Contemporary Turkish

Makam Practice
Karl Signell
The Abstract Level: Makam Theory
The Empirical Level: Alernative Explanations
I ndividuality
Related Musics
Extramusical Meaning
To the outsider, the Turkish makam is a mystery: is it a scale, a mode, or a melody?
But the Turkish theorist defines it, the Turkish performer hears it with the inner ear,
and the Turkish music lover often takes it for granted.
A musician playing classical Turkish music at the beginning of the twenty-first
century usually reads from a score. At the top of its first page, there is almost invariably
the name of a makam (figure 1). Names distinguish one makam, or classical Turkish
melody classification, from another. We should not compare modal systems indiscrim-
inately; but solely with regard to its use of names for types of melodies, the Turkish
makam (plural, makamlar) system resembles European medieval modes (Aeolian,
Phrygian), I ndian raga (Bhairavi, Todi), and J avanese pater (Nem, Sanga). Historical
records list hundreds of makamlar, some known only by their names, since no com-
positions in these modes survive. The best modern performers can improvise in about
fifty makamlar, and even more if a performer has had a chance to study compositions
in an unfamiliar makam.
The precisely defined characteristics of the Turkish makam hold true for classical
compositions and improvisations performed by elite groups of instrumentalists and
singers, such as those in government and conservatory'ensembles and at radio stations
in I stanbul, Ankara, and I zmir. Turks call this genre Turkish classical music (klasik
Tiirk miizi i, or klasik Tiirk musikisi) or sometimes art music or learned music (sanat
musikisi) .
The Turkish makam can be understood on two levels: an abstract level that pro-
vides theoretical knowledge, and an empirical level that provides knowledge based on
performance. The astute student will learn abstract theory but will approach it with
a healthy skepticism until practice bears it out.
FI GURE 1" Makam name--beyati--at the top of
a score. (For the complete score, see figure 16.)
Bey tf Beste
Devr-i Keb' r Zek Dede
0 .L C J LO ... N GO . . I . Ztt
47
48
UNDERSTANDI NG MUSI CS OF THE MI DDLE EAST
THE ABSTRACT LEVEL: MAKAM THEORY
According to the early twentieth-century Turkish theorist RaufYekta and his colleague
H. Saadettin Arel, a makam has six elements: (1) tetrachord and pentachord (scale
types), (2) ambitus, (3) beginning, (4) dominant, (5) tonic (finalis), and (6) movement
(seyir).
One might reformulate twentieth-century Turkish theory and modify it from a
performer's point of view by defining makam in terms of five elements, not very
different from Yekta's (Signell 1986):
!
1. Scale
2. Melodic unfolding
3. Modulation
4. Stereotyped motives
5. Tessitura
Any one of these elements might indicate the difference between two makamlar, but
most of them are needed to identify a makam clearly, even at the abstract level.
Scale
Segah Kfirdi
,,0,.,., o . L- L- ,,
%,,.3
3 Puselik Dik ktirdi Dtigah
o L- o
";3"
B B-flat A
FI GURE 2. Turkish and Western notes between
whole tones.
I ntervals
Western music commonly uses seven notes (do, re, mi, and so on) with five auxiliary
notes (sharps and flats), so that twelve notes per octave are available: these are the
white keys and black keys in an octave on the piano. Theoretically, any two successive
notes are separated by the same interval, 100 cents. A cent is one-hundredth of a
Western tempered semitone; a perfect octave contains 1,200 cents. Every musical
interval, in all musics, can be represented in cents.
Classical Turkish music, which is monophonic, has developed subtleties of into-
nation; thus one finds three named pitches between whole tones where Western music
has only one (figure 2). I n their classical music, Turks recognize and name at least
twenty-four notes per octave (Signell 1986:28-29). Often, a pitch has the same name
as a makam in which it plays an important role (for instance, the pitch segah is
important in makam segah). Turkish theorists use the Pythagorean comma (koma),
equal to 23.46 cents, as the unit of measure for intervals. However, different methods
are used to calculate some intervals, and figures may be rounded to whole numbers;
as a result, there can be discrepancies in totals.
Turkish theory recognizes five intervals (figure 3), and classical Turkish music
notation, for the most part, uses three flats and three sharps (figure 4). Figure 5
compares commas and cents in a widely used makam, beyati. As figure 6 shows, the
same notation represents different intervals, depending on Turkish and Western
conventions.
