The Journal of Organization, Management & Leadership, Issue 1, Summer 2010

JOML & Nyack College School of Business and Leadership

1 South Bld. Nyack, NY 10960


Culture, Communication and Leadership

The Journal of Organization, Management & Leadership Issue 1, Summer 2011
by Joel Baldomir

With an apparent increase in the
development of global business, it is vital that
organizational leaders recognize the importance of
cultural understanding when engaging in the
communication process. The role of cultural in
determining communication strategies and its effect
on organizations has been the subject of much
study (Davis, 1998; Hall, 1989; Javidan & House,
2001). Leaders of global organizations are given
the responsibility of clearly communicating with
their followers. For leaders, understanding the
culture of followers is crucial to achieving a state of
effective organizational communication (Miroshnik,
2002). Leaders should understand that culture
often dictates how one communicates (Hall). This
article examines how global leaders might better
prepare their followers for communication in cross-
cultural communication environments.

The leaders of modern global organizations
are faced with the challenge of managing people
who often represent a diverse collection of cultures
(Erez, 2004; Harris, Moran, & Moran, 2004). This
vast array of cultures can create a communication
environment that may lead to misunderstandings if
a state of shared understanding cannot be
achieved by all those involved in the
communication process (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003;
Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). Hall
(1989) explained that misunderstandings of culture
could even lead to feelings of aggression among
the members of an organization. It is important for
leaders to examine this issue, as leaders are
responsible for maintaining the stability of their
organizations and their followers. Within the global
organizational environment cultural understanding
may be key to maintaining effective communication.

Gudykunst and Kim (2003) explained that
ones cultural background and cultural identity

could have a significant influence on how he or she
communicates with others. Language choices and
speaking style, as well as the interpretation of
others communications are directly influenced by
ones cultural background (Beebe, Beebe and Ivy,
2007). Hall (1959) established that not only does
ones culture influence his or her communication
style but also, ones communication style influences
his or her culture. This interrelationship between
culture and communication makes it difficult to
study one without the other. The cultural
backgrounds of those individuals taking part in the
communication process and the culture where the
communication is taking place create the context
(Hall, 1989). A true understanding of all of these
components allows for a deeper understanding of
the shared meaning of a message (Carbaugh,
2007; Hall).

The meaning of a message cannot be
determined without first understanding how to
interpret the message. Philipsen (2001) argued that
there are contextual codes of communication that
exist within individual cultural communities. Within
these communities, speech and language patterns
are determined based on situation as well as the
individuals involved in the communication process.
Individuals are not born knowing the contextual
codes or with any cultural understanding; this is
something that develops over the course of their life
(Hall, 1989; Philipsen). This draws a parallel to
Fishers (1988) suggestion that individuals are
programmed to respond to the world in a
predetermined manner. With this in mind, it is
important that leaders recognize that their followers
may be less likely to embrace intercultural
communication opportunities based solely on the
fact that it is not something that they have been
programmed to do.

Understanding and being willing to adapt to
communication codes is necessary within
The Journal of Organization, Management & Leadership Issue 1, Summer 2011

2
organizational communication environments.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998)
explained, communication is possible only
between people who to some extent share a
system of meaning (p.75). Studying culture can
allow for a greater contextual understanding of a
communication environment by establishing a
system of meaning. Hall (1989) explained that
having a contextual understanding of a culture
provides a filter that helps one sort through the
information about that specific culture. He added
that, one needs to be intentional about trying to
truly understand anothers culture and that adapting
to an individuals cultural needs is possible only
through such adaptation. An understanding of the
cultural context in which communication is taking
place is needed in order to truly develop a shared
understanding of meaning (Trompenaars &
Hampden-Turner).

A shared understanding of meaning can
lead to the creation of an entirely new
communication environment. Baraldi (2006) pointed
out that cross cultural communication can either
focus on adapting to each cultures communication
practices or it can focus on creating an entirely new
culture. Having open communication allows for the
sharing of cultures and often results in the creation
of a new unique culture (Jorgenson and Steier,
1994). This newly created culture represents an
entirely unique communication environment in
which all participants in the communication process
must pay particular attention to the needs of their
fellow participants in order to avoid any
misunderstandings.

Working around ones own preconceived
notions about a culture may be the key to
understanding anothers culture and to avoiding
potential misunderstandings. Smart (2000) argued
that in order to truly understand and adapt to the
context of anothers culture, one would need to
suspend all of his or her earlier developed cultural
biases. This is a technique that might prove to be
useful to a leader who has had difficulties relating
to his or her followers. This may also be a desirable
method for those members of an organization who
might refuse to adapt to the communication style
used by an individual from another culture. By
encouraging the use of this strategy among their
followers, leaders of global organizations might
foster organizational communication climates that
will allow for greater understanding of other cultures
(Fisher, 1988; Gudykunst & Kim, 2003; Smart).
Hall (1989) pointed out that it can be difficult
to address some less obvious cultural
characteristics because they may not be
immediately understood and therefore often remain
unnoticed. House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and
Gupta (2004) explored some of the less obvious
cultural influences that can affect communication.
Through the GLOBE study, they were able to
extrapolate several cultural factors that affected
ones ability to adapt to a foreign business culture.
Among these factors, they found that power-
distance was a significant issue affecting cultural
adaptation. In High power distance cultures, such
as Russia, subordinates may be less likely to
question those whom they view as authorities
(Davis, 1998; House et al; Javidan & House, 2001).
Leaders who are working with individuals from such
cultures may find that their followers are less open
in their communication style.

