PPE Slides RZ Part2b

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VST rz10 VST rz10
1/108 1/108
Principles of process technology
Principles of process technology
Part 2: Mass transfer and separation
Part 2: Mass transfer and separation
processes
processes
MPCE Course MPCE Course Principles of Process technology Principles of Process technology 414102 414102 - - Helle/Zevenhoven/Sax Helle/Zevenhoven/Sax n n
Ron Zevenhoven Ron Zevenhoven
bo Akademi University bo Akademi University
Thermal and Flow Engineering Laboratory Thermal and Flow Engineering Laboratory / V / V rme rme- - och str och str mningsteknik mningsteknik
tel. 3223 ; ron.zevenhoven@abo.fi tel. 3223 ; ron.zevenhoven@abo.fi
http://users.abo.fi/rzevenho/kursRZ.html http://users.abo.fi/rzevenho/kursRZ.html
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VST rz10 VST rz10
2/108 2/108
Mass transfer process examples
Mass transfer process examples
Drying of a solid using heat or dry gas

Drying of a solid using heat or dry gas
Adsorption of gas or liquid using a solid

Adsorption of gas or liquid using a solid
Distillation using heat to create a vapour phase

Distillation using heat to create a vapour phase
Gas absorption using a liquid absorbent

Gas absorption using a liquid absorbent
Extraction of liquid or solid using a solvent that

Extraction of liquid or solid using a solvent that
creates immiscible phases
creates immiscible phases
Crystallisation using cooling

Crystallisation using cooling
to create a solid phase
to create a solid phase
Note
Note
the
the
support phase
support phase
:
:
solvent, sorbent, heat, ....
solvent, sorbent, heat, ....
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VST rz10 VST rz10
3/108 3/108
Overview of lectures
Overview of lectures
3x2 h
3x2 h
Mass transfer
Mass transfer
5.
5.
Diffusion, drift flow
Diffusion, drift flow
(see part 1)
(see part 1)
6.
6.
Phase equilibrium
Phase equilibrium
7.
7.
Convective mass transfer
Heat / mass transfer analogy
8.
8.
Non
Non
-
-
stationary heat / mass transfer
stationary heat / mass transfer
Separation processes
Separation processes
9.
9.
Separation processes, equilibrium stages
Separation processes, equilibrium stages
10.
10.
Absorption / desorption (stripping)
Absorption / desorption (stripping)
11.
11.
Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation (McCabe (McCabe- -Thiele) Thiele)
12.
12.
Packed columns
Packed columns
Note: in these Note: in these
lectures, only lectures, only
1 1 - - dimensional, dimensional,
mostly stationary mostly stationary
cases are cases are
considered. considered.
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4/108 4/108
6. Phase equilibrium
6. Phase equilibrium
(gas
(gas
-
-
gas, gas
gas, gas
-
-
liquid, liquid
liquid, liquid
-
-
liquid)
liquid)
Henry
Henry
s Law, Raoult
s Law, Raoult
s Law
s Law
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VST rz10 VST rz10
5/108 5/108
Phase equilibrium
Phase equilibrium
/1
/1
Gas / solid
equilibrium
Liquid water in equilibrium with ice and water vapour
Gas / liquid
equilibrium
Liquid / solid
equilibrium
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6/108 6/108
Mass transfer and equilibrium
Mass transfer and equilibrium
Drying of wet gas in an glycol absorber
Drying of wet gas in an glycol absorber
c
H2O
wet gas
dry gas
time
c
H2O
in liq
c
H2O,eq
Equilibrium determined by
thermodynamics
Rate determined by
transport processes and
equipment design
glycol
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VST rz10 VST rz10
7/108 7/108
Humid air above a lake.
Humid air above a lake.
x = fraction in liquid, y = fraction in gas, x = fraction in liquid, y = fraction in gas,
z = position coordinate, T = temperature z = position coordinate, T = temperature
z
x, y, T
x
H2O
= 1
y
H2O
<< 1
T
Boundary layer
gas side
Boundary layer
liquid side
Equilibrium
at surface
Cooling
due to water
vaporisation
and: some and: some
air dissolves air dissolves
in the lake ! in the lake !
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Gas
Gas
-
-
liquid phase equilibrium:
Raoult
Raoult
s law
s law
Assume a liquid mixture of components A, B,

C, .... at a temperature T.
A
A
occupies a
occupies a
large
large
fraction, say
fraction, say
x
x
A A
> 5 %
> 5 %
At temperature T, saturation pressure of pure

At temperature T, saturation pressure of pure
substance A
substance A
(i.e. A vapour above liquid A)
(i.e. A vapour above liquid A)
is p
is p
A A
0 0
For the mixture, the vapour pressure of A

equals
equals
p
p
A A
= y
= y
A A
.p
.p
tot tot
= x
= x
A A
.p
.p
A A
0 0
For a two
For a two
-
-
component mixture
component mixture
of A and B:
of A and B:
p
p
B B
=x
=x
B B
.p
.p
B B
0 0
= (1
= (1
-
-
x
x
A A
).p
).p
B B
0 0
,
,
using x
using x
A A
+x
+x
B B
=1
=1
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VST rz10 VST rz10
9/108 9/108
Gas
Gas
-
-
Henry
Henry
s law
s law

A
A
occupies a
occupies a
small
small
fraction, say
fraction, say
x
x
A A
< 5 %
< 5 %

equals
equals
p
p
A A
= y
= y
A A
.p
.p
tot tot
= H
= H
cA cA
.x
.x
A A
with
with
Henry constant
Henry constant
H
H
c c
(unit: Pa, bar, ....)
(unit: Pa, bar, ....)
y
y
A A
/x
/x
A A
= H
= H
cA cA
/p
/p
tot tot
=
=
, y
, y
A A
=
=
.x
.x
A A
distribution coefficient
distribution coefficient
(mol/mol)
(mol/mol)
H
H
c c
is a function of temperature, but
is a function of temperature, but
independent of pressure at p
independent of pressure at p
tot tot
< 5 bar.
< 5 bar.
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VST rz10 VST rz10
10/108 10/108
Example
Example
:
:
Water
Water
-
-
ammonia vapour /1
ammonia vapour /1
A mixture of ammonia and water

A mixture of ammonia and water
40
40
C, total pressure unknown

C, total pressure unknown
Liquid composition:
Liquid composition:
70 %
70 %
-
-
mol NH
mol NH
3 3
+ 30 %
+ 30 %
-
-
mol H
mol H
2 2
O
O
What is the composition of the

What is the composition of the
gas, y
gas, y
NH3 NH3
, y
, y
H2O H2O
?
?
At equilibrium, no driving forces

At equilibrium, no driving forces
or temperature gradients,
or temperature gradients,
x
x
NH3 NH3
+ x
+ x
H2O H2O
= 1, y
= 1, y
NH3 NH3
+ y
+ y
H2O H2O
= 1
= 1
but
but
x
x
NH3 NH3

y
y
NH3 NH3
, x
, x
H2O H2O

y
y
H2O H2O
!!!
!!!
x
H2O
= 0.3 mol/mol
x
NH3
= 0.7 mol/mol
T = 40C
P
tot
= ?
GAS
LIQUID
Relative volatility of NH
3
with respect to water:
= (y
NH3
/ x
NH3
) / (y
H2O
/ x
H2O
) = K
NH3
/ K
H2O
at equilibrium
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VST rz10 VST rz10
11/108 11/108
Example
Example
:
:
Water
Water
-
-
ammonia vapour /2
ammonia vapour /2
Gas above an NH
Gas above an NH
3 3
/H
/H
2 2
O liquid mixture with
O liquid mixture with
x
x
NH3 NH3
= 0.7 and x
= 0.7 and x
H2O H2O
= 0.3, T = 40
= 0.3, T = 40
C.
C.
Questions: pressure & equilibrium composition of gas ?

Questions: pressure & equilibrium composition of gas ?
From
From
tabelised data
tabelised data
for saturation pressures, at 40
for saturation pressures, at 40
C :
C :
p
p
H2O H2O
= 7.348 kPa; p
= 7.348 kPa; p
NH3 NH3
= 1554.33 kPa
= 1554.33 kPa
x
x
-
-
values for liquid >> 5 % : use
values for liquid >> 5 % : use
Raoult
Raoult
s Law
s Law
:
:
p
p
H2O H2O
= x
= x
H2O H2O
p
p
H2O H2O
= 0.3
= 0.3
7.348 kPa = 2.22 kPa

7.348 kPa = 2.22 kPa
p
p
NH3 NH3
= x
= x
NH3 NH3
p
p
NH3 NH3
= 0.7
= 0.7
1554.33 kPa = 1088.3 kPa

1554.33 kPa = 1088.3 kPa
P
P
total total
= p
= p
H2O H2O
+ p
+ p
NH3 NH3
= 1090.25 kPa = 10.9025 bar
= 1090.25 kPa = 10.9025 bar
y
y
H2O H2O
= 2.22 kPa / 1090.25 kPa = 0.002 = 0.2 %
= 2.22 kPa / 1090.25 kPa = 0.002 = 0.2 %
-
-
v
v
y
y
NH3 NH3
= 1088.3 kPa / 1090.25 kPa = 0.998 = 99.8 %
= 1088.3 kPa / 1090.25 kPa = 0.998 = 99.8 %
-
-
v
v
Source: B98
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VST rz10 VST rz10
12/108 12/108
Henry
Henry
s law constants
s law constants
Source: Atkins, 1983
Source: engel & Boles, 1998
Henry coefficients in water
MPa 290 K 300 K 310 K 320 K 330 K 340 K
H
2
S 44 56 70 83 98 114
CO
2
128 171 217 272 322 ---
O
2
3800 4500 5200 5700 6100 6500
H
2
6700 7200 7500 7600 7700 7600
CO 5100 6000 6700 7400 8000 8400
Air 6200 7400 8400 9200 9900 10400
N
2 7600 8900 10100 11000 11800 12400
Henry coefficients at 25C
mm Hg in water in benzene MPa in water in benzene
H
2
5.3410
7
2.7510
6
H
2
7119.4 366.6
N
2
6.5110
7
1.7910
6
N
2 8679.3 238.6
O
2
3.3010
7
O
2
4399.6
CO
2
1.2510
6
8.5710
4
CO
2
166.7 11.4
CH
4
3.1410
5
4.2710
5
CH
4 41.9 56.9
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VST rz10 VST rz10
13/108 13/108
Air above a lake
Air above a lake
x = fraction in liquid, y = fraction in gas, x = fraction in liquid, y = fraction in gas,
z = position coordinate, T = temperature z = position coordinate, T = temperature
z
x, y, T
x
H2O
1
y
H2O
<< 1
T
Equilibrium
at surface
Concentration
jump
and: some
air dissolves
in the lake !
O H
O H
O H
x
y
K
2
2
2
= : m equilibriu at
y
O2
0.21
y
N2
0.79
x
O2
<< 0.01
x
N2
<< 0.01
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Water saturation tables
Water saturation tables
Source: engel & Boles, 1998
S
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a
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P
T
G

