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ROD ELLIS &
BRIAN TOMLINSON
D V A N C E D
O X F O R D S U P P L E M E N T A R Y
S K I L L S
SERIES EDITOR: ALAN MALEY
OXFORD UNI VERSI TY PRESS
Oxford UniversiS. Press
Great Clarendon Street, OxJord OX2 6DP
Oxford New York
Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Bombay
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and associated companies in
Berlin Ibadan
Oxford and Oxford Englisk are trade marks of
Oxford Universiff Press
ISBN 0 19 453403 0
O OxJord Universiff Press 1988
First published 1988
Fifth impression 1997
Al1 rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of OxJord Universiff Press.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it sha1l not,
by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or
otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent
in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is
published and without a similar condition including this
condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
Set by Tradespools Ltd, Frome, Somerset
Printed in Hong Kong
Acknowledgements
Illustrations by:
John
Batten
Bill Belcher
Caroline della Porta
Peter Melnyczuk
Liz Roberts
Martin Ursell
The publishers would like to thank the following for their
permission to reproduce photographs:
Aquila Photographics
HP Bulmer Ltd
Format
The Ronald Grant Archive
Sally & Richard Greenhill
Kobal Collection
Acknowledgements are made to the following writers and
publishers who have allowed us to see material that falls
within their copyright:
Richard Adams and Penguin Books Ltd for an extract from
Watershif Dowz;
J.
Charles Alderson, A. H. Urquhart and
Longman Group Ltd for an extract from Reading in a
Foreign Language; Economist Publications Ltd for the
article
'Not
just parrot-talk' from The E conomist
(8
October 1983); Graham Greene and The Bodley Head for
an extract from TheTenth Maz; Howard Giles and New
Society Ltd for the article
'Our
reactions to accent'from
New Sociely
(14
October 1971);
John
Irving and
Transworld Publishers Ltd for an extract from Cider
House Rules; Carl
James
and Longman Group Ltd for the
chapter'Macrolinguistics and contrastive analysis' from
ContrastiueAnabsls; Garrison Keillor and Faber and
Faber for an extract from Lake Wobegon Dars; Alison
Lurie and Sphere Books Ltd for an extract fromForeign
Affairs; Alan Matthews, Carol Read and Collins Publishers
for and extractfromThemes: Tom McNab and Century
Hutchinson Publishing Ltd for an extract from The Fast
Men; Njabulo Ndebele and Readers International Inc. for
an extract from Fools and Other Stories; Christine Nuttal
and Heinemarm Educational Books Ltd for an extract from
Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language; Tom
Sharpe and Pan Books Ltd for an extractfrom Indecent
Exposure; Willy Russell and Methuen London Ltd for an
extract from E ducating Rita; Dale Spender and Times
Newspapers Ltd for the article
'Don't
talk, listen'from the
Times Educational Suhrlelnenl
(3
November 1978): Sue
Townsend and Methuen London Ltd for an extract from
The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole Aged 13 314; Alice Walker
and David Higham Associates for an extractfromThe
Color Purple.
CONTENTS
Foreword ia
Introduction to the teacher u
1 SEXISM 1
1 Argument 1
2 First person narrative 12
3 Review activities 15
2 COMPREHENSION 17
1 Exposition 17
2 Narrative 33
3 Review activities 41
3 ANIMAL LANGUAGE 43
1 Reporting an experiment 43
2 Third person narrative 52
3 Review activities 58
4 RULES 60
I Analysis 60
2 Using rules 67
3 Review activities 79
5 ENGLISHACCENTS 81
I Classification 81
2 Drama 89
3 Review activities 97
6 ARGUING 98
I Advice 98
2 People arguing 105
3 Review activities 115
Teacher's
guide
117
1,U
FOREWORD
This series covers the four skill areas of Listening, Speaking, Reading
and Writing at four levels-elementary, intermediate, upper-
intermediate and advanced. Although we have decided to retain the
traditional division of language use into the
'four
skills', the skills are
not treated in total isolation. In any given book the skill being dealt
with serves as the
focus
of attention and is always interwoven with
and supported by other skills. This enables teachers to concentrate
on skills development without losing touch with the more complex
reality of language use.
Our authors have had in common the following principles, that
material should be:
.
creative-both through author-creativity leading to interesting
materials, and through their capacity to provoke creative responses
from students;
. interesting-both for their cognitive and affective content, and for
the activities required of the learners;
. fluency-focused-bringing in accuracy work only in so far as it is
necessary to the completion of an activity;
. task-based-rather than engaging in closed exercise activities, to
use tasks with pay-offs for the learners;
. problem-solving focused-so as to engage students in cognitive
effort and thus provoke meaningful interaction;
. humanistic-in the sense that the materials speak to and interrelate
with the learners as real people and engage them in interaction
grounded in their own experience;
. learning-centred-by ensuring that the materials
promote learning
and help students to develop their own strategies for learning. This
is in opposition to the view that a pre-determined content is taught
and identically internalized by all students. In our materials we do
not expect input to equal intake.
By ensuring continuing consultation between and among authors at
different levels, and by piloting the materials, the levels have been
established on a pragmatic basis. The fact that the authors, between
them, share a wide and varied body of experience has made this
possible without losing sight of the need to pitch materials and tasks
at an attainable level while still allowing for the spice of challenge.
There are three main ways in which these materials can be used:
. as a supplement to a core course book;
.
as self-learning material. Most of the books can be used on an
individual basis with a minimum of teacher guidance, though the
interactive element is thereby lost.
. as modular course material. A teacher might, for instance, combine
intermediate Listening and Speaking books with upper-intermediate
Reading and elementary Writing with a class which had a good
passive knowledge of English but which needed a basic grounding in
writing skills.
(Alan
Maley)
Aims of this book
This book assumes that your students will already have had extensive
practice of traditional reading skills
(for
example, skimming and
scanning) and that they have afatrly high level of linguistic
competence.
It has three principal aims:
.
to develop the students' ability to read for study purposes, and in
particular assist them in identifying the discourse structure of fairly
long texts.
.
to enable the students to identify authorial stance
(i.
e.
,
the attitude
the writer takes to the content of a passage).
o to encourage the students to respond imaginatively to what they
read.
The materials
The book is divided into six units. Each unit has a theme, such as
Sexism, and there are three sections in a unit. Section 1 is intended to
provide a thorough attack on a text. We want to help the students to
strip a text down in order to discover its
'architecture'.
The texts in
this section will be semi-academic in nature and have been chosen to
illustrate a particular type of discourse, such as an argument or a
report. Section 2 is intended to provide opportunity for a more
imaginative response to a different text, which in this case is fictional.
Both Section 1 and Section 2 follow the same structure: there are
Preparation tasks, Extensive reading tasks, Intensive reading tasks
and Extension tasks. Section 3 provides review and evaluation
activities relating to the
general theme of the unit and based on the
texts within it.
There are a
greatvariety of tasks based on the texts. Some of these
are
'closed'
(each question has a single, correct answer) but the
majority are
'open',
designed to provoke thinking and discussion. For
many of the
questions, therefore, there are no
'correct'
answers, only
'best'
ones. For some, the answers are entirely a matter of opinion,
although the students are always expected to
justify
their personal
opinions. The tasks also take a variety of formats: true/false, multiple
choice, text-diagrams, tables for completion, qtizzes,
jumbled
sentences for reordering, etc. It has been one of our aims to provide a
variety of task types.
One special feature of this book is that each task is preceded by an
aims box. This tells the students as clearly as possible what the
purpose of the task is. It also helps students to use the book for self-
study.
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
TEACHER
at
Using the book
The Teacher's
guide at the back of the book
provides advice about
how to teach each task and also
gives answers to various tasks. It is
important to recognize that in most cases these answers are only
suggestions. Your students may come up with answers that are
equally, and maybe even more, valid. The answers have been
provided to
give you an idea of what each task is aiming at' They
should not be used to assess the students.
Some of the sections
(particularly section 1) in a unit are long and will
require several lessons to complete them' The length is necessary in
order to
provide the depth of text-attack which is our intention.
However, there is always the risk that the students will become
bored with hammering away at a single passage. It is up to you,
therefore, to
judge
how much time should be spent on a section.
There is no need to do every task; select the ones that you think will
motivate
your students most. Also there is no need to do all the tasks
in class time; you can set some for self-study. The Teacher's
guide
provides sample schemes for teaching a section, but
you don't need to
follow these if you think they are not appropriate for your students.
We assume always that the students will read the passages silently.
The way in which they read silently is important and
you should
discuss with them appropriate reading strategies for the tasks they
are given: for example, if the task requires skimming, make sure they
know how to do it.
We assume also that you will vary your teaching methodology. That
is, sometimes
you will do
questions orally with the whole class,
sometimes ask them to write answers individually, sometimes tell
them to work in pairs or
gloups and
perhaps sometimes even
nominate a student to take over the
'teacher'role
(for
example, in
class discussion following
group work). All the students do not have
to do all the tasks or all the
questions within a task; you can
give
groups different tasks or
questions to do. Again the Teacher's
guide
gives advice on methodology for you to follow, if you like.
1 Argument
Preparation
Task I
This activity is designed to help you activate
your
own knowledge and
preconceptions about the topic
of the passage.
You are going to read a text calledDon't talk, listen! which discusses
the use of language by males and females.
Do men and women use language in the same way? Work with a
partner and make notes about what you think are the similarities and
ffierences, using the points of comparison listed in the table below.
When
you have finished hold a class discussion on the major
differences.
Point of combarison Males Females
voice
pitch
vocabulary
range of conversational
topics
politeness
amount of talk
frequency of interruptions
Sexi sm
/,i,/E
Af l N UAL
q E
N ERAL
MEETI Nq
Unit I
Task 2
This activity is designed to help you identify
the
general position which the writer takes up
in the
passage.
Use the quotations below, taken from the passage, to decide which of
the following best describes the
position that the writer takes up on
male/female language differences.
The writer's
position is
! a that research into male/female language differences supports
our preconceptions about the differences
! b that there are no real male/female language differences
! c that male/female language differences arefar greater than we
might expect
tr d that the most important male/female language differences
relate to the question of social control
1
' Because
we thi nk that l anguage al so shoul dbe di vi ded i nto
mascul i ne and femi ni ne we have become very ski l l ed at i gnori ng
anythi ng that wi l l not fi t our
preconcepti ons.'
2
' Ot
the many i nvesti gators who set out to fi nd the stereotyped sex
di fferences i n l anguage, few have had any
posi ti ve resul ts.'
3
' Research
i nto sex di fferences and l anguage may not be tel l i ng us
much about l anguage, but i t i s tel l i ng us a
great deal about
gender,
and the way human bei ngs stri ve to meet the expectati ons of the
stereotype.'
4
' Al though
as a general rul e many of the bel i eved sex di fferences i n
l anguage have not been found . . . there i s one area where thi s i s an
excepti on. l t i s the area of l anguage and
power.'
Extensive reading
Task 1
The purpose of this activity is to encourage
you to
look at how the writer has organized the
passage
into sections.
The passage can be divided into three main sections, each dealing
with a separate issue. These issues are:
1 Myths about sex differences in language
2 Sex differences in language and power
3 Sex differences in language and learning
Skim through the passage and write down the line numbers where
each section begins and ends.
Unit I
To do this activity
you don't need to read every sentence in the
passage. Before you start, discuss with your teacher what is the most
effective way of reading to complete the task.
Don't talk, Iisten!
'In
mixed-sex classrooms, it is often extremely difficult for
females to talk, and even more difficult for teachers to
provide them with the opportunity'. Dale Spender looks at
some myths about language and sex differences.
Ours is a society that tries to keep
the world sharply divided into mas-
culine and feminine, not because
that is the way the world is, but
because that is the way we believe
i t shoul d be. I t t akes unwaveri ng
belief and considerable effort to
keeo this division. It also leads us
to make some fairly foolish
judg-
ments, particularly about language.
Because we think that language
also should be divided into mas-
culine and feminine we have
become very skilled at ignoring
anything that will not fit our pre-
conceptions. We would rather
change what we hear than change
our ideas about the gender division
of the world. We will call assertive
girls unfeminine, and supportive
boys effeminate, and try to change
t hem whi l e st i l l ret ai ni ng our
stereotypes of masculine and femi-
nine talk.
This is why some research on sex
differences and language has been
so interesting. It is an illustration of
how wrong we can be. Of the many
investigators who set out to find the
stereotyped sex differences in lan-
guage, few have had any positive
results. It seems that our images of
serious taciturn male speakers and
gossipy garrulous female speakers
are
just
that: images.
Many myths associated with
masculine and feminine talk have
had to be discarded as more re-
search has been undertaken. If fe-
males do use more trivial words
than males, stop talking in mid-sen-
tence, or talk about the same things
over and over again, they do not do
it when investisators are around.
None of these characteristics of
female speech have been found.
And even when sex differences
have been found, the question
arises as to whether the difference
is in the eye-or ear-of the be-
holder, rather than in the language.
Pitch provides one example. We
believe that males were meant to
talk in low pitched voices and fe-
males in high pitched voices. We
also believe that low pitch is more
desirable. Well, it has been found
that males tend to have lower
Ditched voices than females. But it
iras also been found that this differ-
ence cannot be explained bY
anatomy.
If males do not speak in high
pitched voices, it is not usually
because they are unable to do so.
The reason is more likely to be that
there are penalties. Males with
high pitched voices are often the
object of ridicule. But pitch is not
an absolute, for what is considered
the right pitch for males varies from
country to country.
Some people have suggested that
gender differentiation in America
is more extreme than in Britain.
This perhaps helps to explain why
American males have deeper
voices. (Although no study has
been done, I would suspect that the
voices of Australian males are even
lower.) This makes it difficult to
classify pitch as a sex difference.
It is also becoming increasingly
difficult to classify low pitch as
more desirable. It is less than 20
years since the BBC Handbook
declared that females should not
read the news, because their voices
were unsuitable for serious topics.
,4 Unit I
90
95
100
r05
110
115
r20
r25
135
140
130
Presumably women' s voices have
been lowered in that 20 years, or
high pitch is not as bad as it used to
be.
Research into sex differences
and language may not be telling us
much about language, but it is
telling us a great deal about
gender, and the way human beings
strive to meet the expectations of
the stereotype. Although as a gen-
eral rule many of the believed sex
differences in language have not
been found (and some of the differ-
ences which have been found by
gender-blind investigators cannot
be believed) there is one area
where this is an exception. It is the
area of language and power.
When it comes to power, some
very interesting sex differences
have been found. Although we
may have been able to predict
some of them, there are others
which completely contradict our
beliefs about masculine and femi-
ni ne t al k.
The first one, which was to be
exoected. is that females are more
polite. Most people who are with-
out Dower and find themselves in a
vulnerable position are more
polite. The shop assistant is more
polite than the customer; the stu-
dent is more polite than the
teacher; the female is more polite
than the male. But this has little to
do with their sex, and a great deal
to do with their position in society.
Females are required to be
polite, and this puts the onus on
them to accommodate male talk.
This is where some of the research
on sex differences in language has
been surprising. Contrary to our
beliefs, it has been found repeat-
edl y t hat mal es t al k more.
When it comes to husbands and
wives, males not only use longer
sent ences, t hey use more of t hem.
Phylis Chesler has also found that it
is difficult for women to talk when
men are present-particularly if
the men are their husbands.
Although we might all be famil-
iar with the sight of a group of
women sitting silently listening to a
male speaker, we have rarely en-
countered a group of men sitting
quietly listening to a female
speaker. Even a study of television
panel programmes has revealed the
way that males talk, and females
accommodate male talk; men are
the talkers, women the polite, suP-
portive and encouraging listeners.
If females want to talk, they
must talk to each other, for they
have little opportunity to talk in the
presence of men. Even when they
do talk, they are likely to be inter-
rupted. Studies by Don Zimmer-
man and Candace West have found
that 98 per cent of interruptions in
mixed sex talk were performed by
males. The politeness of females
ensures not only that they do not
interrupt, but that they do not
protest when males interrupt them.
The greater amount of man-talk
and the gteater frequency of inter-
ruptions is probably something that
few of us are conscious of: we
believe so strongly in the stereo-
type which insists that it is the other
way around. However, it is not
difficult to check this. It can be an
i nt erest i ng cl assroom exerci se.
It was an exercise I set myself at
a recent conference of teachers in
London. From the beginning the
men talked more because although
there were eight official male
speakers, there were no female
ones. This was seen as a problem,
so the organizing committee de-
cided to exercise positive discrimi-
nation in favour of female speakers
from the floor.
At the first session-with posi-
t i ve di scri mi nat i on-t here were 1. 4
male speakers and nine female: at
the second session there were 10
male speakers and four female.
There was almost twice as much
man talk as woman talk. However,
what was interesting was the im-
pression people were left with
about talk. The stereotypes were
still holding firm. Of the 30 people
consulted after the sessions, 27
were of the opinion that there had
been more female than male
speakers.
150
155
160
165
t70
175
190
195
180
185
t45
200
Unit I
t r 5
-
t :
This helps to explain some of the
contradictions behind sex differ-
ences in language. On the one hand
we believe that females talk too
much; on the other hand we have
ample evidence that they do not
talk as much as males. But the
contradiction only remains when
we use the same standard for both
sexes; it disappears when we intro-
duce a double standard, with one
rule for females and another for
mal es.
A talkative female is one who
talks about as often as a man.
When females are seen to talk
about half as much as males they
are
judged to be dominating the
talk. This is what happened at the
conference. Although females
were less than half of the speakers,
most people thought they had
dominated the talk.
This double standard was not
confined to the general session; it
was also present in the workshop
on sexism and education. At the
first workshop session there were
32 females and five males. When
the tape was played afterwards, it
was surprising to find that of the 58
minutes of talk32 were taken up by
mal es.
It was surprising because no one
realized, myself included,
just
how
much the males were talking. Most
people were aware that the males
had talked disproportionately but
no one had even guessed at the
extent. We all. male and female
alike, use the double standard.
Males have to talk almost all the
time before they are seen to be
dominating the talk.
There are numerous examples of
the ways in which males can
assume the right to talk in mixed-
sex groups. Not only can they use
their power to ensure that they talk
more, but that they choose the
topic. The polite female is always
at a disadvantage.
It is not polite to be the centre of
conversation and to talk a lot-if
one is female. It is not polite to
interrupt-if one is female. It is
not polite to talk about things
which interest you-if one is
female. It l' s polite to accommo-
date, to listen, to be supportive and
encouraging to male speakers-if
one is female.
So females are kept in their
place. They enjoy less rights to
talk. Because they have less power
and because politeness is part of
the reoertoire of successful femi-
nine 6ehaviour, it is not even
necessary to force females to be
quiet. The penalties are so great if
they break the rule, they will oblig-
ingly monitor themselves.
In the past few years, a lot of
attention has been paid to the role
of language and learning, but the
assumption has been that the sexes
have enjoyed equal rights to talk.
Yet it is quite obvious that females
do not have equal access to talk
outside the classroom, so it would
be surprising if this was reversed in
the school.
However, if talking for learning
is as important as Douglas Barnes
maintains it is, then any teacher in
a mixed-sex class who upholds the
social rules for talk could well be
practising educational discrimina-
tion. Such teachers would be allow-
ing boys to engage in talk more
frequently than girls.
In looking at talk, it becomes
clear that there are differences in
girls' single-sex and mixed-sex
schools. In single-sex schools (pro-
viding, of course, that the teacher
is female), females are not obliged
to defer to male authority, to sup-
port male topics, to agree to inter-
ruptions, or to practise silence; or
to make the tea while the males
make the public speeches.
' Free
speech' is available to fe-
males in a way which is not avail-
able in mixed-sex schools. This
could be the explanation for the
frequently claimed superior
achievement of females in single-
sex schools; free to use their lan-
guage to learn, they learn more.
l n mi xed-sex cl assrooms i t i s
often extremely difficult for fe-
males to talk, and even more dif-
ficult for teachers to provide them
with the opportunity. This is not
because teachers are supremely
270
265
275
285
280
290
295
300
305
310
lb{l
315
Unit I
sexist beings, but because theY are
governed by the same social rules
as everyone else.
It is appropriate for normal boYs
to demand more of the teachers'
time, and they cannot alwaYs
modify this situation. Male stu-
dents in the classroom conform to
expectations when they are boister-
ous, noisy and even disruptive;
female students conform when theY
are quiet and docile; teachers con-
form when they see such behaviour
as gender appropriate.
When questioned, some teachers
have stated, in fairly hostile terms,
that the girls in their classrooms
talk all the time-to each other!
This of course is a logical outcome
under the present rules for talk:
females do not get the same oppor-
tunity to talk when males are
around. If females want to talk,
they experience difficulties if they
try to talk with males.
In visiting classrooms, I have
often observed the teacher engaged
in a class discussion with the boys,
while the girls chat unobtrusively to
one another. I have seen girls ig-
nored for the whole lesson, while
the teacher copes with the demands
of the boys. I have heard boys
praised for volunteering their an-
swers, while girls have been re-
buked for calling out.
Angela Parker has found that
not only do males talk more in
class. but that both sexes believe
that' intellectual arsumentation' in
the classroom is a masculine activi-
ty. If girls believe that it is un-
feminine for them to speak up in
class, they will probably take si-
lence in preference to a loss of
femininity-particularly during
adolescence.
I asked a group of girls at an
Inner London secondary school
whether they thought it was un-
feminine to speak up in class. They
all agreed. The girls thought it
natural that male students should
ask questions, make protests, chal-
lenge the teacher and demand ex-
planations. Females on the other
hand should
' just
get on with it' -
even when they, too, thought the
work was silly, or plain boring.
Although it is unlikely that
teachers deliberately practise dis-
crimination against their students
on the grounds of sex, by enforcing
the social rules for talk they are
unwittingly penalizing females. But
this situation is not inevitable.
There is no physical reason, no sex
difference, which is responsible for
the relative silence of females. As
John Stuart Mill stated, this asym-
metry depends upon females wil-
lingly conceding the rights to
mal es.
Perhaps teachers can help fe-
males to be a little less willing to be
silent in mixed-sex classrooms.
Perhaps they can help females to
enjoy the same rights to talk as
males. But we would have to
change our stereotypes.
Task 2
The aim of this activity is to help
you identify the
theme and
purpose of the
Passage.
Answer these
questions in groups. Make sure that you are able to
justify your answers.
I Which of the following would make the best title for the
passage?
tr a How men discriminate against women in talk
I b Changing our stereotypes of males and females
! c Recent research into sex differences in language
! d Sex ineoualities in classroom talk
L-nit I
2
--
What was the writer's main purpose?
a To report
b Topersuade
c To inform
d To instruct
Intensive reading
The activities in this section will require a careful reading of the
passage, section by section.
Task 1
The
questions in this activity are designed to
help
you to come to a detailed understanding of
how the topic in the first section
(L.1
to 93) of the
passage is developed.
a Find the places in the first section of the passage where the
following words are used:
preconceptions myths stereotypes
b These words all refer to the same idea. What is it?
c These words have been chosen to suggest the writer's
viewpoint.
