G Model

STILL-2594; No of Pages 7

Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Soil & Tillage Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/still

Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions

of Iran
Arzhang Javadi a,*, Mohammad Hashem Rahmati b, Ahmad Tabatabaeefar c
a
Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI), P.O. Box 31585-845, Karaj, Iran
b
Department of Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization Agricultural Engineering Research Institute, Karaj, Iran
c
Agricultural Machinery Engineering Department, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Wheat (Triticum aestirum L.) is widely grown in Iran as a staple food with high nutritional value; so it is
Accepted 11 October 2008 important that sustainable tillage systems are used in its production. Conventional tillage methods rely
on excessive use of moldboard plows and disk harrows, and are known to cause several types of damage
Keywords: to soils and land in Iran. On the other hand, conservation tillage methods in recent years have
Conservation tillage demonstrated positive effects on energy consumption, time inputs, erosion control, soil properties, yields
Wheat production
and productivity potential. The success of these methods however, varied with different regional
Soil properties
conditions, and therefore these differences must be considered in the selection of tillage systems. The
Sustainable agriculture
main purpose of this study was to identify and evaluate tillage methods for sustainable wheat crop
production in Iran under different climatic and soil conditions.
The effects of tillage methods on soil physical properties and crop productivity were studied in various
parts of Iran (center, south, west and northeast) with average annual rainfall ranging from 230 to
480 mm, and soil texture ranging from silty loam to clay loam. In local projects, tillage systems compared
were conventional, minimum and no-tillage, chosen according to site-specific conditions. In a nation-
wide project, conventional tillage was compared with reduced tillage. The results indicated that
obviously the effects of tillage methods differed over the regions, but in practically all situations, reduced
tillage methods (chisel plowing) showed promising results. No significant yield reductions were found
when compared to the traditional tillage methods (moldboard plowing). The field capacity using a chisel
plow increased from 0.50 to 0.75 ha h 1. On the other hand, no-tillage methods did not produce favorable
results, indicating that some degree of soil disturbance is necessary. Conservation tillage by chisel
plowing can be recommended in most provinces of Iran but care must be taken that the sowing operation
is done correctly.
ß 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Iran is a vast expanse of land with an area of 1.65 million km2,
located between 25.3 and 39.47 north latitude. The country enjoys
a remarkable climatic diversity within 18.5 Mha of agricultural
land and is situated in an arid region of the world, with average
annual rainfall of 250 mm and evaporation of 2100 mm. Water
resources form a limitation to cultivate or increase agricultural
lands in the country. Wheat (Triticum aestirum L.) is an essential
crop in Iran and any operation that increases its productivity is of
economic importance. At present, the total arable land under
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 261 2753866/261 2706101;
fax: +98 261 2706277/261 2704846.
E-mail address: email2arzhang@yahoo.com (A. Javadi).
cereal cultivation is 7.57 Mha of which 2.5 Mha are irrigated and
5.07 Mha are rainfed. The country achieved self-sufficiency in
wheat for the first time in the year 2004. The average yield of
irrigated wheat is approximately 3.2 t ha 1 and government plans
to increase it to 4.8 t ha 1 till 2010, mostly by adoption of
improved technology (Keshavarz et al., 2002).
Tillage is mostly conventional in wheat production and
expected to be improved by this research. An early study by Allen
and Wiese (1967) recommended using no tillage or minimum
tillage every second year as it could increase the wheat yield. Later,
many researchers including Tresseir et al. (1990), Lawrence et al.
(1994) and Lindwall et al. (1995) also confirmed that shallow or
minimum tillage was suitable for wheat production. Unger (1977)
noted that among chisel (winged type), disk and no-tillage
methods, maximum yield was obtained by the chisel method
and lowest yields by the no-tillage method.