(
2
0
0
6

#
4
)
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Example
Example
:
:
Water in air above a lake
Water in air above a lake
Assume a lake with T=17

Assume a lake with T=17
C, p
C, p
tot tot
= 92 kPa at
= 92 kPa at
water surface level.
water surface level.
At the surface, the water will be saturated with

At the surface, the water will be saturated with
water, which means p
water, which means p
H2O H2O
= p
= p
H2O H2O
= 1920 Pa.
= 1920 Pa.
Fraction of water in the air at the water surface

Fraction of water in the air at the water surface
at equilbrium with the air above is then
at equilbrium with the air above is then
y
y
H2O H2O
= p
= p
H2O H2O
/p
/p
tot tot
= 1.92 kPa / 92 kPa = 2.09 %
= 1.92 kPa / 92 kPa = 2.09 %
note:
note:
% = %
% = %
-
-
v (volume %)
v (volume %)
Source: B98
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VST rz10 VST rz10
16/108 16/108
Example
Example
:
:
Air dissolved in lake water
Air dissolved in lake water
Assume the same lake, T=17

Assume the same lake, T=17
C, p
C, p
tot tot
= 92 kPa at water
= 92 kPa at water
surface level. At the surface p
surface level. At the surface p
H2O H2O
= p
= p
H2O H2O
= 1920 Pa.
= 1920 Pa.
A small amount (<< 5 %

A small amount (<< 5 %
-
-
vol) of air will be dissolved in
vol) of air will be dissolved in
the water: use
the water: use
Henry
Henry
s Law
s Law
to calculate the equilibrium:
to calculate the equilibrium:
At T = 290 K, H
At T = 290 K, H
c AIR,water c AIR,water
= 6200 MPa
= 6200 MPa
p
p
AIR AIR
= p
= p
tot tot
p
p
H2O H2O
= 90.008 kPa
= 90.008 kPa
x
x
AIR, water side AIR, water side
= p
= p
AIR,air side AIR,air side
/ H
/ H
c AIR, water c AIR, water
= 0.090008 MPa / 6200 MPa = 1.45
= 0.090008 MPa / 6200 MPa = 1.45
10
10
- -5 5
= 0.00145 %
= 0.00145 %
-
-
v
v
This means 1.45 moles air (molar mass ~29 kg/kmol) in

This means 1.45 moles air (molar mass ~29 kg/kmol) in
100000 moles water (molar mass 18 kg/kmol), which
100000 moles water (molar mass 18 kg/kmol), which
means 23.4 mg air / kg water
means 23.4 mg air / kg water
Source: B98
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17/108 17/108
Two
Two
-
-
component phase diagram
component phase diagram
(G/L)
(G/L)
P, T, x diagram for a
binary gas-liquid system
x
x
A A
= 1
= 1
-
-
x
x
B B
y
y
A A
= 1
= 1
-
-
y
y
B B
Picture: T68
critical points
pure A, B
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18/108 18/108
Constant pressure; the
Constant pressure; the
x
x
-
-
y diagram
y diagram
Binary vapour
Binary vapour
-
-
liquid equilibrium
liquid equilibrium
Temperature
Picture: T68
y
x
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19/108 19/108
Relative volatility,
Relative volatility,
Raoult
Raoult
(for not
(for not
-
-
small x
small x
i i
)
)
:
:
y
y
A A
=x
=x
A A
p
p
A A
, y
, y
B B
=x
=x
B B
p
p
B B
x
x
B B
= 1
= 1
-
-
x
x
A A
, y
, y
B B
= 1
= 1
-
-
y
y
A A
y
y
B B
/y
/y
A A
=
=
x
x
B B
/x
/x
A A
= relative volatility
= relative volatility
=
=
p
p
B B
/p
/p
A A
=
=
(T)
(T)
result:
result:
(1
(1
-
-
y
y
A A
)/y
)/y
A A
=
=
(
(
1
1
-
-
x
x
A A
)/x
)/x
A A
y
y
A A
=
=
x
x
A A
/ (1+ (
/ (1+ (
-
-
1)
1)
x
x
A A
)
)
=
Picture: WK92
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20/108 20/108
7.
7.
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21/108 21/108
Variables & transfer coefficients
Variables & transfer coefficients
Source: BMH99
For mass transfer
of species A in B,
Sh = Sh
AB
is often
written as Nu
AB
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22/108 22/108
Gradients, driving forces
/1
/1
T
1
T
2
Heat transfer
coefficient h
2
Heat transfer
coefficient h
1
d
Heat
conductivity
T
1
T
2
2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1
2 1
1
+ +
1
=
1
= =
=
=
= =
h
d
h h
) T T ( h ) T T ( h
) T T (
d
) T T .( h
T . h
total
' '
' '
total
total
"
h
Heat flux
h
(W/m
2
),
local and overall
heat transfer coeffients h
Note: temperature is continuous
heat
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23/108 23/108
/2
/2
A temperature A temperature
profile, heat profile, heat
transfer 1 transfer 1 2 2
T
2
T
i
T
1
1
c
1
c
2
c
1,i
c
2,i
c
1
c
1,i
c
2,i
c
2
A chemical A chemical
potential profile, potential profile,
mass transfer 1 mass transfer 1 2 2
Concentration profiles, Concentration profiles,
mass transfer 1 mass transfer 1 2 2
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24/108 24/108
Example:
Example:
mass transfer coefficient
/1
/1
Picture: T06
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
k. t coefficien transfer mass and t coefficien diffusion with
-
as described be can boundary a at s) (mol/m " m transfer Mass
h. t coefficien transfer heat and ty conductivi heat with
-
as described be can boundary a at ) (W/m q" transfer Heat
2
A
2
0 =
0 =
0 =
0 =
= = = =
= = = =
A As
y
A
A As
y
A A
"
A
s
y
s
y
c c
dy
dc
k c c k
dy
dc
-
A
m
m
T T
dy
dT
h T T h
dy
dT
-
A
Q
" Q
y
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25/108 25/108
Example:
Example:
/1
/1
At and near the surface of

At and near the surface of
a pan of water,
a pan of water,
measurements of the
measurements of the
partial pressure of water
partial pressure of water
are made. The results are
are made. The results are
given in the Figure.
given in the Figure.
Calculate
Calculate
the mass
the mass
transfer coefficient k (m/s).
transfer coefficient k (m/s).
The system is isothermal. The system is isothermal.
Diffusion coefficient Diffusion coefficient = =

water vapour in air water vapour in air
= at 298 K = = at 298 K =
2.60 2.60 10 10
- -5 5
m m
2 2
/s /s
Source: IDBL06
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26/108 26/108
Example:
Example:
/2
/2
At the surface, the water partial pressure = saturated vapour At the surface, the water partial pressure = saturated vapour
pressure = 0.10 atm pressure = 0.10 atm T = 319 K (water/steam tables). T = 319 K (water/steam tables).
The mass transfer coefficient k is calculated using The mass transfer coefficient k is calculated using
(319K) = (319K) = (298K) (298K) (319/298) (319/298)
1.5 1.5
= 2.88 = 2.88 10 10
- -5 5
m m
2 2
/s /s
k = k = - -2.88 2.88 10 10
- -5 5
m m
2 2
/s /s (0 (0 0.1) atm / (0.003 0.1) atm / (0.003 0) m / (0.1 0) m / (0.1 0.02) atm 0.02) atm
= 0.012 m/s = 0.012 m/s
( ) ( ) /RT p nA/V c with - -
A A
= = = =

0 =
0 =
A As
y
A
s
y
p p
dy
dp
c c
dy
dc
k
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27/108 27/108
Mass
Mass
heat transfer analogy

Important differences heat transfer / mass transfer
Important differences heat transfer / mass transfer
The interface between media or phases is usually

The interface between media or phases is usually
mobile during mass transfer.
mobile during mass transfer.
In liquids and solids, the diffusion coefficients

In liquids and solids, the diffusion coefficients
(m
(m
2 2
/s)
/s)
are (much) smaller the heat diffusivity
are (much) smaller the heat diffusivity
a
a
(m
(m
2 2
/s) and
/s) and
kinematic viscosity
kinematic viscosity
(m
(m
2 2
/s).
/s).
Diffusion can induce a drift flow.