What is her viewpoint?
d Why can these be consideredhE words in the text?
e Make a list of the myths associated with masculine and
feminine language which the writer mentions in the text.
The diagram below represents the traditional approach to malei
female language differences which Spender describes
(see
L.1
to 24).
Basi c bel i ef about
mal e/femal e l anguage
di fferences
l gnore confl i cti ng
evi dence
Preconcept i ons
about mal e/femal e
l anguage di fferences
Use the information in the diagram to summarize what this
traditional approach consists of.
What is Spender's opinion about this traditional approach?
Unitl
The third and fourth
paragraphs describe what has led to the
preconceptions being challenged.
a State what this is.
b Explain why the
preconceptions have had to be discarded.
'
P itch
proaides
one example'
(L.52).
a What does
'pitch'provide
an example of?
b What is the
preconception about pitch which Spender
challenges?
c What is the true explanation for male/female
pitch differences?
d What evidence does Spender
give for this explanation?
Paragraph ten has two main discourse functions. One is to
summarize the writer's argument up to this
point. Can
you say
what the other function is?
Study this diagram which shows how the topic is organized in the
first section of the
passage.
Read through the first section again, concentrating on how the
topic is developed. Write down the line numbers where the
different sub-topics shown in the diagram begin and end.
Traditional approach to
male/female language differences
Chal l engi ng the
preconcepti ons
An example
(Pitch)
Summarizing and
preparing
for the next section
[- nit I
Task 2
The questions in this activity will help you'
understand how the writer develops her argument in
the second section
(L.94
to 275) of the passage.
Which of these statements best describes the relationship
between the topic of section one and that of section two in the
passage?
! a Whereas section one deals with some common fallacies
regarding male/female language ffierences, section two
deals with some real differences.
tr b Section one explains some fallacies regarding maleifemale
language differences and section two illustrates these
fallacies.
! c In section one arguments relating to sexdifferences in
language use are considered; in section two these
arguments are rejected.
n d In section one the writer's general position regarding sex
differences in language is outlined; in section two this
position is illustrated.
Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
Rewrite the false ones to make them an accurate record of what
the writer says.
a Women are more polite
than men simply because they are
women.
b The common belief that women talk more than men has
been found to be incorrect.
c Women find it easier to talk when men are present if the
men are their husbands.
d Women do not interrupt as much as men in mixed-sex talk.
e We perceive men as dominating talk because they talk
more than women.
f Men are responsible for keeping women in their place by
the way they dominate talk.
Spender points out three ways in which women's politeness
affects their language in mixed sex talk. Complete this list.
The need to be polite which women feel is reflected in
a . . . . . .
b . . . . . .
c not talking about things which interest them.
T/F
!
n
n
!
tr
!
10 Unit 1
4 Spender refers to two small pieces of research which she
conducted to investigate male/female talk. Write note summaries
of each in the table below.
5 In order to explain the results ofthese studies Spender refers to a
'double
standard'
(L.2I4)
that operates. Explain in your own
words what this double standard is.
6 Why is the female polite?
Why does being polite put her at a disadvantage?
7 Read through section two of the passage again, paying particular
attention to how Spender develops her argument.
Try to identify the sub-topics in this section, and then draw a
diagram like the one in Task 1.6
(page
8) to show how the topic is
organized.
Task 3
The questions in this activity are intended to help
you follow the writer's line of reasoning in the third
section
(L.276
to 399) of the passage.
In section three Spender idenffies aproblem and then suggests a
solution to the problem. State briefly in your own words what the
problem is and what solution Spender proposes.
Organze the
jumbled
sentences below to summarize the problem
Spender describes.
a Unfortunately both teachers and
pupils (boys and
girls)take for
granted
these social rules for talk.
b Children learn through talking.
c As a result, boys achieve more than
girls.
Unitl
11
I
2
3
d The social rules for talking lead to educational discrimination.
e Boys are allowed to talk more than
girls.
f The source of the discrimination is, therefore, maintained.
3 Complete this table by listing the differences between male and
female classroom language behaviour which Spender describes.
Male behauiour Fernale behauiour
boisterous and noisy
talk to the teacher
encouraged to volunteer
answers by the teacher
engage in intellectual
argumentation
challenge the teacher
4 Reread section three, concentrating on the reasoning Spender
uses to argue that
girls
suffer from educational discrimination.
Prepare a brief summary of her argument.
Extension
Task I
This activity is designed to help you identify your
own response to the way the article is written.
I Work out your own response to the article by ringing the
appropriate number on each of the scales below.
l n Don' t tal k, l i sten!l consi der that Dal e Spender i s:
cal m
sen0us
logical
obj ecti ve
fai
i m p e r s o n a l I 2 3 4 5 p e r s o n a l
I 2 3 4 5 a n g r y
I 2 3 4 5 f r i v o l o u s
l 2 3 4 5 i l l o g i c a l
I 2 3 4 5 s u b j e c t i v e
l 2 3 4 5 u n f a i r
Work in a group (a
mixed
group,
if possible). Compare your
responses with those of the other members of your group.
Discuss any ffierences.
Unit I
12
Task 2
This activity will help
you to evaluate to what extent
you agree with Spender's views about sexist
language behaviour.
What is your own opinion about Dale Spender's arguments? Do
you
! a agree completely with them?
! b agree in part with them?
n c completely disagree with them?
Give
your reasons.
In what ways has this article influenced the way
you think about
men and women and their language behaviour?
2 First
person narrative
Preparation
Task 1
This activity will help
you to clarify
your own ideas
of what a
'sexist
husband' is.
There are many differing views on what the ideal relationship
between a husband and wife is. Which of the following views do
you support?
I a The role of the wife should be that of caring for the
husband, the children and the house; the role of the
husband should be to
provide for the family.
X b The role of the wiJe and that of the husband should be
discussed until there is mutual agreement about what they
should be.
tr c There should be no role-typing: both husband and wife
should be
prepared to undertake any task related to the
marnage.
What do you think are the typical features of a
'sexist
husband'?
Make a list. Compare
your list with that of other students in your
group.
Unit 1
1 2
Extensive reading
Task I
In this activity
you will establish a
good
understanding of the content of the extract from
The Colour Pwrble.
The C olour P urple, by Alice Walker, is an epistolary novel. That is, it
consists of letters written by characters in the novel. The
'letter'
you
are going to read is written by Celie, a black American woman who
has been married off to Mr. In the letter Celie describes the
marriage between Harpo, Mr. -'s son, and Sofia.
Note: The Colour Purple is written in the dialect used by Celie. You
should expect to find a number of features that are different from
standard British English.
Read through the letter quickly to find the answers to these
questions.
1 What exactly is Harpo's complaint about his wife?
2 What do Mr. - and Celie tell him to do?
3 What does Harpo do?
4 What is the result of this?
Dear God,
Haroo want to know what to do to make Sofi a mi nd, He si t out on the
porch
wi t h Mr. -. He say, I t el l her one t hi ng, she do anot her. Never
do what I say. Al ways backtal k.
To tel l the truth, he sound a l i ttl e
proud
of thi s to me.
Mr. - don' t say not hi ng. Bl ow smoke.
I t el l her she can' t be al l t he t i me
goi ng
t o vi si t her si st er. Us marri ed
now, I t el l her. Your
pl ace i s here wi t h t he chi l dren. She say, l ' l l t ake t he
chi l dren wi th me. I say, Your
pl ace
i s wi th me. She say, You want to come?
She keep
pri mpi ng
i n front the
gl ass, getti ng
the chi l dren ready at the
same t i me.
You ever hi t her? Mr. - ast.
Harpo l ook down at hi s hands. Naw suh, he say l ow, embarrass.
Wel l how
you
spect t o make her mi nd? Wi ves i s l i ke chi l dren. You have
to l et
' em
know who got the upper hand. Nothi ng can do that better than
a
good
sound beati ng.
He
puf f
on hi s pi pe.
Sofi a thi nk too much of hersel f anyway, he say. She need to be taken
down a peg.
I l i ke Sofi a, but she don' t act l i ke me at al l . l f she tal ki ng when Harpo
and Mr. come i n t he room, she keep ri ght on. l f t hey ast her where
somethi ng at, she say she don' t know. Keep tal ki ng.
I thi nk bout thi s when Harpo ast me what he ought to do to her to
make her mi nd. I don' t ment i on how happy he i s now. How t hree years
pass
and he st i l l whi st l e and si ng. I t hi nk bout how every t i me I
j ump
when
14 Unit I
Mr. - cal l me, she l ook surpri se. And l i ke she
pi t y me.
Beat her. I say.
Next ti me us see Harpo hi s face a mess of brui ses. Hi s l i p cut. One of
hi s eyes shut l i ke a fi st. He wal k sti ff and say hi s teef ache.
I say, What happen to
you, Harpo?
He say, Oh, me and that mul e. She fracti ous,
you
know. She went crazy
i n the fi el d the other day. By ti me I
got
her to head for home I was al l
banged up. Then when I got home, I wal ked smack dab i nto the crtb door.
Hi t my eye and scratch my chi n. Then when that storm come up l ast ni ght
I shet the wi ndow down on my hand.
Wel l , I say, After al l that, I don' t spect
you
had a chance to see i f you
coul d make Sofi a mi nd.
Nome, he say.
But he keep tryi ng.
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this activity
you will explore the attitudes of the
characters and what motivated these.
I Find evidence in the text for each of the following statements.
1 Harpo doesn't really mind that Sofia is disobedient.
2 Harpo feels he has to prove himself a real man.
3 Celie is frightened of her husband.
4 Sofia is not frightened of her husband.
5 Celie is resentful of Sofia.
6 Harpo wants his father to think highly of him.
2 Use the following list of adjectives to describe the characters in
the table below.
uain stoical stubborn conformist
cruel arrogant
jealous
sPirited
L elie Sofia Harpo Mr. -
Unit I
15
Extension
Task 1
The purpose of this activity is to encourage
you
to
explore the theme of the extract in relation to
your own opinions.
1 Which of the characters in the extract do you
.
identify with most?
o admire most?
Try and explain why.
2 In groups of four, write a short play based on the content of the
extract.
Act out
your play.
3 Review activities
Task 1
The
purpose of this activity is to encourage
you to
relate the points made in the first passage to the
evidence of sexism
provided in the second
passage.
Below are a number of quotationsfromDon't talk, listenl Study them
carefully. Then turn to the extract from The Colour Purple.
Id/}:rat
evidence is there in the extract to support Dale Spender's assertions?
I
' 0urs
is a society that tries to keep the world sharply divided into
mascul i ne and f emi ni ne . . . '
2
' .
. . human beings strive to meet the expectations of the stereotype.'
3
' When
it comes to
power, some very interesting sex differences have
been f ound. '
4
' Females
are required to be
polite,
and this
puts
the onus on them to
accommodate male talk.'
5
' . .
. f emal es are kept i n t hei r
pl ace, '
6
' .
. . t hi s asymmet ry depends upon f emal es wi l l i ngl y concedi ng t he
rights to males.'
In what ways does Sofia in The Colour Purple flout the conventions of
feminine behaviour, as described by Dale Spender? What do you t}ink
is likely to happen to Sofia in the novel?
16 Unit I
Task 2
This activity is designed to help you
use the ideas
you have read about in this unit to formulate you own
views about male and female roles.
If you are female, make a list of the characteristics of your
'ideal'
man. If you are male, make a list of the characteristics of your
'ideal'woman.
If your class is a mixed one, pair off with a member of the opposite
sex. Show each other your lists ofcharacteristics. Ifyour class is
a single-sex one, pair off with another student and evaluate each
other's lists of characteristics for evidence of stereotypical sexist
attitudes.
Discuss to what extent your list has been influenced by the ideas
you have read about in this unit.
Dale Spender suggests that there is a need for'positive
discrimination'to rectify the inequalities between men and
women. Hold a class discussion about
.
whether you think positive discrimination is a good idea.
.
what forms you think positive discrimination should take.
A NNUAL
qENERAL
,VIEETIN Gr
P O 5 I T I V E D I S C R I M I N A T I O N
1 Exposition
Preparation
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to think about and
discuss
your ideas of what comprehension involves
in order to help
you to anticipate the main ideas in
the reading passage.
Think about the meaning of
'comprehension'
and try to write a
definition of the word.
Form a gloup with two or three other students. Look at each
other's definitions and use them to write a group definition of
'comprehension'.
In your group list the skills you need to comprehend a written
story.
Which of the following statements would
you agree with? Give
reasons.
n a You need to understand every word in order to understand
a story
properly.
D b The real meaning of a story is the meaning intended by the
author.
c Each reader gives a slightly different meaning to a story.
d Comprehension cannot take
place if we cannot relate the
situation being described to our own theory of the world.
e Most school comprehension tasks are tests of memory,
not of comprehension.
f The main problem in understanding a story in a foreign
language is making an accurate translation'
Discuss with the other members of your group exactly what you
see whenyou read each of the sentences below.
a Mr Smi th took off hi s shoes before he went onto the beach.
b Ri ck took off hi s shoes before he came off the beach.
c Lady Smi thfi el d asked for the bread.
d Phi l cut up t he orange
j ui ce.
e Mrs Smi th
passed
the bread.
f Pat danced wi t h Bi l l al l ni ght .
How did your own images of these sentences differ from the
illustrations shown?
Discuss with the other members of your group how you feel
towards the people described in the following sentences.
a Benj ami n stayed broodi ng i n hi s room i nstead of
goi ng down to
j oi n
t he
part y gi ven i n hi s honour by hi s f at her.
Comprehensi on
tr
!
T
!
18 Unit2
b Shei l a has been a mi l i tant soci al i st ever si nce she went to
uni versi ty.
c Sarah screamed hysteri cal l y.
d When he was tol d about hi s wi fe' s affai r wi th B// he
packed
a
sui tcase and drove furi ousl y to London.
e When she started crying again Mr Jones slapped her.
7 Make use of the implications of your discussions in 5 and 6 above
to help you to work out a theory of what comprehension of a
written passage involves.
Task 2
In this task you will make predictions about the
content of the
passage you are
going to read.
The following headings are taken from the passage you are
going to
read.
l s the reader' s rol e passi ve?
What makes a text di ffi cul t?
Shared assumpti ons
l denti fyi ng
presupposi ti ons
Total understandi ng?
Acti ve i nvol vement of the reader
Readi ng as i nteracti on
Maki ng sense of the text
Predi cti on
What do you think the writer of the passage is going to say about
comprehension?
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will make use of your discussions
and
predictions in the preparation tasks to help you
to read the passage.
Read through the passage to find out what the writer, Christine
Nuttall, thinks is involved in reading comprehension. As you read,
relate the passage to your predictions in Preparation Task 2 above
and decide to what extent you were right. At this stage don't worry
about any words or ideas you don't completely understand.
i--nit
2
19
4 The communi cat i on
process
;
gure
1
gi ves a very si mpl e model of t he
process of communi cat i on. On
: i re l ef t i s t he wri t er; but si nce he coul d equal l y wel l speak hi s message,
,' i e wi l l use the more
general Ierm encoderfor hi s rol e. The encoder has a
Tessage i n hi s mi nd (i t may be an i dea, a fact, a feel i ng, an argument,
etc.) whi ch he wants somebody el se to share. To make thi s
possi bl e he
nust fi rst
put
i t i nto words: that i s, he must encode i t, 0nce i t i s encoded,
r ei ther spoken or wri tten form, i t i s avai l abl e outsi de hi s mi nd as a text.
The text i s accessi bl e to the mi nd of another
person
who hears or reads
t . i . e. who decodest he message i t cont ai ns. Once i t i s decoded, t he
' nessage
ent ers t he mi nd of t he decoder and communi cat i on i s achi eved.
Obvi ousl y thi s model i s too si mpl e, for thi ngs can
go
wrong at any stage
n t he
process. That i s why I have
put a
quest i on mark i n t he decoder' s
ni nd, for we cannot be sure that he has recei ved the message that was
' rtended.
However, the
process i s cl ear enough for us to say that readi ng
neans
getti ng out of the text as nearl y as
possi bl e the message that the
,vri ter out i nto i t. We shal l need to consi der i n a l i ttl e more depth the
part
rl ayed by the wri ter, the reader and the text i tsel f i n thi s
process; and we
rui l l start wi th the reader.
l +.1
l s the reader' s rol e
passi ve?
Fi gure
2 i l l ustrates one fai rl y wi del y hel d vi ew of readi ng. The text i s ful l of
' neani ng
l i ke a
j ug
ful l of water, and i t can be
poured
strai ght i nto the
' eader' s
mi nd whi ch soaks i t up l i ke a sponge. I n t hi s vi ew, t he reader' s
' cl e
i s a
passi ve one: al l t he work has been done by t he wri t er and t he
' eader
has onl y t o open hi s mi nd and l et t he meani ng
pour i n.
Why do we rej ect thi s? One obvi ous reason i s that i t sel dom happens
ke t hi s. Not al l t he meani ng i n t he t ext act ual l y
get s i nt o t he reader' s
mi nd; the fi gure shoul d show at l east some of the water tri ckl i ng
-
i f not
sl reami ng
-
down t he reader' s f ace. The f act t hat t he meani ng i s i n t he
text i s unfortunatel y no guarantee that the reader wi l l
get i t out, for we
<now from
personal experi ence that a text that seems easy to one
person
rray seem di ffi cul t to another.
4.2 What makes a text di ffi cul t?
To t hrow some l i ght on t he
quest i on, we wi l l exami ne some t ext s t hat
many peopl e woul d fi nd di ffi cul t.
Text A
l st ui n eraana t ammi kuun l oppupdi vdnd Ti i t i n kanssa Kokkol ast a
JyvZi skyl drdn kul kevassa l i nj a-autossa. Ol i ki rped
pakkasi l ma, tai vas ol i
ki rkas,
j a
auri nko hei t t i l umi hangi l l e
j a
t i en
poi kki pui den pi t kei i
si ni si d
varJ0Ja.
Y. Kokko, Ne Tulevat Takaisin
(Werner Soderstrom OY: 1954)
l f you found thi s text di ffi cul t, i t i s because
you are not fami l i ar wi th the
codei n whi ch i t has been expressed;
you do not know Fi nni sh, t he
i anguage i n whi ch i t i s wri tten. So one of the
prerequi si tes for sati sfactory
communi cat i on i s t hat wri t er and reader shoul d share t he same code. The
mpl i cat i ons f or FL t eachi ng do not need
poi nt i ng out . But t hi s i s not t he
onl y reason for fi ndi ng a texi di ffi cul t.
20
25
30
10
15
35
Fi g 1 The communi cati on
process
Fi g 2 One vi ew of readi ng
SENDER
encoder
wf l t er
speaKer
RECEI VER
decoder
r ead er
l r st ener
40
20
Unit2
45 Text B
In the first example, a carbon anion is formed that is stabilized by
resonance (electrons delocalized over the carbonyl
group and the
a carbon atom). In the second case, a carbon anion is formed that is
stabilized by the electron withdrawing inductive effect of the three
50 chl ori nes.
The Language Centre, University of Malaya, Reading Proiects: Science
(University of Malaya Press/Nelson, 19791
This text is difficult to someone, who, like me, knows nothing about
sci ence. l t woul d not hel p me i f I l ooked up some of t he words i n a
55 dictionary, because I should not understand the definitions. The only thing
that would help would be a course in chemistry, starting from basics. So
the difficulty here depends on the amount of
previous knowledge that the
reader brings to the text.
Text C
60 ldeas imprinted on the senses are real things, or do really exist, this
we do not deny, but we deny that they can subsist without the minds
whrch
perceive
them, or that they are resemblances of any
archetypes existing without the mind: since the very betng of a
sensation or idea consists in being
perceived, and an idea can be
65 l i ke not hi ng but an i dea.
G. Berkeley, Pilncifles of Human Knowledge
(Nelson, 1949)
The vocabulary used in this text does not seem
particularly difficult, but
many
people
find that its message eludes them. Even if you have a vague
idea what it is about, you will
probably not be able to explain it clearly
70 unless
you
have read a
good
deal more by Bishop Berkeley (who wrote it)
and thought carefully about his arguments. For here the difficulty lies not
in the language, and not in the amount of knowledge the reader requires,
but in the complexity of the concepts expressed.
Text D
75 Cavorting in the vicinity of the residential area
populated by those of
piscatorial
avocation, the minuscule crustacean was enmeshed in a
reticulated object with interstices between the intersections.
The vocabulary is the only source of difficulty here, since
you
can
' translate' this
into extremely simple English and the message is not
B0 chal l engi ng i nt el l ect ual l y. For readers whose vocabul ary i s l i mi t ed, t hi s i s
more like the
problem
of text A than B or C: the writer' s code is only
partly
the same as the reader' s.
4.3 Shared assumpti ons
From these exampl es of di fferent ki nds of textual di ffi cul ty, we can see
how i mportant i t i s that the reader and the wri ter shoul d have certai n
85 t hi ngs i n common, i f communi cat i on bet ween t hem i s t o t ake
pl ace. The
mi ni mum requi rement i s t hat t hey shoul d share t he same code: t hat t hey
shoul d wri te and understand the same l anguage. Text D shows us that
t hey shoul d al so have i n common a command of t hat l anguage t hat i s not
wtt 2
21
::,r rvi del y di fferent: i f the reader has a far smal l er vocabul ary than the
l n**-ter, for exampl e, he wi l l fi nd the text hard to understand. In FL readi ng,
: - s orobl em i s basi c and f ami l i ar.
,A more i nteresti ng requi rement i s that the wri ter and reader shoul d
:,-are certai n assumpti ons about the worl d and the way i t works. We saw
:-at i f the wri ter expects hi s reader to have a basi c understandi ng of
:remi stry, the text wi l l not be readi l y understood by anyone who l acks
:- s: the wri ter does not tel l the reader what he assumes i s al ready known.
S:
probl ems
i n understandi ng ari se when there i s a mi smatch between
:e
presupposi ti ons of the wri ter and those of the reader.
Natural l y there al ways i s a mi smatch of some ki nd; no two
peopl e
have
-ad
i denti cal experi ences of l i fe, so the wri ter i s al ways l i kel y to l eave
-nsai d somethi ng that he takes for granted, but that the reader does not.
Fi gure 3 i s a si mpl e way of showi ng how, for any two
peopl e,
certai n
n. nds
of experi ence wi l l be shared, whi l e ot hers wi l l not . The shaded area
urtrere the two ci rcl es overl ap represents the thi ngs the two
peopl e have
r common. I n t hi s area wi l l be i ncl uded al l t he knowl edge
-
i ncl udi ng
mowl edge of l anguage
-
that they share. But i t wi l l al so i ncl ude more
ntangi bl e thi ngs l i ke atti tudes, bel i efs, val ues, and al l the unspoken
assumpti ons that are shared by two
peopl e who have been brought up i n
fi e same soci ety. l n the unshaded areas are the thi ngs that are not
shared: the experi ences and knowl edge that are uni que to each
rdi vi dual .