0167-1987/$ – see front matter ß 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016

Please cite this article in press as: Javadi, A., et al., Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions of Iran.
Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016
G Model
STILL-2594; No of Pages 7
2 A. Javadi et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
In cases where soil moisture limits plant growth, no-tillage
(drilling directly into untilled soil) has been reported to produce
crop yields similar to (Carter and Rennie, 1984) or higher than
(Tresseir et al., 1990) conventional tillage. Aase and Pikul (1995)
showed that no-tillage in a spring wheat production system was
the most efficient soil management practice in terms of grain yield,
water use efficiency, soil organic carbon sequestration and
reducing soil bulk density.
Davies (1988) found that reduced and zero tillage could, under
favorable circumstances, lead to equal or even increased yields of
continuous cereals compared to traditional cultivation methods
involving moldboard plowing.
Some researchers indicated that continuous no-tillage method
in wheat production decreased the yield while moldboard plowing
increased it (Karlen and Gooden, 1987; Catizone et al., 1990;
Dickey, 1983). Studies on irrigated wheat production in central and
arid regions of Iran have also confirmed that direct-drilling
improved soil structural stability but that such improvements did
not provide a positive response in crop productivity (Hajabbasi and
Hemmat, 2000; Hemmat and Taki, 2001).
Hemmat (1998) also investigated different methods of seed bed
preparation on irrigated wheat germination. The results indicated
that minimum tillage (twice disking) increased the rate of
emergence as compared to conventional tillage (moldboard
plow + disk). It was reported that minimum tillage could produce
higher yield than conventional tillage.
Conservation tillage has also come to attention in this region of
world, but abovementioned literature demonstrated that the
effects of tillage systems vary widely under different conditions.
Hence there was a clear requirement to assess the impact of these
systems in Iran, taking into account variations in climate, soil type
and regional factors such as irrigation or water shortage, low or
uneven distribution of rainfall, limited operation time, length of
growing season and energy requirement.
Fig. 1. Map of annual rainfall in Iran.
Please cite this article in press as: Javadi, A., et al., Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions of Iran.
Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016
2. Materials and methods
Four regional studies and a national project were conducted in
different areas of Iran. Studies were carried out in Isfahan (Center),
Shiraz (South), Hamedan (West) and Mashhad (Northeast)
provinces (see Fig. 1). Materials and methods for each study are
described below.
2.1. Isfahan (Center)
This area is located in the arid zone with an average annual
rainfall of 230 mm. Soil texture is a clay loam. In the top layer of 0–
20 cm, EC value was 0.75 ds m 1, pH value was 8.2 and OC (organic
carbon) value was 0.72%. Effects of different tillage systems on
irrigated wheat yield and its components as well as on some soil
physical properties were investigated over a period of 4 years.
Seven different tillage treatments were applied in a randomized
complete block design with four replications. The treatments were
M1D1: moldboard plow + disk; C1D1: chisel plow + disk; C1R1:
chisel plow + rotavator; M0C2: no moldboard plow + twice chisel
plow at perpendicular directions; K1D1: Khish chee (a small-
bottomed moldboard locally made with a working width of 1.95 m
and 15 shanks placed 12 cm apart in two rows) + disk; D1R1:
disk + roller and NT: direct drilling (no-tillage). Details of manage-
ment practices for each tillage treatment are given in Table 1.
Technical specifications of equipment used in this study are: a
three-bottom moldboard plow with working width of 1.2 m; a
chisel plow with working width of 2.7 m equipped with 12 shanks
placed 25 cm apart; a disk harrow with 28 disks 46 cm in diameter
and working width of 2.41 m and a Cambridge-type roller. Wheat
variety Ghods was grown at a sowing rate of 180 kg ha 1.
Measurements included speed of operation, fuel consumption,
(effective) field capacity and grain yield were measured and
determined.
G Model
STILL-2594; No of Pages 7

A. Javadi et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 3

Table 1
Details of management practices for the tillage treatment in different regions.

Management practices (ranges in years of study) Isfahan Shiraz Hamedan Mashhad

Tillage operation date 8–28 October 25–30 April and 21 April–2 May and 15 October
5–10 November 25 September–2 October
Seeding date 10–29 October 5–10 November 18–23 October 16 October
Fertilize N:P:K rate (kg ha 1) 140:35:0 180–190:40–50:0 200–210:70–80:35–40 150:40:30
Nitrogen top dressing date 14–20 April 6–12 April 7–12 April 11 April
Herbicide application date 25 April–2 May 25 April–2 May 21–29 April 20 April
Irrigation date 15–18 April and 10 April and 12–15 May 15 April and 5–12 May 15 April and 9 May
11–20 May
Herbicide rate 20a (g ha 1) 1b (L ha 1) 15a (g ha 1) 20a (g ha 1
)
Harvesting date 6–15 July 24–29 June 18–25 June 8 July
a
Grand star (C15H17N506S) was applied to control broad leaved weeds.
b
2–4-D (C8H6CL203) was applied to control broad leaved weeds.