Diffusion can induce a drift flow.
Instead of concentration (c), chemical potential (

Instead of concentration (c), chemical potential (
)
)
should actually be used. Using concentration gives
should actually be used. Using concentration gives
diffusion coefficients dependent on concentrations diffusion coefficients dependent on concentrations
discontinuous concentration profiles across phase boundaries discontinuous concentration profiles across phase boundaries
There seems to be no mass analogy of heat radiation
transfer.....
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Mass transfer and boundary layers
Mass transfer and boundary layers
For mass transfer

For mass transfer
between two phases A
between two phases A
and B, concentration
and B, concentration
gradients usually only
gradients usually only
exist near the physical
exist near the physical
boundary that
boundary that
separates A and B
separates A and B
Thus, the driving forces

Thus, the driving forces
are active only in
are active only in
boundary layers at the
boundary layers at the
separating surface
separating surface
Equilibrium
between
c
A,interfaceA
and c
A,interfaceB
A
mol A mol A

boundary layer
medium A
phase
boundary
boundary layer
medium B
c
A,bulkA
c
A,bulkB
c
A,interfaceA
c
A,interfaceB
B
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29/108 29/108
Mass transfer coefficient
/1
/1
Mass flow species A:

Mass flow species A:
A A
=
=
A A
mol/s
mol/s
Mass transfer rate per area:

Mass transfer rate per area:
A A
=
=
A A
/a =
/a =

A A
mol/(m
mol/(m
2 2
s)
s)
Mass transfer coefficients, k,

Mass transfer coefficients, k,
(unit: m/s) for both sides of
(unit: m/s) for both sides of
the interface:
the interface:
A A
= k
= k
x x
(c
(c
1,i 1,i
-
-
c
c
1 1
) = k
) = k
y y
(c
(c
2 2
-
-
c
c
2,i 2,i
)
)
1 (L) 2 (G)
y
i
C
2.i
y
C
2
x
i
C
1.i
L,G example
x
C
1
interface a

A A
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30/108 30/108
/2
/2
But for a total (overall) mass

But for a total (overall) mass
transfer coefficient k
transfer coefficient k
tot tot
:
:
o
o
It is very difficult to determine
It is very difficult to determine
concentrations at interfaces
concentrations at interfaces
o
o

A A
= k
= k
tot tot
(x
(x
-
-
y) or
y) or
A A
= k
= k
tot tot
(c
(c
2 2
-
-
c
c
1 1
)
)
makes no sense
makes no sense
More important instead: how

More important instead: how
are the concentrations
are the concentrations
related to saturation in their
related to saturation in their
phase: x
phase: x
x
x
sat sat
, y
, y
y
y
sat sat
1 (L) 2 (G)
y
i
C
2.i
y
C
2
x
i
C
1.i
L,G example
x
C
1
interface a
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31/108 31/108
/3
/3
Deviation from equilibrium

Deviation from equilibrium
gives transport
gives transport
use
use
information for
information for
concentrations at equilibrium:
concentrations at equilibrium:
c
c
1,i 1,i
= m
= m
c
c
2,i 2,i
with
with
distribution
distribution
coefficient m
coefficient m
(from Raoult
(from Raoult
s or
s or
Henry
Henry
s law, for example)

s law, for example)
Eliminate interface values in

Eliminate interface values in
A A
= k
= k
x x
(c
(c
1,i 1,i
-
-
c
c
1 1
) = k
) = k
y y
(c
(c
2 2
-
-
c
c
2,i 2,i
)
)
C
C
2,i 2,i
= (k
= (k
y y
c
c
2 2
+ k
+ k
x x
c
c
1 1
)/(mk
)/(mk
x x
+ k
+ k
y y
), or
), or
C
C
1,i 1,i
= (k
= (k
y y
c
c
2 2
+ k
+ k
x x
c
c
1 1
)/(k
)/(k
x x
+ k
+ k
y y
/m)
/m)
1 (L) 2 (G)
y
i
C
2.i
y
C
2
x
i
C
1.i
L,G example
x
C
1
interface a
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32/108 32/108
/4
/4
The result is:

The result is:
Replace c
Replace c
1 1
/m = c
/m = c
2 2
*, which is
*, which is
the concentration in phase 2
the concentration in phase 2
if in equilibrium with phase 1,
if in equilibrium with phase 1,
or similarly m.c
or similarly m.c
2 2
= c
= c
1 1
*
*
:
:
A A
= K
= K
y y
(c
(c
2 2
-
-
c
c
2 2
*) = K
*) = K
x x
(c
(c
1 1
*
*
-
-
c
c
1 1
)
)
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1
1
2
1
2
1
=
1
+ =
1
+
1
=
c c m K c c m
k k
m
N
m
c
c K
m
c
c
k m k
N
x
x y
A
y
x y
A
1 (L) 2 (G)
y
i
C
2.i
y
C
2
x
i
C
1.i
L,G example
x
C
1
interface a
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The film model
The film model
/1
/1
Steady
Steady
-
-
state diffusion, no
state diffusion, no
accumulation
accumulation
For a boundary layer

For a boundary layer
thickness
thickness
c c
,
,
with c=c
with c=c
A0 A0
@
@
x=0 and c=c
x=0 and c=c
A1 A1
@ x=
@ x=
c c
the
the
concentration profile is
concentration profile is
c 1 A 0 A
1 A A
y
1
c c
c c
dy y
y
dy
dc
dy
dc
+
y y +dy
0 = =
2
2
+
dy
c d
dy
dy
dc
d
dy
dy
dc
dy
dc
y dy y

diffusion
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The film model
The film model
/2
/2
A mass transfer coefficient can

A mass transfer coefficient can
be linked to the film model:
be linked to the film model:
A A
=
=
A,mol A,mol
= k
= k
(c
(c
A0 A0
-
-
c
c
A1 A1
) =
) =
-
-

A A
dc
dc
A A
/dy =
/dy =
A A
(c
(c
A0 A0
-
-
c
c
A1 A1
)/
)/
c c
which gives k =
which gives k =
A A
/
/
c c
Thus, the boundary layer

Thus, the boundary layer
thickness can be estimated if
thickness can be estimated if
k and
k and
A A
are known.
are known.
The mass transfer limitations

The mass transfer limitations
are concentrated in a well
are concentrated in a well
-
-
defined region.
defined region.
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The film model
The film model
/3
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Phase boundary concentration gradients
Phase boundary concentration gradients
(a)
(a)
Film theory
Film theory
(b)
(b)
Closer to reality
Closer to reality
Source: SH06 Source: SH06
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Mass transfer, forced convection
Mass transfer, forced convection
/1
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BUT: Often boundary layer thickness

BUT: Often boundary layer thickness
(and
(and
sometimes even its position) is unknown
sometimes even its position) is unknown
A correlation for Sherwood number (Sh) based on

A correlation for Sherwood number (Sh) based on
dimensional analysis can be used, relating Sh,
dimensional analysis can be used, relating Sh,
,
,
diffusion coefficient D, mass transfer coefficient k and
diffusion coefficient D, mass transfer coefficient k and
size scale d as Sh = k
size scale d as Sh = k
d
d
/
/

= d/
= d/
Sh is the mass transfer analogue of Nusselt number

Sh is the mass transfer analogue of Nusselt number
for heat transfer Nu = h
for heat transfer Nu = h
d/
d/
with heat transfer coefficient h with heat transfer coefficient h
Important situations for mass transfer with convection:

Important situations for mass transfer with convection:
Internal forced flow: inside a tube (laminar or turbulent) Internal forced flow: inside a tube (laminar or turbulent)
External forced flow: around an obstacle (laminar or turbulent) External forced flow: around an obstacle (laminar or turbulent)
Natural convection Natural convection
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Sherwood number
Sherwood number
Diffusion from a spherical particle with radius R in a

Diffusion from a spherical particle with radius R in a
stagnant medium (i.e. no flow), with concentration c=c
stagnant medium (i.e. no flow), with concentration c=c
0 0
at the surface of the sphere and c=c
at the surface of the sphere and c=c

far away from
far away from
the sphere:
the sphere:
A A
= k
= k
A A
.a.(c
.a.(c
0 0
-
-
c
c

) with surface a=4
) with surface a=4
R
R
,
,
mass transfer coefficient k
mass transfer coefficient k
A A
(m/s)
(m/s)
The diffusion equation

The diffusion equation
A A
=
=
-
-
A A
4
4
r
r
.dc/dr = constant
.dc/dr = constant
gives the concentration profile around the sphere:
gives the concentration profile around the sphere:
(c
(c
-
-
c
c

)/(c
)/(c
0 0
-
-
c
c

) = R/r
) = R/r
dc/dr =
dc/dr =
-
-
(c
(c
0 0
-
-
c
c

)
)
R/r
R/r
For r=R:
For r=R:
A A
= k
= k
A A
.a.(c
.a.(c
0 0
-
-
c
c

) =
) =
A A
.a.(c
.a.(c
0 0
-
-
c
c

)/R
)/R
k
k
A A
=
=
A A
/R = 2
/R = 2
A A
/d, with d=2R.
/d, with d=2R.
Ratio
Ratio
k
k
A A
d/
d/
A A
is referred to as
is referred to as
Sherwood number
Sherwood number
,
,
Sh, (the analogue of Nusselt number Nu for heat
Sh, (the analogue of Nusselt number Nu for heat
transfer) with Sh =2 for a sphere in a stagnant medium
transfer) with Sh =2 for a sphere in a stagnant medium
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Example:
Example:
a naphtalene sphere
a naphtalene sphere
A D
A D
0 0
= 1 cm mothball
= 1 cm mothball
,
,
is suspended in still air
is suspended in still air
and vaporises. The vapour pressure of
and vaporises. The vapour pressure of
naphtalene is ~ 0.05 mm Hg, the density is
naphtalene is ~ 0.05 mm Hg, the density is
=
=
1150 kg/m
1150 kg/m
3 3
, the diffusion coefficient of
, the diffusion coefficient of
napthalene in air at ambient conditions is
napthalene in air at ambient conditions is
=
=
7
7
10
10
- -6 6
m
m
/s.
/s.
Question:
Question:
How long does it take for the sphere
How long does it take for the sphere
to be reduced to half its original diameter?
to be reduced to half its original diameter?
Note: 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 101325 Pa; molar

Note: 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 101325 Pa; molar
mass naphtalene M = 0.128 kg/mol.
mass naphtalene M = 0.128 kg/mol.
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Example:
Example:
a naphtalene sphere
a naphtalene sphere
Answer:
Answer:
Mass transfer for a sphere in a stagnant medium:

Mass transfer for a sphere in a stagnant medium:
Sh = 2 = k
Sh = 2 = k
D
D
/
/
Concentration c = p/RT (mol/m

Concentration c = p/RT (mol/m
3 3
); c = c* = p*/RT at the
); c = c* = p*/RT at the
sphere
sphere
s surface, c = 0 far from the sphere.

s surface, c = 0 far from the sphere.
Molar flow rate:

Molar flow rate:
mol mol
= k
= k
a
a
c*= 2
c*= 2
(
(
/D)
/D)
D
D
p*/RT
p*/RT
(
(
mol/s), with a=
mol/s), with a=
D
D
(m
(m
2 2
), and
), and
m m
= M
= M
mol mol
(kg/s)
(kg/s)
gives
gives
m m
=2
=2
D
D
M
M
p*/RT =
p*/RT =
-
-
dm/dt =
dm/dt =
-
-
d(
d(
V)/dt =
V)/dt =
-
-
d
d
V/dt
V/dt
With V=(
With V=(
/6)
/6)
D
D
, dV/dt =
, dV/dt =
D
D
dD/dt gives for the

dD/dt gives for the
diameter D as function of time, D=D
diameter D as function of time, D=D
0 0
@ t=0:
@ t=0:
t =
t =
(D
(D
0 0
-
-
D
D
)
)
RT/(8
RT/(8
M
M
p*)
p*)
t = 51 days for D=
t = 51 days for D=
D
D
0 0
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Mass
Mass

Heat transfer Heat transfer
Nu = f(Re, Pr, L/D, Gr,..) Nu = f(Re, Pr, L/D, Gr,..)
Convection around a sphere: Convection around a sphere:
Nu = 2 + 0.6Re Nu = 2 + 0.6Re

Pr Pr

Transfer from a wall and a Transfer from a wall and a
turbulent flow: 2000 < Re < 10 turbulent flow: 2000 < Re < 10
5 5
and Pr > 0.7 and Pr > 0.7
Nu = 0.027Re Nu = 0.027Re
0.8 0.8
Pr Pr
0.33 0.33
( ( / /
wall wall
) )
1/7 1/7
General: Nu = CRe General: Nu = CRe
m m
Pr Pr
n n
, where , where
m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n 0.33 0.33
Mass transfer Mass transfer
Sh = f(Re, Sc, L/D, Gr,..) Sh = f(Re, Sc, L/D, Gr,..)
Convection around a sphere: Convection around a sphere:
Sh = 2 + 0.6Re Sh = 2 + 0.6Re

Sc Sc

Transfer from a wall and a Transfer from a wall and a
turbulent flow: 2000 < Re < 10 turbulent flow: 2000 < Re < 10
5 5
and Sc > 0.7 and Sc > 0.7
Sh = 0.027Re Sh = 0.027Re
0.8 0.8
Sc Sc
0.33 0.33
General: Sh = CRe General: Sh = CRe
m m
Sc Sc
n n
, ,
where m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n where m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n 0.33 0.33
Chilton Chilton- -Colburn analogies Colburn analogies, heat and mass transfer values j , heat and mass transfer values j
H H
, j , j
D D
: :
j j
H H
= NuRe = NuRe
- -1 1
Pr Pr
- -
j j
D D
= ShRe = ShRe
- -1 1
Sc Sc
- -
j
H
= j
D
= CRe
m-1
= = Fanning friction factor for pipe flow
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Example:
Example:
Wetted
Wetted
-
-
wall column
wall column
Sh = 0.023
Sh = 0.023
Re
Re
0.81 0.81
Sc
Sc
0.44 0.44
(2000 < Re 35000, 0.6 < Sc < 2.5) (2000 < Re 35000, 0.6 < Sc < 2.5)
Sh = 0.0096
Sh = 0.0096
Re
Re
0.913 0.913
Sc
Sc
0.346 0.346
(10000 < Re 100000, 432 < Sc < 97600) (10000 < Re 100000, 432 < Sc < 97600)
Example:
Example:
Calculate the mass transfer (gas) film Calculate the mass transfer (gas) film
th th ckness ckness for 1) water and 2) ethanol for 1) water and 2) ethanol
evaporating into air in a 2 evaporating into air in a 2 inner diameter inner diameter
wetted wetted- -wall column. Re = 20000, Sc wall column. Re = 20000, Sc
H2O H2O- -air air
= 0.573, Sc = 0.573, Sc
ethanol ethanol- -air air
= 1.14 = 1.14
Answer Answer (using the first expression for Sh) (using the first expression for Sh): :
1) Sh = 31.3 = k 1) Sh = 31.3 = k D D
tube tube
/ /
H2O H2O air air
= D = D
tube tube
/ /
gives gives = 0.064 = 0.064 = 1.6 mm = 1.6 mm
2) Sh = 1.14 gives 2) Sh = 1.14 gives = 0.047 = 0.047 = 1.2 mm = 1.2 mm
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8.
8.
Non
Non
-
-
stationary heat / mass
stationary heat / mass
transfer
transfer
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Fourier
Fourier
s Law
s Law
/3
/3
For a general case with a 3

For a general case with a 3
-
-
dimensional temperature
dimensional temperature
gradient T = (
gradient T = (
T/
T/
x,
x,
T/
T/
y,
y,
T/
T/
z), Fourier
z), Fourier
s Law gives
s Law gives
(for constant (for constant ) )
for the heat flux
for the heat flux
Q
Q
=
=
-
-

T
T
The the temperature field inside the The the temperature field inside the
conducting medium can be written as conducting medium can be written as
T = T(t, T = T(t, x x) with time t and 3 ) with time t and 3- -dimensional dimensional
location vector location vector x x
For stationary heat transfer For stationary heat transfer T/ T/ t = 0 at t = 0 at
each position each position x x
The heat transfer vector is perpendicular The heat transfer vector is perpendicular
to the isothermal surfaces to the isothermal surfaces
Note that material property Note that material property is a is a
function of temperature: function of temperature:
more accurately more accurately
Q
Q
=
=
-
-

(T)T
(T)T
.
Figure: JK05
Q is a vector with direction - T
.
.
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Transient heat conduction 1
-
-
D
D
/1
/1
For
For
1
1
-
-
dimensional transient heat
dimensional transient heat
conduction
conduction
in a balance volume
in a balance volume
dV with mass dm =
dV with mass dm =
dV =
dV =
A
A
dx :
dx :
2
2
2
2
x
T
a
t
T
x
T
A
x
x
T
A
t
T
A c
x
T
A
x
Q
t
T
c A
dx
x
Q
t
T
c dm Q Q
out in
+ =
=

-
- Q Law s Fourier' with
A dm/dx with

x
w
L
dx
Q
.
A = Lw
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-
-
D
D
/2
/2
Case 1
Case 1
: Assume a material with flat boundary at x=0,
: Assume a material with flat boundary at x=0,
infinite length in x
infinite length in x
-
-
direction, with T=T
direction, with T=T
0 0
at all x
at all x
At time t
At time t
0 the temperature at x=0 is increased to

0 the temperature at x=0 is increased to
T=T
T=T
1 1
and heat starts to enter (diffuse into) the
and heat starts to enter (diffuse into) the
material. At x
material. At x
, T stays at T
, T stays at T
0 0
.
.
conditions initial
and boundary
2
2
x
T
a
t
T
Picture: BMH99
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-
-
D
D
/3
/3
With dimensionless variables

With dimensionless variables
= (T
= (T
-
-
T
T
0 0
)/(T
)/(T
1 1
-
-
T
T
0 0
)
)
and
and
= x / (4at)
= x / (4at)

this gives the following solution:
this gives the following solution:
) (y erf d e
d e
T T
T T
y
at
x
=

0
4
0
0 1
1
2
2
2
2
1
with
erf(x) 1 - exp(- 1.128x - 0.655x
2
- 0.063x
3
)
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VST rz10 VST rz10
47/108 47/108
-
-
D
D
/4
/4
At x = 0 the slope of the

At x = 0 the slope of the
penetration profile lines
penetration profile lines
equals
equals
T/
T/
x =
x =
-
-
(T
(T
1 1
-
-
T
T
0 0
)/(
)/(
at)
at)

where x = (
where x = (
at)
at)

is referred to as
is referred to as
penetration depth.
penetration depth.
Fourier number Fo
Fourier number Fo
is (for heat transfer) defined as
is (for heat transfer) defined as
Fo = at/d
Fo = at/d
2 2
= t /(d
= t /(d
2 2
/a)) for a medium with thickness d
/a)) for a medium with thickness d
Fo gives the ratio between time t and the penetration time d Fo gives the ratio between time t and the penetration time d
2 2
/a /a
The penetration depth concept is valid for Fo < 0.1 The penetration depth concept is valid for Fo < 0.1
Picture: BMH99
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48/108 48/108
9. Separation processes
(gas
(gas
-
-
gas, gas
gas, gas
-
-
liquid, liquid
liquid, liquid
-
-
liquid):
liquid):
equilibrium stages
equilibrium stages
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49/108 49/108
Separation of mixtures: stages
/1
/1
For example:
For example:
separating phenol from water (L)
separating phenol from water (L)
by adding benzene (V) in a
by adding benzene (V) in a
separation funnel.
separation funnel.
x = phenol conc. in L, y = phenol conc. in V x = phenol conc. in L, y = phenol conc. in V
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VST rz10 VST rz10
50/108 50/108
/2
/2
The ratio phenol transferred / phenol not

The ratio phenol transferred / phenol not
-
-
transferred
transferred
= Vy/Lx = KV/L; can be referred to as S = KV/L
= Vy/Lx = KV/L; can be referred to as S = KV/L
separation factor
separation factor
, for mass w : Vy/Lx = Sw / w = S
, for mass w : Vy/Lx = Sw / w = S
The fraction f
The fraction f
not
not
transferred from L to V, or
transferred from L to V, or
not
not
removed
removed
from L: S = (1
from L: S = (1
-
-
f) / f
f) / f
f = 1/(1+S)
f = 1/(1+S)
S can be changed by varying V (or L), or changing K

