1. The importance of language for transation.

Language is a significant part of what makes us humans. The use of language is universal even if one of
the most difficult of all human cognitive abilities. Nowdays ther are 400 languages. More then a billion people
speak English. The eistance of different languages caused the need for translation.
The first interpreters wher probably women! in "abylon there were groups of translation. #n Europe$ the
name of the first translator% Livius &nchonius$ who translated 'dyssey in Latin.
2.The history of translation.
(uring the )*th century$ resonable +udgement of translation appeared. ,0th century translation touched
the great heights. #n the past few decades the translation activity has developed because of the rising of
international trade increased migration$ globali-ation epansion of mass.media.
3.The two major problems encountered during the translation process and the aim of any translation.
Every translation activity has one or more specific purposes! the main aim of translation beeing cross.
cultural lingual communication among people.
The conse/uence of a wrong translation% serious inade/uency$confusion$ legal problems$ a matter of life and
death.
(efinition of translation% #s a transfer process from the source language to the target language. 'nly the
translation into the mother language can be accuarate$ natural and with maimus effectivness.
4.What are the skills of the translator?
a0reading comphensation ability in a foreign language
b0knowledge of the sub+ect
c0sensitivity to languages
d0competence to write in the TL clearly$ economically$ resourcefully.
The translator needs intellectual capacity$ intuition and skills.
.!anguage performace.
Translation brings 1general benefits to nobody2s harm1 3#.4. 5adulescu0
6sycholinguistics.7 language performace and ac/uisition. 8et out to give account of the psychological
processes that go on when people understand utterances.
Language performance. producing and understanding utterances.
Lang. ac/uisition.low people ac/uire lang.
Ther have been a lot of arguments against the idea that language ac/uisition and second lang. learning
have anything in common. The main argument is that lang. learning normally takes place after lang. ac/uisition
that the lang. learner has already developed considerable communicative competance in his mother tongue.
The use of sentences means both receptive and productive activity or skills. #t is not the 4 traditional
skills that are to be considered here$ but the so.called active and passive skills related to productive and
receptive performance.
".The study of recognition.
5ecognition% falls within the field of the psychology of perception. 6erception involves a kind of
interference from the sensory data to ob+ect reality. 9urther$ behaviour is not controlled directly by the data but
by solutions to the perceptual interferences from the data.
16erception involves a kind of problem solving$ a kind of intelligence1 3:regory0. 'b. solving involves
making ob+ect hypothesis sometimes called perceptual schemata$ which are learned and stored. ;e store ob+ect
hypothesis of words and even groups of words which appear together.
8entence recognition%
.includes prediction and anticipation
.is a great part of linguistic competence and interpretation competence.
.sentence indentification means to perceive the phonetion of the utterance in its contet.
The process of understanding is a specifically lang. part of the performance at all of what etend can be
regarded as a rule governet activity.
#.$ules %s. habits in translation.
There is a great deal of confusion about rules and habits in language learning$ teacing and translating.
The confussion may start from reseblace which many utterances bear to another because of the gramatical
construction or string of grammar elements is the same.
The gramatical rules combined with the habits that the student already have been ac/uired with such a
pentence pattern area finds is /uite easy to translate. There may be some problems with intran-itive verbs.
The translation of sentences depends on the contet$ which also decides the variants to be closer
according to where the emphasis verb lands.
&.'olophrases.
.Terms used in the study of language to refer to the use of a single word to epress a comple idea.
They may be learned as a unit or produced by a rule as useful phrases and used and translated by habit.
9or the speaker or the author$ they may be a habitual se/uence of words but not for the hearer and for
the interprets or translators who must operate on the words or se/uence of words as if they were new.
The se/uence of words may be analy-ed by the rules and sei-e to be holophrastic.
They have been ac/uired long before the learner knows the rules which generate them as constitute of
sentence and before knowing them$ they are called verb patterns.
(. The communicati%e competence.
<ndoutably communication has been the bu--word of language teaching in the past ,0 years$ this
leading to special attention rowards teaching practical uses of language. The iddea of comm. has been involved
in language teaching. &s a matter of fact$ ' =espersen as early as )>04 was claiming a way of communication
with places which our tangue cannot reach although this let him to smth very diffrent from communicative
teaching.
L."achman writes in )>>0$ most current frameworks of language used are based on the concept of
language as comm$ and recognised the imp. of the contet$ both discourse and sociolinguistics in which
language is used$ a theoretical model of communicative language ability will provide a basis for the
development of comm. teaching. 'ne practical way in which comm. affects teaching is through the actual
contet of the language lesson or of the tetbook.
8tudents learned how to use two languages and not to use one in isolation and the best way of doing that
is by translating.
1).The communicati%e approach.
The ?. app. concentrates on common activities and on language as a a means of communication. :reat
emphasis is laid on training students to use language for communication. The teaching of language function
task.based learning have also been included here at various stages. ;ithin this app.$ the aim of all teaching is to
train students to be communicatively efficient. #t also includes components which are not common in
themselves$ such as practice activities. "ut while students need a lot of roughly tuned imput and while there
must be an emphasis on comm. activity which improve students ability to comm. $ there is also place for control
presentation of semi.controled lg. practice.