2.2. Shiraz (South)
This area is located in the semi-arid zone with a warm climate
and average annual rainfall of 480 mm. Soil texture is a silty loam
at depth 0–20 cm and a silty clay loam at depth 20–50 cm. In the
top layer 0–20 cm, EC value was 0.88 ds m 1, pH 7.7 and OC 0.81%.
Seven different tillage methods were tested for their effects on
irrigated wheat production in a period of 3 years. The treatments
were MSMF: moldboard plow in spring + moldboard plow in fall;
MS: moldboard plow only in spring; MSCF: moldboard plow in
spring + chisel plow in fall; CSCS: chisel plow twice in spring; CSCF:
chisel plow in spring + chisel plow in fall; MF: moldboard plow
only in fall and CFCF: chisel plow twice in fall at perpendicular
directions. Disk + leveler operations were applied after main tillage
in all treatments. The treatments were applied in a randomized
complete block design with four replications. Time table and
management practices in the field are given in Table 1.
Technical specification of equipment used: a three-bottom
moldboard plow with working width of 1.05 m; a disk harrow with
22 disks; a chisel plow similar to the one used in the Isfahan region.
In this study, plant height, emergence rate, number of heads per
m2, coefficient of harvest (weight of grains/weight of grain plus
straw and chaff) and yield were measured.
2.3. Hamedan (West)
This western province is located in a semi-arid zone with a cold
climate and average annual rainfall of 300 mm. Soil texture is clay
loam down to 20 cm and silty clay loam from 20 to 40 cm. In the
top 20 cm layer, depth, EC value was 0.52 ds m 1, pH 8.1 and OC
0.67%.
Four different tillage treatments were studied over a period of 3
years. The treatments were applied in a randomized complete
block design with three replications. The treatments were CF:
chisel plow in fall; CS: chisel plow in spring; MF: moldboard plow in
fall; MS: moldboard plow in spring. Disk + leveler operations were
applied as secondary tillage in all treatments. Details of manage-
ment practices for Hamedan are given in Table 1.
In this study the parameters measured were grain yield,
number of heads per m2, number of grain per head, 1000-grain
weight and coefficient of harvest were measured.
2.4. Mashhad (Northeast)
This area is located in a semi-arid zone with moderate climate
and an average annual rainfall of 280 mm. The soil texture is silty
loam (down to 30 cm). An EC of 0.74 ds m 1, a pH of 8.2 and OC of
0.49% were determined in the soil layer 0–20 cm. A total of 16
tillage treatments were applied in a randomized complete block
design of split plots experiments with four replications. The
treatments were a moldboard plow used at four tillage depths of
D1: 5–10 cm; D2: 10–15 cm; D3: 15–20 cm and D4: 20–25 cm, at
four soil moisture levels of M1: 0–5%; M2: 5–10%; M3: 10–15% and
M4: 15–20%. Each plot was surface irrigated until the required
moisture content was reached. Wheat variety M-V-17 was used at
seed rate of 200 kg ha 1. Crop productivity parameters measured
were the same as in the Hamadan experiment. Details of
management practices for tillage in Mashhad are given in Table 1.
2.5. National research project (five regions)
A national research project was conducted in five climatic
regions of the country during 1998–2001. These regions were Karaj
(North), Mashhad (Northeast), Dezful (Southwest), Shiraz (South)
and Tabriz (Northwest). The location and characteristics of each
region are presented in Table 2 and Fig. 1. The aim of this project
was to investigate the possibility of applying shallow or minimum
tillage methods for irrigated wheat production under different soil
and climate conditions. Two different tillage treatments were used
in a randomized complete block design with four replications over
3 years. The treatments were CT: conventional tillage (moldboard
plow + disk) and MT: minimum tillage (disk + spike-toothed
harrows). The crop productivity of both tillage systems was
compared using a T-test statistical analysis. The moldboard plow
and disk harrow were similar to the ones used in the Isfahan study.
The tooth harrow was a mounted type, two parts with working

Table 2
Soil properties of in different areas of the national project.
1
Region Average rainfall (mm) Meteorological classification Soil texture P (ppm) K (ppm) pH OC (%) EC (ds m )

Karaj 350 Semi-arid Sandy loam – 0.23 8.13 0.56 1.2

Mashhad 280 Arid Loam 8.4 145 8.2 0.49 0.74
Dezful 300 Arid Sandy clay loam 9 85 7.7 0.63 0.88
Shiraz 480 Semi-arid Sandy clay loam 8 337 8 0.81 –
Tabriz 280 Arid Loamy sand – – 8 – 3.50

Soil data measured in the layer 0–20 cm.