I =ZGVRU 3 The five intervals recognized in
Turkish theory.
Scale: Examples
Note that for all the scales discussed here, the tones are represented hierarchically: the
finalis as a whole note, secondary tonal centers such as the dominant and the upper
tonic as half notes, and the other tones of the scale as stemless black heads. Note also
Turkish name
bakiye
kiiiik miicennep
biiyiik miicennep
tanini
artk ikili
English translation
small half-tone
large half-tone
small whole-tone
whole-tone
augmented second
Comma value
4
5
8
9
12
Cents value
90
114
180
204
271
t
I
]
l
/
]
49 CONTEMPORARY TURKI SH MAKAM PRACTI CE
FI GUVa4 The three flats and three sharps of
classical Turkish music notation.
Accidental Turkish notation
lowers 23 cents
(1 comma)
Western tempered
notation Example
Figure 5, 9:A-B4 = 180 cents
(small whole tone)
raises 23 cents
(1 comma)
raises 90 cents
(4 commas
raises 114 cents
(5 commas)
lowers 100 cents
raises 100 cents
lowers 114 cents
(5 commas)
lowers 90 cents
(4 commas)
Figures 8, 9:A-B4 = 114
(large half-tone)
Figures 6, 7: A-B = 90
(small half-tone)
Figure 8: E-F$ = 114
(large half-tone)
Figure 11: E-F# = 180
(small whole tone)
F:GURE 5
and cents.
I ntervals in makam beyati in commas cents: 180 114 204 204 90 204 204
[
r.)(runded)
r
O' m
,J
commas: 8 5 9 9 4 9 9
I
FI GURE 6 Acema4iran: Western tempered
intervals versus Turkish intervals.
Tempered: 100 200 200 200 100 200
0 p o _
";3' I
Turkish: 90 204 204 204 90 204
200 cents
-- ./
204 cents
that Turkish notation is a fifth higher than Arab notation; for instance, the Turkish
makam acemafiran ends on f whereas the Arab 'ajam
'ushayrdn
ends on B-flat.
Common practice in Western classical music relies on two scales, major and
minor. The scale of the Turkish makam acema4iran is close to the Western major scale
(again, see figure 6). Makam acema4iran is a "descending" scale, cadencing an octave
below the starting point; Turkish theory represents it as descending from left to right.
The scale of makam nihavent is close to the Western minor scale (figure 7).
The augmented-second intervals of makam ehnaz (figure 8) resemble scales fa-
miliar to Western listeners from pseudo-Near Eastern music such as the
"Bacchanale"
from Saint-Sa ns's Samson and Delilah; the augmented-second interval is found in
various positions in other makamlar. To non-Turkish ears, makam saba (figure 9) is
one of the more exotic scales, with its diminished-fourth interval from its finalis to its
fourth scalar degree.
HGURE 7 Nihavent: Western tempered
intervals versus Turkish intervals.
Tempered: 200 100 200
o .
Turkish: 204 90 204
200 100 200 200 cents
- r
204 90 204 204 cents
FI GURE 8 ehnaz: Western tempered intervals
versus Turkish intervals.
Tempered: 100 300 100 200 100
Z , k- . -- o
%.k\ l J
t)
300 100 cents
4i,.
, [
Turkish: 114 271 114 204
.%11
t3
114 271 114 cents
/
UNDERSTANDI NG MUSI CS OF THE MI DDLE EAST
Saba: intervals
FI GU 9
Theory: 180 114 114 271 114 204 180 271 114 cents
The scale of makam rast differs more perceptibly than makam acemairan from
the Western major scale because the third degree of rast is clearly flatter than the
comparable Western interval. I n major scales, the first two intervals add up to 400
(200 + 200) cents; in acemafiran, they add up to 408 (204 + 204); in rast, they
add up to only 384 (204 + 180; figure 10). The scale of makam beyati overlaps that
of makam rast, beginning on the second degree of rast, except for a consistent f-natural
in beyati (figure 11). To the Western ear, beyati sounds similar tO the descending
melodic minor scale except for the slighdy lower pitch segah, its second degree.
Comparison
of major, acema4iran,
FI GURE I 0
and rast pentachords.
700
200 204 2O4
6OO
500
4O0
300 --
2O0
100
Major Acema iran
(Tempered)
m
interval 4
m
interval 3
interval 2
Rast
interval 1
x=I
vv-
I I
Overlap between rast and
beyati.