S can be changed by varying V (or L), or changing K
At ambient conditions (1 bar, 20
At ambient conditions (1 bar, 20
C)
C)
the distribution coefficient for
the distribution coefficient for
phenol across the phases equals
phenol across the phases equals
K = y/x = 2
K = y/x = 2
if L=V then S = 2
if L=V then S = 2
Phenol
Phenol
not
not
removed = 1/3 = 33.33%
removed = 1/3 = 33.33%
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VST rz10 VST rz10
51/108 51/108
/3
/3
Adding the benzene
Adding the benzene
support phase to the
support phase to the
water/phenol in two
water/phenol in two
steps
steps
Phenol not removed Phenol not removed
= w/4w = 25% = w/4w = 25%
S = 1
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VST rz10 VST rz10
52/108 52/108
/4
/4
Mixing the water/phenol
Mixing the water/phenol
and the benzene support
and the benzene support
phase in two steps
phase in two steps
Phenol not removed Phenol not removed
= 3.33w / 18w = 19% = 3.33w / 18w = 19%
S = 2
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VST rz10 VST rz10
53/108 53/108
Separation
Separation
and
and
equilibrium
equilibrium
stages
stages
Example
Example
Four
Four
-
-
stage
stage
processing for Cu
processing for Cu
recovery from Cu
recovery from Cu
-
-
containing ore
containing ore
(liquid / liquid)
(liquid / liquid)
release
from ore
extraction
recovery
electrolysis
Diluted H
2
SO
4
Organic solvent
Concentrated H
2
SO
4
Cu
Cu - ore
Numbers are concentrations kg Cu/m
3
2,0
2,2
0,1
0,2
50 40
Source: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
54/108 54/108
Phase equilibrium stages
/1
/1
The extraction and the recovery process are
The extraction and the recovery process are
combinations of mixing tanks and settling tanks
combinations of mixing tanks and settling tanks
extraction
feed
refine
solvent
loaded
solvent
Picture: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
55/108 55/108
/2
/2
Cu is transferred from feed stream L to solvent ( Cu is transferred from feed stream L to solvent ( support phase support phase ) V; ) V;
the extraction unit can be described as a the extraction unit can be described as a series of equilibrium stages series of equilibrium stages. .
Equilibrium constant for Cu in feed stream and solvent stream i Equilibrium constant for Cu in feed stream and solvent stream is s
K = y K = y
Cu Cu
/x /x
Cu Cu
. Thus, for an equilibrium stage n: y . Thus, for an equilibrium stage n: y
n n
= Kx = Kx
n n
Streams L and V are often roughly constant Streams L and V are often roughly constant
L L
1 1
L L
2 2
.. .. L L
n n
= L; V = L; V
1 1
V V
2 2
... ... V V
n n
= V = V separation factor S = K separation factor S = K V/L V/L
extraction
feed
refine
solvent
loaded
solvent
equilibrium
stage n
L
n
x
n
equilibrium
stage n-1
equilibrium
stage n+1
L
n+1
x
n+1
V
n
y
n
V
n-1
y
n-1
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VST rz10 VST rz10
56/108 56/108
Example: phase equilibrium stage
Example: phase equilibrium stage
For example: phase equilibrium constant K=5;

For example: phase equilibrium constant K=5;
L = 1000 kg/s, V = 800 kg/s
L = 1000 kg/s, V = 800 kg/s
S = KV/L= 4.
S = KV/L= 4.
Cu in feed x
Cu in feed x
0 0
= 0.2 %
= 0.2 %
-
-
wt = 0.002 kg/kg
wt = 0.002 kg/kg
For clean solvent, y

For clean solvent, y
2 2
=0, then Vy
=0, then Vy
1 1
/ Lx
/ Lx
1 1
= S
= S
Mass balance gives Lx

Mass balance gives Lx
0 0
= (S+1)w
= (S+1)w
-
-
r
r
Lx
Lx
0 0
+Vy
+Vy
2 2
= Lx
= Lx
0 0
= Lx
= Lx
1 1
+Vy
+Vy
1 1
= Lx
= Lx
1 1
(1+KV/L) = Lx
(1+KV/L) = Lx
1 1
(1+S)
(1+S)
Lx
Lx
0 0
= 2 kg Cu/s w
= 2 kg Cu/s w
Lx
Lx
1 1
= Lx
= Lx
0 0
/ (1+S) = 0.4 kg Cu/s
/ (1+S) = 0.4 kg Cu/s
Picture: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
57/108 57/108
/3
/3
Calculation procedure
Calculation procedure
Number of equilibrium stages is determined

Number of equilibrium stages is determined
by the result w in the refine stream, and K, V
by the result w in the refine stream, and K, V
and L (i.e. the separation factor S)
and L (i.e. the separation factor S)
Note
Note
:
:
S= KV/L if V is support phase
S= KV/L if V is support phase
S = L/KV if L is support phase
S = L/KV if L is support phase
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VST rz10 VST rz10
58/108 58/108
:
:
Absorption/stripping processes
Absorption/stripping processes
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VST rz10 VST rz10
59/108 59/108
Absorption & stripping
Absorption & stripping
Absorption
Absorption
(or: gas absorption, gas scrubbing, gas
(or: gas absorption, gas scrubbing, gas
washing): contacting a gas mixture with a liquid (the
washing): contacting a gas mixture with a liquid (the
absorbent
absorbent
or
or
solvent
solvent
) in order to selectively
) in order to selectively
dissolve one (or more) components from the gas in
dissolve one (or more) components from the gas in
the liquid
the liquid
Stripping
Stripping
(or: desorption) is the opposite process: a
(or: desorption) is the opposite process: a
liquid mixture is contacted with a gas in order to
liquid mixture is contacted with a gas in order to
selectively remove one (or more) components from
selectively remove one (or more) components from
the liquid to the gas
the liquid to the gas
Often absorbers and strippers are coupled, as to allow

Often absorbers and strippers are coupled, as to allow
for
for
recovery
recovery
(and re
(and re
-
-
use) of solvent.
use) of solvent.
The
The
type of equipment
type of equipment
used depends on the
used depends on the
relative
relative
amounts
amounts
of liquid and gas mass streams
of liquid and gas mass streams
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VST rz10 VST rz10
60/108 60/108
CO
CO
2
2
stripping
stripping
Picture: SA05 Picture: SA05
Natural gas
+ CO
2
Liquid solvent
for example
alkanol amine
Natural gas
Liquid solvent
+ CO
2
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VST rz10 VST rz10
61/108 61/108
Process example and equipment
Process example and equipment
Typical absorption process for acetone
Industrial equipment: (a) tray tower;
(b) packed column; (c) spray tower;
(d) bubble colum
Pictures: SH06
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VST rz10 VST rz10
62/108 62/108
A performated tray column
A performated tray column
Especially
Especially
suitable
suitable
if total gas and liquid mass streams
if total gas and liquid mass streams
are roughly the same and are more or less constant
are roughly the same and are more or less constant
tray
gas
gas
liquid
liquid
liquid
gas
Picture: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
63/108 63/108
Vapour
Vapour
-
-
liquid stream relationships
liquid stream relationships
(a)
(a)
Mass balance
Mass balance

working line in x,y plot

working line in x,y plot
(b)
(b)
Equilibrium
Equilibrium

equilibrium line or curve in x,y plot

equilibrium line or curve in x,y plot
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VST rz10 VST rz10
64/108 64/108
Absorber/stripper x,y diagram
Absorber/stripper x,y diagram
Continuous steady
Continuous steady
-
-
state process in a
state process in a
countercurrent
countercurrent
cascade
cascade
with
with
equilibrium stages:
equilibrium stages:
absorber
absorber
stripper
stripper
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65/108 65/108
Graphical determination of the
number of equilibrium stages
(a)
(a)
Absorber
Absorber
x
1
= liquid at equilibrium
with gas y = y
1
y
2
= gas that exchanges
mass with liquid x = x
1
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VST rz10 VST rz10
66/108 66/108
(b) Stripper
(b) Stripper
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VST rz10 VST rz10
67/108 67/108
Absorber:
Absorber:
wet gas drying /1
wet gas drying /1
Drying of wet methane

Drying of wet methane
with di
with di
-
-
ethylene glycol
ethylene glycol
(DEG)
(DEG)
Regeneration of wet
Regeneration of wet
DEG with dry N
DEG with dry N
2 2
DEG boiling point at 1

DEG boiling point at 1
bar = 245
bar = 245
C;
C;
DEG molar mass

DEG molar mass
= 106 kg/kmol
= 106 kg/kmol
Dry DEG
Wet DEG
A
B
S
O
R
P
T
I
O
N
D
E
S
O
R
P
T
I
O
N
Wet CH
4
Dry CH
4
Dry N
2
Wet N
2
Picture: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
68/108 68/108
Absorber:
Absorber:
wet gas drying /3
wet gas drying /3
example:
example:
H
H
2 2
O in DEG at 72
O in DEG at 72
C, 40 bar
C, 40 bar
low concentration
low concentration
H
H
c c
for
for
H
H
2 2
O
O
in DEG = 0.02 MPa
in DEG = 0.02 MPa
gives equilibrium constant
gives equilibrium constant
K = y
K = y
H2O H2O
/x
/x
H2O H2O
= H
= H
cH2O cH2O
/ p
/ p
total total
= 0.02 MPa/4 MPa = 0.005
= 0.02 MPa/4 MPa = 0.005
Picture: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
69/108 69/108
Absorber:
Absorber:
wet gas drying /4
wet gas drying /4
process data:
process data:
H
H
2 2
O in wet gas = y
O in wet gas = y
N+1 N+1
= 0.001 mol/mol
= 0.001 mol/mol
H
H
2 2
O in dry gas = y
O in dry gas = y
1 1
= 2
= 2
10
10
- -4 4
mol/mol
mol/mol
H
H
2 2
O in
O in
dry
dry
DEG = x
DEG = x
0 0
=
=
2
2
10
10
- -2 2
mol/mol,
mol/mol,
and L/V = 0.01 (kmol/s)/(kmol/s)
and L/V = 0.01 (kmol/s)/(kmol/s)
Total mass balance gives
Total mass balance gives
(x
(x
N N
x
x
0 0
)
)
L = (y
L = (y
N+1 N+1
-
-
y
y
1 1
)
)
V
V
x
x
N N
= 0.1
= 0.1
Separation factor S = L/KV = 2
Separation factor S = L/KV = 2
Picture: after SH06
For the first stage,
equilibrium between exit
gas and exit vapour
implies K = y
1
/x
1
x
1
= y
1
/K = 210
-4
/ 0.005
gives x
1
= 0.04
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VST rz10 VST rz10
70/108 70/108
Absorber:
Absorber:
wet gas drying /5
wet gas drying /5
Working line V
Working line V
(y
(y
-
-
y
y
1 1
) = L
) = L
(x
(x
-
-
x
x
0 0
) and equilibrium line
) and equilibrium line
allow for calculation of theoretical equilibrium stages
allow for calculation of theoretical equilibrium stages
Working line requires V/L ratio + one point (x