Please cite this article in press as: Javadi, A., et al., Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions of Iran.
Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016
G Model
STILL-2594; No of Pages 7

4 A. Javadi et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx

Table 3
Grain yield for different tillage treatments in Isfahan region.
1
Tillage treatments Grain yield (t ha )

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

M1D1: Moldboard plow + disk 8.68 a 7.74 a 6.20 a 5.01 a

C1D1: Chisel plow + disk 8.01 a 7.39 a 6.22 a 4.67 ab
C1R1: Chisel plow + rotivator 7.63 ab 7.31 a 5.55 ab 4.71 ab
M0C2: Chisel plow twice at perpendicular directions 8.07 a 7.21 ab 6.10 a 5.06 a
K1D1: Khishchee + disk 8.12 a 6.65 b 5.49 ab 4.52 b
D1R1: Disk + roller 6.64 bc 6.64 b 4.08 c 3.18 c
NT: No-tillage (Direct drilling) 5.70 c 5.06 c 4.05 c 2.68 d

Similar letters on each column show no significant difference at 95% level of confidence.

width of 2 m and 12 cm spike height. A grain drill of 2.85 m
working width was used with l9 disk furrow openers 15 cm apart.
Chemical fertilizer was used at rates of 200 kg ammonium
phosphate and 300 kg urea per hectare. All the phosphate and half
of the urea was applied to the field before planting, with the other
half of the urea applied after winter hibernation and at the time of
tilling. Parameters of crop productivity were yield, number of
heads per m2, 1000-grain weight and the coefficient of harvest.
3. Results
The results are presented for each study area separately in order
to discuss and identify site-specific, appropriate methods. The crop
productivity data allowed a comparison between regions.
3.1. Isfahan (Center)
Significant differences were found in the effect of tillage
treatments on grain yield over 4 years of study in this area. But
although the conventional treatment of M1D1 using a moldboard
plow generally produced higher yields than other, reduced tillage
methods using a chisel plow such as C1D1, C1R1 and M0C2,
differences with moldboard plowing were not significant (Table 3).
It was found that no-tillage (NT) produced lowest yield in all 4
years. It was observed that the low yield from the no-tillage
treatment was first of all due to lack of moisture causing the soil at
the time of planting to be was relatively dry and hard. Secondly no
appropriate planter was available for sowing in such a condition
(hard, dry soil with disturbance by residues), which caused seeds
not to be placed at the required depth. Therefore, a weak contact
between seed and soil led to less nutrients being taken up and
reducing the percentage of germinated seeds in this method.
Thirdly, fertilizer was broadcast in this method whereas in other
tillage treatments it was placed under the seed in the soil. Reduced
tillage using chisel plow (C1D1 & C1R1), however, removed some
residues while minimizing its disturbance. This enabled common
planters to work satisfactorily still profiting of the advantages of
residue left on the soil surface. Therefore, taking into consideration
the insignificant yield difference with moldboard plowing, reduced
tillage can be a substitute to conventional tillage in this region.
3.2. Shiraz (South)
Results presented in Table 4 show that there was no significant
difference in terms of crop productivity between spring or fall
operations by the moldboard or chisel plow (treatments MSMF, MS,
MSCF, and CSCS). No significant difference was observed either for
coefficient of harvest, plant height, plant population, emergence
and 1000-grain weight among treatments. However, MSMF
(moldboard plow once in spring and once in fall) had slightly

Table 4
Average yield and yield components for different tillage treatments in Shiraz region.