The GLOBE study also examined
differences between high context and low context
cultures (House et al, 2004). Cultures can be either
low context or high context as they relate to
communication. In low context cultures like the US,
Germany and France words and word choices may
have less baring on the meaning of a message
than they would in higher context cultures (Hall,
1989; Harris & Moran, 2004; House et al). This
factor could make it more difficult to communicate
between high and low context cultures. Leaders in
low context cultures need to be sensitive to the
communication needs of their followers and
understand that those individuals from high context
cultures may require more detail in their
communication.

Effective communication between leaders
and their followers is needed in order to maintain
the stability of an intercultural communication
environment. The members of global organizations
need the support of their leaders if they want to
succeed in an intercultural communication
environment. Hitt, Keats, and Yucel (2003)
emphasized the need for leaders to establish a
sense of trust among members of a global
organization. Glicks (2002) study of cross-cultural
leadership suggested that leaders who build strong
relationships with their followers help those
followers effectively adapt to new cultures. This
study also suggested that leaders should provide
more opportunities for their followers to participate
in cross-cultural communication.

The Journal of Organization, Management & Leadership Issue 1, Summer 2011

3
Leaders of global organizations should
make every effort to explain to their followers that it
might be in each of their best interests to learn to
adapt to the communication practices of other
cultures. Hofstede (2001) argued that individuals
want to avoid uncertainty and misunderstanding in
new organizational communication environments.
He stated, The tendency to avoid uncertainty in
organizations varies along with the tendency to
avoid ambiguities in societies at large, which is a
major component of national cultures (p. 148).
This supports the work of Berger and Calabrese
(1979) who found that humans communicate in
order to avoid ambiguity. By forming relationships,
humans create networks of meaning that reduce
uncertainty (Berger & Calabrese). Adapting to the
communication practices of another culture allows
for greater clarity in communication and reduces
uncertainty.

Effective leaders must ensure that their
followers are properly prepared and trained.
Followers need to be given the tools that will allow
them to be happy and successful within a cross-
cultural context. Recognizing the presence of
obstacles means leaders may be able to develop
workable strategies to respond to their followers
cultural needs as they prepare them for intercultural
communication environments. The leaders of global
organizations need to understand and respond to
the various aspects of culture in order to create an
organizational environment that fosters effective
communication among their followers.

References

Baraldi, C. (2006). New forms of intercultural
communication in a globalized world.
International Communication Gazette, 68(1),
53-69.
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Ivy, D. K. (2007).
Communication: Principles for a lifetime.
Boston: Pearson.
Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some
explorations in initial interaction and beyond.
Human
Communication Research, 1, 99-112.
Carbaugh, D. (2007). Cultural discourse analysis:
Communication practices and intercultural
encounters. Journal of Intercultural
Communication Research, 36(3), 167-182.
Dorfman, P. W. (2003). International and cross-
cultural leadership research. In B. J. Punnett, &
O. Shenkar (Eds.), Handbook for international
management research. Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan Press.
Glick, N. (2002). The relationship between cross
cultural experience and training, and leader
effectiveness in the US foreign service.
International Journal of Cross Cultural
Management, 2(3), 239-356.
Gudykunst, W., & Kim, Y. (2003). Communicating
with strangers: An approach to
intercultural communication (4th ed.). Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill.
Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York:
Doubleday.
Hall, E. T. (1989). Beyond Culture. New York:
Anchor Books/Doubleday.
Harris, P. R., Moran, R. T. and Moran, S. V. (2004).
Managing Cultural Differences: Global
Leadership Strategies for the Twenty-First
Century Sixth Edition. Burlington, MA:
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
Hitt, M. A., Keats, B. W., & Yucel, E. (2003).
Strategic leadership in global business
organizations: Building trust and social
capital. In W. Mobley & P. Dorfman (Eds),
Advances in global leadership, Vol. 3. Boston:
JAI press.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures consequences.
London: Sage Publications.
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J, Javidan, M., Dorfman,
P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture,
leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE
study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications
Javidan, M., & House, R. J. (2001). Cultural
acumen for the global manager: Lessons from
Project GLOBE. Organizational Dynamics,
29(4), 289 305.
Jones, A. (2005). The anthropology of
leadership: Culture and corporate leadership
in the American south. Leadership 1, 259-
280.
Jorgenson, J. & Steier, F. (1994). Social cybernetic
and constructionist issues in intercultural
communication, Teoria Sociologica, 3, 6377.
Keyton, J. (2005). Communication and
organizational culture. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.
Miroshnik, V. (2002). Culture and international
management: A review. Journal of Management
Development, 21(7), 521 544.
Philipsen, G. (2001). Cultural communication. In W.
B. Gudykunst & B. Mody (Eds.),
The Journal of Organization, Management & Leadership Issue 1, Summer 2011

4
Handbook of international and intercultural
communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Schneider, B. (1990). Organizational climate and
culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998).
Riding the waves of culture. New York:
McGraw-Hill.