Experiment IX

Diffraction Grating
Objective
(1) To learn to use a diffraction grating spectroscope.
(2) To measure characteristic emission lines of certain elements and identify the source.
Equipment
Spectrometer, replica grating, high voltage source, four spectral emission tubes, connecting
wires, handy lamp.
Preliminary Discussion
Interference refers to the interaction of two or more wave trains of light having the same
frequency and having a phase difference which remains constant with time, so that they may combine
with the result that the energy is not distributed uniformly in space but is a maximum at certain points
and a minimum (perhaps zero) at others.
Diffraction is a term applied to problems in which one is concerned with the resultant effect
produced by a limited portion of a wave surface. It is also an interference phenomenon. Since in most
diffraction problems some light is found within the region of the geometrical shadow, diffraction is
sometimes defined as "the bending of light around an obstacle". It should be emphasized, however,
that the process by which diffraction effects are produced is going on continuously in the propagation
of every wave. Only if a part of the wave is cut off by some obstacle are the effects commonly called
"diffraction effects" observed. But, of course, this occurs for every optical instrument.
Suppose that instead of a single slit (used for diffraction studies), or two narrow slits side by
side (as used for interference studies), we have a very large number of parallel slits all of the same
width, and spaced at regular intervals. Such an arrangement is known as a diffraction grating. The
problem of finding the intensity of the light transmitted by the grating then combines the principles
of interference and diffraction.
When light from a single source is observed through a single slit, the image which the eye
forms is not absolutely sharp; the light bends, or "diffracts" around the slit edges, softening the
shadows and often producing maxima and minima of intensity within the geometrical shadow. (When
the slit is very small, the pattern of light intensity widens as the slit is narrowed!)
If the light from a single source is observed through two parallel slits, the relative phase of
the waves coming from the slits varies with the angle of observation relative to the plane of the slits,
Experiment IX - Diffraction Grating 39
since the waves from the slits in general travel different - distances to reach the eye. Indeed, along
certain directions in space, the waves will be out of phase and will interfere destructive and zero
intensity results along these nodal planes. In between the nodal planes, there will be other directions
along which the light waves will interfere constructively and intensity maxima will occur. If many slits
are used the conditions for intense maxima (waves from all slits in phase) become more critical, and
the maxima sharpen. The distance between maxima, however, is still determined by the distance
between slits.
Thus, the distance between maxima depends on the distance between slits and the resolution,
the relative sharpness of the maxima, depends on the total number of slits. (Often a grating is
characterized by the number of slits per unit length. From this information one can, of course, deduce
the distance between the slits.)
Light Source
Atoms when isolated and excited, such as in a low pressure gas discharge, emit light only of
characteristic sharply defined wavelengths. You will be supplied with four discharge tubes each
containing a gas at low pressure.
The high voltage source used with these tubes can cause an uncomfortable or even dangerous
shock so keep your hands away when the power is on. Do not turn on the high voltage without a
discharge tube inserted in the power supply socket.
Spectrometer
The spectrometer (See Figure 9.1) consists of three parts: 1. The collimator which consists
of a slit of adjustable width together with a lens. The slit is located in the focal plane of the lens, so
that the light from the slit is rendered parallel by the lens. 2. The center disk upon which the grating
is mounted. 3. The telescope for viewing light from the grating.
Experimental work using the grating spectroscope
I. As with many optical instruments, the spectroscope requires some initial adjustments
before the desired measurements can be performed.
1. Focusing the eyepiece. Place a discharge lamp in front of the spectroscope and turn
the telescope until it is in line with and pointing directly at the collimator. In this
instrument the angular scale will read about 180E in this position. Now slide the
eyepiece in and out until a sharp image of the entrance slit is seen. You should at the
same time also see an image of a cross-hair with one hair vertical, the other
Experiment IX - Diffraction Grating 40
Figure 9.1 - Spectrometer
horizontal. If the cross hair and slit are not quite simultaneously in focus, set the
eyepiece so the cross hair is sharp. During the course of the experiment you may well
find that the eye piece has moved out of adjustment. Simply slide the eyepiece back
and forth until the cross hair is sharp again should this problem occur. (Note that if
you or your partner wear eyeglasses and these are removed during the observations,
then the focus adjustment will be different for the two of you. This is no problem as
each observer can quickly adjust the focus for their own eyes.)
2. Aligning the diffraction grating. Place the grating on the center disk so that the long
dimension of the glass backing is horizontal and the grating is held erect by the spring
clip. The grating slits are located in the plastic film glued to the glass backing and this
film should be on the telescope side. Try to get the grating reasonably centered behind
the collimator.
Check to make sure that the grating is not too high or low relative to the collimator.
If it is, look for the 2 horizontal screws below the disk projecting out from the vertical
Experiment IX - Diffraction Grating 41
Figure 9.2 - Diffraction by a grating.
center post. Loosen the lower screw and slide the ring down. Hold the vertical
assembly with one hand and loosen the upper horizontal screw. Move the assembly
up or down until the grating is at the proper height. Tighten the upper horizontal
screw. Slide the ring up as far as it will go and tighten its screw.
Now the goal is to get the slits on the grating vertical, i.e., parallel with the axis of
rotation of the telescope so that the spectral lines you observe later will be properly
centered in the telescope. This will require some care and perseverance on your part
and possibly some help from your lab instructor. As the first step, try to adjust the
disk that holds the grating so that the grating looks vertical and the bottom edge looks
horizontal. This adjustment is made with the 3 vertical adjusting screws located under
the mounting disk. Now loosen the upper of the two horizontal screws below the disk
projecting out from the center post. When this upper screw is loosened you will be
able to rotate the whole central assembly until the grating face also looks
perpendicular to the collimator. Do this and retighten the screw. You must now be
careful not to bump the grating out of position during the rest of the experiment.