Makam rast

" r I
tonic dominant
Makam beyati
tonic dominant
I
51
FI GUmI z Extended saba scale and jump to
octave.
CONTEMPORARY TURKI SH MAKAM PRACTI CE
nonrepeating extension:
,4-
t,.-
j_ o-b ,1. r [--
o ,,-
I
t
to o0tov0:
fL-
i,"e_3
-2
Western tempered scale intervals repeat exactly in every octave. By contrast, a
Turkish makam often has different intervals in different octaves. Rast repeats the same
intervals starting an octave above the finalis, but makam saba, for example, does not,
except when a performer deliberately jumps up an octave after establishing the makam
to present it in a higher range (figure 12). Beyati commonly uses B-flat (a note called
siinbiile) in the upper octave instead of B-comma-flat (called tiz segah; see figure 16
below, m. 17).
Melodic unfolding
Tonal centers
A scale is an abstract set of pitches that becomes music only when the musician brings
it to life. For example: A melody might begin by repeating, holding, or circling around
d (neva), showing the importance of this note as a backbone or tonal center of the
makam. As the melody descends and begins to emphasize a (diigah), the scale, melodic
motives, and tonal centers gradually suggest that makam beyati might be taking shape.
Returning to d for a cadence makes it clear that d is the secondary tonal center, or
the dominant (gii;1ii). A final cadence on a reveals that a is the primary tonal center,
or tonic-finalis (karar), and confirms that the makam is beyati (figure 13). Other
important tones in beyati include f (acem) and c (;argah).
I n Western music, the dominant is always a fifth higher than the tonic, but the
Turkish dominant can be found on the third, fourth, or fifth degree above the tonic.
I n makam rast, the dominant is a fifth above the tonic, but the third degree strongly
shapes its melodies. Makam beyati uses basically the same scale as rast and has the
same dominant, but in beyati the tonic is the note that was the second degree in rast
(refer back to figure 11).
Direction
I f we travel in one direction on a street and then in the opposite direction, we almost
seem to be moving along two different streets. Makam hiiseyni begins in the middle
of the octave, like beyati, but around e (hiiseyni), a fifth above the tonic (rather than
at d, as in beyati). A hiiseyni melody will next descend to establish the tonic, then
explore the upper range to the octave and above. Makam muhayyer uses the same scale
FI GU 13 Beyati
seyir (Yekta 1920-
1931:3003). Yekta's
notation, unlike
modern notation,
assumes B-comma-
flat (that is, one-
comma flat) without
use of an accidental.
0 ;] o ; I ; I " ', , .... ' ', I " ? 1. 11" ;- - ', ;
r r, I I ./ I
....... tt I I | I F I F I I tl I I I I } I I
t) ' ' / /
I " ; I F ........ I I I I r
" 1 I ,, t I r I I rl r ,Ul , ,--, , F ,I F'
25/ I - - , " , i l ,
..v t r I r" r I c ," , - ., _ I I F I ; t"" , , o . , I t
,. ' , I , I I / I I t I r I ', l I / t I I r I I
UNDERSTANDI NG MUSI CS OF THE MI DDLE EAST
as hi2seyni but begins an octave above the finalis and works its way gradually down to
the tonic. These different melodic journeys give the listener an impression of different
makamlar. Musicians and theorists recognize this difference by giving these makamlar
different names.
Seyir
Western music theory simplifies sonata-allegro form for students. I n Turkish music
theory, seyir (plural, seyirler) is a melody that attempts to capture the essentials of a
makam for students. Besides the scale and melodic direction, a seyir might reveal
typical melodic patterns, ranges to be exploited, and notes to be emphasized. The
repertoire of all compositions in a makam shows the full range of possibilities, but the
seyir should give the essential features in brief.
Yekta provides a seyir for beyati (figure 13) and twenty-nine other makamlar. The
seyirler by Yekta and M. N. Beken (figure 14) show a melodic progression basically
the same as the exposition (up to meyan) of a beyati composition (see below, figure
16). Since classical Turkish music typically requires modulation within the exposition
of the makam, a realistic seyir would include modulation. Beken's seyir includes a
modulation typical of beyati, to hicaz on d.