Tillage treatmentsa Plant Plant Emergence 1000-grain Grain yield Coefficient of

height population rate (%) weight (g) (t ha 1) harvest (%)
(cm) (no. m 2)

MSMF: moldboard plow in Spring + mold board plow in Fall 95.13 ab 415 a 87.17 a 35.50 a 6.17 a 0.46 a
MS: moldboard plow in Spring 93.80 a 411 a 86.42 a 36.60 a 6.08 a 0.45 a
MSCF: mold board plow in Spring + chisel plow in 95.67 a 410 a 86.25 a 34.50 a 6.05 a 0.44 a
Fall at perpendicular directions
CSCS: chisel plow in Spring, twice at perpendicular direction 95.41 a 390 a 83.67 a 33.40 ab 5.71 ab 0.46 a
CSCF: chisel plow in Spring, chisel plow in Fall 91.90 a 409 a 85.83 a 30.20 b 5.45 b 0.44 a
MF: moldboard plow in Fall 91.93 a 416 a 87.25 a 34.10 a 5.81 ab 0.46 a
CFCF: chisel plow, twice in Fall at perpendicular direction 92.50 a 413 a 86.50 a 34.20 a 5.96 a 0.47 a
a
Disk + level were applied after all treatment.
b
Similar letters on each column show no significant difference at 95% level of confidence.

Table 5
Average grain yield for different tillage treatments in Hamedan region.

Tillage treatmentsa Emergence Plant Head Grain 1000-grain Yield Coefficient

2 1
percentage (%) height (cm) (no. m ) (no. head ) weight (g) (t ha 1) harvest (%)

CF: chisel plow in Fall 83.50 ab 80.10 a 355 a 51 a 40.35 a 7.18 a 46.30
CS: chisel plow in Spring 82.00 a 81.56 a 353 a 51 a 41.90 a 7.52 a 44.40
MF: moldboard plow in Fall 82.50 a 82.14 a 350 a 48 ab 40.14 a 6.90 a 39.70
MS: moldboard plow in Spring 82.00 a 82.00 a 350 a 47 b 41.57 a 7.05 a 44.00
a
Disk + Leveler in Fall applied after all treatments.
b
Similar letters on each column show no significant difference at 95% level of confidence.

Please cite this article in press as: Javadi, A., et al., Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions of Iran.
Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016
G Model
STILL-2594; No of Pages 7

A. Javadi et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 5

Table 6
Average yield and yield components in 3 years of study for both treatments.
1 2 1 1
Region Treatment Grain yield (t ha ) Heads (no. m ) Grain (no. head ) 1000-seeds weight (%) Straw (t ha ) Coefficient of harvest (%)

Karaj CT 5.51 a 431.40 a 38.00 a 47.00 a 9.30 a 37.90 a

MT 4.61 b 407.90 a 39.80 a 46.00 a 7.75 b 37.00 a

Mashhad CT 2.52 a 294.40 a 37.41 a 33.10 a 5. 94 a 30.70 a

MT 2.12 b 281.00 a 37.43 a 30.80 a 5.54 a 28.80 a

Dezful CT 4.35 a 410.90 a 38.30 a 40.40 a 8.63 a 33.3 b

MT 4.16 a 375.70 b 37.70 a 38.60 a 7.84 b 36.20 a

Shiraz CT 3.47a 361.00 a 43.50 a 33.10 a 5.89 a 39.60 a

MT 3.24 a 389.10 a 39.60 b 30.40 b 5.32 b 38.70 a

Tabriz CT 3.22 a 576.00 a 28.30 a 40.30 a 8.85 a 28.30 a

MT 3.14 a 605.00 a 24.90 a 39.70 a 8.83 a 27.60 a

Similar letters on each column show no significant difference at 95% level of confidence.

higher yield. This was supposed to be due to lower soil resistance

and better weed control by using the moldboard plow twice. This
result agrees with other studies indicating that with decreasing
soil penetration resistance, root growth and seed germination
percentage increased (Finaly et al., 1994; Hayhoe et al., 1993; Nasr
and Selles, 1995). The results also indicate that minimum tillage
using chisel plow in spring or fall can be considered as a substitute
to conventional moldboard plowing without considerable reduc-
tion in terms of crop productivity.

