieseivoii mouels


Baiboi anu contiol
mouels

Local pioblems, complex
geometiy

Beu loau tianspoit,
eiosion anu ueposition
pioblems
Neai-fielu pioblems


Betaileu questions,
funuamental expeiiments

Nainly useu

Laige scale pioblems,
simple geometiy

Suspenueu loau tianspoit
(beu loau tianspoit foi
veiy simple geometiy)
Fai-fielu pioblems


Nainly useu


Wave pattein foi simple
geometiy

Nany pioblem-solution methous in the uomain of hyuiaulic engineeiing weie once
almost exclusively pieuictable thiough physical mouels. Nowauays they aie fastei
anu easiei to solve with the application of numeiical mouels. Bowevei, a gieat fielu
has iemaineu wheie physical mouels aie still iiieplaceable. Coiiesponuing aieas of
application of hyuiaulic anu numeiical mouels (simplifieu) aie inuicateu in the
table. 0f couise, it is often uesiieu that both methous (hyuiaulic scale mouel anu
1uu
numeiical mouel) aie paiallel caiiieu out, anu that they aie complementaiy to each
othei.

4JFA 9T C9:AE )J:8@;E=< C9:AE 1;CA8=<@E C9:AE
Nouels of hyuiaulic
stiuctuies:
Bischaige
chaiacteiistics
Eneigy uissipation
Eiosion
Flow foices
vibiations
Cavitation

Pipe flow mouels


uiounuwatei mouels


Complex geometiy

Complex geometiy
Necessaiy
Complex geometiy
Necessaiy
Necessaiy

Local pioblems, complex
geometiy (seuiment
tianspoit
Betaileu questions


Simple geometiy

Simple geometiy

Simple geometiy



Nainly useu


Nainly useu

The most impoitant iole in the uecision making piocess is playeu by the limiting
factois of each type of mouel. The limitations given in the following table show that
the limiting factois inheient to hyuiaulic anu numeiical mouels aie of entiiely
uiffeient natuie in these two cases. Byuiaulic mouels aie limiteu on the one hanu by
mouel size, by the uischaige anu the eneigy heau of the flow, i.e. by laboiatoiy space
anu pumping capacity. The othei piincipal limitation is given by the similaiity laws,
which must be followeu in the hyuiaulic mouel. The essential limitation foi the
application of the hyuiaulic mouel expeiiment is the fact that only a limiteu numbei
of piocesses can be uown scaleu. This limitation uoes not exist in numeiical mouels.
Beie the limitations aie given by stoiage capacity anu computational speeu, which
in futuie can ceitainly be consiueiably incieaseu. The uecisive limitation is heie the
fact that foi the majoiity of flow piocesses of inteiest in hyuiaulic engineeiing no
closeu system of equations can be foimulateu.

)J:8@;E=< C9:AE 1;CA8=<@E C9:AE
Piincipal limitations
Nouel size (laboiatoiy)
Bischaige (pumping capacity)
Eneigy heau (pumping capacity)
Nouel laws
Stoiage capacity
Computational speeu
Incomplete set of equations
Tuibulence hypothesis
1u1
Piactical limitations
Ninimum mouel scale
(suiface tension, viscosity, ioughness)

Nouel size
(uppei limitation)

Neasuiing methous anu uata collection

Availability of bounuaiy- anu initial
conuitions
In simplifieu set of equations:
- - accuiacy of assumeu ielationships
- - availability of coefficients
space anu time iesolution
(lowei limitation)

Numeiical stability anu conveigence of
the solution scheme
Availability of bounuaiy- anu initial
conuitions

A numbei of piactical limitations also exist (see table above). Bue to the fact that
hyuiaulic mouels aie usually testeu in a laboiatoiy with the same fluiu as in natuie,
i.e. watei, ceitain iequiiements iesult in the minimum mouel scale uue to the mouel
laws. With these iequiiements anu with the maximum feasible mouel size, one
obtains limits foi the extent of an aiea that can be moueleu coiiectly in a hyuiaulic
laboiatoiy. As an inuication, the maximum aiea foi scale mouels can be taken to be
of the oiuei of about 1u km in natuie, foi veitically uistoiteu mouels about 1uu km.
0n the othei hanu, numeiical mouels expeiience limitations uue to the
simplifications in the equations anu uue to the availability of empiiical coefficients.