II. Calibration of the grating
When the condition m = d sin is satisfied for a grating used at normal incidence, the
wavelength will give a maximum in intensity at the angle as measured from the normal to the
grating. In the equation above, d is the spacing between the grating slits and m is an integer called the
order number. m = 0 is called the central maximum or zeroth order and corresponds to = 0 for all
values of . In order to measure the wavelengths of emission lines of several elements, you need to
determine the spacing d. This will be done by observing several emission lines of known wavelength
from the element Mercury. In particular
you should observe 1) a purple line at
4358.3 Angstroms, 2) a green line at
5460.7 Angstroms, 3) two yellow lines,
one at 5769.6 Angstroms and the other at
5790.7 Angstroms. (The Angstrom is a
common unit of wavelength used in
spectroscopy, 1 Angstrom = 0.10 nm.).
Set up the mercury discharge lamp
with its slit as close as possible to the slit of
the collimator. Observe the central
maximum and adjust the collimator slit to a moderate width. Center the vertical cross hair on the slit
image and focus the eyepiece. (If you do not get a bright image, move your source back and forth
sideways until you do.) The zeroth order angle should be close to 180E. Test your ability to read the
angle scale by reading this angle.
Experiment IX - Diffraction Grating 42
Note on reading the angle scale. Each degree on the main scale is divided in half. The upper
or Vernier scale is labeled over a range of 30 divisions. Convince yourself that the grating angle is
read in degrees plus minutes of arc. When you think you know how to read the scale, ask your lab
instructor to check you on this.
Now observe in first order the four mercury lines listed above. Do this on both sides of the
central maximum. Before recording any angles on one side be sure that the lines are observable on
both sides. If the lines do not fairly well fill the field of view on both sides of the central maximum,
i.e., if they are too high or low on one or both sides you have not adjusted the grating well enough
and you will have to repeat that adjustment.
When you can observe the lines well on both sides of the central maximum, record the angles
of the lines in first order on both sides. If the yellow lines are not resolved (separated) you will need
to close the slit more. If when viewing a low intensity line the vertical cross hair cannot be seen, shine
light on the grating using the small light bulb.
Unless your grating is poorly adjusted about its vertical axis, i.e., the grating face is not
perpendicular to the collimator, you should find that the same wavelength observed on both sides is
nearly equidistant in angle from the central maximum. If there is more than about 2 degrees
difference, you should rotate your grating about its vertical axis until it is more nearly perpendicular
to the collimator.
For each line (wavelength) of Mercury take the difference in the two angles of observation
and divide by 2. This gives you the angle to be used in m = d sin . Obtain a value for d from your
measurements of each of the 4 lines. Decide on a best value for d and estimate its uncertainty.
III. Measurement of for Unknown Sources
You are now to determine the wavelengths or light generated by three other sources and to
identify the sources. Given below are the brightest lines for several elements. Use these to identify
your sources. You may see more or fewer lines than listed.
Experiment IX - Diffraction Grating 43
Wavelengths in Angstroms (1 Angstrom = 10
-10
m = 0.10 nm)
Barium Cadmium Calcium Helium Sodium
4554.0
4934.1
5519.1
5535.5
5777.5
5853.7
6063.2
6110.8
6141.7
6498.8
4678.2
4799.9
5085.8
6099.1
6438.5
4226.7
4434.9
4454.8
4527.0
4878.2
6122.2
6439.1
6462.6
6499.6
4387.9
4471.5
4685.8
4921.9
5015.7
5875.6
6678.2
4665.0
4669.0
4979.0
4983.2
5682.8
5688.3
5890.0
5895.9
6154.4
6160.8
Hydrogen Lithium Mercury Neon Strontium
4102.0
4340.5
4861.3
6562.8
4602.0
4971.9
6103.6
6707.9
4358.3
4916.0
5460.7
5769.6
5790.7
6234.4
6907.5
5341.1
5400.6
5852.5
5881.9
6029.0
6163.6
6266.5
6383.0
6402.3
6506.5
6598.9
4077.7
4215.5
4607.3
4832.1
4872.5
4962.3
6617.3
6878.4
Wavelength Range Central Color
6100 - 6700
5900 - 6100
5700 - 5900
5000 - 5700
4500 - 5000
4000 - 4500
red
orange
yellow
green
blue
purple
Experiment IX - Diffraction Grating 44
Balmer Series of Hydrogen
Of all the atoms, Hydrogen has by far the simplest spectrum. Observations of its spectrum
prior to the development of quantum theory showed that the wavelengths of the emission (or
absorptions) lines of hydrogen could be represented by the formula, l/ = 1.097x10
7
m
-1
(1/n
2
1
- 1/n
2
2
)
where n
1
and n
2
are integers with n
2
> n
1
. When n
1
is taken as 1 the resulting for n
2
= 2, 3, 4, etc.,
are in the ultraviolet. However, when n
1
= 2 and n
2
= 3, 4, 5, etc., some of these lines are in the visible
and are members of what is called the Balmer series.
Calculate the wavelengths of the lines in the Balmer series for n
2
= 3, 4, 5, and 6. Compare
these values with your measurements and with the values given in the table.