3.3. Hamedan (West)

No significant difference was observed between treatments in

terms of crop productivity (Table 5). Here, chisel plow in
spring + disk and leveler in fall (CS) produced the highest grain
yield of 7.18 t ha 1 whereas the conventional method moldboard
plow + disk and leveler in fall (MF) produced the lowest yield of
6.9 t ha 1. In this region located in the cold area the temperature
was low during tillage and planting operations. Therefore moisture
content was more appropriate for chisel plow than moldboard
plow and common drill was able to sow the seeds at suitable and
uniform depth. This led to high and uniform seed emergence rates,
resulting in a higher productivity and crop yield. There was no
significant difference between treatments in terms of emergence
percentage, plant height, heads per m2 and 1000-grain weight.
Minimum tillage can therefore reduce preparation time of land
(which is very important in this region with cold temperatures)
and avoid creation of large clods by moldboard plowing.
3.4. Mashhad
Analysis of variance for all treatments revealed that the
interaction between depths and moisture contents on grain yield
was not significant. Maximum grain yields were achieved at
moisture content of 10–15% which was sufficient in this moderate
to cold climatic region and tillage depth of 10–15 cm (Fig. 2). It was
noted that there was only a slight difference between tillage depths
of D1: 5–10 cm and D2: 10–15 cm at moisture of 10–15%.
It was clear that appropriate moisture content created a
suitable environment for germination and growth. Moreover
shallow tillage at depth of 0–10 cm would be adequate for wheat
production as for this local variety roots are not extended to deeper
layers.
3.5. National research project (five regions)
The results as shown in Table 6 indicate that there was no
significant difference on productivity between minimum and
Fig. 2. Grain yield as a result of different tillage depths (D1: 5–10 cm; D2: 10–15 cm;
D3: 15–20 cm; D4: 20–25 cm) and moisture levels (M1: 0–5%; M2: 5–10%; M3: 10–
15%; M4: 15–20%) during tillage and sowing. Vertical bars indicate LSD.
conventional tillage systems in three out of the five regions.
Conventional tillage gave slightly better results than minimum
tillage. Results also indicated that differences were not consider-
able as the other yield components were concerned. It is assumed
that the good tillering ability of wheat was able to outgrow the
initial differences. The slight yield difference in conventional
method might be due to deeper plowing depth, and a better
residue burying and weed control. It is clear that conventional
tillage consumes more energy compared to minimum tillage, takes
more time, and implies higher costs (depreciation of equipment).
In addition farmers often cultivate twice a year, whereas time for
cultivation is short. In view of this, minimum tillage can be
recommended for irrigated wheat production in these regions of
Iran. However planters should be modified with a sharp furrow
opener enabling to work in soils with crop residue. It is also
recommended after each 3 years of minimum tillage a moldboard
plow or deep tillage should be used for weed control.
4. Discussion
This research assessed different tillage methods in a variety of
climates, soil types and regional factors. Other researchers also
reported that proper tillage method should be recommended
considering priority and key factor of each region (Lawrence et al.,
1994; Lindwall et al., 1995).
The results showed that no-tillage or direct drilling did not
present promising results when using with the available conven-
tional sowing equipment. A lack of proper equipment for sowing
seeds into soil covered with residue led to poor contact between