Modulation
Definition
I n Western music, modulation establishes a new tonal center, as in the first movement
of Eine kleine Nachtmusik, in which Mozart establishes his first theme in G major,
then modulates to the dominant (D major) to introduce his second theme. Turks use
the word gecki 'modulation' for a shift to another makam, which could mean a shift
of scale, tonal center or centers, and seyir. A modulation can be short and transitory--
a cins 'taste' of another makam--or longer and even permanent (Signell 1986). Except
for the simplest improvisation or composition, Turkish music requires modulation.
Obligatory modulation
Although we expect Mozart to modulate to another key for his second theme, we also
expect him to return to the home key by the end of the first movement. We can say
that his first movement is in G major although it modulates to other keys; indeed,
modulations strengthen the sense of G major by providing a contrast. For most mak-
amlar, the seyir would include an expected temporary modulation to another makam.
Makam acema4iran often modulates temporarily to saba, using a tonal center common
to both, c (argah; figure 15).
Among other possibilities, makam beyati often includes short modulations to
hicaz on d and a taste of other makamlar, and sometimes a more substantial modu-
lation to saba before returning to and cadencing in beyati (figure 16).
Fzcuz z4 Beyati
seyir by Yekta and
M. N. Beken.
hicaz on d
[
53 CONTEMPORARY TURKI SH MAKAM PRACTI CE
FI GUV.E 15 Temporary
modulation to makam saba
within makam acema4iran.
modulation to saba
I I
'. ' "- " d. J / , J ) , . "rl 1 F /;--A t ! [3 i
!lJ -u - I I ' / ' ' I
I I
cadence in acemasiran
FI GUF.E i6
Modulations in a
beyati composition.
(This is the same
composition as in
figure 1.)
5
lf I " r i1 114 i.. ............... I
t " l V " /1 I ' I 13/r I i,-J ii 1 ? ""
LJ l i
ii
9
0 , . . ,- ,. _ ? ? ,= .,= ......... , . _t ....
- i li-i i i,-,ii r-" ! I I 1 I l\ "
,,,, 4 rl rI I l.J I r , L, I A LI . UL-.41 I w i', v
"/
fJ I
,,.t., L.. , iI ----i, r--
taste of
z,,, ,:r:", - ---, ",
t;r_rfz,
' '"
"t"-.1 I
[.J
L...
'iF"
I I I li r ff t,," L,' !l
I i
hicaz on d
'7o,
. _ Fb r, ,- . ........ ....
--a L-I I _l I _J le L' 'J I I V I p I
'o
r- - h' .....
L$
r i" i
7
,r
L
taste of makam hiizzam
24 t . , .. (Meyan) 4a
i l "I "l i ..... il
l
# .. -- . " I I "" .m m .. -- I
(2" :"-"1 L. F-
-'
.....J ' - . " t I I I 2 [/ I p I
Fin
taste of makam saba
t ,-4 4 il, i i . i i i - i -- l ,, i I l
l[t'('% " l I r F i I I | I f'5 .. ...... . . d J .I J K ,,I .I I
kki2 i / h I I t I '1 I I I -- -- I t'-- -- " I
,3 ' ' F =::1==t:==i
I L
taste of makam puselik
- , t r r r i r f
" ' I .-Z I
,
'
taste of makam hiiseyn[
I
I
33
O, . -
"
t , - , .; - . ,r .
' i L I i7 v i
.;3, . ,.-- I I , L.__ , ,
t
taste of makam saba
I I I I I I / I I
I / I L 5==.J I J I I I
36 i
0 I , ,h_ m -
(%' ,
.... ' e " ' '1 . .... , o
"; L'='t [J I I t I I f_l rJ I f
__1 I
taste of makam puselik
- I
J
Compound makamlar
When a horticulturist grafts a cutting of a domesticated rose onto a wild stock, the
two parts form a new, complex whole. Turkish composers, instead of inventing new
makamlar, sometimes graft together two makamlar by starting a composition in one
makam, modulating to another, and staying in the second until the end of the piece,
creating a new tonal structure and a new ethos. Makam beyati-araban ends with beyati
54
Hcuv.u z7 The two components of makam
beyati-araban.
UNDERSTANDI NG MUSI CS OF THE MI DDLE EAST
begins with araban

ends with beya

but begins with a different tessitura and different tonal materials (figure 17). Whereas
beyati establishes its first tonal center a fourth above the finalis on d (neva), beyati-
araban establishes its first tonal center an octave above the finalis on a (the pitch
muhayyer). The araban tonal materials in the upper range are related to the
augmented-second family of hicaz and ehnaz (refer back to figure 8).