The comm. approach is also important in the stages where there is an emphasis on problem solving
sasks and a student own personalities and responsabilities for their own learning have to go together with more
formal lg. work such as translation.oriented analysis of tasks. ?ontrolled lg. work such by translations should
be included hee$ due to the fact that most by teaching is designed to teach students to comm.$ however the
learning may be organi-ed.
;e also consider$ it is better to see the methodology in terms of the activities in which teachers involve
students and ballanced programme of such activities.
11.The balanced acti%ities approach.
;ithin a b.a.a.$ the teacher insures that students get a variety of activities$ which faster ac/uisition and
learning. #n this aspect$ =. 4armer sugests that the programme should be planned 1on the basis of achieving a
balance between the different categories of imput and output where roughly tuned output and comm. activities
will tend to predominant over$ controlled lg. presentation and practice output1. "y presenting students with a
variety of activities we can insure they2re continuing interest and involnment in the lg. programme. This is
called the variational se/uence principle. ?lasses which are always concentrated on the same action are not
libaly to sustain interest$ especially when students have no etrinsec motivation and do not have a clear long
term goal$ such as translators$ or dealing with foreign partners during their future +obs.
&nother imp. components of the b.a.a. are the teacher2s adaptability and fleibility.
& balanced activities approach sees the +ob of the teacher as that of ensuring that students get a variety
of activities which foster ac/uisition and which foster learning. Theprogramme will be planned on the basis of
achieving a balance between the different categories of input and output where roughly.tuned input and
communicative activities will tend to predominate over 3but not by any means eclude0 controlled language
presentation and practice output. #t is on this basis that we will effect part of our balance.
& balanced activities approach has a more human aspect$ however$ which is bound up with the concerns
of intrinsic motivation . "y presenting students with a variety of activities we can ensure their continuing
interest and involvement in the language programme. ?lasses which continually have the same activities are not
likely to sustain interest$ particularly where the students have no etrinsic motivation and do not perceive any
clear long.term goal. & programme that presents a variety of activities$ on the other hand$ is far more likely to
continually engage the students2 interest.
12.The appropriancy and structuring discourse.
The /uality of discourse structure annotations is negatively influenced by the numerous difficulties that
occur in the analysis process. #n contrast$ referential annotation resources are considerably more reliable$ given
the high precision of the eistent anaphora resolution systems. ;e present an approach based on the @eins
Theory$ in which successful reference annotations of tets are eploited in order to improve arbitrary structural
analyses! in this way$ the large amount of corpora annotated at reference level can be used for the ac/uisition of
discourse structure annotation resources.
13.The strategic competence and competence model.
.;as developed by #. "ralysoci and 8harwood 8mith and was named so after its , main dimensions.
Thus this model can be approached through the metaphora of library. The books in a library are set out on the
shelves according to a definite system and the user needs to know how to find a certain book. The arrangement
of the books represents the learner2s competence in a lg.$ that is the way in which the lg. system is represented
in th mind of the learner. The ways of finding them are controlled procedures$ e.g. the processing system for
controlling that knowledge in actual performance.
The L, learner may have problems with the control procedures or with L, knowledge that is to say
inade/uate procedures taken from the L) will distort newby.learnt L, knowledge or the L, procedures may be
ade/uate$ but the L, knowledge is missing. This holds valid translation. 9or e.$ 5omanian learners of Eng.
often have problems with the fact that Eng. has a s.v.o order. This might be because their 5omanian procedures
are still controling their L, competence$ which causes translation mistakes or might by that their L,
competence has incorrectly transfered the wordorder from 5omanian and their L, procedures are perfectly
ade/uate. The L, lerners interlanguage develops either because their underfined knowledge of the lg. improve
or because their processis improve.
14.The social moti%ated strategies.
Motivational components include studentsA perceptions of the classroom environment as well as their
selfrelated beliefs such as personal goals$ self.efficacy$ interest$ and value beliefs. ?ognitive components
include studentsA content knowledge as well as various cognitive learning strategies such as rehearsal$
elaboration$ and organi-ation$ and metacognitive strategies such as planning$ monitoring$ and regulating
learning.
5esearch in both eperimental and field settings has consistently shown that positive motivational
beliefs such as perceptions of high selfefficacy$a focus on mastery goals$ high value and interest in the task or
content$ and low levels of test aniety are positively related to greater cognitive engagement in terms of the use
of cognitive and metacognitive strategies as well as actual academic performance.
1.The psychologically moti%ated strategies.