Working line requires V/L ratio + one point (x
i i
, y
, y
i+1 i+1
)
)
equilibrium
line y = Kx
working line
y = y
1
+ L/V(x-x
0)
x
1
y
1
x
0
= 0.02 x
n
= 0.10
y
1
= 210
-4
y
n+1
= 0.001
Note:
Kremser equation: f = 0.2, S = 2 N = 1.6 (?!)
Picture: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
71/108 71/108
Reducing the amount of solvent (liquid) by 50% gives

Reducing the amount of solvent (liquid) by 50% gives
L/V = 5
L/V = 5
10
10
- -3 3

Separation factor S
Separation factor S
S = 1
S = 1
Equilibrium
line
Operating
line
Absorber:
Absorber:
wet gas drying /6
wet gas drying /6
Picture:
WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
72/108 72/108
Absorber:
Absorber:
wet gas drying /7
wet gas drying /7
Reducing the amount of solvent (liquid) further to L/V

Reducing the amount of solvent (liquid) further to L/V
= 3
= 3
10
10
- -3 3

Separation factor S
Separation factor S
S = 0.6
S = 0.6
The separation process can not be accomplished

The separation process can not be accomplished
Equilibrium
line
Operating
line
Picture:
WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
73/108 73/108
Absorber:
Absorber:
wet gas drying /8
wet gas drying /8
Equilibrium
line
Operating
line
This gives
S
min
= 0.888
for this case
and N
Picture:
WK92
The
The
minimum amount of liquid,
minimum amount of liquid,
or
or
(L/V)
(L/V)
min min
,
,
can be
can be
found by crossing the operating line with the
found by crossing the operating line with the
equilibrium line at outgoing gas specification y
equilibrium line at outgoing gas specification y
N+1 N+1
.
.
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VST rz10 VST rz10
74/108 74/108
Stripper:
Stripper:
wet gas drying /9
wet gas drying /9
Dry DEG
Wet DEG
A
B
S
O
R
P
T
I
O
N
D
E
S
O
R
P
T
I
O
N
Wet CH
4
Dry CH
4
Dry N
2
Wet N
2
Dry DEG
Wet DEG
A
B
S
O
R
P
T
I
O
N
D
E
S
O
R
P
T
I
O
N
Wet CH
4
Dry CH
4
Dry N
2
Wet N
2
x
0
x
N
y
0
y
N+1
y
1
For the desorption, the wet DEG

For the desorption, the wet DEG
is stripped with dry nitrogen at
is stripped with dry nitrogen at
120
120
C, 0.1 MPa.
C, 0.1 MPa.
For H
For H
2 2
O vapour in DEG under
O vapour in DEG under
these conditions, H
these conditions, H
c c
H
H
2 2
O
O
in DEG =
in DEG =
0.2 MPa
0.2 MPa (see diagram p. 15/24) (see diagram p. 15/24)
This gives equilibrium constant K

This gives equilibrium constant K
= y
= y
H2O H2O
/x
/x
H2O H2O
= H
= H
cH2O cH2O
/ p
/ p
total total
=
=
0.2 MPa/0.1 MPa = 2
0.2 MPa/0.1 MPa = 2
How many stages for y

How many stages for y
0 0
= 0 in the
= 0 in the
dry N
dry N
2 2
, and V
, and V
/L = 2
/L = 2
(
(
V
V
/L)
/L)
min min
?
? Picture:
WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
75/108 75/108
Stripper:
Stripper:
wet gas drying /10
wet gas drying /10
L/V
L/V
maximum maximum
= V
= V
/L
/L
minimum minimum
= 0.4
= 0.4
2
2
gives
gives
V
V
/L = 1
/L = 1
Draw up operating line and count stages: N = 2

Draw up operating line and count stages: N = 2
Equilibrium
line
Operating
line
Note: operating
line now under
equilibrium line
Picture:
WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
76/108 76/108
:
:
continuous distillation
continuous distillation
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VST rz10 VST rz10
77/108 77/108
Continuous
Continuous
distillation
distillation
Pictures: T68
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VST rz10 VST rz10
78/108 78/108
Distillation, principle
Distillation, principle
Liquid with composition

Liquid with composition
a
a
1 1
boils at temperature
boils at temperature
T
T
2 2
, giving vapour with
, giving vapour with
composition a
composition a
2 2
which
which
is
is
enriched
enriched
in
in
component A
component A
Taking out and cooling

Taking out and cooling
vapour a
vapour a
2 2
gives liquid
gives liquid
a
a
4 4
at temperature T
at temperature T
4 4
In equilibrium with
In equilibrium with
liquid a
liquid a
4 4
is vapour a
is vapour a
4 4
,
,
again
again
further enriched
further enriched
in component A
in component A
Picture: A83
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VST rz10 VST rz10
79/108 79/108
(binary) /1
(binary) /1
Separating a mixture Separating a mixture
of 2 components A of 2 components A
and B, with A more and B, with A more
volatile volatile
Liquid for Liquid for
absorption section absorption section
produced by produced by
condensing some top condensing some top
product product
Gas for Gas for stripping stripping
section section produced by produced by
boiling some bottom boiling some bottom
product product
Top section:
rectifying section
absorbing the less
volatile component
Bottom section:
stripping section
desorbing the more
volatile component
Bottom product:
less volatile
component
Top product:
more volatile
component
Picture: WK92
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80/108 80/108
/2
/2
Roughly Roughly equimolar equimolar
exchange exchange: 1 mol A : 1 mol A
liquid liquid gas gas - - 1mol 1mol
B gas B gas liquid liquid
As a result: As a result:
Gas and liquid Gas and liquid
streams ~ constant in streams ~ constant in
each section: L and V each section: L and V
in top section, L in top section, L and and
V V in bottom section in bottom section
Feed Feed enters there enters there
where it is similar to where it is similar to
the mixture inside the mixture inside
Top section:
rectifying section
absorbing the less
volatile component
Bottom section:
stripping section
desorbing the more
volatile component
Bottom product:
less volatile
component
Top product:
more volatile
component
Picture: WK92
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VST rz10 VST rz10
81/108 81/108
/3
/3
Some general considerations:

Some general considerations:
The equimolar exchange A The equimolar exchange A B requires balanced energy B requires balanced energy
exchange as well: vaporisation heats of A and B should be exchange as well: vaporisation heats of A and B should be
roughly the same roughly the same
Pressure Pressure and the and the temperature ranges temperature ranges must be chosen: must be chosen:
Below the critical pressures (and temperatures) of the Below the critical pressures (and temperatures) of the
components components
The components must be thermally stable (for hydrocarbon The components must be thermally stable (for hydrocarbon
fractions of crude oil: below 300 ~ 350 fractions of crude oil: below 300 ~ 350 C) C)
The temperature at the top of the column should preferably be The temperature at the top of the column should preferably be
> 40 > 40 C, allowing for heat transfer with surrounding air or water C, allowing for heat transfer with surrounding air or water
Equilibrium data is needed, and data on the feed (see later!) Equilibrium data is needed, and data on the feed (see later!)
and the required products specifications and the required products specifications
The necessary gas and liquid streams, the number

The necessary gas and liquid streams, the number
of stages and heat consumption can calculated.
of stages and heat consumption can calculated.
!
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82/108 82/108
Example:
Example:
C
C
3
3
iC
iC
4
4
distillation
distillation
/1
/1
Give the Give the ranges for ranges for
temperature and temperature and
pressure pressure for a propane for a propane - -
isobutane distillation. isobutane distillation.
Data: Data:
1) Equilibrium data 1) Equilibrium data
2) Components stable up 2) Components stable up
to 300 to 300 C C
3) Critical pressure 42 bar 3) Critical pressure 42 bar
for C for C
3 3
, 37 bar for iC , 37 bar for iC
4 4
. .
vapour pressures C
1
... C
10
Raoults law:
K = y/x = p/p
total
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VST rz10 VST rz10
83/108 83/108
Example:
Example:
C
C
3
3
iC
iC
4
4
distillation
distillation
/2
/2
a a
Answer: Answer:
pressures < critical pressures < critical
pressures allowable pressures allowable
for C for C
3 3
iC iC
4 4
: p < 37 bar : p < 37 bar
37 bar boiling points 37 bar boiling points
85 85 - - 140 140 C: stability OK C: stability OK
T
boil
iC
4
at 37 bar
T
boil
C
3
at 37 bar
Raoults law:
K = y/x = p/p
total
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VST rz10 VST rz10
84/108 84/108
Example:
Example:
C
C
3
3
iC
iC
4
4
distillation
distillation
/2
/2
b b
Answer: Answer:
Chose Chose 40 40 C as the C as the
temperatur at the temperatur at the
condensor condensor. .
At T At T
min min
= 40 = 40 C, the C, the
vapour pressure of the vapour pressure of the
more volatile more volatile
component component which is C which is C
3 3
= 14 bar = 14 bar p p 14 bar 14 bar
Then T Then T
boil boil
~ 81 ~ 81 C for iC C for iC
4 4
T
boil
C
3
at 14 bar
p C
3
at 40C
T
boil
iC
4
at 14 bar
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85/108 85/108
Distillation: the x,y diagram
/1
/1
Mass balance Mass balance top section top section for tray i: for tray i:
( (x, y for volatile component) x, y for volatile component)
with distillate product D (kmol/s) with distillate product D (kmol/s)
With L With L
i+1 i+1
~ L ~ L
i i
= L, V = L, V
i+1 i+1
~ V ~ V
i i
= V : = V :
L L
i i
= R = R
D D
D and V D and V
i i
= D + L = D + L
i i
, gives , gives
D i i
x
V
D
x
V
L
y + =
1 +
i+1
i
V
(kmol/s)
L
(kmol/s)
Reflux
R
D
D
(kmol/s)
D
D
i
D
D
i
x
R
x
R
R
y
+ 1
1
+
+ 1
=
1 +
D i i
x
V
D
x
V
L
y + =
1 +
D i i i i
Dx x L V y + =
1 + 1 +
Picture:
after WK92
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86/108 86/108
/2
/2
Mass balance Mass balance bottom section bottom section for for
tray j: ( tray j: (x, y for volatile component) x, y for volatile component)
with distillate product D (kmol/s) with distillate product D (kmol/s)
With L With L
j+1 j+1
~ L ~ L
j j
= L = L , V , V
j+1 j+1
~ V ~ V
j j
= V = V : :
L L
j j
= V = V
j j
+ B and V + B and V
j j
= R = R
B B
B, gives B, gives
D i i
x
V
D
x
V
L
y + =
1 +
j+1
j
V
(kmol/s)
L
(kmol/s)
Reflux
R
B
B
(kmol/s)
B
B
j
B
B
j
x
R
x
R
R
y
1
+ 1
=
1 +
B j j
x
' V
B
x
' V
' L
y =
1 +
1 + 1 +
= +
j j B j j
x L Bx V y
Picture:
after WK92
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87/108 87/108
Operation line top section
Operation line top section
Source: T68, see also SH06 Source: T68, see also SH06
condenser
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88/108 88/108
3
n-hexane - n-octane 1 atm
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x n-hexane (mol/mol)
y