4.4 l denti fyi ng
presupposi ti ons
You
may fi nd i t hel pful to see how thi s works wi th some actual exampl es
:f texts. Study the fol l owi ng extracts and try to wrrte down for each one
:he presupposi ti ons that the wri ter has, and the assumpti ons he makes
about hi s reader. There are some comment s bel ow.
a Red-wat t l ed Lapwi ng: I n
general shape not unl i ke t he European
Lapwi ng and f ound i n si mi l ar t ypes of count ry.
(From a handbook of
bi rd i denti fi cati on)
c The bi ggest
probl em i n
getti ng ani mati on accepted has been the i dea
t hat
' ani mat i on'
means Wal t Di sney. (From an art i cl e about ani mat i on
i n fi l ms)
c Rubber futures cl osed the morni ng easi er at the l ows and mostl y from
0.70 to 0.80
pence per ki l o down from yesterday. Turnover was 188
l ots of 15 tonnes, i ncl udi ng 26kerb trades and two opti ons.
(From a
newspaper busi ness
page)
d Total movement of the bel t shoul d be approxi matel y 10 mm mi dway
between the
pump and
j ockey pul l eys when checked wi th normal wri st
effort.
(From
a car user' s handbook)
e l t was a
puppy. A ti ny ri ckety
puppy, mangy, starved; a l oose ri bby
bundl e on t he
ground. l t made no noi se. l t t ri ed t o l i f t i t sel f up. l t onl y
col l apsed agai n, wi thout compl ai nt, wi thout shame.
(From The Suffrage
of El vi ra by V.S. Nai paul )
Area of shared
assumpti ons
1 I 0 Fi g 3 Presupposi ti on and communi cati on
90
95
100
105
1 1 5
r20
r25
130
22
Unit2
Here are my comments;
you may wel l fi nd other thi ngs.
a No use t o t he reader unl ess he t oo knows what a European Lapwi ng
135 l ooks l i ke, and i n what sort of count ry i t i s f ound.
b Rel i es on t he reader' s knowi ng t hat Wal t Di sney i s one of t he best
known oroducers i n ani mat ed f i l ms. Al so rel i es on hi s knowi ng what
t ype of f i l ms Di sney
produced, and shari ng t he wri t er' s i mpl i ed vi ew
t hat Di sney f i l ms are i n some way undesi rabl e i n rel at i on t o hi s t heme.
140 c Rel i es on the reader' s understandi ng of techni cal
i argon
(futures,
easier, lows, down, kerb trades, optionsl, but also on wider
underst andi ng of t he way rubber (and ot her commodi t i es) i s deal t wi t h;
f or i nst ance, i s 0. 70 t o 0. 80 a bi g drop or a smal l one? l s 188 l ot s a bi g
turnover or not? Are l ots al ways of 15 tonnes?
-
presumabl y not, si nce
145 the wri ter has menti oned i t; i n that case, what i s the si gni fi cance? And
so 0n.
d Tri vi al l y, t he wri t er expect s us t o underst and t he code, i ncl udi ng t he
abbreviation mm and the technical labels (belt, pump,
iockey
pulleys).
He al so expects us to know what wri st effod i s
' normal ' ,
and what sort
150 of movement of t he bel t i s i nvol ved.
(Where
do
you put your rul er t o
measure 10 mm?)
e The wri ter expects the reader to share hi s atti tude to the
puppy;
readers from some cul tural backgrounds have i nterpreted i t as di sgust
(mi sl ed by words |ke mangr, whi ch they themsel ves react to wi th
155 di sgust), havrng fai l ed to tune i n to the sympathy si gnal l ed by ti ny,
starved, and the hal f-admi ri ng descri pti on of i ts stoi ci sm and
det ermi nat i on. Thi s i s an exampl e where t he assumpt i ons are so deep
t hat t hey need t o recei ve onl y t he sl i ght est l i ngui st i c expressi on.
4.5 Total understandi ng?
The f i nal exampl e above i ndi cat es t he i mport ance of background i n
underst andi ng. l t wi l l be obvi ous t hat f or peopl e of si mi l ar background,
t he shaded area i n Fi gure 3 wi l l be much bi gger t han f or peopl e comi ng
from di fferent backgrounds, l et al one
peopl e from enti rel y di fferent
cul t ures. l t i s al so cl eart hat t he
great ert he si ze of t he shaded area, t he
easi er communi cat i on wi l l be. l f t he wri t er and t he reader are cl osel y
si mi l ar i n background, t rai ni ng, at t i t ude and so on, t he reader i s l i kel y t o
i nterpret the text wi th no consci ous effort. There are sti l l dangers of
mi sunderst andi ng, however: a carel ess reader may read i nt o t he t ext
meani ngs t hat are not t here, si mpl y because hi s sense of havi ng much
i n common wi t h t he wri t er i s so st rong. Such a reader i s assumi ng t hat
t he ext ent of t he shaded area
-
t he common
ground
-
i s
great er
t han i t
act ual l y i s.
When t he wri t er makes a si mi l ar f al se assumpt i on about t he ext ent
t o whi ch t he reader i s l i kel y t o share hi s knowl edge, bel i ef s, et c. , t he
reader may be consci ous of havi ng to struggl e to understand, and
somet i mes he may f ai l . But t he wi del y di f f erent backgrounds merel y
make more obvi ous a fact that we someti mes forget: that we can never
underst and one anot her t ot al l y. Except i n t he most severel y sci ent i f i c
160
165
170
175
l-'nit
2
23
,,-' rrti ng, thi s seems i nevi tabl e, because al l of us have had di fferent
: xperi ences whi ch make us see t hi ngs sl i ght l y di f f erent l y, even t hough
,,*' e al so have a
great deal i n common.
But of course one reason for readi ng i s that we want to understand
: t her
peopl e' s i deas; i f we were al l i dent i cal , t here woul d be no
poi nt
i n
nost communi cat i on. Fort unat el y, f or most
purposes, t he
rnderstandi ng need not be total : but the fact that we cannot
get
i nsi de
: he wri t er' s mi nd i s no excuse f or not doi ng our best t o underst and
,rhat he wants to say. l f we are i n conversati on wi th someone, we can
st op hi m and ask f or expl anat i ons and exampl es whenever we need
: hem. I n t he same way, when we have di f f i cul t i es i n readi ng, we need t o
nt errogat e t he t ext . Si nce t he wri t er i s sel dom avai l abl e f or
: onsul t at i on, t he t ext i s our onl y resource: and readi ng has been
j escri bed
as
' acti ve
i nterrogati on of a text' .
4,6 Acti ve i nvol vement of the reader
' i /e can now begi n to see why the model of readi ng shown i n Fi gure 2 was
rnsati sfactory. The meani ng i s not merel y l yi ng i n the text wai ti ng to be
: assi vel y absorbed. 0n t he cont rary, t he reader i s act i vel y i nvol ved and
,,,,i l l very often have to work to
get
the meani ng out. A model l i ke Fi gure 4
Tay seem nearer t he t rut h: i t shows us a vi ew of readi ng i n whi ch t he
' eader
can be seen approachi ng meani ng more act i vel y. The reader on
:he l eft i s fi ndi ng l i ttl e di ffi cul ty i n i nterpreti ng the text: the meani ng i s
; ai rl y
cl ear t o hi m al l al ong, he has much i n common wi t h t he wri t er and
re has f ew
probl ems
wi t h t he l anguage used. To t he reader on t he ri ght ,
rowever, the same text appears very di ffi cul t. To
get
at the meani ng
nvol ves an uphi l l st ruggl e and he i s not at al l sure of t he rout e. He can
nri ng to the task so l i ttl e of what the wri ter has taken for
granted
that the
, , ray f orward i s cont i nual l y bl ocked by
probl ems of unf ami l i ar vocabul ary,
gnorance
of facts or i ntel l ectual l i mi tati ons. However, the reader on the
rrght
i s aware that he i s not understandi ng; thi s awareness i s i mportant i f
,,ou hope to be a competent reader. Poor readers often do not even
necogni ze
that they do not understand; so recogni zi ng that there are
orobl ems i s the fi rst step towards competence.
The reader on t he ri ght i s al so t ackl i ng hi s
probl ems wi t h vi gour and
,,ri th al l the tool s at hi s di sposal . He has understood that to reach the
Tessage i nvol ves hi s own efforts as wel l as those of the wri ter: i t i s i n a
,vay a co-operati ve task. The so-cal l ed
' co-operati ve
pri nci pl e' , as i t
appl i es t o readi ng, mi ght be f ormul at ed al ong t hese l i nes:
The reader assumes
a That he and t he wri t er are usi ngt he same code (t he same l anguage).
: That the wri ter has a message.
: That the wri ter wants the reader to understand the message.
Thi s appl i es so strongl y that
you may have found yoursel f even tryi ng to
nake sense of wri t i ng whi ch t urned out t o be nonsense. General l y
speaki ng, we assume t hat
peopl e are t el l i ng t he t rut h and have somet hi ng
sensi bl e t o say unt i l evi dence t o t he cont rary i s t oo st rong t o resi st .
180
190
185
195
205
210
215
200
Fi g 4 Anot her vi ewof r eadr ng
220
24 Unit2
Before
Fi g 5 The text as a do-i fyoursel t ki t
4.7 Readi ng as i nteracti on
The wri ter makes si mi l ar assumpti ons, i ncl udi ng the reader' s wi l l i ngness
to make some effort to
get at the meani ng for hi msel f. l f ei ther l ets the
225 other down, communi cati on fai l s. l f the wri ter i s carel ess, hi s message
may be i mpossi bl e to recover; i f he makes demands that the reader
cannot ful fi l , the message wi l l not be recei ved, even though to another
reader i t mi ght be cl ear. l f t he reader on hi s si de i s carel ess or i dl e, t he
resul t i s si mi l ar: an i ncompl ete i nterpretati on or a di storted one. 0n both
230 si des, l ack of shared assumpti ons i s l i kel y to be the worst
probl em,
because i t i s not al ways recogni zed. The reader i s l i kel y to try to make
sense of the text i n terms of hi s own
presupposi ti ons, and i t may be a
l ong ti me before he i s forced to recogni ze that they di ffer from those of
the wri ter.
235 From what we have sai d,
you can see that readi ng accordi ng to thi s
view is not
just
an active
process,
bu| an interactive one. We are
accustomed to thi nki ng of conversati on as i nteracti ve, because what one
speaker says obvi ousl y i nfl uences the contri buti on of the other. The
i nteracti on i n readi ng i s cl earl y rather di fferent because the wri ter i s not
240 normal l y avai l abl e, and thi s makes the task of both reader and wri ter
more di ffi cul t. Si nce he can
get no feedback, the wri ter cannot know
whi ch
parts
of hi s text wi l l cause mtsunderstandi ng. He has to
guess
where the
probl ems
l i e and shape hi s text accordi ngl y, but si nce he never
knows exactl y who hi s readers wi l l be, he wi l l never succeed compl etel y.
4.8 Maki ng sense of the text
245 However, the wri ter has an advantage whi ch the speaker has not: he has
ti me to structure hi s text effecti vel y, to hel p the reader by maki ng i t as
strai ghtforward as
possi bl e. The reader al so has ti me at hi s di sposal : he
can stop and thi nk,
go
back to check an earl i er reference, reread the
most di ffi cul t
passages.
Unl ess the text takes for granted a body of
250 knowl edge that he si mpl y does not have, a careful reader shoul d be abl e
to reconstruct the assumpti ons on whi ch the wri ti ng i s based. He has to
read wi th enough ski l l and care to make the ri ght i nferences about what
the wri ter means, and he has to remai n obj ecti ve enough to recogni ze
di fferences i n vi ewpoi nt between hi msel f and the wri ter. To do thi s he
255 must assess al l the evi dence
-
choi ce of words, sel ecti on of facts,
organi zati on of materi al and so on
-
so that he
gets
the message
i ntended rather than the message he mi ght have
preferred to recei ve.
Al l thi s suggests that a model of the readi ng
process mi ght be more
l i ke that shown i n Fi gure 5: the text functi ons rather l i ke a do-i t-yoursel f
260 constructi on ki t. The message i n the wri ter' s mi nd i s the
perfect pi ece
of
furni ture pl anned
by the desi gner. The process of breaki ng thi s down i nto
i ts component
parts
and
packi ng
them al l i nto a box wi th i nstructi ons for
assembl y i s a l i ttl e l i ke the
process
of
putti ng
thoughts i nto words and
organi zi ng them i nto a coherent text. A reader tackl i ng a text resembl es
265 the amateur furni ture maker unpacki ng hi s do-i t-yoursel f ki t and tryi ng to
work out how the
pi eces fi t together.
It woul d not be wi se to
press thi s anal ogy too far, but i t does serve to
Unit2
25
emphasi ze how much t he reader hi msel f has t o cont ri but e. We can begi n
to see the force of the metaphor maki ng sense: the reader does i n truth
have to make sense of the text, al most l i ke the amateur maki ng hi s 270
t t urni t ure. Whet her hi s t abl e i s ri cket y, i ncompl et e or more or l ess as
pl anned
depends not onl y on whet her al l t he
pi eces were packed and t he
rnst ruct i ons cl ear, but al so on whet her he underst ands t he basi c
pri nci pl es
i nvol ved, whet her he f ol l ows t he i nst ruct i ons
properl y,
and
whether he manages not to l ose any of the
pi eces. 275
4.9 Predi cti on
, A man who knows a bi t about carpent ry wi l l make hi s t abl e more qui ckl y
t han t he man who does not . l f t he i nst ruct i ons are not very cl ear, or t he
shape of a
pi ece i s baf f l i ng, hi s experi ence hel ps hi m t o concl ude t hat i t
must fi t there, or that i ts functi on must be that. In the same way, the
reader' s sense and experi ence hel ps hi m to
predi ct what the wri ter i s 280
l i kel yt o say next : t hat he must be goi ngt o sayt hi s rat hert han t hat , A
reader who can t hi nk al ong wi t h t he wri t er i n t hi s way wi l l f i nd t he t ext
I am not suggesti ng that the reader i s consci ous of
predi cti ng
hi s way
through a text l i ke thi s. Usual l y he i s not, but the ski l l i s so useful that you 285
may wi sh to make your students aware of i t so that they can use i t to
tackl e di ffi cul t texts. l t does seem to be the case that as we read we make
hypotheses about what the wri ter i ntends to say; these are i mmedi atel y
modi fi ed by what he actual l y does say, and are repl aced by new
hypotheses about what wi l l fol l ow. We have al l had the experi ence of 290
bel i evi ng we were underst andi ng a t ext unt i l suddenl y brought t o a hal t by
some word or
phrase
that woul d not fi t i nto the
pattern and forced us to
reread and readj ust our t hought s. Such occurrences l end support t o t he
noti on of readi ng as a constant maki ng and remaki ng of hypotheses
-
a
' pychol i ngui sti c
guessi ng game' . 295
l f you are i nterested i n fi ndi ng out how far thi s i dea accords wi th
practi ce,
and how useful i t mi ght be i n deal i ng wi th a di ffi cul t text,
you
,rnay
l i ke to try out the text and
questi ons
on
p.13.
To do so, take a
pi ece
of card and use i t to mask the text
(whi ch
i s
pri nted i n roman type). Move
t down t he
page, reveal i ng onl y one sect i on at a t i me. Answer t he 300
questi on (pri nted i n l fal l ctype) before you go
on to l ook at the next
secti on. Check
your predi cti on agai nst what the text actual l y says, and
i Lrse
the new knowl edge to i mprove your next
predi cti on. You wi l l need to
l ook back to earl i er
parts of the text i f
you are to
predi ct
accuratel y, for
you must keep i n mi nd t he
general
organi zat i on of t he argument as wel l 305
as the detai l wi thi n each sentence. Try thi s out before readi ng further.
l f you have tri ed thi s out,
you have probabl y been i nterested to fi nd
how much
you can
predi ct ,
t hough nat ural l y we shoul d not expect t o be
ri ght every ti me
-
otherwi se there woul d be no need for us to read.
Consci ous use of t hi s t echni que can be hel pf ul when we are f aced wi t h a 310
parl
of the text that we fi nd di ffi cul t: i f we can see the overal l
pattern
of
t he t ext , and t he wayt he argument i s organi zed, we can make a reasoned
guess
at the next step. Havi ng an i dea of what somethi ng mi ght mean can
be a
great hel p i n t nt erpret i ng i t . l t can be
part i cul arl y hel pf ul i n l eadi ng us
' fo
i nterpret correctl y Ihe val ue of an utterance, whi ch we must now 315
def i ne.
26
Unit2
Task 2
In this task you will use your own experience to
evaluate the points made by Christine Nuttall.
How well did
you
understand the passage? If you understood it quite
easily, what do you think helped you to understand it? If you found it
fficult to understand, what do you think made it difficult?
List what you think are the main points made by Christine Nuttall
about reading comprehension. Then use your experience of trying to
comprehend the passage to help you to decide to what extent you
agree with each point.
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will examine the text to decide what
the writer's main objectives are and to discover what
strategies she uses to try to achieve them.
1 Which of the following objectives do you think Christine Nuttall
has tried to achieve in this passage?
! a to present proven facts
n b to stimulate the reader
! c to present objectively various theories of comprehension
tr d to make the topic interesting to the non-expert reader
n e to be controversial
! f to persuade the reader to agree with her theories on
comprehension
!
g
to provide practical advice
n h to encourage the reader to think for herArimself
For each ofthe objectives
you have selected above, try to find an
example from the passage to show how Christine Nuttall has tried
to achieve it.
2 Find examples from the passage of the following strategies:
a asking a question to get the reader to think and then providing
an answer to help them.
b using an analogy with an everyday experience as a way of
helping the reader to understand an aspect of the process of
reading comprehension.
c making a statement and then clarifying and reinforcing it with a
series of statements which repeat and add to the original one.
L' nit2
27
3
'In
this chapter of her book, Nuttall tries to get her readers to use
the reading skills she is describing in order to help them to
understand what she is saying about the reading process.'
Find evidence in the passage
to support or refute this statement.
Task 2
In this task you
will examine and evaluate in detail
some of the techniques and utterances used by
Christine Nuttall in the passage.
Give an example of a situation in which the decoder of a written
text misinterprets the message intended by the encoder of the
text. Explain the cause(s) of the misinterpretation in your
example.
Redraw the diagram in Fig. 2 so that it represents a more
accurate version ofwhat the process
ofunderstanding a text
involves.
Summarize in one sentence Nuttall's views in 4.2 aboutwhat can
make a text difficult to understand.
Write a number of short texts in which the encoder is
communicating the same message to:
a a friend who shares the same experience and knowledge.
b a stranger who shares similar experience and knowledge.
c people who do not have the same experience and knowledge
as the encoder.
What presuppositions
do you think Nuttatl made when she was
writing this chapter? What assumptions do you think she made
about her readers?
Give two examples of situations in which the decoder of a text
needs only a partial understanding of the encoder's message.
Give an example of a situation in which the decoder has to try to
achieve almost total understanding of the encoder's message.
What difference in reading activity are there between reading
for partial
understanding and reading for total understanding?
Give examples of types of reading situations in which you
would
find it easy to make predictions,
and examples of situations in
which you would find it dfficult.
Find a short article from a newspaper. Write out the article
sentence by sentence. After each sentence write a question
which would help the reader to make predictions
about the next
sentence.
c
28 Unit2
For example: Robsonfi.nds the answer in Zurich.
'Who
is Robson? What is the article about?'
Bobby Robson was a happy man last night.
'Why
was he happy?'
When you have finished, swap your article with another student.
Read their article and as you read make predictions about the
next sentence by answering your partner's questions.
Afterwards discuss the two articles with your partner and decide
to what extent making predictions helped you to read the article
you were
given.
9 In the last sentence of the extract you have read Nuttall says
she is going to define what is meant by the
'value'of
an
utterance. Use your understanding of what she has said so far to
predict what she will say about'value'.
10 The passage is full of similes and metaphors which try to help
the reader to understand what Nuttall is saying about
comprehension by relating aspects of it to experiences likely to
be familiar to the reader.
Locate all these comparisons in the passage and list them
according to the following categories:
I aery helfful
2 quite helpful
3 not helpful
Explain why the comparisons you put in the first category helped
you to understand and why those in the third category didn't help
you at all.
Extension
In these tasks you will make use of your knowledge
and experience ofprediction and ofrelating a text to
world knowledge in order to
r work out what is
going
to happen in a number of
stories
r write the beginning of a story which requires the
readers to revise their predictions
and to relate what
they read to their experience of the world.
Ltni t 2
29
Task 1
1 Look at the front cover of The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole aged
133/a and predict as much as you can about the story.
30 Unit2
Now read the first page of the novel below and revise and add to
your predictions.
Thursday January lst
BANK HOLIDAY IN ENGLAND,
IRELAND. SCOTLAND AND WALES
These are my New Year's resolutions:
1. I will help the blind across the road.
2. I will hang my trousers up.
3. I will put the sleeves back on my records.
4. I will not start smoking.
5. I will stop squeezing my spots.
6. I will be kind to the dog.
7. I will help the poor and ignorant.
8. After hearing the disgusting noises from downstairs
last night, I have also vowed never to drink alcohol.
My father got the dog drunk on cherry brandy at the party
last night. Ifthe RSPCA hear about it he could get done. Eight
days have gone by since Christmas Day but my mother still
hasn't wom the green lurex apron I bought her for Christmas!
She will get bathcubes next year.
Just my luck, I've got a spot on my chin for the first day of
the New Year!
Friday January 2nd
BANKHOLIDAYIN SCOTLAND. FULL MOON
I felt rotten today. It's my mother's fault for singing
'My
Way'
at two o'clock in the morning at rhe top of the stairs. Just my
luck to have a mother like her. There is a chance my parents
could be alcoholics. Next year I could be in a children's home.
The dog got its own back on my father. It
jumped
up and
knocked down his model ship
,
then ran into the garden with the
rigging tangled in its feet. My father kept saying,
'Three
months'work down the drain', over and over again.
The spot on my chin is getting bigger. It's my mother's
fault for not knowing about vitamins.
Read Adrian's diary entry for December 31st that year and try to
work out how accurate vour
predictions
were.
Unit2
31
The story of Adrian is continued in a follow up called The Grouing
Pains of Adrinn Mole.What do you think happens in this book? If
you are interested, try to read the two books about Adrian Mole
and see how many of your predictions were correct.
The dog has pulled the Christmas fiee down and made all the
pine needles stick in the shag-pile.
I have finished all my Christmas books and the library is still
shut. I am reduced to reading my father's Reader's Digests
and testing my word power.
Wednesday December30th
All the balloons have shrivelled up. They look like old
women's breasts shown on television documentaries aboutthe
Third World.
Thursday December 3lst
The last day ofthe year! A lot has happened. I have fallen in
love. Been a one-parent child. Gone intellectual. And had two
letters from the BBC. Not bad going for a 143/+yeat-oldl
My mother and father have been to a New Year's Eve dance
at the Grand Hotel. My mother actually wore a dress ! It is over
a year since she showed her legs in public.
Pandora and I saw the New Year in together, we had a dead
passionate session accompanied by Andy Stewart and a bag-
piper.
My father came crashing through the front door at 1 a.m.
carrying a lump of coal in his hand. Drunk as usual.