Stereotyped motives
We often infer a person's nationality from his or her accent; people have many other,
more complex characteristics, but an accent is something we can quickly hear and
recognize. Similarly, one immediately recognizes some makamlar from a single motive
that captures important structural notes. Stereotyped motives appear at the beginning
or end of a composition or an improvisation. Some are universal; others are associated
with a particular composer or performer (Signell 1986:125ff). When such motives
appear, they are a kind of musical shorthand that quickly suggests the makam (figures
18 and 19). However, one should not expect to find a stereotyped motive in every
composition or improvisation, and one should not jump to a conclusion about the
intended makam before the performer sounds the finalis.
Tessitura
Tessitura can refer to the range of a makam. To bring order to a vast accumulation of
makamlar, twentieth-century Turkish theorists organized some makamlar by scales
that seemed to be the same, grouping them under the rubric of ed
'transposed'
makamlar. Theorists considered makamlar acemairan and mahur as makam argah
transposed up a fourth and fifth, respectively. Hicazkar and evcara were considered
zirgiileli hicaz transposed down a second and a minor third, respectively. I n modern
theory these transposed modes differ only in name, but performers recognize subtle
differences. Suzidil and edaraban are both described as descending zirgiileli hicaz
transposed to different pitches, but each has its own seyir.
Tessitura could also refer to the ambitus of a makam. For example, beyati and
uak have the same basic scale, but beyati quickly rises to the fourth degree and rarely
descends below the finalis. Uak begins--unlike beyati--by dwelling in the area of
the finalis and often descends one or two degrees below the finalis. Violating this rule
runs the danger of violating the boundary between beyati and uak.
A listener familiar with these five criteria--scale, melodic unfolding, modulation, ste-
reotyped motives, and tessitura--should be able to identify a makam with the reason-
FZCURE z8 Personal beyati motive by
Neyzen Niyazi Saym.
Beyati
.i
i
FZCURE 19 General
stereotyped motives
in makamlar segah,
ehnaz, and karct ar.
Segah
sqehnaz Karcl ar
CONTEMPORARY TURKI SH MAKAM PRACTI CE
able certainty that most Turkish musicians and theorists would agree. These rules hold
within the narrow circle of elite performers in major centers of music in Turkey.
Theory: 114
Practice: 143
FI GUV, U ZO Saba interval: theory versus practice
(Signell 1977:158).
THE EMPI RI CAL LEVEL: ALTERNATI VE EXPLANATI ONS
Performers often find traditional theory puzzling. The makamlar they play and hear
show more flexibility than traditional theory would imply. I t is common knowledge
among performers that pitches in performance vary from the theoretical pitches. Pre-
cise measurements confirm that performed intervals vary from one musical context to
another and sometimes depart consistently and substafidally from theoretical intervals
(Signell 1986: app. A). I n makam saba, for example, the fourth degree consistently
measures an average of 29 cents higher in practice than in theory (figure 20).
Performers and many listeners also know that certain pitches are variable (oynak),
depending on melodic context. I n makamlar beyati and u ak, for example, the per-
former will lower the b-one-comma-fiat (the pitch segah) in a descending melodic
line. When descending toward a final cadence, the performer will lower it even more,
usually sliding toward the tonic (figure 21). Performers call this "warming" the pitch.
One leading performer, Tanburi Necdet Ya#ar, proposed names for three more
pitches--making five in all---known to performers but not recognized in theory (Sig-
nell 1986:41). Further measurements are likely to show other differences between
theory and practice. For exarnple, the concept of a "transposed" makam simplifies
subtle changes of tessitura, pitch, seyir, tonal color, and instrumental idiosyncracies
when one finds a scale rendered at another pitch (Signell 1986: ch. 8).
A different paradigm: For larger questions of scale and seyir, an empirical meth-
odology might help us understand the dynamic nature of the makam. I gnoring
traditional theory, one could analyze data from performances, using the array of
notes in each phrase as a building block of melodic development. A sequence of
such arrays would make up the seyir of one performance. One could then observe
the extent to which the artist uses tonal materials of the theoretical scale, and the
extent to which the melodic line behaves in accordance with ideas presented in
theory books.