n
-
h
e
x
a
n
e

(
m
o
l
/
m
o
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)
Locating flows in x,y diagrams
Locating flows in x,y diagrams
1
2
Heat
x
D
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
y
3
x
d
,y
d
x
1
,y
2
x
1
,y
1
x
2
,y
2
x
2
,y
3
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89/108 89/108
Operation line bottom section
Operation line bottom section
Source: T68, see also SH06 Source: T68, see also SH06
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90/108 90/108
McCabe
McCabe
-
-
Thiele diagram
Thiele diagram
/1
/1
Working line top

Working line top
section
section
with slope
with slope
L/V = R
L/V = R
D D
/(R
/(R
D D
+1) < 1
+1) < 1
Working line
Working line
bottom section
bottom section
with
with
slope L
slope L
/V
/V
=
=
(R
(R
B B
+1)/R
+1)/R
B B
>1
>1
Product x
Product x
B B
=y
=y
B B
, x
, x
D D
=y
=y
D D
on x=y diagonal line
on x=y diagonal line
Next:
Next:
the feed
the feed
(x
(x
F F
,y
,y
F F
)
)
Picture: WK92
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91/108 91/108
McCabe
McCabe
-
-
Thiele diagram
Thiele diagram
/2
/2
A third line in the x,y

A third line in the x,y
diagram is the so
diagram is the so
-
-
called
called
q
q
-
-
line through feed
line through feed
point (x
point (x
F F
,y
,y
F F
) and
) and
crossing point (x
crossing point (x
S S
,y
,y
S S
)
)
of operating lines for
of operating lines for
top and bottom section
top and bottom section
For point x
For point x
s s
, y
, y
s s
:
:
x
S
x
F
y
S
y
F
slope
-q/(1-q)
where
where
V = V
V = V
-
-
V
V
is vapor entering with the feed, and

is vapor entering with the feed, and
L = L
L = L
-
-
L is liquid entering with the feed
L is liquid entering with the feed
F S S
x
q
x
q
q
y
1
1
1
=
B D s s
B s s
D s s
x B x D L x V y
x B x ' L ' V y
x D x L V y
+ + =
=
+ =
Picture:
after WK92
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92/108 92/108
McCabe
McCabe
-
-
Thiele diagram
Thiele diagram
/3
/3
q = fraction of feed that

q = fraction of feed that
gives liquid on the
gives liquid on the
feeding tray
feeding tray
: L
: L
= L+q
= L+q
F,
F,
F
F
q =
q =
L, F
L, F
(1
(1
-
-
q) =
q) =
V
V
q is related to the q is related to the energy energy
needed to convert the feed needed to convert the feed
completely into vapour. With completely into vapour. With
enthalpies H for saturated enthalpies H for saturated
liquid and saturated gas it is liquid and saturated gas it is
found that found that
q >1
q = 1
0 < q < 1
q = 0
q < 0
sat , L sat , G
F sat , G
H H
H H
q
=
Picture:
after T68
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93/108 93/108
Distillation: feed temperature
Distillation: feed temperature
q = fraction of feed that gives liquid on the feeding tray q = fraction of feed that gives liquid on the feeding tray
q = 0 ~ saturated gas; q = 1 ~ saturated liquid q = 0 ~ saturated gas; q = 1 ~ saturated liquid
Picture:
WK92
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94/108 94/108
Having determined
Having determined
the equilibrium curve;

the equilibrium curve;
the operation lines for top

the operation lines for top
and bottom section;
and bottom section;
the q
the q
-
-
line,
line,
the
the
number of equilibrium
number of equilibrium
stages
stages
can be counted.
can be counted.
Note: the q Note: the q- -line is fixed by (x line is fixed by (x
F F
,y ,y
F F
) )
and q. In practice the operaton and q. In practice the operaton
line for the bottom section is line for the bottom section is
usually determined from the usually determined from the
operation line for the top section operation line for the top section
and the q and the q- -line ! line !
McCabe
McCabe
-
-
Thiele diagram
Thiele diagram
/4
/4
Example: 4 stages bottom section +
5.4 stages top section, total 10 stages
Picture: WK92
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95/108 95/108
Location of the feed tray
Location of the feed tray
(a)
(a)
feed on 7
feed on 7
th th
tray from top;
tray from top;
(b)
(b)
feed on 4
feed on 4
th th
tray
tray
from top;
from top;
(c)
(c)
feed on 5
feed on 5
th th
tray (optimum)
tray (optimum)
above feed tray: above feed tray:
count with operation count with operation
line for top section; line for top section;
below feed tray: below feed tray:
continue with continue with
operation line operation line
for bottom section for bottom section
Picture:
after T68
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96/108 96/108
McCabe
McCabe
-
-
Thiele diagram
Thiele diagram
/5
/5
The point (x
The point (x
S S
,y
,y
S S
) may be on
) may be on
the equilibrium line, if L/V =
the equilibrium line, if L/V =
(L/V)
(L/V)
min min
, or L/V = R
, or L/V = R
min min
/(R
/(R
min min
+1)
+1)
reflux ratio too small
reflux ratio too small
(not
(not
enough liquid for absorption)
enough liquid for absorption)
This results in a problematic

This results in a problematic
pinch
pinch
point (x
point (x
S S
,y
,y
S S
) = (x*,y*)
) = (x*,y*)
where N =
where N =
equilibrium
equilibrium
stages are needed:
stages are needed:
R
R
min min
/(R
/(R
min min
+1) = (x
+1) = (x
D D
-
-
y*)/(x
y*)/(x
D D
-
-
x*),
x*),
or: R
or: R
min min
= (x
= (x
D D
-
-
y*)/(y*
y*)/(y*
-
-
x*)
x*)
The
The
optimal reflux ratio
optimal reflux ratio
R
R
depends on costs,
depends on costs,
typically R = 1.1~1.3 R
typically R = 1.1~1.3 R
min min
(x*,y*)
Picture: after WK92
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97/108 97/108
Example:
Example:
C
C
3
3
iC
iC
4
4
distillation
distillation
/
/
4
4
For the C
For the C
3 3
iC
iC
4 4
distillation
distillation (see above) (see above)
, at p = 14 bar,
, at p = 14 bar,
with F = 500 mol/s, x
with F = 500 mol/s, x
F F
= 0.40, x
= 0.40, x
D D
= 0.95, x
= 0.95, x
B B
= 0.1 and
= 0.1 and
q = 2/3:
q = 2/3:
Produce an (x,y) equilibrium diagram using the

Produce an (x,y) equilibrium diagram using the
nomogram given above.
nomogram given above.
Determine the minimal (top section) reflux R

Determine the minimal (top section) reflux R
Construct the two operation lines in the (McCabe

Construct the two operation lines in the (McCabe
Thiele) diagram for R = 1.2

Thiele) diagram for R = 1.2
R
R
min min
Determine the number of equilibrium stages in

Determine the number of equilibrium stages in
bottom (includes feed) and top section.
bottom (includes feed) and top section.
Calculate the product streams (in mol/s or kg/s)

Calculate the product streams (in mol/s or kg/s)
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98/108 98/108
Answer part 1: Answer part 1:
For the (x,y) equilibrium plot; For the (x,y) equilibrium plot;
temperature varies from 40 temperature varies from 40 C C
at the condensor to 81 at the condensor to 81 C at the C at the
reboiler. p = 14 bar reboiler. p = 14 bar
For temperatures in this range, For temperatures in this range,
find K find K
C3 C3
and K and K
iC4 iC4
, and calculate , and calculate
x and y. x and y.
For example: At 1.4 MPa for For example: At 1.4 MPa for
60 60 C K C K
C3 C3
= 1.45 and K = 1.45 and K
iC4 iC4
= =
0.70. Thus 0.70. Thus
1) 1)
y/x = 1.45 and y/x = 1.45 and
2) 2)
(1 (1- -y)/(1 y)/(1- -x) = 0.7. x) = 0.7.
Fill in y = 1.45x in Fill in y = 1.45x in
2) 2)
gives gives
(1 (1- -1.45x)=0.7(1 1.45x)=0.7(1- -x). This gives x). This gives
result x=0.40, y=0.58. result x=0.40, y=0.58. et cetera et cetera
Example:
Example:
C
C
3
3
iC
iC
4
4
distillation
distillation
/5
/5
C
3
iC
4
liquid vapor
equilibrium
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99/108 99/108
Example:
Example:
C
C
3
3
iC
iC
4
4
distillation
distillation
/5a
/5a
Method 1: for several T: Method 1: for several T:
x = (K x = (K
iC4 iC4
1)/(K 1)/(K
iC4 iC4
K K
3 3
) and ) and
y = K y = K
C3 C3
x gives x gives
(40 (40 C, C,1,1), (45 1,1), (45 C,0.8,0.9) C,0.8,0.9)
(50 (50 C,0.67,0.82), (55 C,0.67,0.82), (55 C,0.54,0.71), C,0.54,0.71),
(60 (60 C,0.40,0.58), (65 C,0.40,0.58), (65 C,0.31,0.48), C,0.31,0.48),
(70 (70 C,0.20,0.34), (75 C,0.20,0.34), (75 C,0.11,0.20), C,0.11,0.20),
(80 (80 C,0.05,0.10) C,0.05,0.10)
Method 2: average Method 2: average
temperature ~ 60 temperature ~ 60 C, C,
= = K K
c3 c3
/ K / K
iC4 iC4
= 2.07 = 2.07
plot y = plot y = x /(1 + ( x /(1 + ( - -1) 1) x) x)
(at 40 (at 40 C: C: = 2.43, at 8 = 2.43, at 80 0 C: C: =1.95) =1.95)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
y
relative volatility 1.9 ... 2.4
relative volatility 2.07
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100/108 100/108
Example:
Example:
C
C
3
3
iC
iC
4
4
distillation
distillation
/6
/6
Answer part 2: Answer part 2:
See McCabe See McCabe- -Thiele Thiele
diagram: diagram:
R R
min min
= 2.45, R = 2.93 = 2.45, R = 2.93
Top: 7.7 (8) stages, Top: 7.7 (8) stages,
bottom 7.1 (8) stages bottom 7.1 (8) stages
Mass balances Mass balances
F = D + B, and F = D + B, and
F F x x
F F
= D = D x x
D D
+ B + B x x
B B
gives via 1 gives via 1- -D/F = B/F D/F = B/F
and D/F = (x and D/F = (x
F F
- -x x
B B
)/(x )/(x
D D
- -x x
B B
) )
D = 0.353 D = 0.353 F = 176 mol/s F = 176 mol/s
B = 0.647 B = 0.647 F = 324 mol/s F = 324 mol/s
C3 iC4 separation
at 14 bar
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Restrictions McCabe
Restrictions McCabe
-
-
Thiele method
Thiele method
Molar heats of vaporisation should not differ more