My mother started going on about what a wonderful son I
was and how much she loved me. It's a pity she never says
anything like that when she is sober.
a
, 9
td't
-)
32 Unit2
2 a Read the following dedication:
' For
al l those members of the South Afri can Pol i ce Force whose
l i ves are dedi cated to the
preservati on
of Western Ci vi l i zati on i n
Southern Afri ca.'
This dedication is from the beginning of a novel. What do you
think the novel is about?
The novel is called,Indecent Exposure. Its author, Tom Sharpe,
was deported from South Africa. Use this new information to
confirm or revise your predictions.
Read the following extract from near the beginning of the
novel and then make your final predictions about the
novel. Think about:
. the setting
.
the characters
.
the story
.
the themes
.
the attitude and the intentions of the writer
Presentl y, l eavi ng the Mayor di scussi ng the advi sabi l i ty of al l owi ng vi si ti ng
Japanese busi nessmen to use the Whi tes 0nl y swi mmi ng
pool s wi th the
Rev Schl achbal s, the Kommandant moved away. At the entrance of the
tent Lui tenant Verkramp was deep i n conversati on wi th a l arge bl onde
whose turquoi se dress fi tted her astoni shi ngl y wel l . Under the
pi nk pi cture
hat the Kommandant recogni zed the features of Dr von Bl i menstei n, the
emi nent
psychi atri st
at Fort Rapi er Mental Hospi tal .
' Getti ng
free treatment?' the Kommandant asked
j ocul arl y
as he edged
pasr.
' Dr
von Bl i menstei n has been tel l i ng me how she deal s wi th cases of
mani c-depressi on,' sai d the Lui tenant.
Dr von Bl i menstei n smi l ed.
' Lui tenant
Verkramp seems most i nterested
i n the use of el ectro-convul si ve therapy.'
' l
know,' sai d the Kommandant and wandered out i nto the open ai r, i dl y
specul ati ng on the
possi bi l i ty
that Verkramp was atti acted to the bl onde
psychi atri st.
l t seemed unl i kel y somehow but wi th Lui tenant Verkramp
one never knew.
Task 2
Write the first page of a story which starts
,'I'm
not scared,' I kept
tellingmyself. Write the story in such a way that the readers will have
to use their knowledge of the world to work out what has happened
and to predict what is going to happen, (i.
e., don't provide exact
details ofthe setting, the characters and the story).
Swap your story with that of a partner and try to work out as much as
you can about the setting, characters and story. Tell them your
conclusions and ask them how accurate thev are.
L'nit 2
2 2
2 Narrative
Freparation
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to make use of short
extracts from a novel to help you to predict the
content and style of the novel.
1 The following extracts are from the first paragraph of a novel.
Read them carefully and try to predict
.
who thern in the first extract refers to
.
where they are
.
why they are there
a Most of them tol d the ti me very roughl y by thei r meal s . . .'
b
' .
. . and when i t was dark t hey f el l asl eep by t aci t consent . . . '
c
' .
. . they had three
good watches among thi rty-two men, and a
second-hand and unrel i abl e
-
or so t he wat ch-owners cl ai med
-
al arm cl ock. '
d
' The
two wri st-watches were the fi rst to
go . . .'
e
' .
. . and
presentl y, some hours l ater, the watches reappeared on
the wri sts of two of . . .'
2 Use the extracts to try to write the first paragraph of the novel.
3 Read the first paragraph of the following extract from the novel
TheTenth Manby Graham Greene and compare it to your
version. In particular look for differences in content and style.
Most of t hem t ol d t he t i me very roughl y by t hei r meal s, whi ch were
unpunct ual and i rregul ar; t hey amused t hemsel ves wi t h t he most chi l di sh
games
al l t hrough t he day, and when i t was dark t hey f el l asl eep by t aci t
consent
-
not wai ti ng for a
parti cul ar hour of darkness for they had no
rneans of t el l i ng t he t i me exact l y: i n f act t here were as many t i mes as
there were
pri soners. When thei r i mpri sonment started they had three
good wat ches among t hi rt y-t wo men, and a second-hand and unrel i abl e
-
or so the watch-owners cl ai med
-
al arm cl ock. The two wri st-watches
,were
the fi rst to
go:
thei r owners l eft the cel l at seven o' cl ock one
rnorni ng
-
or seven-t en t he al arm cl ock sai d
-
and
present l y, some hours
ater, the watches reappeared on the wri sts of two of the
guards.
That l eft the al arm cl ock and a l arge ol d{ashi oned si l ver watch on a
chai n bel ongi ng t o t he Mayor of Bourge. The al arm cl ock bel onged t o an
engi ne dri ver cal l ed Pi erre, and a sense of compet i t i on
grew bet ween . .
34
Unit2
10
15
20
25
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will read a longer extract from the
novel in order to understand the main points about
the setting and the characters.
Read the whole of extract A through once fairly quickly, and as you
read think about why the author has decided to start the novel in this
way and why the characters are so obsessed by time.
When you have finished reading discuss your conclusions with a
partner.
Extract A
Most of them tol d the ti me very roughl y by thei r meal s, whi ch were
unpunctual and i rregul ar; they amused themsel ves wi th the most chi l di sh
games
al l through the day, and when i t was dark they fel l asl eep by taci t
consent
-
not wai ti ng for a
parti cul ar
hour of darkness for they had no
means of tel l i ng the ti me exactl y: i n fact there were as many ti mes as
there were
pri soners.
When thei r i mpri sonment started they had three
good
watches among thi rty-two men, and a second-hand and unrel i abl e
-
or so the watch-owners cl ai med
-
al arm cl ock. The two wri st-watches
were the fi rst to go:thei r
owners l eft the cel l at seven o' cl ock one
morni ng
-
or seven-ten the al arm cl ock sai d
-
and presentl y,
some hours
l ater, the watches reappeared on the wri sts of two of the
guards.
That l eft the al arm cl ock and al arge ol d-fashi oned si l ver watch on a
chai n bel ongi ng to the Mayor of Bourge. The al arm cl ock bel onged to an
engi ne dri ver cal l ed Pi erre, and a sense of competi ti on
grew between the
two men. Ti me, they consi dered, bel onged to them and not the twenty-
ei ght other men. But there were two ti mes, and each man defended hi s
own wi th a terri bl e
passi on.
l t was a
passi on
whi ch separated them from
thei r comrades, so that at any hour of the day they coul d be found i n the
same corner of the great
concrete shed: they even took thei r meal s
together.
Once the mayor forgot to wi nd hi s watch: i t had been a day of rrl mour,
for duri ng the ni ght they had heard shooti ng from the di recti on of the ci ty,
j ust
as they had heard i t before the two men wi th wri st-watches were
taken away and the word
' hostage' grew
i n each brai n l i ke a heavy cl oud
whi ch takes by a capri ce of wi nd and densi ty the shape of l etters. Strange
i deas grow
i n
pri son
and the mayor and the engi ne dri ver drew together
yet more i nti matel y: i t was as though they feared that the Germans chose
del i beratel y the men wi th watches to rob them of ti me. The mayor even
began to suggest to hi s fel l ow
pri soners
that the two remai ni ng
t i meoi eces shoul d be keot hi dden rat her t han t hat al l shoul d l ose t hei r
servi ces, but when he began to
put
thi s i dea i nto words the noti on
suddenl y seemed to resembl e cowardi ce and he broke off i n mi d-
sent ence.
30
n--nit
2 35
Whatever the cause that ni ght, the mayor forgot to wi nd hi s watch.
rt/hen he woke i n the morni ng, as soon as i t was l i ght enough to see he
' goked
at hi s watch,
' Wel l ,'
Pi erre sai d,
' what
i s the ti me? What does the
anti que say?' The hands stood l i ke bl ack negl ected rui ns at a
quarter
to
:ne. l t seemed to the mayor the most terri bl e moment of hi s l i fe: worse,
?r worse than the day the Germans fetched hi m. Pri son l eaves no sense
.rni mpai red, and the sense of
proporti on
i s the fi rst to
go. He l ooked from
-ace
to face as though he had commi tted an act of treachery: he had
surrendered the onl y true ti me, He thanked God that there was no one
*rere from Bourge. There was a barber from Etai n, three cl erks, a l orry-
Cri ver, a greengrocer, a tobacconi st
-
every man i n the
pri son
but one
was of a l ower soci al
pl ane
t han hi msel f , and whi l e he f el t al l t he great er
responsi bi l i ty
towards them, he al so fel t they were easy to decei ve, and
he tol d hi msel f that after al l i t was better so: better that they shoul d
bel i eve they sti l l had the true ti me wi th them than trust to thei r ungui ded
guesses
and the second-hand al arm cl ock.
He made a rapi d cal cul ati on by the grey l i ght through the bars.
' l t' s
twenty-fi ve mi nutes past fi ve,' he sai d fi rml y and met the
gaze
of the one
' vhom he was afrai d mi ght see through hi s decei t: a Pari s l awyer cal l ed
Chavel , a l onel y fel l ow who made awkward attempts from ti me to ti me to
prove
hi msel f human. Most of the other
pri soners regarded hi m as an
oddi ty, even a
j oke:
a l awyer was not somebody wi th whom one l i ved: he
was a grand dol l who was taken out on
parti cul ar occasi ons, and now he
had l ost hi s bl ack robe.
' Nonsense,'
Pi erre sai d,
' What' s
come over the anti que? l t' s
j ust
a
quarter
to si x.'
' A
cheap al arm l i ke that al ways
goes fast.'
The l awyer sai d sharpl y, as though from habi t,
' Yesterday
you
sai d i t
was sl ow.' From that moment the mayor hated Chavel : Chavel and he
rvere the onl y men of
posi ti on i n the
pri son:
he tol d hi msel f that never
woul d he have l et Chavel down i n that way, and i mmedi atel y began
tortuousl y to seek for an expl anati on
-
some underground and
di sgraceful moti ve. Al though the l awyer sel dom spoke and had no fri ends,
the mayor sai d to hi msel f,
' Curryi ng
popul ari ty.
He thi nks he' l l rul e thi s
pri son.
He wants to be a di ctator.'
' Let' s
have a l ook at the anti que,' Pi erre sai d, but the watch was safel y
tethered by i ts si l ver chai n wei ghted wi th seal s and coi ns to the mayor' s
wai stcoat. l t coul dn' t be snatched. He coul d safel y sneer at the demand.
But that day was marked
permanentl y
i n the mayor' s mi nd as one of
those bl ack days of terri bl e anxi ety whi ch form a
pri vate
cal endar:the day
of hi s marri age: the day when hi s fi rst chi l d was born: the day of the
counci l el ect i on: t he day when hi s wi f e di ed. Somehow he had t o set hi s
watch goi ng and adj ust the hands to a
pl ausi bl e
fi gure wi thout anyone
spotti ng hi m
-
and he fel t the Pari s l awyer' s eyes on hi m the whol e day.
To wi nd the watch was fai rl y si mpl e: even an acti ve watch must be
wound, and he had onl y to wi nd i t to hal f i ts capaci ty, and then at some
l ater hour of the day gi ve i t absent-mi ndedl y another turn or two.
Even that di d not
pass
unnoti ced by Pi erre.
' What
are
you at?' he asked
suspi ci ousl y.
' You' ve
wound i t once. l s t he ant i que breaki ng down?'
35
40
45
50
75
55
60
65
70
BO
36 Unit2
85
90
95
100
105
' l
wasn' t t hi nki ng, ' t he mayor sai d, but hi s mi nd had never been more
acti ve. l t was much harder to fi nd a chance to adj ust the hands whi ch for
more than hal f the day
pursued
Pi erre' s ti me at a di stance of fi ve hours.
Even nature coul d not here
provi de
an opportuni ty. The l avatori es were a
row of buckets i n the yard and for the conveni ence of the
guards
no man
was al l owed to
go
al one to a bucket: they went i n parti es
of at l east si x
men. Nor coul d the mayor wai t ti l l ni ght, for no l i ght was al l owed i n the
cel l and i t woul d be too dark to see the hands. And al l the ti me he had to
keep a mental record of how ti me
passed:
when a chance occurred he
must sei ze i t, wi thout hesi tati ng over the correct
quarteri ng of an hour.
At l ast towards eveni ng a
quarrel broke out over the
pri mi ti ve
card
game
-
a ki nd of
' snap'
wi th home-made cards
-
that some of the men
spent most of thei r ti me
pl ayi ng.
For a moment eyes were fi xed on the
pl ayers
and the mayor took out hi s watch and
qui ckl y
shi fted the hands.
' What
i s the ti me?' the l awyer asked. The mayor started as i f he had
been caught i n the wi tness-box by a sudden questi on: the l awyer was
watchi ng hi m wi th the strai ned unhappy l ook that was habi tual to hi m: the
l ook of a man who has carri ed nothi ng over from hi s
past
to buttress hi m
i n the tragi c
present.
'Twenty-five
minutes
past five.'
' l
had i magi ned i t was l ater.'
' That
i s my ti me,' the mayor sai d sharpl y. l t was i ndeed hi s ti me: from
now on he coul dn' t recogni ze even the fai ntest
possi bi l i ty
of error: hi s
ti me coul d not be wrong because he had i nvented i t.
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task
you will be asked to analyze the
passage in detail to find out as much as possible
about how it is written.
In line 1 why is the anonlmous
pronoun
'them'
used instead of a
description of the group?
Why did the men play'childish games' (L.2)?
Give an example of
one of these games.
Why were there
'as
many times as there were
prisoners' (L.5)?
What did time mean to them?
Why do you think the watch-owners claimed the alarm clock was
unreliable
(L.7)?
In L.8 why do you think the wrist-watches are mentioned before
their owners? What do you think happened to the owners?
Why did Pierre and the Mayor of Bourge think that time
belonged to them?
Why did the word'hostage'
'grow
in each brain'
(L.24)?
Why did Pierre ask the mayor
'what
is the time?'
(L.36)?
Explain why the mayor considered his forgetting to wind his
I
8
I
.,-rtit
2
2,7
watch as
'treachery'
and'surrender' . What does this tell us about
the mayor as a man and as a prisoner?
t0 What are the similarities between the mayor and Chavel. Why
did the mayor hate Chavel so much?
11 Why do you think the mayor went to so much trouble to conceal
that his watch was pursuing Pierre's time at a distance of five
hours? Why do you think the author uses the word'pursued'
(L.85)
instead of, for example,
'followed'?
12 Why do you think Chavel asks the mayor the time
(L.97)?
13 What are the literal and figurative meanings of
'my'
in L.104?
14 InThe Sunday Times,
John
Coray referred to this novel as
'A
masterpiece
-
tapped out in the lean, sharp-eyed
prose
that
fi,lm
work taught Greene to
perfecf
. On the evidence of the extract,
say whether or not you agree with this statement and give
examples from the text to support your answer.
Preparation
Task I
In this task
you will be asked to use
your experience
of reading extract A of the novel, your knowledge of
English and
your knowledge of the world to
predict
what happens in extract B.
The prisoners you have read about in extract A are given a
terrible choice by their captors. From your reading of the first
extract, what do you think this choice is?
Read the following short extract and see if you can be more
precise about what the choice is.
' How
do we draw?' Krogh asked. Chavel sai d,
' The
qui ckest way woul d
be to draw marked
papers out of a shoe . . ,' . Krogh sai d
contemptuousl y,
' Why
the
qui ckest
way? Thi s i s the l ast
gambl e
some
of us wi l l have. We may as wel l enj oy i t . I say a coi n. '
38
Unit2
3 What does Krogh mean by
'draw'?
4 Why is Krogh so'contemptuous' of. Chavel?
5 Why will it be the last gamble for some of them?
6 Now read extract B below and as you read check how accurate
your predictions were and try to keep anticipating what is coming
next.
Extract B
' l t
won' t work,' the cl erk sai d,
' You
can' t
get an even chance wi th a
coi n. '
' The
onl y way i s to draw,' the mayor sai d.
The cl erk
prepared
the draw, sacri fi ci ng for i t one of hi s l etters from
5 home. He read i t rapi dl y for the l ast ti me, then tore i t i nto thi tty
pi eces.
0n t hree
pi eces he made a cross i n
penci l ,
and t hen f ol ded each
pi ece.
' Krogh' s
got the bi ggest shoe,' he sai d. They shuffl ed the
pi eces
on the
fl oor and then dropped them i nto the shoe.
' We' l l
draw i n al phabet i cal order, ' t he mayor sai d.
10
' Z
fi rst,' Chavel sai d. Hi s feel i ng of securi ty was shaken. He wanted a
dri nk badl y. He
pi cked
at a dry
pi ece
of ski n on hi s l i p.
' As
you
wi sh,' the l orry-dri ver sai d.
' Anybody
beat Voi si n? Here
goes.'
He thrust hi s hand i nto the shoe and made careful excavati ons as though
he had one
parti cul ar scrap of
paper i n mi nd. He drew one out, opened i t,
15 and
gazed aI i t wi th astoni shment. He sai d,
' Thi s
i s i t.' He sat down and
fel t for a ci garette, but when he
got i t between hi s l i ps he forgot to l i ght i t.
Chavel was fi l l ed wi th a huge and shameful
j oy.
l t seemed to hi m that
al ready he was saved
-
twenty-ni ne men to draw and onl y two marked
papers l eft. The chances had suddenl y
grown i n hi s favour from ten to one
20 to
-
fourteen to one: the
greengrocer had drawn a sl i p and i ndi cated
carel essl y and wi thout
pl easure that he was safe. Indeed from the fi rst
draw any mark of
pl easure was taboo: one coul dn' t mock the condemned
man by any si gn of rel i ef.
Agai n a dul l di squi et
-
i t coul dn' t
yet
be descri bed as a f ear
-
extended
25 i ts empi re over Chavel ' s chest. l t was l i ke a constri cti on: he found hi msel f
yawni ng as the si xth man drew a bl ank sl i p, and a sense of
gri evance
nagged at hi s mi nd when the tenth man had drawn
-
i t was the one they
cal l ed Janvi er
-
and t he chances were once agai n t he same as when t he
draw started. Some men drew the fi rst sl i p whi ch touched thei r fi ngers:
30 others seemed to suspect that fate was tryi ng to force on them a
parti cul ar
sl i p and when they had drawn one a l i ttl e way from the shoe
woul d l et i t drop agai n and choose another. Ti me
passed wi th i ncredi bl e
sl owness, and the man cal l ed Voi si n sat agai nst the wal l wi th the unl i ghted
ci garette i n hi s mouth
payi ng
them no attenti on at al l .
35 The chances had narrowed to one i n ei ght when the el derl y cl erk
-
hi s
name was Lenotre
-
drew the second sl i p. He cl eared hi s throat and
put
on hi s
pi nce-nez as though he had to make sure he was not mi staken.
' Ah,
Monsi eur Voi si n, ' he sai d wi t h a t hi n undeci ded smi l e,
' may
I
j oi n you?'
Thi s ti me Chavel fel t no
j oy
even though the el usi ve odds were back agai n
40 overwhel mi ngl y i n hi s favour at fi fteen to one: he was daunted by the
l,-nit 2 39
: ourage of common men. He want ed t he whol e t hi ng t o be over as
qui ckl y
as
possi bl e:
l i ke a
game
of cards whi ch has
gone
on t oo l ong, he
: nl y want ed someone t o make a move and break up t he t abl e. Lenot re,
si t t i ng down agai nst t he wal l next t o Voi si n, t urned t he sl i p over: on t he
Dack was a scrap of wri ti ng.
' Your
wi f e?' Voi si n sai d.
' My
daught er, ' Lenot re sai d.
' Excuse
me. ' He went over t o hi s rol l of
ceddi ng and drew out a wri t i ng
pad.
Then he sat down next t o Voi si n and
oegan to wri te careful l y, wi thout hurry, a thi n l egi bl e hand. The odds were
cack to ten to one.
From that
poi nt
the odds seemed to move towards Chavel wi th a
dreadf ul i nevi t abi l i t y: ni ne t o one, ei ght t o one: t hey were l i ke a poi nt i ng
i nger. The men who were l ef t drew more
qui ckl y
and more carel essl y:
they seemed to Chavel to have some i nner i nformati on
-
to know that he
,vas the one. When hi s ti me came to draw there were onl y three sl i ps l eft,
and i t appeared to Chavel a monstrous i nj usti ce that there were so few
choi ces l ef t f or hi m. He drew one out of t he shoe and t hen f eel i ng cert ai n
t hat t hi s one had been wi l l ed on hi m by hi s compani ons and cont ai ned
t he penci l l ed cross he t hrew i t back and snat ched anot her.
' You
l ooked, l awyer, ' one of t he t wo men excl ai med, but t he ot her
oui et ed hi m.
' He
di dn' t l ook. He' s
got
t he marked one now. '
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will use your
experience of reading
the two extracts from the novel to find out as much as
you
can about the main character of the novel and to
predict what is
going
to happen to him.
Who do you think is going to emerge as the main character in the
novel? What evidence is there to support your view?
What do we find out about him in the two extracts and how is this
'information'revealed
to us bv the author? What do we know
about him from
a whathe says
b whathe does
c what is said about him by the author
d what is said or thought about him by other characters
e the words used to describe his thoughts and actions
f assumptions we make on the basis of our theory of the world
What do you think is going to happen to him in the rest of the
novel?
45
50
55
60
40
Unit2
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to answer detailed
questions about extract B.
1 Why do you think Chavel
prepared the draw and why did he
sacrifice one of his letters from home?
2 Why do you think
a the mayor suggests drawing in alphabetical order?
b Chavel suggests starting wlthz?
c the lorry-driver immediately agrees with Chavel?
3 Why did Voisin forget to light his cigarette?
4 Why did Chavel feela'huge and shameful
joy'
whenVoisin had
drawn his paper? Why did he later on feel
'a
sense of
grieuance' and
then consider the situation to be a'monstrotts iniustice'?
5 Why did Lenotre put on his pince-nez, and why, when he spoke to
Voisin, was his smtle'undecided'?
6 Why do you think one of the two men accused Chavel of looking?
7 How do you think Chavel is going to react to drawing a marked
sliP?
Extension
In these tasks you are
going
to use your experience
of reading extracts Aand.B to help
you to write
narratrve.
In pairs or small groups do one of the following creative writing tasks.
Task I
In the novel Chavel tries to save his own life by offering all his money,
property and land to anyone who will take his marked slip. A man
calledJanvier agrees and he is later shot instead of Chavel.
In your groups choose one of the following to do:
I Write the page which describes Chavel's offer andJanvier's
acceptance of it.
2 Imagine you are either the mayor or Krogh and write a letter from
the prison to a friend or relative describing what happened on the
day when allthe prisoners drew lots.
3 Later in the novel Chavel visits the house he gave toJanvier in
order to save his own life. Write the
page which describes this
visit.
Unit2 41
I The novel ends dramatically and violently when another of the ex-
prisoners visits Chavel's old house and meets Chavel there. Write
the last page of the novel.
Task 2
As a group do one of the following:
I Write the first page of a novel set in a future war in which the
prisoners have to make a'terrible choice'.
2 Write letters from two
prisoners glving different accounts of how
they both escaped death whilst in prison.