Anothei piactical limitation is given by the iesolution of the mouel, which is
ueteimineu by the choice of the giiu size foi the solution scheme. This means that
the numeiical mouel is limiteu in space towaius the lowei enu of the scale wheieas
the hyuiaulic mouel is limiteu towaius the uppei enu (maximum extension).
Theiefoie, numeiical mouels aie usually moie suitable foi the simulation of laige-
scale flow piocesses, wheieas the hyuiaulic mouel is moie suitable foi
investigations of local flow configuiations.

If one is faceu with the uecision to solve a pioblem eithei by means of a hyuiaulic
mouel oi with the help of a numeiical mouel, a vaiiety of aspects as ciiteiia in the
uecision piocess must be consiueieu. The consiueiation of piincipal limitations may
excluue the one oi the othei type of mouel foi ceitain pioblems befoiehanu.
Fuitheimoie, it is of gieat impoitance to ueciue which uegiee of accuiacy oi
iesolution is iequiieu fiom the mouel. Anothei essential question is of the simplicity
anu economics of the mouels, i.e. time anu cost consiueiations. The gieatei
flexibility of numeiical mouels is often compensateu by the moie convincing
intuitive powei of the hyuiaulic mouel. Foi the cieuibility of a mouel it is impoitant
to know on the one hanu, which expeiiences aie alieauy available with similai types
1u2
of mouels, anu on the othei hanu to know the extent of possible feeuback between
natuie anu mouel. It is of ciucial impoitance to know how well anu ieliably a mouel
can be veiifieu by means of piototype uata. 0f uecisive impoitance is finally the
expecteu piognostic capability of the mouel. All these ciiteiia must be consiueieu
anew foi eveiy new application; no ieauymaue geneially applicable iecipes can be
offeieu foi the uecision piocess.

A D<@EA C9:AE in hyuiaulic engineeiing uses the methou of uiiect (physical)
simulation of (hyuiaulic) phenomena, (usually) in the same meuium as in the
piototype. Nouels aie uesigneu anu opeiateu accoiuing to 'scaling laws' (conuitions
that must be satisfieu to achieve the uesiieu similaiity between mouel anu
piototype). The iatio of a vaiiable in piototype to the coiiesponuing vaiiable in the
mouel is the scale factoi (scale). The whole piocess of physical moueling is baseu on
the theoiy of similaiity. The scale numbei (scale) of one paiametei is uefineu as the
iatio between piototype (natuie) anu mouel value of this paiametei. !
!
!
!
!
!
!


Accoiuing to the thiee base units foi EA6B7G\ 7=CA @6: C@DD, thiee similaiities
between mouel anu natuie can be uistinguisheu:
- 2A9CA78=< D=C=E@8=7J is similaiity in foim. All lengths of a mouel can be
tiansfeiieu with the same scale numbeis (tiansfei factoi) in the lengths
of the natuie. - Similai geometiy of mouel anu natuie. !
!
! !
!
!!
!

- c=6AC@7=< D=C=E@8=7J uenotes similaiity of motion. All velocity vectois
anu time inteivals fiom the mouel, each of them with the same scale
numbei aie tiansfeiieu in natuie - similai to flow pattein in mouel anu
natuie. !
!
! !
!
!!
!

- +J6@C=< D=C=E@8=7J uenotes similaiity of foices. All foices aie
tiansfeiieu with the same scale numbei fiom a mouel in the natuie, i.e.
similai foices in mouel anu natuie. !
!
! !
!
!!
!


The following foices ielateu to the mass unit aie impoitant foi iivei engineeiing
pioblems:

Ineitial foice !
!
!!
Piessuie foice !!!"
Fiiction foice !