Molar heats of vaporisation should not differ more
than ~10%
than ~10%
Heats of solution are negligible

Heats of solution are negligible
Relative volatilities should be 1.3 <

Relative volatilities should be 1.3 <
< 5
< 5
Reflux ratio
Reflux ratio
s should be R > 1.1

s should be R > 1.1
R
R
min min
Number of trays N < 25 preferably.

Number of trays N < 25 preferably.
Otherwise: operating lines are presumably not

Otherwise: operating lines are presumably not
straight: use a more exact method.
straight: use a more exact method.
for example, Ponchon for example, Ponchon - - Savarit, based on the enthalpy Savarit, based on the enthalpy- -
composition, or H,x chart composition, or H,x chart- - see next slide see next slide
Source: Coulson & Richardson vol. 2 (1983) Source: Coulson & Richardson vol. 2 (1983)
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Ponchon
Ponchon
-
-
Savarit method
Savarit method
(intro)
(intro)
For more detail: For more detail: advanced courses advanced courses, or literature. , or literature.
h,x diagrams
h,x diagrams
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:
:
packed tower columns
packed tower columns
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Pictures:
T68
Packed tower columns
/1
/1
Mellapak Mellapak
http://www.sulzerchemtech.com http://www.sulzerchemtech.com
http://www.raschig.de/ http://www.raschig.de/
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/2
/2
Mass transfer from gas to liquid or

Mass transfer from gas to liquid or
vice versa
vice versa
where
where
the liquid forms a (thin) film on the surface of packing
the liquid forms a (thin) film on the surface of packing
material elements, creating a large contact surface
material elements, creating a large contact surface
a
a
(m
(m
2 2
/ m
/ m
3 3
apparatus)
apparatus)
For relatively small

For relatively small
amounts of material
amounts of material
transferred (say, < 2% of
transferred (say, < 2% of
the streams) the process
the streams) the process
may be considered
may be considered
isotherm
isotherm (vaporisation and (vaporisation and
condensation have a heat condensation have a heat
effect!) effect!)
and streams V
and streams V
and L may be
and L may be
considered constant.
considered constant.
Picture: W92
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In a packed column no discrete, identifiable In a packed column no discrete, identifiable
stages are seen stages are seen
Similar to a plate column the goal is, however, Similar to a plate column the goal is, however,
not that equilbrium is reached at each stage not that equilbrium is reached at each stage
More importantly, mass transfer is accomplished More importantly, mass transfer is accomplished
that brings the phases closer to equilibrium that brings the phases closer to equilibrium
Pictures:
BSL60
K71
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Mass balance for a packed column
Mass balance for a packed column
Mass balance for a height section d Mass balance for a height section d : :
= V
= V
dy = k
dy = k
G G
(c
(c
G G
-
-
c
c
Gi Gi
)
)
a
a
A
A
d
d
= k
= k
L L
(c
(c
Li Li
-
-
c
c
L L
)
)
a
a
A
A
d
d
= L
= L
dx
dx
with mass transfer coefficients k with mass transfer coefficients k
G G
and k and k
L L
for gas and liquid side, cross for gas and liquid side, cross- -section area section area
A and packing surface per volume a. A and packing surface per volume a.
With With overall overall mass transfer coefficients k mass transfer coefficients k
oG oG
= K = K
G G
and k and k
oL oL
= K = K
L L
, (eliminating the phase , (eliminating the phase
interface concentrations), for the gas side: interface concentrations), for the gas side:
V
V
dy = K
dy = K
G G
(y*
(y*
-
-
y)
y)
(p/R
(p/R
T)
T)
a
a
A
A
d
d
yin yin

yout yout
dy/(y* dy/(y*- -y) = y) =
0 0

Z Z
(1/V) (1/V) K K
G G
(p/R (p/R T) T) a a A A d d
and similar for the liquid phase and similar for the liquid phase
Z
Picture: SH06
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Sources
Sources
A83: A83: P.W. Atkins P.W. Atkins Physical Physical chemistry chemistry 2nd Ed. Oxford Univ. Press (1983) 2nd Ed. Oxford Univ. Press (1983)
BMH99: BMH99: Beek Beek, W.J., , W.J., Muttzall Muttzall, K.M.K., van , K.M.K., van Heuven Heuven, J.W. , J.W. Transport Transport
phenomena phenomena Wiley, 2nd ed. (1999) Wiley, 2nd ed. (1999)
B98: B98: Y. A. Y. A. engel engel, M.A Boles , M.A Boles Thermodynamics Thermodynamics 3rd Ed. McGraw 3rd Ed. McGraw- -Hill Hill
(1998) (1998)
CR83 CR83: : Coulson Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., , J.M., Richardson, J.F., Backhurst Backhurst, J.R., , J.R., Harker Harker, J.H. , J.H.
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2 : Unit Operations Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2 : Unit Operations Pergamon Pergamon Press, Press,
Oxford (1983) Oxford (1983)
SH06: SH06: J.D. J.D. Seader Seader, E.J. Henley , E.J. Henley Separation process Separation process principles principles , Wiley, , Wiley,
2nd ed. (2006) 2nd ed. (2006)
SSJ84: SSJ84: J.M. Smith, E. J.M. Smith, E. Stammers Stammers, L.P.B.M , L.P.B.M Janssen Janssen Fysische Fysische
Transportverschijnselen Transportverschijnselen I I TU TU Delft Delft, D.U.M. (1984) , D.U.M. (1984)
T68: T68: Mass Mass transfer operations transfer operations McGraw McGraw- -Hill Hill 2nd ed. (1968) 2nd ed. (1968)
WK92; WK92; J.A. J.A. Wesselingh Wesselingh, H.H. , H.H. Kleizen Kleizen Scheidingsprocessen Scheidingsprocessen Delft Delft Univ. Univ.
Press (1992) Press (1992)
Z08 Z08: R. : R. Zevenhoven Zevenhoven, , Mass Mass verf verf ring & separations ring & separations- -
teknik teknik course course material (English) material (English) bo Akademi Univ. bo Akademi Univ.
(2008) (2008)
96 96: G. : G. hman hman Mass Mass verf verf ring ring , , bo Akademi Univ. (1996) bo Akademi Univ. (1996)

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P

Drying of a solid using heat or dry gas

Adsorption of gas or liquid using a solid

Distillation using heat to create a vapour phase

Gas absorption using a liquid absorbent

Extraction of liquid or solid using a solvent that

Crystallisation using cooling

Assume a liquid mixture of components A, B,

At temperature T, saturation pressure of pure

For the mixture, the vapour pressure of A

Assume a liquid mixture of components A, B,

For the mixture, the vapour pressure of A

A mixture of ammonia and water

C, total pressure unknown

What is the composition of the

At equilibrium, no driving forces

Questions: pressure & equilibrium composition of gas ?

7.348 kPa = 2.22 kPa

1554.33 kPa = 1088.3 kPa

Assume a lake with T=17

At the surface, the water will be saturated with

Fraction of water in the air at the water surface

Assume the same lake, T=17

A small amount (<< 5 %

This means 1.45 moles air (molar mass ~29 kg/kmol) in

At and near the surface of

heat transfer analogy

The interface between media or phases is usually

In liquids and solids, the diffusion coefficients

Diffusion can induce a drift flow.

Instead of concentration (c), chemical potential (

For mass transfer

Thus, the driving forces

Mass flow species A:

Mass transfer rate per area:

Mass transfer coefficients, k,

But for a total (overall) mass

More important instead: how

Deviation from equilibrium

s law, for example)

Eliminate interface values in

The result is:

For a boundary layer

A mass transfer coefficient can

Thus, the boundary layer

The mass transfer limitations

BUT: Often boundary layer thickness

A correlation for Sherwood number (Sh) based on

Sh is the mass transfer analogue of Nusselt number

with heat transfer coefficient h with heat transfer coefficient h

Important situations for mass transfer with convection:

Diffusion from a spherical particle with radius R in a

The diffusion equation

Note: 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 101325 Pa; molar

Mass transfer for a sphere in a stagnant medium:

Concentration c = p/RT (mol/m

s surface, c = 0 far from the sphere.

Molar flow rate:

dD/dt gives for the

heat transfer analogy

For a general case with a 3

Q is a vector with direction - T

0 the temperature at x=0 is increased to

With dimensionless variables