Review activities
In these activities
you will relate your
experience of
reading the passage in Section 1 to your
experience
'
of reading the
passage
in Section 2.
a Read the first page of a novel or story in English. As you read
try to focus on the exact meaning of each word and phrase. If
you wish, you can use a dictionary and a grarnmar book to help
you.
b Read another first page of a novel or story in English, but this
time don't worry about the exact meaning of every word or
phrase. Before you start reading try to predict what the story
will be about using clues such as the cover of the book, the
blurb on the back or the inside cover, the tifle, the chapter
heading, the first sentence, etc. Thenas youreadkeep on
trying to predict what is coming next and ask yourself
questions based on your knowledge of the world being
described in the book.
c Use your experience of reading pages of narrative in two
ffierent ways to decide which of the two ways
r
was the most enjoyable
.
enabled you to understand the story better
.
was the most useful
Read the following extract from another book about reading,
Reading in aforetgn language, and as you read it relate it to what
Nuttall says about comprehension and to your recent experiences
of reading narrative.
42 Unit2
Fi fthl y, the
product
of readi ng wi l l vary accordi ng to the reader. Di fferent
readers wi l l arnve at di fferent
products
because they start off from
di fferent
posi ti ons (Strang 1972). Bransf ord et al . and Steffensen and
Joag-Dev, i n
parti cul ar,
cl earl y demonstrate the effect of cul tural
knowl edge on the
product of comprehensi on, appeal i ng to the
processes
of di storti on and el aborati on to account for the di fferences between a
recal l of text and the ori gi nal text. Bransford et al . show that not onl y i s
rel evant knowl edge i mportant to
processi ng,
but al so that such
knowl edge needs to be acti vated before i t can contri bute to
understandi ng.
Si xthl y, the
product
of readi ng wi l l vary accordi ng to the reader' s
purpose and moti vati on, as both Royer ef a/. and Fransson show i n thei r
contri buti ons to thi s vol ume. Royer et al . reporl attempts to mani pul ate
the reader' s i ntent i n order to i nfl uence what the l earner l earns, and show
that the
purpose a reader has i n readi ng a text wi l l affect the outcome of
hi s understandi ng: the
product. Fransson shows that the reader' s
moti vati on
(rather
than the experi menter' s attempts to mani pul ate
purpose) has an effect, not onl y on the
product
of comprehensi on, but
al so upon the
process
of understandi ng. Vari abl es such as di fferent
background knowl edge, adherence to di fferent tasks, di fferent moti vati on,
al l cast doubt on an attempt to descri be readi ng comprehensi on si mpl y i n
terms of a set of hi erarchi cal l y ordered ski l l s.
One fi nal
poi nt
to be made about the tradi ti on of research i nto
' ski l l s'
i s
that i t i s based upon the assumpti on that texts have
predi ctabl e
meani ngs, whi ch can be extracted onl y i f the reader i s suffi ci entl y ski l ful .
Widdowson (I979) suggests that text does not have meaning, bul
potenti al for meani ng, whi ch wi l l vary from reader to reader, dependi ng
upon a mul ti tude of factors, but cruci al l y rel ated to
purpose and
knowl edge. In thi s vi ew, meani ng i s actual l y created by the reader i n hi s
i nteracti on wi th the text.
In groups decide
.
if there are any dffierences between what this extract says
about reading and what Nuttall says.
. if there are any points in this extract which you disagree with.
o
what you think are the essential features of efficient
comprehension of narrative.
3 Write a paragraph giving your advice to an intermediate level
student of English on the best way of reading narrative in English.
Make your advice as simple and practical as possible.
1 Reporting an experiment
Preparation
Task I
This activity will prepare you to read the
passage
by
encouraging
you to think about some of the issues
which it raises.
You are going to read a text called No t
just parrot-talk.
The text
reports on an experiment to teach a parrot English, and also
discusses some of the problems with this kind of experiment.
1 Most people would agree that animals are able to communicate.
However, they would also agree that animal communication is
much more restricted than human communication.
a What kinds of messages can dogs communicate to their
owners?
b What means do they use to communicate these messages?
c In what way is this communication ffierent from the
communication that takes place between people?
2 It is possible to teach a parrot to
'talk'.
But what exactly has a
'talking'parrot
learnt to do? Complete this table by putting
a tick
(/)
or a cross
(X)
to show what you think a'talking'parrot has
learnt. If you're not sure put a question mark
(?).
A'talking'
parrot has learnt:
1 to imitate words or short
phrases
2 to imitate complete sentences
3 to remember words or short
phrases
4 to remember complete sentences
5 to understand the meaning of words
6 to distinguish objects by their names
7 to
join
words together in
' new'
ways (i.e., in combinations other
than those that have actually been taught)
8 to mention objects that can be seen at the time of speaking
9 to mention objects that cannot be seen at the time of speaking
10 to count (e.g., from one to five)
1 1 to request an object
12 t o ask a
quest i on
13 t o answer a ouest i on
14 to refuse something it doesn' t want
Animal l anguage
44
Unit3
3 This is a description of a simple experiment designed to find out
whether
parrots can learn English. What criticism would you
make of this experiment?
The researcher showed the
parrot
four objects,
(an orange, a banana,
an apple and a grape). She held up each object and said its name
continuously until the
parrot imitated the word accurately. Whenever
the
parrot
did so, it was rewarded by being allowed to eat the fruit it
had named. This was repeated for three days. 0n the fourth day, the
researcher held up each object but did not say the name. The
parrot
pronounced each name correctly without assistance. The researcher
concluded that the
parrot had successfully learnt English in much the
same way as a
young
child.
What experiment would
you carry out to find out whether
parrots
really can learn English like a child?
4 The title of the text you are going to readis Not
just parrot-talk.
Which of the following does this title suggest?
n a' Parrot-tal k' i sdi fferentfrom' real -tal k' .
tr b In this case the parrot did more than
just
mimic sounds.
! c Parrots cannot learn how to talk.
! d The parrot in the experiment came close to learning how
to talk but didn't quite succeed.
Extensive Reading
Task I
In this activity
you will practise scanning
the information in the text in order to find
specific information.
Read through the text quickly to find out what the experiment showed
the parrot was able to do. Complete the table below by putting a tick
(/)
to show what the parrot had learnt, according to the information
in the passage.
UnitS
45
8
9
The
parrot
had learnt:
I
z
3
4
5
6
to imitate words or short
phrases
to imitate complete sentences
to remember words or short
phrases
to remember complete sentences
to understand the meaning of words
to distinguish objects by their names
to
join
words together in
' new'
ways (i.e., in combinations other
than those it has actually been taught)
to mention objects that can be seen at the time of speaking
to mention objects that cannot be seen at the time of
speaking
10 to count (e.g., from one to five)
I I to request an object
12 to ask a
question
13 to answer a
question
14 to refuse something it doesn' t want
Compare your table with that of a partner. Discuss any differences
and check the passage to decide who is correct.
Were there any differences between what you expected to read and
what the passage told you?
Not
just
parcot-talk
Scientists have taught a parrot
English. So what? This time, it
seems, the bird not only says the
words but also understands them.
Alex, an African grey parrot
residing at America's Purdue
University in Indiana, has a
vocabulary of about 40 words with
which he identifies, requests and
sometimes refuses more than 50
toys. He seems to manipulate
words as abstract symbols-in
other words, to use a primitive
form of language.
In many birds, communication
takes the form of simple,
stereotyped signals. Some birds,
like parrots, are capable oflearning
huge repertoires of phrases by
mimicking each other or other
species. But, until now, there has
been no evidence that any bird
could make the big Ieap to
associating one sound exclusively
with one object or quality.
Alex can. Dr Irene Pepperberg,
his trainer, exploited the natural
curiosity of the parrot to teach him
to use the names of different toys.
She did this with a technique
known as model/rival training. The
trainer and an assistant play with
the toys and ask each other
questions about them. To
join
in,
the parrot has to compete for the
trainer's attention.
The results have been
spectacular. Alex rapidly learnt to
46
UnitS
40
50
55
60
65
70
ask for certain objects, identifying
them by words for shape, colour
and material (eg, three-cornered
green paper, or five-cornered
yellow wood). He is asked to
repeat words until he gets them
right and is then rewarded by being
given the object to play with. Dr
Pepperberg believes it is important
that the bird is not rewarded with
food, because that would make him
think of words as ways of getting
treats rather than as symbols for
obi ects.
Alex is a clever boy
Twice a week, Alex is tested and
he normally gets about 80Eo of the
objects right. The mistakes are
usually small omissions
(for
instance, he forgets to name the
colour of an object) rather than
specific errors. To discover if he
really is able to grasp concepts like
colour and shape, he is shown
entirely novel combinations. When
first shown a blue piece of leather
he sai d' bl ue hi de' even t hough t he
blue objects he had previously seen
were all keys or made of wood.
This suggests that he is capable of
' segment at i on' :
t hat i s, he i s aware
that words are building blocks that
can be used in different com-
bi nat i ons.
Still, a vocabulary of adjectives
and nouns hardly amounts to
mastery of a language. The
scientists have been looking for
evidence that Alex understands
more complicated ideas. One
unexpected breakthrough was
when he learnt to say
'no'.
He
picked this up from the
conversations between trainer and
model and seems to understand at
least one meaning of the word-
rejection (for instance, when Dr
Pepperberg tries to play with him
and he does not feel like it). He can
also count to flve when asked how
many objects are being shown.
There are occasional hints that
he has grasped even more
advanced concepts but Dr
Pepperberg is cautious. The
debates over the abilities of
chimpanzees to use sign language
have recently descended from
euphoria to acrimony and nobody
dares make extravagant claims anY
more. It is not that people doubt
the ability of apes to accumulate a
large vocabulary of signs. (The top
scorer is probably Dr Francine
Patterson's gorilla, Koko, at
America's Stanford University,
with over 600 signs.) The argument
is about whether apes can under-
stand syntax or segmentation.
Examples which seem to show
them doing so are few and
disputed. For instance, Washoe,
the first and most famous of the
talking chimpanzees, once pointed
to a swan and signed
'water
bird'.
Or did she? Dr Herbert Terrace of
Columbia University (who as
trainer of the chimpanzee Nim
Chimpsky, came to cheer and
stayed to
jeer) pointed out that she
might simply have signed
'water'
and
' bi rd'
i n qui ck successi on.
Other sceptics argue that, in the
course of a lifetime, it would be
surprising if such apes did not
occasionally throw together
syntactical combinations of signs by
pure chance. A more serious
allegation is that the apes are
responding to unconscious cues
from their trainers.
Unconscious cueing is known as
the
'clever
Hans effect' in honour
of a famous horse in nineteenth-
century Germany. Hans appeared
to knock out the answers to
mathematical sums with his hoof.
In fact, the horse was not doing the
sums but was responding to subtle
ntr
Unit3
47
150
2
Task2
The purpose of this activity is to encourage
you
to
look at how the
passage has been organized into
sections.
The passage can be divided into t}ree main sections, each dealing
with separate but related issues:
a The parrot experiment
b Problems with animal languageJearning experiments
c Overcoming the
problems
Skim through the text quickly and write down the line numbers
where each section begins and ends.
Another way of organizing the text might have been as follows:
a Previous animal languageJearning experiments: summary and
problems
b The parrot experiment
c Advantages of the
parrot experiment over previous
experiments
Which type of organzalson do you prefer, the actual or the
alternative? Why?
Why do you ttrink the writer chose the type of organization she
did?
TaskS
The aim of this activity is to help you to consider who
the intended audience of the passage is.
TVho do you think this passage was written for?
tr a theeducatedgeneralreader
tr b trained scientists
n c trained linguists
tr d students studying linguistics
Make a list of all the clues in the passage that you used to arrive at
youf answer.
signs from the crowd which told
him when to stop. When the crowd
did not know the answer, Hans
could not do the sum.
Dr Pepperberg believes that her
experiments are free of such an
effect because speech is less easy to
cue than sign language. She argues
that this makes talking parrots
better subjects than signing apes
for probing the limits of animal
intelligence. She would like to see
Alex (or, even better, a young
parrot) compared with children to
see if the bird discovers ideas in the
same order as the children do and
exactly where the children leave
the bird behind.
48
Unit3
Intensive reading
The activities in this section will require a careful reading of the
passage, section by section.
Task 1
In this activity
you will examine in detail the
nature of the information in the first section of the
passage (L.1
to 88).
The main purpose of the first section of the
passage is to tell the
reader about a new experiment that has been carried out to teach a
parrot Enftlish.
A report of an experiment usually has information about
.
the subject
(who
or what was being studied)
. the method
(the
way the experiment was carried out)
r results
(what
was observed during the experiment)
. conclusions
(what
the er<periment showed)
Here is a list of sentences from the passage in the order in which they
occur. State what kind of information
(i.e.,
the subject, method,
results or conclusions) each sentence provides.
1 Al ex, an Afri can
grey parrot
resi di ng at Ameri ca' s Purdue Uni versi ty i n
Indi ana, has a vocabul ary of about 40 words wi th whi ch he i denti fi es,
requests and sometimes refuses more than 50 toys.
2 He seems to mani pul ate words as abstract symbol s
-
i n other words,
to use
primitive
forms of language.
3 Dr l rene Pepperberg, hi s trai ner, expl oi ted the natural curi osi ty of the
parrot
to teach him to use the names of different toys.
4 Al ex rapi dl y' l earnt to ask for certai n obj ects, i denti fyi ng them by
words for shape, col our and materi al (e.g., three-cornered
green
paper,
or fi ve-cornered yel l ow wood).
5 He i s asked to repeat words unti l he
gets
them ri ght and i s then
rewarded by bei ng gi ven the obj ect to
pl ay
wi th.
6 Twi ce a week, Al ex i s tested and he normal l y
gets about 80% of the
objects right.
7 This suggests that he is capable of
'segmentation':
that is, he is aware
that words are bui l di ng bl ocks that can be used i n di fferent
combi nati ons.
8 He can al so count to fi ve when asked how many obj ects are bei ng
shown.
UnitS
49
Task2
This activity is designed to help you examine how
the information in the first section of the
passage is
organized
(L.1
to 88).
a Does the-information in the passage follow the order below?
subject
method
results
conclusion
b In what kind of writing would you expect the information to be
presented in this order?
Read the first two
paragraphs carefully.
a Which of these statements most accurately summarizes the
writer's
purpose in the first two
paragraphs?
tr
(a)
to introduce the topic of the article
-
teaching animals
language.
(b)
to
give information about the subject of the experiment.
(c)
to persuade the reader that the experiment is a novel one
and therefore worth reading about.
(d)
to provide a statement of the main conclusion of the
experiment
-
that animals can learn a primitive form of
language.
b What is'the meaning of So what? nline 2. What is its function in
the text?
c Use the following framework to explain what the writer seems
to be trying to tell the reader in the first two
paragraphs.
Previous experiments
+
Problems
3 Read paragraphs three and four careftrlly.
a What is the principalkind of informationwhich these two
paragraphs provide?
!
(a)
the subject
n
6)
the method
n
(c)
the results
tr
(d)
the conclusions
tr
tr
n
50 Unit3
b The writer describes two different methods used to teach the
parrot English. State briefly what they are.
4 Read paragraphs five and six.
a These two paragraphs contain
jumbled
information about the
results and the conclusions of the experiment. Separate the
information into these two areas.
b Write out the results reported in these two paragraphs.
c Write out the conclusions mentioned in these two paragraphs.
d This diagram represents how the information in these two
paragraphs is organized. Match the parts
of the diagram with
sentences in the text.
Task3
The questions in this activity will help you to
understand how the information is organized in the
second section of the passage (L.89
to 140).
Read section two
(paragraphs
seven to ten) of the passage carefully.
1 What animals is this section about?
n a parrots
tr b apes
n c horses
! d none ofthese
2 The writer refers to another set of animal experiments to
illustrate a general problem about interpreting previous animal
language experiments. Find the sentence that refers to this
problem.
3 The main theme of this section is disagreement. Make a list of all
the words the writer uses to indicate or suggest disagreement:
for example, acrimony.
Unit3
51
4 The writer
provides a number of arguments that have been used
to cast doubt on whether the chimpanzee experiments really
show that animals can learn language.
Complete this summary of these arguments.
a Evidence that chimpanzees
produce novel combinations, such
as
'water
bird', are not clear; they may
just
be
producing
separate words.
b . . . . . .
c . . . . . .
Task4
In this activity
you will consider the function
of the information in the final section of the
passage (L.14I
to 159).
Read the final section
(paragraph
eleven) carefully.
I Which of the following best describes the function of the final
paragraph?
! a to summarize the main points of the article.
tr b to suggest that Pepperberg's experiment is not
just
another animal language experiment.
! c to reach a conclusion about whether a als are capable of
learning language.
! d to cast doubt on the value of Pepperberg's experiment
with the parrot.
2 Explain in your own words why Pepperberg considers parrots
are
better subjects than apes for animal language experiments.
Extension
Task I
In this activity you will consider the attitude which
the writer takes to the content of the article.
I What is the writer's attitude to the parrot experiment in the
passage? Describe his attitude by ringrng the appropriate number
on each of the scales below.
The wri ter' s atti tude to the
parrot
experi ment can be descri bed as:
sceptical
dismissive
bored
frivolous
.
bi ased
critical
n a A
z 5 +
2 3 4
2 3 4
n ^ A
z 5 +
2 3 4
2 3 4
5 convrnced
5 supportive
5 interested
5 seri ous
5 objective
5 uncri t i cal
52 Unit3
2 Work in a group. Compare your responses with those of other
members of your group. Support your own responses with
evidence from the
passage.
Task2
In this activity
you will consider
your own
response to both the content of the text and also the
way that it is written.
a In paragraph six the writer provides evidence to support the
claim that the parrot understands
'more
complicated ideas'.
What is this evidence? How convincing do you find it?
b Why is it important to demonstrate that the parrot is capable of
'segmentation'(paragraph
five)? Do you think that the parrot
experiment has demonstrated that Alex is capable of
segmentation?
To what extent has this article convinced you that
parrots (and
other animals) can learn language? If you are not convinced, what
other evidence would you like to have?
This article is an example of
'serious
journalism'.
What changes
would need to be made if the article was intended to be a
'serious
scientific report'?
2 Third person narrative
Preparation
Task 1
This activity is designed to make you think
about what you already know about fiction
based on animals.
Do you know a novel in which the main characters are animals?
What is the title of the novel?
Which animals figure in it?
Who is it intended for: adults, adolescents, children or everyone?
Is the novel
just
a
'story'
or does it have a serious
'theme'?
What
is the theme?
Animal characters in novels are often invested with human
characteristics. Complete this table by indicating what you
consider to be the typical human characteristic(s) of each animal.
UnitS
53
Animal Characteristics
plgs
horses
donkeys
cats
spiders
rabbits
3 Fiction based on animal characters is often used for satire. Make
sure you know what'satke'is. Why do you think this kind of
fiction is so well-suited to satire?
Extensive reading
Task 1
The aim of this activity is to help you to
a
general understanding of an extract
Watershib Donn.
achieve
from
Watership Down, anovel by Richard Adams, describes the
adventures of a group of rabbits who leave their warren and make a
long trek to find another place to live. In the novel, the author
explores the nature of different types of social and political
organtzation.
In the extract you are going to read, two rabbits have decided to
go to
the Chief Rabbit of their walTen to discuss something important.
54 Unit3
1 Read through the extract quickly to find the answers to these
questions.
a What are the names of the two rabbits visiting the Chief
Rabbit?
Who agrees to take them to the Chief Rabbit?
What do the two rabbits want the Chief Rabbit to do?
Why do they want him to do this?
Why does the Chief Rabbit refuse?
What happened to Bigwig? Why?
' Hazel ?'
sai d Bi gwi g, sni ffi ng at hi m i n the deep twi l i ght among the tree-
roots.
' l t
i s Hazel , i sn' t i t? What are you
doi ng here? And at thi s ti me of
day?' He i gnored Fi ver, who was wai ti ng farther down the run.
' We
want to see the Chi ef Rabbi t,' sai d Hazel .
' l t' s
i mportant, Bi gwi g.
Can
you hel p us?'
' We?'
sai d Bi gwi g.
' l s
he
goi ng
to see hi m too?'
' Yes,
he must. Do trust me, Bi gwi g. I don' t usual l y come and tal k l i ke
thi s, do l ? When di d I ever ask to see the Chi ef Rabbi t before?'
' Wel l ,
l ' l l do i t for you,
Hazel , al though I' l l
probabl y get my head bi tten
off. I' l l tel l hi m I know you' re a sensi bl e fel l ow. He ought to know
you
hi msel f, of course, but he' s
getti ng
ol d. Wai t here, wi l l
you?'
Bi gwi g went a l i ttl e way down the run and stopped at the entrance to a
l arge burrow. After speaki ng a few words that Hazel coul d not catch, he
was evi dentl y cal l ed i nsi de. The two rabbi ts wai ted i n si l ence, broken onl y
by the conti nual nervous fi dgeti ng of Fi ver.
The Chi ef Rabbi t' s name and styl e was Threarah, meani ng' Lord Rowan
Tree' . For some reason he was al ways referred to as' IheThrearah' -
perhaps
because there happened to be onl y one threar, or rowan, near
the warren, from whi ch he took hi s name. He had won hi s
posi ti on
not
onl y by strength i n hi s pri me, but al so by l evel -headedness and a certai n
sel f-contai ned detachment,
qui te
unl i ke the i mpul si ve behavi our of most
rabbi ts. l t was wel l -known that he never l et hi msel f become exci ted by
rumour or danger. He had cool l y
-
some even sai d col dl y
-
stood fi rm
duri ng the terri bl e onsl aught of the myxomatosi s, ruthl essl y dri vi ng out
every rabbi t who seemed to be si ckeni ng. He had resi sted al l i deas of
mass emi grati on and enforced compl ete i sol ati on on the warren, thereby
al most certai nl y savi ng i t from exti ncti on. l t was he, too, who had once
deal t wi th a
parti cul arl y
troubl esome stoat by l eadi ng i t down among the
pheasant
coops and so (at the ri sk of hi s own l i fe) on to a keeper' s gun.
He was now, as Bi gwi g sai d,
getti ng
ol d, but hi s wi ts were sti l l cl ear
enough. When Hazel and Fi ver were brought i n, he greeted them
pol i tel y.
Owsl a l i ke Toadfl ax mi ght threaten and bul l y. The Threarah had no need.
' Ah,
Wal nut. l t i s Wal nut, i sn' t i t?'
' Hazel , ' sai d
Hazel .
' Hazel ,
of course. How very ni ce of you
to come and see me. I knew
your mother wel l . And your fri end
-'
' My
brother.'
b
c
d
e
f
10
15
20
za
30
35
Unit3
55
' Your
brother,' sai d the Threarah, wi th the fai ntest suggesti on of
' Don' t
correct me any more, wi l l you?' i n hi s voi ce.
' Do
make
yoursel ves
comfortabl e. Have some l ettuce?'
40
The Chi ef Rabbi t' s l ettuce was stol en by the Owsl a from a
garden
hal f a
mi l e away across the fi el ds. 0utski rters sel dom or never saw l ettuce.
