A synapse is the junction point between two neurons.

However, a nerve impulse can also be transmitted from a sensory receptor cell to a neuron, or from a neuron to a set
of muscles to make them contract, or from a neuron to an endocrine gland to make it secrete a hormone. In these last
two cases, the connection points are called neuromuscular and neuroglandular junctions.
In a typical chemical synapse between two neurons, the neuron from which the nerve impulse arrives is called the
presynaptic neuron. The neuron to which the neurotransmitters (chemical messengers bind is called the postsynaptic
neuron.
A presynaptic neuron has several
speciali!ed structures that distinguish it
from a postsynaptic neuron.
The terminal button of the presynaptic
neuron"s a#on contains mitochondria as
well as microtubules that transport the
neurotransmitters from the cell body (where
they are produced to the tip of the a#on.
(click on $. A#onal Transport
This terminal button also contains spherical
vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. These
neurotransmitters are secreted into the
synaptic gap by a process called e#ocytosis,
in which the vesicles" membranes fuse with
that of the presynaptic button.
The synaptic gap that the neurotransmitters
have to cross is very narrow%on the order of
&.&$ micron.
Across the gap, the neurotransmitters bind
to membrane receptors' large proteins
anchored in the cell membrane of the post(
synaptic neuron. At this location, under an
electron microscope, you can observe an
accumulation of opa)ue material which
consists of the cluster of receptors and other
signalling proteins that are essential for
chemical neurotransmission.
Any given neurotransmitter has several sub(types of receptors that are specific to it. It is the presence or absence of
certain of these sub(types that causes a cascade of specific chemical reactions in the postsynaptic neuron. These
reactions result in the e#citation or inhibition of this neuron.

A neurotransmitter"s
agonist is a molecule
that has the same
effect on the
postsynaptic neuron
as the
neurotransmitter
itself does.
An antagonist is a
molecule that blocks
the effect that the
neurotransmitter
normally has on the
post(synaptic neuron.
It was long thought
that a given neuron
released only one
kind of
neurotransmitter. *ut
today, many
e#periments show
that a single neuron
can produce several
different
neurotransmitters.
+eurons that use
,A*A and glutamate
as neurotransmitters
are used by more
than -&. of the
+/012T1A+34ITT/13
This section describes a few of the best known neurotransmitters that are involved in
many functions in both the central and the peripheral nervous systems. Apart from
acetylcholine, they all belong to the family of amines or amino acids.
Neurotransmitter

Example of Disorder
Involving It

Molecular Structure
Acetylcholine is a very
widely distributed
e#citatory neurotransmitter that
triggers muscle contraction and
stimulates the e#cretion of
certain hormones. In the central
nervous system, it is involved
in wakefulness, attentiveness,
anger, aggression, se#uality,
and thirst, among other things.

Al!heimer"s disease is
associated with a lack of
acetylcholine in certain
regions of the brain.

5opamine is an inhibitory
neurotransmitter involved
in controlling movement and
posture. It also modulates mood
and plays a central role in
positive reinforcement and
dependency.

The loss of dopamine in
certain parts of the brain
causes the muscle rigidity
typical of 6arkinson"s disease.

,A*A (gamma(
aminobutyric acid is an
inhibitory neurotransmitter that
is very widely distributed in the
neurons of the corte#. ,A*A
contributes to motor control,
vision, and many other cortical
functions. It also regulates
an#iety.

3ome drugs that increase the
level of ,A*A in the brain
are used to treat epilepsy and
to calm the trembling of
people suffering from
Huntington"s disease.

neurons in the brain
and constitute the
most important
inhibition and
e#citation systems,
respectively, of the
substantia nigra pars
compacta (3+c.
,lutamate is a major
e#citatory neurotransmitter
that is associated with learning
and memory.

It is also thought to be
associated with Al!heimer"s
disease, whose first symptoms
include memory malfunctions.

+orepinephrine is a
neurotransmitter that is
important for attentiveness,
emotions, sleeping, dreaming,
and learning. +orepinephrine is
also released as a hormone into
the blood, where it causes
blood vessels to contract and
heart rate to increase.

+orepinephrine plays a role in
mood disorders such as manic
depression.

3erotonin contributes to
various functions, such as
regulating body temperature,
sleep, mood, appetite, and pain.

5epression, suicide,
impulsive behaviour, and
agressiveness all appear to
involve certain imbalances in
serotonin.

3cientists have now identified some 7& different molecules that meet the criteria for
being regarded as neurotransmitters.
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