.?omm. strategies used as psychological problem.solving focus on the L, speakers problems of
epression. These strategies may be derived into , main groups%
.achievement
.anovdance
&chievement strategies are used by second lg. learners when they are trying to get round the
psychological difficulty. #n their turn$ these achievement strategies are subdivided into%
.cooperative strategies 3appealing to help0
.non cooperative3the L, learner tries to overcome the difficulty by himself0
;hen the learner knows both languages$ achievement strategies may include other strategies that rely
mostly on the L, rather then on L).
'ther strategies%
.substitution of one word for another
.generali-ation
.the use of a more general word for a particular one
.description 3#f the speaker doesn2t know or cannot remember the word 1pan1 he describes it as 1the thing to fry
eggs in it.10
.eemplification 3the use of an eample instead of the general term0.
.word.coinage 3making up a word instead of the unknown one0
.restructuring 3knowing another attempt at the same sentence0.
#f one does not remember the eact word of 1sibling1 one can restructure it with the problem of
communicating in L,.
&nodance strat. are also devided into%
.formal
.functional
These , types of strategies 3socially and psychologically0 are modalitives of solving comm. problems in
the foreign lg. #t should be rightly considered that the common factor to all comm. strategies is that the second
lg. learner has to deal with not knowing a word in L,. #t is vocabulary lack that is crucial the strategies eist to
plug gaps in the learner2s vocabulary$ by allowing them to refer to things for which they do not know 3the L,
words0.
1". The appro*imati%e archistrategy.
They suggest that this apparent variet of strategies can be reduced to B more general% archistrategies
a0 The approimative archistrategy
b0 The analytical archistrategy
c0 The linguistic archistrategy
a0 Means that the learner substitutes a word whose meaning is as close as posible. ?hest.7for breast. &ccording
to the analytic archistrategy$ the L, learner gives a description of what the missing word means.
b0 breast is replaced by the part of the body between throat and legs.
a teapot.7 a thing to bil water in.
c0 #mplies filling the gap in L, with the word from L).
The )st , types os archistrategies are the same as those used by the native speakers when they do not
remember or even when do not know they want to use. These strategies not only allow people to communicate
without knowing the correct words$ but also they may never need to learn them. This may happen with non.
specialists in any engineering field$ but not in translating E86 tets. when the translator must give the correct
word.
1#.+ood !anguage !earner ,trategies.
&ccording to good lg. learner 3:LL0 language strategies :LL do not treat lg. as communication or as
accademic knowledge but as both. They develop an awareness of lg.$ both as a system and as communication.
They are conscious not only that lg. is a comple system of rules$ but also that it is used for a purpose. #n own
case for translation purposes. They also combine grammatical and pragmative competence. #t is these learners
that have translational competence. :LL strategy is used by good lg. learners to develop the L, as a separate
system in that they try to develop their knowledge of the L, in its own right as eventually to think in it. They dp
not relate everything to their first language$ but they make the second lg. a separate system. #n this aspect$ they
should consider among others reports$ presentation$ papers$ etc.$ on some special topic and translating from L)
to L, and viceversa$ as being useful strategies.
#t is such strategies combined with cognitive strat. that also help students a/uire translational
competence.
1&.- translation oriented model for introducing new language.
& very important aspect is 8elf.directed learning$ in which students take on responsibility for their
learning. They chose their goals$ they control the teaching methods and materials and by interacting with
another in their classroom activities$ they assess how well they are doing themselves.
This is one of the strategies we have often used during the translation seminars and it has most of the
times proved sucessful 3translationally . competent students0. Less competent students eitheir took little interest
in the goals$ methods and especially materials or might have founded impossible or disturbing that they were
not good lg. learners. More then that$ less intelligent were not able to use self.directed strategies.
8ugestions for translation.oriented model for introducing new lg. The model suggested by some
methodologist$ =. 4ammer included have C components% lead.in$ eliticitation$ eplanation$ reproduction$
immediate creativity$ translation competence.
1(.!anguage imput and language output.
#n deciding how to approach the teaching and learning of English classroom activities can be devided
into , categories% those that give students lg. 3imput0 and those which encourage them to produce lg. 3output0.
The imput$ the lg. students recive is further devided into roughly.tunes imput and finly.tuned imput. The former
is the lg. which students can more or less understand$ even though it is above their own productive level. The
latter is the lg. which has been precisely selected to be eactly the students level. #t is the lg. selected for
consecious learning and teaching and it is the focus of introducing the new lg. #t is also the level of translation
highly speciali-ed tets$ tets of a highter degree of difficulty and more difficult on the spot translation can be
included within the roughly tuned imput.
Language output or production of lg. can also be decided into , distinct categories% practice 3consisting
in students using new items of lg. in different contets and in desining activities which promote the use of
specific lg. Thus the aim is to give students an opportunity of practicing lg. structures and functions that they
may focus on item which they wish to internali-e more compleaty then before at the same time beeing engaged
in meaningful and motivating activities such as translating0 and communicative output 3it reffers to acctivities
in which students use lg. a vehicule for communication$ because their main purpose is to complete some
common task. ;e should consider that the translation can be included here. Translation becomes an instrument
of comm. rather then beeing an end in itself0.