Comparing performances, one will find some similar arrays, some different ar-
rays, and some arrays that, although similar, appear at different places in the se-
quence. Such a comparison offers a transparent basis for determining which elements
are required to establish a nominal makam, which are misleading or playful, and
which are conclusive in nailing down the identity of the makam. This methodology
allows researchers to test one another's conclusions. Anyone can gather and analyze
data from other performances in the same makam, or from other makamlar. This
type of analysis may offer a more persuasive explanation of Turkish makam than a
rigid theory, by showing the relationship between personal choices of individual
performers within commonly accepted boundaries (Beken and Signell, in press). A
more complete understanding of the word makam and its context in Turkish music
requires a deeper and fuller explanation of the relationship between the dynamic
variability of each makam realization and the relatively static limits accepted by most
musicians over time.
I NDI VI DUALI TY
No two speakers of English use the language in exactly the same way. Aside from gross
differences between British, American, I ndian, and other varieties of English, every
FI GUR zz Lowered second degree in makam
beyati in descending melody.
lower at cadence
12
.. _, .... bll
t2'l pl L.J -F
56 UNDERSTANDI NG MUSI CS OF THE MI DDLE EAST
Each improvisation by a master musician shows his
knowledge and understanding of the makam and its
repertoire, his mood at the moment of creation, his
personality, his virtuosity, and his musical
intelligence.
speaker has a different understanding of words and syntax, based on personal history.
Even for one individual, linguistic "performance" varies depending on the day, the
year, the context, and the person's mood. No two performers of Turkish classical music
understand makam in exactly the same way; nor does a single performer realize makam
the same way from one day to the next or from one context to another. Makam exists
only in its realization by individual composers and performers at specific times and in
specific places.
I n jazz, the personality and style of the interpreter are all-important. I n Turkish
music also, peers and listeners judge how well a performer brings the rnakam to life,
touching the right bases while putting a personal stamp on it. This tension between
the shared and the personal contributes greatly to the vitality of Turkish music.
A competent but unimaginative musician will observe all the rules of a makam,
with correct intonation, expected modulations, and stereotyped motives at the right
places. This musician does the job required, like a bureaucrat. A master musician
might create a personal rift for a given makam, a motive that identifies the makam
and the player (Signell 1986:125ff). More subtly, each improvisation by a master
musician shows his knowledge and understanding of the makam and its repertoire,
his mood at the moment of creation, his personality, his virtuosity, and his musical
intelligence. No one can copy this type of performance; like jazz, it is personal and
therefore all the more precious.
RELATED MUSI CS
The nature of makam in contemporary elite Turkish musical circles becomes clearer
in comparison with closely related musics. One cannot easily draw a line defining the
limits of Turkish classical music. To varying degrees, performers of other kinds of
music also participate in the classical tradition. Their interpretation of makam varies
from that of the elite in ways that give us a fuller understanding of the contemporary
realization of Turkish makam.
Historic repertoire
I f we examine the classical repertoire in history, we find (as mentioned at the beginning
of the article) that some makamlar have survived in name only, with no compositions
to tell us what music these names represent. When contemporary performers approach
the compositions that have survived from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (the
early, anonymous Mevlevi compositions and pieces from the Cantemir and Ufld col-
lections), they can grasp the makam structures intellectually, but the melodic move-
ment may be awkward for someone accustomed to the eighteenth-, nineteenth-, and
twentieth-century repertoire. When they are called on to improvise in a makam found
only in early compositions, musicians feel that they are on shaky ground. A performer
can neither draw on a large and familiar repertoire in the makam nor create a taksim
'improvisation'
by analogy to known makamlar. This is like asking a modern actor to
improvise in the style of seventeenth-century commedia dell'arte.
57 CONTEMPORARY TURKI SH MAKAM PRACTI CE
smaller interval
0 i ,,'
"
higher lower
FZCTOVaZ ZZ Smaller augmented second interval
in makam hicaz in Gypsy intonation.
Gypsy music
Gypsies and Gypsy style dominate Turkish nightclub (gazino, orfasd) music--a con-
text in which light compositions from the classical repertoire are often played in a
lively style with plenty of improvisation and Gypsy intonation.