Hazel took a smal l l eaf and ni bbl ed
pol i tel y. Fi ver refused, and sat bl i nki ng
and twi tchi ng mi serabl y
' Now,
how are thi ngs wi th
you?' sai d the Chi ef Rabbi t.
' Do
tel l me how | 45
can hel p
you. '
' Wel l ,
si r,' sai d Hazel rather hesi tantl y,
' i t' s
because of my brother
-
Fi ver here. He can often tel l when there' s anythi ng bad about, and I' ve
found hi m ri ght agai n and agai n. He knew the fl ood was comi ng l asi
autumn and someti mes he can tel l where a wi re' s been set. And now he 50
says he can sense a bad danger comi ng up the warren.'
' A
bad danger. Yes, I see. How very upsetttng,' sai d the Chi ef Rabbi t,
l ooki ng anythi ng but upset.
' Now
what sort of danger, I wonder?' He
l ooked at Fi ver.
' l
don' t know,' sai d Fi ver.
' B-but
i t' s bad. l t' s so b-bad that
-
i t' s very 55
bad, ' he concl uded mi serabl y.
The Threarah wai ted
pol i tel y for a few moments and then he sai d,
' Wel l ,
now, and what ought we to do about i t, I wonder?'
' Go
away,' sai d Fi ver i nstantl y.
' Go
away. Al l of us. Now. Threarah, si r,
we must al l go away. '
60
The Threarah wai ted agai n. Then, i n an extremel y understandi ng voi ce,
he sai d,
' Wel l ,
I never di dl That ' s rat her a t al l order, i sn' t i t ? What do
you
thi nk yoursel f?'
' Wel l ,
si r,' sai d Hazel ,
' my
brother doesn' t real l y thi nk about these
feel i ngs he
gets. He
j ust
has the feel i ngs, i f
you
see what I mean. I' m sure 65
you' re the ri ght
person to deci de what we ought to do.'
' Wel l ,
that' s very ni ce of
you, to say that. I hope I am. But now, my dear
fel l ows, l et' s
j ust
thi nk about thi s a moment, shal l we? l t' s May, i sn' t i t?
Everyone' s busy and most of the rabbi ts are enj oyi ng themsel ves. No evi l
for mi l es, or so they tel l me. No i l l ness, good weather. And
you
want me to 70
tel l the warren that
young
-
er
-
young
-
er
-
your brother here has got a
hunch and we must al l
go
trapesi ng across country to
goodness knows
where and ri sk the consequences, eh? What do
you
thi nk they' l l say? Al l
del i ght ed, eh?'
' They' d
take i t from
you,' sai d Fi ver suddenl y. 75
' That' s
very ni ce of
you,' sai d the Threarah agai n.
' Wel l ,
perhaps
they
woul d,
perhaps they woul d. But I shoul d have to consi der i t very careful l y
i ndeed. A most seri ous step, of course. And then
-'
' But
t here' s no t i me, Threarah, si r, ' bl urt ed out Fi ver.
' l
can f eel t he
danger l i ke a wi re round my neck
-
l i ke a wi re
-
Hazel , hel p! ' He squeal ed 80
and rol l ed over i n t he sand, ki cki ngf rant i cal l y, as a rabbi t does i n a snare.
Hazel hel d hi m down wi th both forepaws and he
grew qui eter.
' l ' m
aMul l y sorry, Chi ef Rabbi t , ' sai d Hazel .
' He
get s l i ke t hi s
somet i mes. He' l l be al l ri ght i n a mi nut e. '
56
Unit3
n
!
D
n
85
90
' What
a shame! What a shame! Poor fellow,
perhaps he ought to
go
home and rest. Yes, you' d better take him along now. Well, it' s really been
extremely
good of
you
to come and see me, Walnut. I appreciate it very
much indeed. And I shall think over all
you' ve
said most carefully,
you
can
be
quite
sure of that. Bigwig,
just
wait a moment, will you?'
As Hazel and Fiver made their way dejectedly down the run outside the
Threarah' s burrow, they could
just
hear, from inside, the Chief Rabbit' s
voice assuming a rather sharper note, interspersed with an occasional
' Yes,
sir,'
' No,
sir.'
Bigwig, as he had predicted, was
getting
his head bitten off.
2 What type of political organization seems to prevail in the warren?
a a tyrannical dictatorship
b a people's democracy
c a benevolent monarchy
d a one-party state
Intensive reading
Task 1
This activity is designed to help you explore the
characters in the extract and the techniques of
characterization used by the author.
1 Use the list of adjectives below to describe the characters in the
following table.
Bigwig Hazel Fiuer Chief Rabbit
dutiful confident
sensible clairaoyant
2 Find evidence from the passage to support each of the following
statements.
a Fiver is not respected much by the other rabbits.
b Hazelis respected by the other rabbits.
c The Chief Rabbit is getting out of touch with the affairs of the
warTen.
d The Chief Rabbit doesn't like being disturbed.
neurotic trusttng
superior
forgetful
Ltnit3 57
Bigwig is a little frightened of the Chief Rabbit.
Hazel has complete confidence in his brother.
3 Richard Adams uses dialogue very cleverly in this extract. The
way each character speaks provides clues as to the kind of person
he is.
Here are some quotations from the extract. On the table below
state which quotation comes from which character, and comment
on what
you think it shows about that character.
Quotation
Comment
' l ' l l
t el l hi m I know
you' re a sensi bl e
fel l ow. He ought to know you
hi msel f, of course, but he' s
getti ng
ol d. Wai t here, wi l l
you?'
' B-but
i t' s bad. l t' s so b-bad that
-
i t' s very bad.'
' And
you want me to tel l the warren
that
young
-
er
-
young
-
er
-
your
brother here has
got
a hunch and
we must al l
go
trapesi ng across
country to
goodness knows where
and ri sk the consequences, eh?'
' l ' m
awful l y sorry, Chi ef Rabbi t . . .
He gets l i ke thi s someti mes. He' l l
be al l ri ght i n a mi nute.'
4 When you read the extract did you forget that you were reading a
story about rabbits?
How does Richard Adams try to make the reader remember that
the characters are rabbits?
Task 2
This activity will help you to consider the
theme of the extract.
f Skim through the passage to find any referencesto Onsla.
Who do you think the Owsla are?
What is their role in the warren?
What evidence is there that they misuse their power?
2 What sociaVpolitical position does each of these characters hold?
. Haze|
. Bigwig
. The Chief Rabbit
e
f
a
b
c
58 UnitS
3 Give a brief description of the way the rabbits have organized
their society.
4 Which of the following best describes the attitude
you have
formed about the sociaVpoliticalorgatnzation of the warren?
! a The social system is extremely hierarchical and the
leaders are becoming rather complacent and corrupt.
! b The social system is totally corrupt, leading to major social
inequalities and misuse of
power.
! c The social system is hierarchical but works satisfactorily
because its leader is a
just
and fair person and its members
accept the minor inequalities.
! d The social system is extremely unstable, as a result of the
rabbits'dissatisfaction with it: it is likely to collapse at any
moment.
Extension
Task 1
The purpose of this activity is to encourage
you to
explore the content and theme of the extract further.
I Can you predict what happens next in the novel?
What do you think happens to the warren?
What happens to each of the four characters in the extract?
2 Which of the four characters is the
'hero'in
the novei?
What reasons do you have for your choice?
3 Can you imagine a worse sociaVpolitical set-up than that described
in the extract?
4 Watership Downv,las turned into a cartoon film. Try to write a film
script for the scene in the extract.
3 Review activities
Task 1
In this activity
you will explore how the
informational content of the two passages
is organized, and
prepare general summaries
of the
passages.
The report of the experiment carried out by Dr Pepperberg and the
extract from the novelWatership Down can be seen to contain similar
types of information.
59
I Orientation: information about the context
(who,
when, where,
whY)
2 Action: the events that took
Place
3 Results: what happened as a result of those events
4 Evaluation: a positive or negative response to the results
Summarize the
general content of the two passages you have read by
flling in the table below.
Content
Watership Down
(hientation
Action
Results
Evaluation
Task2
Do you think
parrots are well-suited to experiments designed to
teach animals language? Why?
Do you think rabbits are a
good
choice of animal nWatership
Down? Why?
Either
a Write an outline for a story based on parrots. You can use the
headings above
(Orientation,
etc.) to write
your outline'
or
b Write an outline of an experiment
you would like to carry out to
investigate whether animals can learn language. Choose which
animal to use in your experiment.
The aim of this activity is to stimulate a creative
response to the theme of
'animal
language'.
Ru les
I Analysis
Preparation
Task I
In this task you will be asked to analyze the concept
of
'rules'
and the expression of
'rules'
in English as a
preparation
for reading the texts in this unit.
1 In groups,
evaluate each of the following definitions of
'rules'.
Comment on the clarity, precision
and validity of each definition.
' Rul es'
ate. . .
o
wzys of telling people what they can and cannot do.
.
written formulations of permissible
behaviour.
.
explanations of how to do something.
o attempts to control individual behaviour so as to achieve a
societal goal.
o
restrictions on individual liberty.
. principles
or orders which guide
behaviour and tell you how
things are to be done.
. guidelines
designed to achieve desirable conduct.
2 Use the exercises below to help your group to discuss the
distinctions between:
rules codes procedures
regulations prohibitions
commands
laws generalizations
instructions
guides
specifications
@
P Ro Hl g r r l o . l g
NO
Rqure7, orvs
Do --
-
-
Doi l ?
ar
PRoC
EDU
RES
-
e
c o DES
t g l
- :
Unit4
61
Put a tick
(/)
in the table below where the word from the vertical
column can be used with the word along the horizontal. Put a
cross
(X)
where the two words cannot be used together. Leave a
blank when
you are not sure.
For examfiIe:
Note: The main
goal of the activity is discussion of similarities and
differences. Don't worry if your group carmot agree on the answers.
Do you find any of the following sentences unacceptable? Give
reasons.
! a The laws of English state that
you must use
'some'
in
positive
statements and
'any'
in negative statements.
n b The rules of the
game state that if the
player answers
incorrectly the turn
passes
to the left.
n c You' ll
go to
prison if
you
are caught, Paying bribes is against
the regulations.
hws
crime etcarns trafftc
grarnrnar
X X
social
behaainur
crtlne sfort exalns traffic army
gralnrnar
rules
laws
instructions
regulations
guides
codes
prohibitions
generalizations
commands
specifications
procedures
62 Unit4
tr d You must fol l ow the i nstructi ons i f
you
buy that machi ne.
tr e He l ost hi s
j ob
because he broke the
procedures for appl yi ng
for l eave.
D f Cars are
prohi bi ted from enteri ng that street between 08.00
and 18. 00.
n
g
You cannot make rul es about the use of modal verbs; you
can
onl y make
general i zati ons.
3 Complete the following lists.
Things that haue rules:
games
clubs
sports
schools
The most common linguistic
features
of des are:
a The imperative: for example,
'Put
i before e except after c.'
b Conditionals: for example,
'If
the first serve is out the player is
given a second serve.'
Task 2
In this task you will be asked to discuss the rules of
polite conversation in your
society in preparation for
reading a passage about the rules of
polite
conversation in English.
1 In a conversation between
people
who are not close friends in
your society which of the following would be considered
r norrnzl and polite?
.
unusual but polite?
. impolite?
. unacceptable?
a interrupting the speaker
b using colloquial language
c expressing strong disagreement
d dominating the discussion
e not saying anything
f imposing views on others
g referring to parts of the body
h asking questions about
people's private affairs
i assuming agreement
Ltnit4
63
j
returning to your original topic after the topic of conversation
has been changed by somebody else
k using the first names of everybody in the
group
I telling sexual
jokes
m discussing controversial aspects of religion or politics
n exchangingplatitudes
o not listening to what the speaker is saying
What other conversational behaviour would not be considered
polite?
2 You are
going to read a passage which
proposes three basic
'Rules
of Politeness'. What do you think they are?
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will read the
passage to find out
how similar
your Rules of Politeness are to
those proposed by Lakoff, and
you will think about
the differences between how
politeness is
expressed in English and how it is expressed in
your first language.
Locate Lakoffs Rules of Politeness in the
passage below and
discuss how they are different from those
you proposed in
Preparation Task 2.
Lakoff (1973) reduces Grice' s maxims to two: Be clear and Be
polite.
For
her these two rules are sufficient to
guarantee
' Pragmatic
Competence' .
The clarity requirement is accounted for by Grices' s four maxims and so
Lakoff concentrates on the Rules of Politeness, of which there are three:
I Don' t i mpose on
your
H,
2 Give H ootions.
3 Make H feel
good;
be friendly.
The first rule has to do with minding one' s own business, that ts, not
intruding on H' s
privacy or embarrassing H with the citation of
' unmentionables' :
for private affairs and unmentionables are' non-free
goods' . lf one must intrude, one seeks
permission while so doing:
May I askwhat this car cost
you?
What did
you pay for it, if I may ask?
Asking
permission is unnecessary and downright odd in the context of
publ i c
knowl edge, or' f ree'
goods:
May I ask how much 12 + 7 4 makes?
English has two ways of referring to unmentionables without
giving
offence: either the technical term or a euphemism is used:
10
15
64 Unit4
30
35
40
45
20
25
50
55
60
Prisoners defecated on the floor of the cell.
Prisoners did their toilet on the floor of the cell.
while
' Prisoners
shlf on the floor of the cell' is taboo.
There is obvious contrastive analytical scope in this area. We need to
know what different cultures consider unmentionables, since this is a
relativistic notion. Then it would be useful to know whether other cultures
have available means for referring to unmentionables other than
t echni cal t erms and euohemi sms: and i n what ci rcumst ances t hese
avoidance lexemes are used. Sex and defecation are the most obvious
taboo areas that spring to mind. Money matters are another area. I have
the impression that in middle strata of American and West German
society enquiry about the cost of some item, or enquiry about the state of
H' s finances is not considered as impolite as it is in the corresponding
stratum of British society. lt seems also that to mention in complimentary
terms some
possession
of H will be interpreted by Arabs as a request for
that object: and since nobody likes to give
his trousers away, such
mention must be construed as impolite.
The second rule, calling for the
giving
of options to H, is related to the rule
of non-imposition, since if
you
let the other
person
make his own
deci si ons he can' t compl ai n t hat
you
are i mposi ng
your
wi l l on hi m.
Although Lakoff sees the essence of this rule as
' let
the addressee make
his own decisions' I feel it is often applied more subtly: S leads H Io think
he is making his own decisions, if he is consoled by that thought. We have
already seen this rule in operation when commands are issued. lf a
master says to his servant
' lt' s
chilly in this room' , the latter will act to
remedy his employer' s discomfort by closing a window or
providing
some
form of heating. Yet, even though he is a servant, he is not made to feel
servile: after all, the master has not directly or conventionally issued an
order: he has, on the face of it, merely made a rather prosaic observation.
The servant, for his part, has drawn conclusions which have the
attractiveness, to him, of being hls conclusions: and it is a fortunate bonus
that these conclusions benefit the master. Here' s one wav to beat the
' them' v ' us'
syndrome of British society.
The contrastive dimension of this rule for leaving the addressee' s options
open involves initially statement of which kinds of implicature different
languages exploit. Some languages, like some individuals, will doubtless
tend to be more direct than others. The reader might care to consider at
this
point
whether in his L1 (if it is not English) commands can be issued
by means of the indirect interrogatives which we described on
p.
125.
The third rule of
politeness
involves establishing rapport, cameraderie, a
sense of equality orrespect, distance and a recognition of inequality
between S and H. This rule has converse realisations according to the real
relative statuses of S and H. lf S is of higher or equal status to his
addressee, the use of
' familiar'
or' solidary' forms of address on his
part
will
put
the addressee at ease. But if the speaker' s status is lower than
that of his addressee he must not use these familiar forms, lest he be
seen as
' taking
liberties' : he will have to use forms which are deferential
or ool i t e.
65
65
L' nit4
The contrasti ve di mensi on of thi s rul e wi l l i nvol ve i ni ti al l y some
documentati on of what the l i ngui sti c markers of
' power
and sol i dari ty'
(Brown and Gi l man, 1960) are i n Li and 12. Some l anguages, l i ke Thai
and Japanese, refl ect a very status-consci ous soci al order, i t seems, and
offer several
grades of deference marki ng. Most European l anguages
except Engl i sh have at l east a two-term 2nd
person pronoun system
di fferenti ati ng' pol i te' and
' fami l i ar'
address. But of course, the fact that
Engl i sh l acks thi s dual i sm i n the
pronouns does not mean that i t never
makes such di sti ncttons: i t does, by other means. After al l , Engl i sh has
forms of address like Your Grace, Your Honour, Your Excellencywhich
are cl earl y status-marki ng. At the other end of the scal e Engl i sh freel y
generates familiar forms of address such as Billy, Teddy, mate, my friend,
ol d boy, etc. What woul d be i nformati ve woul d be a CA of the
process of
fami l i ari sati on i n two l anguages. When two
peopl e fi rst meet, Ihey are Mr
X, Herr Xandthe
pronouns pol i te. The Mrgi ues way to
pl ai n Roberfs, and
perhaps eventually there is a move to first-naming(duzen/tutoyerl,
and
fi nal l y even ni cknami ng. Thi s CA woul d study the stages i nvol ved, thei r
l i ngui sti c marki ng, and the speed of fami l i ari sati on.
Do you agree with Lakoffs rules? Do you think they are universal?
What different ways do the languages
you know have of manifesting
these rules?
Read through the passage again and as
you read compare the
examples
given of polite conversational behaviour with ways of
achieving conversational
politeness in your first language.
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task
you will be asked to focus on specific
points made in the,passage and on the ways these
points are made.
The first paragraph refers to Grice's maxims. From the
evidence in the
passage what do you think they are?
A number of abbreviations are used in the
passage. What do you
think the following mean:
a H b S c L 1 d L z e CA
Which of the following audiences do you think the author, Carl
James,
is writing for?
n a experienced linguists
! b teachersofEFl
n c university students of linguistics
n d secondary school students
tr e the
general public
tr f readers of a particular newspaper
70
75
BO
66
Unit4
Give evidence from the passage
to support your views. Look at
the content of the passage, the language used to express it and the
assumptions made of the reader byJames.
4 Analyze and evalirate Lakoffs three Rules of Politeness.
Are they valid?
fue theywellwritten?
Are they well presented?
Can you see any ways of improving them?
5 Give some more examples to make clear the distinction
between
'non-free'
and
'free'
goods.
Write a short dialogue in which one of the speakers breaks the
rule of not imposing.
6 In the fourth paragraph, what do the following mean?
a relatiuistic notion
euphemisms
auoidance lexemes
taboo areas
Give an example of each of the following:
a any other relativistic notion you
can thinl of
b a euphemism in English
c a taboo area in your culture
7 Think of other examples where S gets H to do something
without breaking the rules of non-imposition and of giving
options.
Write a short dialogue in which H politely declines to do what S
has subtly commanded him or her to do through offering
options.
8 What is an
'indirect
interrogative'? Give an example of a
command in English which is issued by means of an indirect
interrogative.
Say how in your own language you
are able to influence the
addressee's behaviour by leaving hisftrer options open.
I Give examples of the effective establishment of rapport in
Engl i shwhen. . .
a S is equal to H
b S i s' superi or' to H
c S is
'inferior'to
H
In what ways is your language different from English when
following the third rule of politeness?
10
'This
fassage
is characterized by a semi-formal, objectiae,
expository slyle.' Give examples from the text to support or
refute this statement.
Unit4 67
1l The extract below from an earlier page in the book specifies
Grice's maxims referred to in the first paragraph of the passage.
Grice
(1975) proposed
that conversations conform to four maxims.
These are the maxims of:
I
Quantity:
Be as informative as is required but no more than
that
-
avoid redundancy.
2
Quality:
Say only what you
believe to be true or what
you
have evidence for.
3 Relevance; Be to the
point.
4 Manner: Be clear and succinct: avoid obscurity.
Compare Grice's maxims and Lakoff's rules as regards:
.
topic
(i.
e.
,
what they are about)
.
content
(i.
e., what they say)
.
style
(i.e.,
how they are expressed)
o purpose (i.
e., who they are written for and why they are
written)
Is there any difference between a rule and a maxim? If so, what
is it?
Extension
Task 1
This task will ask
you to combine what
you have
learned from the passage
about the expression of
rules with what you know about English
conversations in order to write
your
own
conversational rules.
The next section of the chapter that the passage is extracted from
analyzes the components of conversation under the headings of
Openings and Closings.
Write your own maxims or rules for opening and closing
conversations in English.
2 Using rules
Preparation
Task 1
This task will help you to understand a list of rules
drawn up to regulate the behaviour of
people
working in a cider house in America.
68 Unit4
1
2
3
What is cider?
What do you think a cider house is?
The work in a cider house is seasonal. What does this mean?
What sort of people do you think it attracts?
The cider house workers live, work and sleep in the cider house.
They work very hard during the day. What do you think they do
after work?
If you were the owner of the cider house what sort of behaviour
would you try to prevent in and around your cider house? What
rules would you draw up to try to regulate the behaviour of your
workers? Write your rules out as a list to pin on the wall of the
cider house.
5 In the novel Cidpr House Rules by
loLn
Irving, Homer Wells is a
newcomer to the Ocean View Orchards in Heart's Rock. He is
living with the owners of the orchard, but he is working in the
bedroom wing of the cider house helping to get it ready for the
arrival of the seasonal workers. As he is working he comes across
a very feint list of cider house rules pinned on the wall.
Why do you think the list is very feint?
Who do
you think the rules are addressed to?
Who do
you
think wrote the rules?
Which of the following do you think is the first rule on the list?
! a Never operate the grinder or the press when you are
drunk.
tr b Don't on any account operate the grinder or the press if
you have been drinking.
I c Please don't operate the grinder or the press if you've
been drinking.
I d Never drink and then operate the grinder or the press.
Which one do you think is the least likely? Why?
Extensive reading
Task I
In this task you will be asked to respond to reading
the cider house rules as if vou were Homer.
1 Imagine you are Homer and read the cider house rules on the
next page.
L-nit4
69
CIDER HOUSE RULES
the top line said.
What rules? he wondered, reading down the page. The rules
were numbered.
If there were a few more rules, Homer couldn't read them
because the page had been ripped off. Homer handed the tom
paper to Big Dot Taft.
'What's
all this about the roof?' he asked Debra Pettisrew.
2 What is your reaction to the rules?
3 Who do
you think wrote them?
-1
Why do you think they were written?
5 Do you think they are likely to be effective? Give reasons.
6 What advice would
you give to the writer of the rules?
Intensive reading
Task 1
2
3
Pl ease don' t oper at e t he gr i nder or t he
h r 6 e q i f r r n r r
l r z a
h o o n d r i n k i n c
} , ! 9 9 9
Pl ease don' t smoke i n bed or use candl es.
Pl ease don' t go on t he r oof i f you' ve
been dri nki ng
-
especi al l y at ni ght .
Pl -ease wash out t he press cl ot hs t he
same day or ni ght t hey are used.