Please cite this article in press as: Javadi, A., et al., Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions of Iran.
Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016
G Model
STILL-2594; No of Pages 7
6 A. Javadi et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
Table 7
Performance parameters of tillage implements.
1 1
Type of implement Working width (m) Fuel consumption (L ha
Moldboard plow 1.2 11.94 a
Chisel plow 2.7 11.84 a
Khishcheea 1.95 30.60 b
Similar letters on each column show no significant difference at 95% level of confidence.
a
A locally made plow (specification given in Isfahan area).
seed and soil, with an uneven planting depth, negatively affecting
productivity. Earlier studies on irrigated wheat in central and arid
regions of Iran reported that direct-drilling improved soil
structural stability but indicated also that such improvement
did not lead to a positive response in crop productivity (Hajabbasi
and Hemmat, 2000; Hemmat and Taki, 2001). In addition, residue
left on the soil could not decompose due to high temperature and
lack of moisture in the arid and warm regions during the crop
growth period. High temperature could also create hard and dry
soil surface which was not easy for other equipment to penetrate.
Hammel (1989) reported that no-tillage could lead to excessive soil
compaction with surface layers resulting in adverse condition for
crop growth and consequent yield reduction.
This research revealed that reduced tillage is promising in all
regions and can be a substitute for the conventional methods.
Reduced tillage using chisel plow, or disk and toothed harrow were
noted to be effective and adequate, using a commonly available
drill to sow the seeds at the required depth. A study in Spain under
similar conditions reported comparable results that reduced tillage
by chisel plowing could provide an efficient alternative to
conventional tillage in order to maintain productivity levels
(Lopez and Arrue, 1997). Minimum tillage by using chisel plow
was also recommended by Unger (1977) in wheat production. It
can be mentioned that for arid climate with low rainfall in central
and southern parts of Iran, water use efficiency, moisture
infiltration below surface layer and evaporation control are key
factors and seeds should often placed in the hard and dry soil.
Therefore reduced tillage by leaving some residue on surface could
improve moisture absorbance and infiltration rate in one side and
decreasing evaporation and drilling disturbance in the other side.
This was agreed with the results presented by Carter (1991) that
shallow tillage removed some of the constraints associated with
drilling. Moreover in the northern parts of Iran with low
temperatures and higher rainfall, timeliness is a key factor. In
these regions using a moldboard plow often creates large clods and
intensive secondary tillage operation becomes unavoidable.
Reduced tillage again would be an appropriate solution by
applying chisel plow in these regions.
Chisel plowing would also lower energy (fuel) consumption and
increase field efficiency. Three common tillage implements;
moldboard plow, chisel plow and Khishchee (locally made
explained in Isfahan treatments) were compared in central
province. The results revealed that plowing with Khishchee had
the highest fuel consumption and the lowest field capacity. Fuel
consumption was the lowest for chisel plow and field capacity was
44% higher than moldboard plow. Volume of disturbed soil for
chisel plow was larger than other machines (Table 7).
Although no significant differences between reduced and
conventional tillage in terms of crop productivity were found,
the advantages of reduced tillage by the chisel plow are that some
residue is left on the soil, decreasing risk of structural damage and
thus erosion. Studies in dry areas of Morocco showed that reduced
tillage produced wheat yields comparable to conventional tillage,
while improving soil structure increasing organic matter content
(Mrabet et al., 2001). Moldboard plowing is known to increase risk
Please cite this article in press as: Javadi, A., et al., Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions of Iran.
Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016
) Field capacity (ha h ) Volume of disturbed soil (m3 ha 1
)
0.50 a 1078.50 b
0.75 b 1408.44 c
0.45 a 676.35 a
of creating a plow pan when repeated every year (Birkas et al.,
2004).
The slightly higher yields under conventional methods in some
regions of Iran could be a result of lower soil resistance and hence
better root development, increased aeration, and more effective
weed control. This would allow a common seed drill to perform
better (no residue disturbance). Similar results were reported by
Kirkegaerd et al. (1994), Oussible et al. (1992), Karlen and Gooden
(1987), Catizone et al. (1990) and Dickey (1983).
5. Conclusions
 No significant differences were observed in wheat productivity
between conventional and reduced tillage systems in most of the
regions.
 Reduced tillage (chisel plowing), by leaving crop residue and
reducing soil disturbance (inversion) would alleviate constrains