Gypsy intonation often differs from classical intonation. With the augmented-
second interval between the second and the third degrees in makam hicaz, for example,
Gypsies typically place the second degree a little higher and the third degree a little
lower, making the augmented interval smaller than the classical one (figure 22). I n
any makam, for example beyati, a Gypsy will usually place the pitch segah lower than
a classical musician would, approximately one comma flatter, more like the corre-
sponding Arab pitch sfkd.
Turkish folk music
Mustafa Kemal Atatiirk, founder of the modern republic in the 1920s, exalted Turkish
folk music as purely Turkish, even Central Asian. He suppressed Turkish classical music
as alien--as Middle Eastern. This policy led twentieth-century Turkish theorists to
seek ways to make Turkish classical music seem more Turkish by drawing parallels to
folk music. They looked for makam in folk music, matching classical scales with similar
scales in folk song. However, they ignored the specifics of microtonal intonation,
modulations, seyir, and even tonal centers so minutely prescribed by classical rules.
This exercise reminds us that the borders of makam are permeable and that defining
terms remains a crucial aspect of making comparisons.
EXTRAMUSI CAL MEANI NG
Do not look for extramusical meanings of Turkish makamlar in the secular classical
tradition in modern times. Vestiges linger in makam names such as saba (a light zephyr
from the east) and hicaz (the H. ijiz, formerly a kingdom, now a region of Saudi
Arabia), but one would be hard-pressed to find a Turkish musician or theorist who
would say that these makamlar still have any meaning associated with breezes or with
Arabs. Twentieth-century treatises on makam mention no extramusical meanings. I n
1972, an informal survey of musicians regarding extramusical meanings for makamlar
received no consistent responses. Nor did secular classical performance practice in the
last decades of the twentieth century prescribe any makam for times of the day, days
of the week, or special occasions. However, the mosque and Turkish J ews represent
an exception with regard to extramusical meaning.
Mosque
Turkish mosque music has preserved extramusical meanings that have disappeared
from classical music. According to the noted liturgical singer Khai Karaca, the first
call to prayer (ezan, Arabic adhan) of the day should be sung in makam saba, and the
other four ezan throughout the day should each be sung in specific makamlar (Signell
1970-1972: interview). This statement may apply only to an elite group, however,
since no general agreement with it has been found. Professionally trained reciters seem
to conform to published descriptions of specific makamlar for specific chapters of the
Mevlit 'Nativity Poem' and Miraciye 'Ascension Poem' (Signell 1986:120-121).
Turkish J ews
I n addition to the evidence from mosque music, there is indirect historical evidence
from other ethnic groups in Turkey suggesting that there were stronger extramusical
associations with makam in the past. J ewish cantors (hazanim) in urban centers such
as I stanbul, I zmir, and Edirne were intimately familiar with Turkish classical music
for centuries: they include I sak Fresko Romano ("Tanburi isak"), a noted composer
of the eighteenth and nineteenth century; I sak Algazi, one of the greatest singers of
early twentieth-century Turkish classical music; and J ewish emigrants from Turkey to
UNDERSTANDI NG MUSI CS OF THE MI DDLE EAST
the United States in the late twentieth century. Like their coreligionists in many other
parts of the world, Turkish J ews adopted local music practice for their liturgy.
The J ewish liturgy in I stanbul prescribed specific makamlar for specific times of
day, for specific days, and for specific texts. Tradition prescribed a different makam
for each of the Ten Commandments. A cantor who had been trained in I zmir and
had studied with Algazi said, "As a matter of course, Sephardic J ewry recited all the
passages of the Sabbath prayer in the specific maqam adapted to each particular Sab-
bath" (Seroussi 1989b). This small subset of contemporary Turkish makam practice
preserved extramusical meanings that possibly link the history of Turkish music to
that of I ndian and I ranian classical music.
Makam is a word, like music, Turkish, love, or God. The meaning of words is elusive,
ever-changing with time, place, context, and personal interpretation. To define such
a word is to deny the very nature of words as representations--dynamic, rich markers
of complex phenomena. When we talk of "Turkish music," then, we must say whether
we mean music of the Ottoman Empire (which century?) or the Turkish Republic
(which decade?), and what kind of music we mean--classical (in which circles?), folk,
religious, Gypsy, military, arabesk, Turkish pop, Euro-pop, and so on. We can discuss
makam in terms of well-documented theory and well-known practices that apply to
a small cadre of elite musicians, but we must take into account a wide array of related
musics, some as far apart as medieval Europe and contemporary I ndia.
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