Pl ease remove t he rot ary screen
i mmedi at el y af t er you' ve f i ni shed
pressj -ng and hose i t cl ean WHEN THE
POMACE I S STI LL WET ON ] T !
P1ease don' t t ake bot t l es wi t h you when
you go up on t he roof .
Pl ease
-
even i f you are very hot (or i f
r r nr r
I
r zc hacn d r i nk i nn\
-
r l an
I
f no
j - nt O
) ' v u
v s ^ 4 r r Y
/
t he col d st orag: e room t o sl eep.
Pl ease gi ve your shoppi ng l -i st t o t he
cr ew boss by seven o' cl ock i n t he
m n f n 1 n d
9 There JnoufO be no more than hal f a
dozen peopl e on t he roof at any one t i me.
4
5
will require you to analyze
eval uate the rul es.
70 Unit4
6
I
What are the unusual features of these rules?
What do they tell you about the writer of the rules and about the
people they are addressed to?
Give a rationale for each rule
(i.e.,
explain the reason for the
rule).
Why do you think the adverbial clause in Rule 5 is in capital
letters?
Why do you think Rule 9 is the only rule not introduced by
'Please'?
Write a criticism of the content, organizatson and expression of
the rules.
Why do you think
'the
page
had been ripPed off'?
Try to explain the meaning of the following:
a the grinder
b the press
c the press cloth
d the rotary screen
e the pomace
f the cold storage room
g
the crew boss
Extension
Task I
In this task you will be asked to use what
you have
understood of the text as a basis for creative writing.
I Imagine you are Debra Pettigrew and answer Homer's question,
'What's
all this about the roof?'
2 Write a short story which explains why either Rule 3 or Rule 7
came to be written.
3 Imagine you are Homer and you have been asked by the owner of
Ocean View Orchards to rewrite the rules. Think about which
rules to discard or combine, how to group the rules, how to
sequence them and how to express them. Then write
your rules.
Preparation
Task I
In this task
you will be asked to use your
understanding of the situation at Ocean View
Orchards to predict what happens when the
seasonal workers arrive.
Unit4
71
Mr Rose is in charge of the seasonal workers. Every year he brings a
'crew'
of fellow negroes from the South to pick and press the apples at
Ocean View Orchards. In the next extract you are going to read Mr
Rose has
just
arrived with his crew. Mrs Worthington, the wife of the
owner, has put flowers in the cider house to greet the workers and
has put a fresh copy of the cider house rules by the kitchen light.
How do you think Mr Rose feels about the flowers and the rules?
What do you think he says to Mrs Worthington about them?
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to read the extract to
check
your predictions and to discover as much as
you can about Mr Rose.
1 Read the
passage below to find out:
a how accurate your predictions were about Mr Rose's
responses to the flowers and the rules.
b as much as you can about Mr Rose.
It was a hot, Indi an-summer day, and the appl e mart was i nl and enough
to mi ss what l i ttl e sea breeze there was. Mr Rose and Mrs Worthi ngton
stood tal ki ng among the
parked
and movi ng farm vehi cl es i n the appl e
mart l ot; the rest of the
pi cki ng
crew wai ted i n thei r cars
-
the wi ndows
rol l ed down, an orchestra of bl ack fi ngers strummi ng the si des of the cars.
There were seventeen
pi ckers and a cook
-
no women or chi l dren thi s
year, to 0l i ve' s rel i ef.
' Very
ni ce,' Mr Rose sai d, about the fl owers i n the ci der house.
Mrs Worthi n$on touched the rul es she' d tacked to the wal l by the
ki tchen l i ght swi tch as she was l eavi ng.
' And
you' l l poi nt
out these to
everyone, won' t
you, pl ease?'
0l i ve asked.
' Oh
yes, I' m
good
at rul es,' sai d Mr Rose, smi l i ng.
' You
al l come back
and watch the fi rst
press,
Homer,' Mr Rose sai d, as Homer hel d open the
van door for Ol i ve.
' l ' m
sure
you got
better thi ngs to watch
-
movi es and
stuff
-
but i f you ever
got
some ti me on your hands, you
come and watch
us make a l i ttl e ci der. About a thousand
gal l ons,' he added shyl y; he
scuffed hi s feet, as i f he were ashamed that he mi ght be braggi ng.
' Al l
we
need i s ei ght hours, and about three hundred bushel s of appl es,' sai d Mr
Rose.
' A
thousand
gal l ons,' he repeated proudl y.
On the way back to the appl e mart, Ol i ve Worthi ngton sai d to Homer,
' Mi ster
Rose i s a real worker. l f the rest of them were l i ke hi m, they coul d
i mprove themsel ves.' Homer di dn' t understand her tone. Certai nl y he had
heard i n her voi ce admi rati on, sympathy
-
and even affecti on
-
but there
was al so i n her voi ce the i ce that encases a l ong-ago and i mmovabl e
poi nt
of vi ew.
2 What do you think Mr Rose felt about the flowers?
3 What do you think he felt about the rules?
72
Unit4
4 What do
you think he really thinks about Mrs Worthington?
5 What do you think Mrs Worthington really thinks about Mr Rose?
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task
you will be asked to'read between the
lines' to work out the implicit meanings of the text.
1 Find evidence to support or refute the following statements.
a The scene takes
place in autumn.
b Mr Worthington is dead.
c Olive is Mrs Worthington's daughter.
d All nineteen of the seasonal workers are black.
e All the pickers acknowledge Mr Rose as their representative
and their boss.
f Most of the pickers are illiterate.
g The conversation between Mr Rose and Mrs Worthington
about the rules takes
place outside.
h Mr Rose and Homer know each other well.
i Mr Rose makes the
pickers work very hard.
j
Mr Rose has his own rules which he makes the
pickers follow.
k Olive respects but disapproves of Mr Rose.
2 Why are the pickers strumming on the sides of the cars?
3 Why does Mrs Worthington
put flowers in the cider house?
4 Why is Olive relieved that there are no women and children?
5 Why does Mrs Worthington
put the rules by the kitchen light
switch?
6 Why does Mr Rose smile when he says,
'Oh
yes, I'm good at
rules'?
7 Why does Mr Rose invite Homer to watch them make cider?
8 Why do you think Mr Rose is never referred to by his first name?
Extension
Task I
In this task you will be asked to imagine what both
Homer and Mrs Worthington thought about Mr Rose
and to write a dialogue between them.
1 In pairs, write a dialogue between Homer and Mrs Worthington rn
which Homer argues politely against Mrs Worthington's view of
Mr Rose.
2 Practise acting out your dialogue, and then make revisions to your
script.
Unit4
72
3 Find another pair and act out your dialogue to them. Watch their
performance of their dialogue and then talk about the differences
between the two dialogues.
4 Make any nece-ssary final revisions to your dialogue.
Preparation
Task I
The final extract from Cidzr House Rules takes place sixteen years
later. Each of those years Mr Rose has returned with a crew of
pickers and for the last flfteen of those years Homer has been given
the responsibility for writing the cider house rules.
What changes do you think Homer has made to the rr.rles?
What effect do you think those changes have had?
Extensive reading
Task I
Read the following extract and as you read work out
a what Homer hopes to achieve by putting up rules every year.
b why the rules were not obeyed.
For fi fteen
years, Homer Wel l s had taken responsi bi l i ty for the wri ti ng and
the
posti ng
of the ci der house rul es. Every year, i t was the l ast thi ng he
attached to the wal l after the fresh coat of
pai nt
had dri ed. Some
years
he
t ri ed bei ng
j ol l y
wi t h t he rul es; ot her
years
he t ri ed soundi ng nonchal ant ;
perhaps
i t had been 0l i ve' s tone and not the rul es themsel ves that had
caused some offense, and thereby made i t a matter of
pri de wi th the
mi grants that the rul es shoul d never be obeyed.
The rul es themsel ves di d not change much. The rotary screen had to
be cl eaned out . A word of warni ng about t he dri nki ng and t he f al l i ng
asl eep i n the col d-storage room was mandatory. And l ong after the Ferri s
wheel at Cape Kenneth was torn down and there were so many l i ghts on
the coast that the vi ew from the ci der house roof resembl ed a.gl i mpse of
some di stant ci ty, the mi grants sti l l sat on the roof and drank too much
and f el l of f , and Homer Wel l s woul d ask (or t el l ) t hem not t o. Rul es, he
guessed, neuer asked, rules fold
But he tri ed to make the ci der house rul es seem fri endl y. He phrased
t he rul es i n a conf i di ngvoi ce. ' There have been some acci dent s on t he
roof , over t he
years
-
especi al l y at ni ght , and especi al l y i n combi nat i on
In this task you will use
your knowledge of the novel
so far to predict a scene sixteen
years later.
ln this task
you will be asked to work out the motives
of the various people affected by the rules.
74 Unit4
with having a great
deal to drink while sitting on the roof. We recommend
that
you
do
your
drinking with both feet on the
ground,'
Homer would
write.
But every
year,
the
piece
of
paper
itself would become worn and
tattered and used for other things
-
a kind of desperation
grocery
list, for
example, always by someone who couldn' t spel,.
CORN MEEL
REGULAR FLOWER
was written across Homer' s rules one
year.
At times, the solitary sheet of
paper gathered
little insults and
mockeries of a semi-literate nature.
' No
fucking on the roofl' or
' Beat
off only in cold storage!'
Wally told Homer that only Mr Rose knew how to write:that the
pranks,
and insults, and shopping lists were all composed by Mr Rose, but Homer
coul d never be sure.
Extension
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to use
your awareness
of the situation at Ocean View Orchards to help you
to write a letter from Homer to Mr Rose.
Do one of the following:
I Imagine that you are Homer and that you have decided to try to
do something to solve the problem of the cider house rules. Write
a letter to Mr Rose in which you
o explain the reasons for the rules
. speculate on the reasons for them being disobeyed
o
ask for his advice
.
appeal to him for help
2 Write and perform a scene from a play in which one of Homer's
rules has been broken and Homer, in his anger, confronts Mr
Rose.
Preparation
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to use your knowledge
of the world and your imagination to create the rules
of a race involving men and horses.
L' nit4
7q
In 1878 a race took place in Yuta City in America to settle a dispute
over the ownership and watering rights of an area known as the Big
Wet. The race was between three runners and a horse representing
Peter Boyle and three runners and a horse representing William
Brennan. The runners included the fastest sprinters,
quarter-milers
and distance runners in the world. The horses were allocated to the
ieams on the day of the race. The total distance of the race was
ffieen miles. The area around Yuta City is mountainous, and alarge
crowd of spectators were in Yuta City for the race.
Devise and write down the rules which governed the race.
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task
you will use a number of short extracts
from a novel which describes the Yuta Country Foot
Race to try to work out the details of that race.
1 Read the following extracts fromThe Fast Men by Tom McNab,
and as you read try to work out the rules of the race.
Extract 1
' Now, '
he sai d.
' So
t hat t he rul es are t he same f or bot h t eams, each t eam
i s al l owed to carry a set of
gl asses wi th i ts horse so that they can see how
the runner behi nd i s fari ng. And each
group
of contestants can carry as
much water as they want and
pi ck
up extra water-bottl es from my offi ci al s
at t he base of El Di abl o. '
Judge Haynes
paused agai n.
' Gent l emen,
i t i s a mi nut e t o mi dday on 20 Oct ober, 7878. Are you
ready?'
Bel ow hi m Mori art y, Tul l och, Bi l l y Joe and t he I ndi an nodded.
' Three
l aps of fi ve mi l es, horse and man, two men from each team i n
the fi rst two l aps, onl y one i n the fi nal l ap. The fi nal furl ong of the fi rst l ap
mustbe run by the spri nters, as must the fi nal
quarter of the second by
the
quarter-mi l ers,
and the l ast mi l e of the thi rd l ap by the l ast two
runners. '
He
pi cked up a
pi st ol f rom a smal l t abl e at hi s si de, cocked t he
gun
and
rai sed i t above hi s head.
' Gent l emen,
t ake
your marks. '
Mori arty l ooked at Tul l och for the fi rst ti me: l ean and brown, wi th
mutton-chop whi skers
-
the fastest mi l er on earth. Bi l l y Joe and the
I ndi an,
poi sed
on t hei r mount s, l ooked si deways at each ot her wi t hout
smi l i ng.
' Ge t s e t . . . '
Agai n, onl y t he f l appi ng of f l ags coul d be heard.
The
gun and the roar of the crowd were si mul taneous. Standi ng
al ongsi de t he I ndi an and Bi l l yJoe, Headl ey and Buck sl apped t he rumps
76 Unit4
of thei r col l eagues' mounts. The race was on.
Bi l l y Joe went i nt o an i mmedi at e l ead, pushi ng hi s bl ack mount t hrough
the corri dor of noi se al ong the street out towards Brennanvi l l e on the
edge of town. Behi nd them, Mori arty and Tul l och ran easi l y si de by si de as
i f i n another worl d. There was a l ong way to
go. By the edge of the tent
camp of Brennanvi l l e Bi l l y Joe was al l of fi fty yards ahead, cutti ng through
yel l i ng support ers, whi l e a f url ong behi nd t hem Mori art y and Tul l och st i l l
pl odded
si de by si de.
Extract 2
The Indi an was
j ust
enteri ng the water, over a hundred
yards
behi nd.
When Bi l l y Joe made t he bank on t he ot her si de and
gal l oped up across
the shi ngl e the Apache on duty was abl e to si gnal that the Texan was a
cl ear one hundred and fi fty
yards
up.
Hal f a mi l e back, Mori arty and Tul l och were hardl y breathtng,
paddi ng,
fl at-footed, si de by si de at si x-mi nute mi l e
pace
al ong the
grass
centre of
the carttrack. Thei r ti me had not vet come.
Extract 3
He hardl y dared venture to l ook back, but at the
peak he di d. The
I ndi an was onl y a coupl e of hundred yards
behi nd,
perhaps l ess,
advanci ng remorsel essl y towards hi m. Bi l l y Joe remounted, took a swi g
from hi s water-bottl e, unwound hi s bi nocul ars from the
pommel and
l ooked down t he mount ai n on t o t he
pl ai n.
Mori art y and Tul l och were now
across the Bi g Wet. And Tul l och was l eadi ng
-
by about a hundred
yards.
So Bi l l y Joe knew that he mi ght have to l eave the horse earl y, forty or fi fty
yards before the furl ong marker, to
gi ve
Mori arty an opportuni ty to catch
up. He took another swi g from the water-bottl e on hi s saddl e, took the
rei ns and re-mounted, before zi g-zaggi ng down the mountai n.
Extract 4
As they hi t the tape together, Bi l l y Joe was certai n he had
got
i t. But
besi de hi m t he I ndi an, t oo, t hought t hat he had t aken hi s man.
Mori arty, ei ghty
yards
behi nd Tul l och, found the horse where he had
hoped i t woul d be, tethered between the
quarter-mi l e
and furl ong
markers. The bl ack was sweati ng heavi l y. Mori arty
patted
i ts muzzl e,
wi thdrew a cube of sugar from a
pocket
i n the saddl e and
pressed i t i nto
t he bl ack' s mout h. He mount ed
qui ckl y
and had ri dden
past Tul l och by
the furl ong marker,
j ust
as the Scot was about to mount. By the ti me he
had reached the chaoti c start at the Buena Vi sta, where Buck and
Headl ey stood
poi sed,
Mori ady was i nto a si xty-yard l ead.
Extract 5
' No
one knows,' he shouted.
' The
j udge
i s sorti ng i t out now.' He
poi nt ed
above hi m t o t he dai s where Bi l l y Joe and t he I ndi an st ood wi t h
Haynes and hi s offi ci al s.
Mori art y l ooked up at Buck and nodded, t hen sl apped t he bl ack' s
Unit4
77
wi thers and Buck
gal l oped off. As he di d so Tul l och rode i n behi nd hi m to
a wai ti ng Josi ah Headl ey, through crowds that were threateni ng to engul f
the central corri dor. Buck rode out towards the tents of Brennanvi l l e,
si xty
yards i n the l ead, as above them sudden, dark storm cl ouds bl otted
out the sun, casti ng Mai n Street i nto shadow.
Extract 6
Buck was approachi ng to the base of El Di abl o, taki ng i t easy on the horse
and over a
quarter
of a mi l e up. He di smounted and started to run gentl y
from the base of the mountai n up i ts rapi dl y-dryi ng cl ay and
gri t
surface
He took the mountai n as i f i t had been made for hi m, hi s stri de and hi s
breathi ng i n
perfect
uni son. l t was hurti ng, true enough, but somehow he
preserved
that fi ne bal ance that enabl ed hi m to tol erate the
pai n,
and
somehow too thi s feel i ng transferred i tsel f to the bl ack, whi ch trotted
easi l y behi nd hi m up t he mi l e of wi ndi ng rocky i ncl i ne.
As soon as he had reached the top Buck turned back and agai n took
the
gl asses from the
pommel . He l ooked down towards the Bi g Wet, and
was i mmedi at el y abl e t o
pi ck
out Mori art y and Tul l och maki ng t hei r way
across the ri ver. But what he saw amazed hi m
-
for Mori arty appeared to
be
pul l i ngTul l och through the water. Buck shook hi s head and refocused
the
gl asses. No, i t was true: Mori arty was draggi ng Tul l och out of the ri ver
and uo t he bank.
Extract 7
Josi ah Headl ey made hi s hi t wi t h a f url ong t o
go, t aki ng an i mmedi at e
two-yard l ead. But Buck l et hi m
get
away, keepi ng hi s steady, rel axed
rhythm, hol di ng hi s fl ow. Then, wi th a hundred
yards to run, came that
strange sound i n hi s head tel l i ng hi m that i t was now ti me. The onl y ti me.
' Boomp, '
i t sai d i n hi s head, and Buck smi l ed.
' Boomp,'
he sai d al oud, to Headl ey' s back.
Buck went
past
Josi ah Headl ey i n a rush of l egs, wi pi ng out hi s l ead and
goi ng i nto a fi ve-yard advantage wi th fi fty
yards sti l l to cover. But Headl ey
had nothi ng i n hi m l eft to offer. Buck di d not si mpl y take the tape, he
smashed t hrough i t , and above hi m Bi l l Brennan danced a
j i g
of
j oy,
whi l e
Hetti e Carr wept and wept agai n. She ran i n to El eanor wi th the news.
Extract 8
He l ooked towards the fi ni sh, onl y a hundred
yards away. Surpri si ngl y,
al l was now cl ear, the tape thi ck and whi te, the way i t had al ways been.
Somehow, burrowi ng i nto a memory of runni ng, the refl exes of a
quarter
of a century of competi ti on, Mori arty started to spri nt, tal ki ng to hi msel f
al l the whi l e. True, i t was not the spri nt of a Fast Man, but somehow i t was
runni ng, cl ass runni ng, the runni ng of a master of hi s craft.
Mori art y
pushed
on t hrough and beyond hi s pai n, i gnori ng i t as i f i t
were happeni ng to someone el se. He ran wi th l egs that he had no ri ght to
expect to run, agai nst the di ctates of a body chemi stry whi ch no l onger
made sense, agai nst everythi ng i n hi m whi ch tol d hi m to stop. Mori arty
ran t he f i nal hundred
yards of hi s at hl et i c career up t he narrow corri dor of
78 Unit4
Yuta City, above and beyond himself. As he hit the tape, Buck and Billy
Joe were there to catch hi m as he fel l .
' The
Theatre of the West, boys,' he mumbl ed through spl i t l i ps.
' You
j ust
saw it.'
2 Who won. . .
. the first lap?
.
the second lap?
.
the third lap?
.
the race?
3 Write a 200 word newspaper report of the race for The Times n
England.
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will use your
knowledge of the race
to help you
to write the rules of the race.
A faded copy of the articles of the Yuta Country Foot Race was
recently found in the cellar of the Buena Vista Hotel during renovation
work.
Use your knowledge of the race to complete the following typescript
of what could be deciphered from the original copy.
Thusitwasthat, on 2OApril 1878, the aniclesoftheYutaCounty signed.
Articles of Agreement
I The competition to take place five-mile laps starting at noon on 20
October 1878, a circular coune encompassing the El Diablo Mountain
and the town of iself, the start to be
Each team will consist of
The a relay over three separate laps, men from
each team and a horse competing over each lap, with only the
completing the full fifteen-mile course, the other runners completing
Thus, the sprinter and distance-runner from each team
J
3
the quarter-milers and
lap
4 The two-man teams will
lap, the only proviso being that on the
firlong to the finish, on the second lap the
mile and on the last lap the
other tworunners
5 The vyinner of the competition is
i.e.2-O
-
2-1, the final arbiter
Haynes. Should the fint
the second, with the final
or ride at their discretion on each
zrutrun the final
run the frnal quarter-
these distances beins
only on one lap.
on all competitions being Judge
for any one team,
marked by Union flags and being scrutinised by officials appointed by
The distance-runners are required o
then the final lap by the distance-runners will not be run.
6 The are to be selected by Judge Haynes, and the parties in dispute
(Peter
Boyle and William Brennan) will throw dice for
7 The ownership and watering rights of the area known as The Big Wet will be
assigned to the sponsor of the
Unit4
79
Extension
Task 1
In this task
you will be asked to invent a modern
relay race testing speed, stamina, skill and courage
and to draw up the rules for it.
Devise a modern race for two three-men relay teams which will
attract alarge crowd and television coverage. Make sure your race
will test speed, stamina, skill and courage, that it will challenge the
greatest athletes in the world and that it will provide a thrilling
spectacle for the spectators.
Draw up the rules for the race. Make sure they cover all
possible
contingencies, that they are concise but clear and that there is only
one possible interpretation of each rule.
3 Review activities
For each of the following rules decide:
a who it was written for
b where
you are likely to find it
c why it was written
d why it was written in such a style
1 Guests are not al l owed to buy dri nks i n the bar or
pay
for meal s i n
the restaurant.
2 l f
you l and i n a red square
you
may ei ther move the counter three
spaces i n ei ther di recti on or
you may take another throw of the
di ce.
3 In a Japanese conversati on i t i s
perfectl y acceptabl e to remai n
si l ent i f you have no i nterest i n the topi c of conversati on.
4 At a roundabout al ways
gi ve
way to traffi c approachi ng from
your
ri ght.
5 No Smoki ng.
6 Chi l dren shoul d be col l ected before 16.30. After thi s ti me we do
not accept responsi bi l i ty for any chi l dren who are sti l l on the
Dreml ses.
7 Do not wash
your hai r i n the shower.
Compare the sets of rules you have been studying in this unit. Say
in what ways they are similar or different in style and purpose.
In this task
you will be asked to relate what
you have
learned from the different activities in this unit.
80 Unit4
3 Write the beginning of a science fiction story in which a married
couple wake up one morning in a hotel to find that all the rules
which govern the routine behaviour of
people in their society have
changed drastically overnight.
The impact of rules on society has been a common theme in
modern literature in English. You might enjoy reading some of the
following books which include'rules' amongst their themes.
HardTimes by Charles Dickens
Animal Farm by George Orwell
1984by George Orwell
Catch 22 byJoseph Heller
One Flew Ouer the Cuckoo's Nesf by Ken Kesey
Portnoy's Complaintby Philip Roth
The Graduafe by Charles Webb
Smiley's P eople by
I
oln le Carre
Classification
Preparation
Task 1
In this activity
you will answer some
questions about
accents to help
you anticipate the ideas introduced in
the
passage.