!!
uiavitational foice g
Capillaiy foice !!!!
!



1uS
0ut of these, foui inuepenuent foice iatios can be foimeu:
Ineitial foice piessuie foice = !!!
!
! !"
(Eulei numbei)

Ineitial foice fiiction foice = !"!! ! !"
(Reynolus numbei)

Ineitial foice giavity foice = !
!
!!" ! !"
!

(Fiouue numbei)

Ineitial foice capillaiy foice = !!
!
!!! ! !"
(Webei numbei)

In flows in which the fiiction foices aie of impoitance, in auuition to the geometiic
similaiity, the ,AJ69E:D 6;CIA8 ,A foi mouel anu natuie must be kept equal. In
auuition to the geometiic similaiity, the Reynolus mouel law shoulu be followeu.
Accoiuingly, in a uownscaleu mouel the velocities aie highei than in natuie. This
makes the piactical use of such mouels impossible.

In the fielu of giavity foice, besiues the geometiical similaiity, the Fiouue numbei in
the mouel anu in natuie must also be kept equal.
!"
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !
0nuei the assumption that the giavity constant g has the same value in the mouel
anu in natuie: !
!
! !!
!
!
!
!
!!!
! !
!
!!!


H=C=E@8=7J <96:=7=96D IJ <G@66AE TE9N
By fiee suiface flows in open channels the influence of giavity is uecisive anu the
Reynolus influence shoulu be eliminateu. By all fiee suiface flows, the Fiouue
similaiity law shoulu be followeu. It means that by watei mouels the Reynolus
numbei on the mouel is always smallei than that in the natuie:

!
!
! !
!
!!!
! !!
!
! !
!
!!!


This shows that the viscous foices in the ieuuceu mouel have a ielatively gieatei
impoitance than in the natuie. But, if the flow conuitions in natuie anu in the mouel
aie both in hyuiaulically iough zone, this iemains without consequences.

1u4
%(& 59:AED N=7G T=XA: IA:

Foui uimensionless quantities foi chaiacteiization of flow:
!" !
!
! ! !
!!


!" !
! ! !
!!
!


Ie

!
!
!!


HG987 C9:AED

The teim "shoit mouel" iefeis to mouel of fluiu flow, wheie the fiiction foices aie
negligibly small in ielation to the giavity anu ineitial foices. Such flow
chaiacteiistics occui at stiuctuies that aie "shoit" when compaiing with the
channel flow sections.

Function of the flow piocess !
!
! ! !!
!
! !"#$"%&'!
Fiouue similaiity law !
!
! !
!
!!!


!96B C9:AED
In "long mouels", longei channel sections aie piesenteu, wheie the fiiction influence
usually cannot be neglecteu. Relevant paiameteis foi fiiction piocesses aie:

Reynolus numbei: !" !
!
!
!!
!

Eneigy slope Ie
Relative ioughness kihy
Function of the flow piocesses !
!
! ! !!
!
! !
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!!
! !"#$"%&'"!
When using long mouels, following facts shoulu be taken into account:
- It is not possible to simultaneously set an equal Fiouue anu Reynolus
numbei foi fluiu (both in natuie anu on the mouel)
- Becisive foi the similaiity is the Fiouue conuition
- The majoiity of the iunoff events occuiiing in natuie take place in
hyuiaulically iough zones. These iunoff piocesses must also be opeiateu in a
hyuiaulically iough iegion within the mouel
1uS
- By veitical uistoition of the mouel (incieasing the flow velocity anu thus the
Reynolus numbei), the mouel uischaige will be shifteu into the hyuiaulically
iough flow iegion.

%(? 59:AED N=7G C9PA@IEA IA:

The uischaige in open channel (in geneial: non-unifoim anu unsteauy) is uesciibeu
by the following function:
!
!
! ! !!
!
! !
!!
! !
!
!
!
!
! !! !"#$"%&'"!