in terms of moisture deficit, evaporation losses, erosion damage,
and timeliness of the sowing operation.
 Reduced tillage can substitute conventional tillage for wheat
production in Iran.
 No-tillage did not show promising results which may partly be
due to lack of appropriate equipment.
 More research in this part of world is needed to collect sufficient
data to form a basis for rational decisions.
Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely appreciate the full support of the
Agricultural Engineering Research Institute of Iran (AERI) and
their many advisers and researchers, including Prof. Abbas
Hemmat, Dr. Ahmad Sharifi and Engs. Ali Khosravani, Dr. Masoud
Zabolestani, Dr. Ahmad Mohseni-Manesh and Eng. Masoud
Sharbanou-Nejad.
References
Aase, J.K., Pikul Jr., J.L., 1995. Crop and soil response to long-term tillage practices in
the northern great plains. Agron. J. 87, 652–656.
Allen, R.R., Wiese, A.F., 1967. Limited tillage of furrow irrigated winter wheat. ASAE
Trans. 19, 234–241.
Birkas, M., Jolankai, M., Gyuricza, C., Percze, A., 2004. Tillage effects on compaction,
earthworms and other soil quality indicators in Hungary. Soil Tillage Res. 78,
185–196.
Carter, M.R., 1991. Evaluation of shallow tillage for Spring cereals on a fine sandy
loam. 1. Growth and yield components, N accumulation and tillage economics.
Soil Tillage Res. 21, 23–35.
Carter, M.R., Rennie, D.A., 1984. Dynamics of soil microbial biomass nitrogen under
zero and shallow tillage for spring wheat using N urea. Plant Soil 76, 157–164.
Catizone, P., Tedeschi, J., Balboni, G., 1990. Influence of crop management on weed
populations and wheat yield. In: Proceedings of an EWRS Symposium, Helsinki,
Finland.
Davies, D.B., 1988. Reduced Cultivation for Cereals. HGCA Review. Home–Grown
Cereals Authority, London, p. 67.
Dickey, E.C., 1983. Yield comparison between continuous no-till and tillage rota-
tion. ASAE Trans. 26, 1682–1686.
Finaly, M.J., Tisdall, J.M., Mckenzie, B.M., 1994. Effect of Tillage bellow the seed on
emergence of wheat seedings in a hardsetting soil. Soil Tillage Res. 28, 213–225.
Hajabbasi, M.A., Hemmat, A., 2000. Tillage impact on aggregate stability of a clay
loam soil in central Iran. Soil Tillage Res. 56, 205–212.
G Model
STILL-2594; No of Pages 7
A. Javadi et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
Hammel, J.E., 1989. Long-term tillage and crop rotation effects on bulk density and
soil impedance in northern Idaho. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53, 1515–1519.
Hayhoe, H.N., Dwyer, L.M., Balchin, D., Culley, J.L.B., 1993. Tillage effects on corn
emergence rate. Soil Tillage Res. 26 (45), 53.
Hemmat, A., 1998. Effect of different methods of seed bed preparation on wheat
emergence. J. Agric. Sci. Iran 27, 55–64 (in Farsi).
Hemmat, A., Taki, O., 2001. Grain yield of irrigated winter wheat as affected by
stubble-tillage management and seeding rates in central Iran. Soil Tillage Res.
63, 57–64.
Karlen, D.L., Gooden, D.T., 1987. Tillage systems for wheat production in the
southeast coastal plain. Agron. J. 79, 582–587.
Keshavarz, A., Kamali, M.R., Dehghani, A.B., Hamid-Nezhad, M., Sadri, B., Haydari, A.,
2002. Ten-Year Plan to Increase Irrigated and Rain-fed Wheat Yield. Ministry of
Agriculture, Tehran, Iran (in Farsi).
Kirkegaerd, J.A., Angus, J.F., Gardner, P.A., Muller, W., 1994. Reduced growth and
yield of wheat with conservation cropping I: field studies in the first year of the
cropping phase. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 45, 511–528.
Lawrence, P.A., Radford, B.J., Thomas, G.A., Sinclair, D.P., Key, A.J., 1994. Effect of
tillage practices on wheat performance in a semi-arid environment. Soil Tillage
Res. 28, 347–364.
Please cite this article in press as: Javadi, A., et al., Sustainable tillage methods for irrigated wheat production in different regions of Iran.
Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.10.016
7
Lindwall, C.W., Larney, F.J., Carefoot, J.M., 1995. Rotation, tillage and seeder effects
on winter wheat performance and soil moisture regime. Can. J. Soil Sci. 75, 109–
116.
Lopez, M.V., Arrue, J.L., 1997. Growth, yield and water use efficiency of winter barley
in response to conservation tillage in a semi-arid region of Spain. Soil Tillage
Res. 44, 35–54.
Mrabet, R., Saber, N., El-Brahi, A., Lahlou, S., Besam, F., 2001. Total, particulate
organic matter and structural stability of a Calcixeroll soil under different wheat
rotations and tillage systems in a semi-arid area of Morocco. Soil Tillage Res. 57,
225–235.
Nasr, H.M., Selles, F., 1995. Seedling emergence as influenced by aggregate size,
bulk density, and penetration resistance of the seed bed. Soil Tillage Res. 34
(63), 76.
Oussible, M., Crookston, R.K., Larson, W.E., 1992. Subsurface compaction
reduces the root and shoot growth and grain yield of wheat. Agron. J. 84,
34–38.
Tresseir, S., Peru, C.A., Campbell, C.A., Zenter, R.P., Dyck, F.B., 1990. Conservation
tillage for Spring wheat in semi-arid Saskatchewan. Soil Tillage Res. 18, 73–90.
Unger, P.W., 1977. Tillage effects on winter wheat production where the irrigated
and dryland crops are alternated. Agron. J. 69, 944–950.