As a basic law, heie also the Fiouue similaiity law applies: !
!
! !
!
!!!


H=C=E@8=7J <96:=7=96D

In auuition to alieauy explaineu similaiity conuitions foi the mouels with fixeu beu
which iely alone on the simulateu flow anu piimaiily follow the Fiouue mouel law,
at mouels with movable beu auuitional similaiities that affect the beu mateiial anu
the behavioi of the beu aie neeueu:
The begin of the seuiment tianspoit is specifieu by the ielationship between Fi anu
Re (Shielu's paiameteis) in natuie anu on the mouel.

In geneial, foi mouels with movable beu following similaiity ciiteiia aie neeueu:
Fiouue similaiity ciiteiia, although a few toleiances aie acceptable, if some
of scale effects can be ieuuceu.
Similaiity of the seuiment tianspoit begins i.e. begin of the seuiment
tianspoit on the mouel must take place at the same uischaige as in the
natuie.
Similaiity of the seuiment tianspoit, i.e. foi each uischaige it must be a
constant ielationship between seuiment tianspoit on the mouel anu in the
natuie.
Similaiity of the watei levels anuoi eneigy giauient lines.

In giain mixtuies the giain size uistiibution cuives in natuie anu on the mouel
shoulu be similai. In natuie cohesion loose mateiial shoulu not be ieuuceu on the
mouel unuei u.1 - u.2 mm, otheiwise cohesion occuis on the mouel. Beu foims
shoulu be similai between mouel anu natuie.

1u6
Shoit mouels aie mouels of iunoff piocesses in which fiiction piocesses anu
theiefoie the watei levels slopes play no significant iole. These mouels aie
theiefoie inuepenuent of the ielative ioughness. The following similaiity ciiteiia
shoulu be applieu:
Fiouue similaiity
Similaiity of begin seuiment tianspoit (motion)
Similaiity of seuiment tianspoit

Long mouels tieat the iunoff piocesses, which aie ueteimineu essentially by fiiction
piocesses anu fiiction losses. The watei suiface slope must be similai in natuie anu
on the mouel. In auuition to Fi anu Re ielative ioughness u h is also a
paiametei.


1u7
Q Y=IE=9B8@FGJ

Bloch, B. (2uu9). R3, S$(," I"$*,A)"N K&",5(&-,4 $% T-,"-&,A: Euiopean
Commission.

Boija, . (2uuS). Euiopean Watei Fiamewoik Biiective: A challenge foi neaishoie,
coastal anu continental shelf ieseaich. U)%(&%,%($1 J3,1F O,/,$"53 E VW (14), 1768-
178S.

Civil Engineeiing Foimulas. (2uu4). Byuiaulics anu Wateiwoiks Foimulas. Ncuiaw-
Bill.

Engineeis Without Boiueis-Buke. (2u11, Naich 29). A&N&:8.N,:,8.: Retiieveu
August 1, 2u12, fiom
https:wiki.uuke.euuuownloauattachments19471SS2Channel+Besign.puf.vei
sion=1&mouificationBate=126SS62741uuu

Enviionment Agency. (2u1u, }anuaiy 22). I1.-&$1 B,)*)"+3)1)26. Retiieveu August
4, 2u12, fiom Enviionment Agency: http:eviuence.enviionment-
agency.gov.ukFCERNenFluvialBesignuuiueChapteiS.aspx

E0 Commission. (2u12, Febiuaiy 2S). G%-&")%*,%(. Retiieveu }uly 29, 2u12, fiom
Watei Fiamewoik Biiective: http:ec.euiopa.euenviionmentwateiwatei-
fiamewoikinfointioen.htm

Fettei, C. (2uu1). @++1&,8 ?68")2,)1)26 (4th Euition eu.). New }eisey: Pientice Ball.
uoie, }. A., & Petts, u. E. (1989). @1(,"%$(&-,/ &% O,2.1$(,8 O&-," L$%$2,*,%(: Boca
Raton, Floiiua, 0SA: CRC Piess, Inc.

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