Think about accents in your own language'
1 What accent of
your language do you speak?
2 Is there one accent of
your language which is generally
considered'better' than other accents?
3 Are there any accents ofyour langgage that you dislike? If so,
what is it that
you dislike about them?
4 Are there any accents that you consider'funny'in some way? If
so, what is funny about them?
5 Do you sometimes change your accent according to who you are
speaking to? If so, what kind of changes do you make? Why do
you make them?
6 What do you think about foreign accents?
Compare
your answers with other students.
Task 2
1 Why is the language used by the schoolboy inappropriate?
2 How could he ask the question in an appropriate way?
3 To whom might he say'Wassa time, then?'
Task 3
Engl i sh accent s
wAssn
Tt nE.
4IEN.
In this activity
you will make predictions about the
purpose and function of the passage.
Here is the heading and brief abstract of the passage.
New Society
Our
reactions to accent
Howard Gi l es
Why do
people change the way they speak dependlng on the
person listening?
Research shows accent is one
part of interpersonal response.
82 UnitS
1 What kind of publication do you think New Sociely is?
n a apopularmagaztne
! b an academic
journal
tr c atextbook
! d aseriousmagazine
2 What do you think is the writer's main purpose?
! a to describe how accents are used
! b toexpl ai nhowaccentsareused
! c to report the results of a number of studies investigating
how accents are used
n d to instruct people how to make the best use of their
accents
3 Who do you think Howard Giles is?
! a ajournalist
n b auniversityacademic
! c ateacher
The passage you are going to study in this unit is rather long and for
this reason we have broken the article up into two parts. We want you
to study each part separately before reading the whole article.
Part One
Extensive reading
Task I
This activity is designed to help you
skim the text in
order to find the main ideas.
Part One serves as an introduction to the main ideas of the article.
When you glance
at the text, you
will notice that some sentences
have been highlighted.
Look at the position of these sentences. Where do they come in
the paragraphs?
Read through the sentences that have been higtrlighted.
(Don't
read the rest of the text yet.)
What would you say the main
function of these sentences is?
! a to give
examples
n b to make generalizations
n c to give
definitions
The sentences on page 83 are paraphrases
of the highlighted
sentences in the text. Match each of the paraphrases with a
highlighted sentence.
One of the highlighted sentences has not been paraphrased.
Which one?
UnitS
83
a Instead of talking about
'responsible
matching', w could refer to
speech convergence.
b This is known as response matching.
c Also people adopt a way of speaking that echoes the person
they are talking to.
d Response matching may be motivated by our desire to be
sociable.
e Another kind of speech change is speech divergence.
f People change their way of speaking according to the situation
they are in and the
person they are talking to.
What would be an appropriate heading for Part One?
'
Part One
:
i An English schoolboy would onlY
j ask hi s fri end:
' Wassa
ti me. then?'
I
To hi s teacher he woul d be much
I
ness. The correspondence between
I
the length of reporters' questions
when interviewing President Ken-
nedy, and the length of his replies,
has been shown to have increased
over the duration of his 1961-63
news conferences. Argyle says this
process may be one of imitation' .
Two American researchers, Jaffe
and Feldstein, prefer to think of it
as the speaker' s need for equilib-
rium. Neither of these explanations
seems particularly convincing. It
may be that response matching can
be more profitably considered as an
unconscious reflection of speakers'
needs
for
social integration with one
another.
This process of modelling the other
person's speech in a conversation
could also be termed speech con-
vergence. It may only be one aspect
of a much wider speech change. In
other situations, speech divergence
may occur when certain
factors
en-
courage a person to modify his
speech away
from
the individual he
is dealing with. For example, a
retired brigadier' s wife, renowned
for her incessant snobbishness,
may return her vehicle to the local
garage because of inadequate ser-
vicing, voicing her complaint in
elaborately phrased, yet mechani-
cally unsophisticated language,
with a high soft-pitched voice.
These superior airs and graces may
simply make the mechanic reply
with a flourish of almost incom-
prehensible technicalities, and in a
louder, more deeply-pitched voice
than he would have used with a less
irritating customer.
84 Unit 5
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this activity you will examine how the information
in the text is organized.
1 Read through the complete text carefully.
2 Where would you position these sub-headings?
a Language variation
b Response matching
c Speechdivergence
3 Fill in this table in note form using the information in the text.
Topic
Examfile
Language variation
Response matching
Speech divergence
4 Complete this diagram:
r
speechconvergence
r
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t
2. . . . . . . . . . . .
5 What would you expect to read about in the next part of the text?
Extension
Task 1
In this activity
you will consider
your
own response
to the ideas in the text.
To what extent do you agree that we often model the other
person's
speech in a conversation?
Can you think of your own examples of speech convergence and
speech divergence?
Part Two
Extensive reading
Task I
The purpose of this activity is to encourage
you to
make use of diagrams to
get
a
general idea of the
content of the text.
UnitS
85
1 Don't read any of the text in Part Two yet, but study the diagrams
carefully.
2 Which of the following would you use to label each diagram?
. Types of speech change
. A speaker's accent repertoire
3 Use the information in the first diagram to complete this passage:
Each i ndi vi dual
possesses an (1) . . . . . . , whi ch i s hi s/ her
parti cul ar
way of speaki ng. l n addi ti on, however, most i ndi vi dual s
possess
an accent repertoi re. There i s a conti nuum of accents
goi ngfrom
(2) ... .. . or what i s often referred to as the accent of the
BBC to a (3) . . . . . accent. Someti mes an i ndi vi dual l i ves i n
an area l i ke Cardi ff whi ch has two (4) . . . . . . accents. Al so
there i s the
possi bi l i ty of another branch i n the opposi te di recti on
towards
(5) . . . . .,
popul arl y thought of as the accent of
t he upper cl asses.
Now use the information in the second diagram to complete this
passage:
Accent change duri ng a conversati on can be of two types: accent (1)
. . . . . . and accent ( 21 . . . . . . Accent s can
converge i n two ways. (3).. . accent convergence
occurs when a speaker who speaks a regi onal accent modi fi es the way
he/she speaks to make i t cl oser to the (4) . . . . . . accent of
the
person he/she i s tal ki ng to. In (5) . . . . . . accent
convergence the opposi te takes
pl ace. That i s, a speaker wi th a recei ved
pronunci ati on accent modi fi es i t to make i t sound cl oser to the (6)
. . . . . . accent of the l i stener. Accents can al so di verge i n
two ways. In (7) . . . . . . accent di vergence the di fference
between two speakers i s i ncreased by one of the speakers maki ng hi s/her
accent more refi ned than usual . In (8) . . . . . . accent
di vergence a speaker of a regi onal accent makes hi s/her accent even
more regi onal i n order to emphasi ze the di fference between hi m/hersel f
and t he
person bei ng spoken t o.
Intensive reading
Task 1
The aim of this activity is to enable
you to identify
the structure of Part Two of the text.
I Part Two deals with two topics:
Accent repertoire
Types of accent change
a
b
Read the text and indicate where each topic begins.
86
UnitS
Part Two
We don' t know enough yet about
all aspects of speech, but I have
been experimenting with response
matching in the use of accents, and
have attempted to apply the ideas
of speech convergence-divergence
to cope with the phenomenon of
accent change.
To begin with, it is necessary to
abstract a speaker' s accent reper-
toire. This is schematically rep-
resented in figure L. Obviously,
accent response matching is not of
such a power as to occur between
people regardless of their regional
colourings. We do not order curry
(or sausage and chips, for that
matter) in an Indian restaurant
with a Peter Sellers brogue. Re-
sponse matching at this level oper-
ates with pronunciation patterns in
which the speaker has had some
extended experience. In its full
range, the repertoire comprises a
continuum of accent usage-stan-
dard variant. to the broadest local
regional variant (whatever it may
be). This standard accent in Britain
has been cal l ed
' recei ved
pronunci -
at i on'
( Rp)
by I i ngui st s. I t i s conven-
tionally envisaged as the accent of a
BBC newscast er.
Now, t he way most peopl e' s ac-
cent s change are al ong t hi s si ngl e
cont i nuum, f rom BBC t o re-
gi onal -but t here are except i ons.
I t i s l i kel y t hat , i f an i ndi vi dual l i ves
in an area with two dialects (such as
Cardiff, which has its own accent
besi des t he more common sout h
Wal es l i l t ), t hen t here woul d be at
l east one ot her regi onal
' branch'
( as
i s shown i n f i gur e l ) .
There is also the possibility of
another
' branch'
in the opposing
direction, that is towards affected
RP, more popularly thought of as
the accent of the upper classes.
Though most people can both stan-
dardise and broaden their most
usual way of speaking (ie, their
idiolect) at least slightly, it is also
true that some people are practical-
ly immobile in this respect due to
the limitation of their early vocal
environments (for example, ghetto
children: but, perhaps even more
so, public school children).
Accent change in conversation
may take either one of two direc-
tions, depending on whether the
speaker wishes to be accepted by
his listener-when his accent will
converge-or whether he wishes to
emphasise differences-in which
case his accent may grow more
dissimilar.
Accents can converge in two
ways. To appreciate the distinction
between the two, it is necessary to
assume t hat t he way t hat pronunci -
ation varies in a speaker' s reper-
toire also reflects prestige. This
being the case,
' standard'
patterns
of pronunciation will have the high-
est status while the broadest re-
gional varieties will have the
lowest. So if a speaker thinks that
his listener' s way of speaking is
higher than his is in terms of accent
prest i ge (i e, i t i s more
' st andard' ),
then, provided he wants to be ac-
cepted by the listener, he will
modify his accent and upward
accent convergence will occur. The
only other direction of accent con-
vergence is
' down'
and implies that
a speaker thinks his listener' s pro-
nunciation puts him in a lower
prestige bracket-in other words,
i t ' s brol rder.
Since accent prestige often
reflects social status. a move like
this on the part of the speaker may
be adopted so as to reduce embar-
rassment , due t o soci al di f f erences,
and to prepare a common basis for
t he communi cat i on of i deas and
f eel i ngs. Thi s assumes, of course,
t hat
' downward'
convergence i s
more consci ous t han
' uoward. '
Naturally enough, accent diver-
gence can take on two directions
also (see figure 2). Think of a
woman who has bought some ex-
pensive clothing in an exclusive
store which neither changes arti-
cles, nor refunds the cash after they
have been bought. When the
woman returns home she discovers
a glaring flaw in the dress and
returns it to the shop assistant de-
manding a replacement. The assis-
tant has her instructions and soon
finds a rather persistent customer
on her hands. Of course, the floor
manager is summoned to a situa-
tion he is all too familiar with and
he assumes his usual authoritative
and unrelenting approach, polish-
ing his accent to a fine gilt edge
(upward divergence). His aloof
manner and his immediate dismiss-
al of the whole affair arouses the
woman' s indignation and she
storms off, voicing disgust in an
unrefined manner (downward di-
vergence).
accent divergence
received pronunciation
1^l
sender s
| |
accent
| |
receiver's
<> accent
broad regional
,,---N
ra\
\ - a /
\_J-l
upward
accent 0rvergence
/-a\
( 4 1
\ l ) /
\d_/
recei ved pronunci ati on
<^}
receNefs
I I
accent
I I
sender' s
<> accent
broad regional
)
o ;?3:',1i.1*..
r egi onal ' B'
(eg
South Wel sh)
accent convergence
/,o\
( H )
"<L-/
/-A
1 . 4 1
\ t ) /
Y_l'_/
recelved pronunciation
f^l
recerver's
L accent
1
sender's
u accenl
broad regional
/A\
r\;{ )
\---y
upward
accenl c0nvergence
received pronunciation
T'l
senoer s
9accenl
|
, Er e, v o, )
9accenr
broad regi onal
a .L-
L-nit5
B7
2 Study the diagram below which shows the way the information
about accent repertoire is structured. Relate the information in
the text to the
parts of the diagram.
repertoi re
3 Complete this diagram showing the different tlpes of accent
change discussed in the text.
_
upwaro
1 . . . . . . _l
a 2 . . . . . .
. 4 . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . _l
L downward
Task 2
This activity
practises your ability to distinguish
generalizations and examPles.
State whether each of these sentences functions as a
generalization or an example in the text.
a We do not order curry (or sausage and chi ps, for that matter) i n an
Indi an restaurant wi th a Peter Sel l ers brogue.
b l t i s l i kel y that, i f an i ndi vi dual l i ves i n an area wi th two di al ects . . ' ,
then there woul d be at l east one other regi onal
' branch' .
c . . . i t i s al so t rue t hat some
peopl e are
pract i cal l y i mmobi l e i n t hi s
respect due to the l i mi tati on of thei r earl y vocal envi ronments.
d Natural l y enough, accent di vergence can take on two di recti ons.
Now find a generalization or example in the text that matches
each of the sentences above.
88 UnitS
Extension
Task I
In this activity
you will consider the writer's attitude
towards the subject of the text.
I What evidence can you find from the text to support each of these
statements?
a Gi l es bel i eves that a speaker who does not
possess
an accent
repertoi re i s at a di sadvantage.
b Gi l es bel i eves that downward accent convergence i s soci al l y
hel of ul .
2 Write statements that summarize Giles's view about
o upward convergence
.
upward divergence
.
downward divergence
Compare your statements with those of a partner. Find evidence
from the text to
justify
your statements.
Task 2
In this activity you will practise
applying the
information in the text to new situations.
Four kinds of accent change are described in the text:
r upwardconvergence
.
downwardconvergence
o upward divergence
.
downward divergence
What kind of accent change would you
expect for each of the people in
italics in these situations?
1 John has an RP accent. Mi ke has a broad regi onal accent. Johnl i kes
Mi ke a l ot and wants to make hi m feel at ease when he tal ks to hi m.
2 Franci s i s Ji m' s boss. Franci s speaks RP. Ji m speaks a broad regi onal
accent. Ji m i s constantl y aski ng for days off work. When Ji m asks the
next ti me, Franci swanl s to tel l hi m he can' t, and to emphasi ze hi s
authori ty.
3 Sal l y comes from Bi rmi ngham and has a strong regi onal accent. She
has been i nvi ted for an i ntervi ew for a
j ob
at the BBC. Sa//ywants to
make a
good
i mpressi on wi th the i ntervi ew panel ,
whose members
speak RP.
4 Anne comes from Yorkshi re and speaks wi th a l ocal accent, but not a
very strong one. She i s i nvol ved i n a mi nor acci dent wi th Graham' s
car i n London. Graham speaks RP. Graham accuses her of dri vi ng
UnitS
89
carelessly
-
like a typical northerner in London! This infuriates Anne;
she doesn' t think she was in the
prong
and resents Graham' s
rudeness.
Task3
This activity is designed to encourage
you to
consider the stvle of the article.
Write a short article for a popular newspaper based on the information
in the text. Use this heading for your article:
POSH ACCENT WORKS WONDERS
Work with a partner and read each other's article. Make a list of
differences between the stvle of vour article and that of the actual
text.
2 Drama
Preparation
Task 1
This activity is designed to activate
your knowledge
about the theme of the
play you are
going to read.
Can
you tell what'social class'people in your country belong to
from the way they speak? If so how?
In Britain it is possible to tell a person's
'social
class'from their
accent
-
to a certain extent at least.
Use the knowledge of English accents you have gained from
Section 1 to complete this table.
3 Do'educated' and'less-educated'
people speak differently? What
are the main differences vou have noted? Fill in the table on the
next page.
90
UnitS
Task 2
This activity is designed to encourage you to make
predictions
about the play you are
going to read.
1 You are going
to read a play called Educating Rita.
a Who do you think Rita might be?
b In what way do you think she becomes
'educated'?
c What changes do you think might take place in Rita as a result
of becoming educated?
d Why do you think she might want to be educated?
e Who do you think helps to educate her?
2 What kind of play do you think Educating Rita is likely to be?
a atragedy
b a tragi-comedy
c a comedy
Extensive reading
Task I
This activity is designed to encourage
you to form
and test out a
general
impression.
Educating Ritais a play about a twenty-five-year-old working-class
woman called Rita who decides to become educated. She enrolls on
an Open University literature course and attends weekly tutorials
with a university lecturer called Frank, who is disillusioned and an
alcoholic. The course has a dramatic effect on both their lives.
There are two extracts from the play for you to read. Extract One
comes from the beginning of the play and Extract Two from near the
end.
Read through the extracts from Educating Rita quick|y in order to
give general answers to the questions below. Write down your
answers after you have finished reading.
1 In what ways does Rita change?
2 How does Frank view these changes?
D
!
!
UnitS
91
Extract One
Rita I read this
poem
about fightin' death . . .
Frank Ah
-
Dylan Thomas . . .
Rita No. Roger McGough. lt was about this old man who runs away from
hospital an' goes out on the ale. He
gets pissed an' stands in the street
shoutin' an' challengin' death to come out an' fight. lt' s dead
good. 5
Frank Yes. I don' t think I know the actual
piece you mean . . .
Rita l' ll bring
y' the book
-
it' s
great.
Frank Thank
you.
Rita You
probably won' t think it' s any good.
Frank Why?
10
Rita lt' s the sort of
poetry you can understand.
Frank Ah. I see.
Rita begins looking idly round the room.
Frank Can I offeryou a drink?
Rita What of?
15
Frank Scotch?
Rita (going to the bookcase) Y'wanna be careful with that stuff, it kills
y' brai n cel l s.
Frank But
you'll have one?
(He gets
up and
goes to the smalltable.l
Rita All right. lt' ll
probably have a
job
findin' my brain. 20
F rank (p o u ri n g th e d ri n ks) Water?
Ri|a
(looking at the bookcase) Yeh, all right. (She takes a copy of Howards
End from the shelf.l What's this like?
Frank
goes over to Rita, /ooks at the title of the book and then
goes
backto the drinks.
25
Frank Howards Endl
Rita Yeh. lt sounds filthy, doesn' t it? E.M. Foster.
Frank Forster.
Rita 0h
yeh. What' s it like?
Frank Borrow it. Read it.
30
Rita Ta. l' ll look after it.
(She moves backtowardsthe desk.l lf I
packthe
course in l' ll
post it to
y' .
Frank comes back to the desk with drinks.
Frank(handing her the mugl Pack it in? Why should
you
do that?
Rita
pufs her drink down on the desk and
puts
the copy of H owards 35
End in her bag.
Rita I
just
might. I might decide it was a soft idea.
Frank
(looking at her) Mm. Cheers. lf
-
erm
-
if
you're already
contemplating' packing it in' , why did
you enrol in the first
place?
Rita Because lwanna rnow.
40
Frank What do
you want to know?
Rita Everything.
Frank Everything? That' s rather a lot, isn' t it? Where would
you
like to
start?
Rita Well, I' m a student now, aren' t l? l' ll have to do exams, won' t l? 45
Frank Yes, eventually.
92 Unit 5
50
55
60
65
70
10
1 5
Ri t a l ' l l have t o l earn about i t al l , won' l ? Yeh. l t ' s l i ke y'
si t t here, don' t y' ,
wat chi n' t he bal l et or t he opera on t he t el l y an' - an'
y'
cal l i t rubbi sh
cos that' s what i t l ooks l i ke? Cos
y'
don' t understand. So
y'
swi tch i t off
an' say, t hat ' s f ucki n' rubbi sh.
Frank Do
you?
Ri t a I do. But I don' t want t o. I wanna see. Y' don' t mi nd me sweari n' ,
do
y' ?
Frank Not at al l .
Ri ta Do
you
swear?
Frank Never st oo.
Ri ta See, the educated cl asses know i t' s onl y words, don' t they? l t' s onl y
the masses who don' t understand. I do i t to shock them someti mes.
Y' know when I ' m i n t he hai rdresser' s
-
t hat ' s where I work
-
l ' l l say
somet hi n' l i ke, ' 0h, I ' m r eal l yf ucked' , y' know,
dead l oud. l t doesn' t hal f
cause a fuss.
Frank Yes
-
I ' m sure . . .
Ri ta But i t doesn' t cause any sort of fuss wi th educated
peopl e,
does i t?
Cos they know i t' s onl y words and they don' t worry. But these stuck-up
i di ots I meet, they thi nk they' re royal ty
j ust
cos they don' t swear; an' I
woul dn' t mi nd but i t ' s t he ari st ocracy t hat swears more t han anyone,
i sn' t i t ? They' re ef f i n' and bl i ndi n' al l day l ong. l t ' s al l
' Pass
me t he f acki n'
grouse'
wi t h t hem, i sn' t i t ? But y' can' t t el l t hem t hat round our way. l t ' s
not thei r faul t; they can' t hel p i t. (She goes
to the wi ndow and l ooks
ouf) But someti mes I hate them. God, what' s i t l i ke to be free?
Frank Ah. Now there' s a ouesti on.
Extract Two
Frank ls sitting at his desk marking an essay. )ccasionally he makes a
tutting sound and scribbles something. There is a knock at the door.
Frank Come i n.
Rita enfers, closes the door,
goes
to the desk and dumps her bag on it.
She takes her chair and
places
it next to Frank and sits down.
Rita (talking in a peculiar
rzoice) Hello, Frank.
Frank(without looking ufl Hello. Rita, you're
late.
Ri ta I know, Frank. I' m terri bl y sorry. l t was unavoi dabl e.
Frank(l ooki ng up) Was i t real l y? What' s wrong wi th your voi ce?
Ri t a Not hi ng i s wrongwi t h i t , Frank. I have merel y deci ded t o t al k
properl y.
As Tri sh says there i s not a l ot of
poi nt
i n di scussi ng beauti ful
l i t erat ure i n an ugl y voi ce.
Frank You haven' t got
an ugl y voi ce; at l east
you
di dn' t have. f ak
propeny.
Ri ta I am tal ki ng
properl y.
I have to practi se
constantl y, i n everyday
si tuati ons.
Frank You mean you' re goi ng
t o t al k l i ke t hat f or t he rest of t hi s t ut ori al ?
Ri ta Tri sh says that no matter how di ffi cul t I may fi nd i t I must persevere.
Frank Wel l wi l l you ki ndl y t el l Tri sh t hat I am not gi vi ng
a t ut ori al t o a
Dal ek?
Ri ta I am not a Dal ek.
20
UnitS
93
25
5U
35
40
45
50
55
60
Frank(appealingly) RiIa, stoP it!
Rita But Frank, I have to
persevere in order that I shall.
Frank Rita! Just be
yourself.
Rita (reverting to her normal voice) | am being myself. (She gets
up and
moves the chair back to its usual
place.\
Frank What' s that?
Rita What?
Frank 0n
your back.
Rita (reaching up) 0h
-
tt's
grass.
Frank Grass?
Rita Yeh, I
got here early today. I started talking to some students down
on the lawn.
(She
slfs in her usual chair.l
Frank You were talking to students
-
down there?
R)ta (taughing) Don' t sound so surprised. I can talk now
y' know, Frank.
Frank I ' m not surpri sed. Wel l l You used t o be
qui t e wary of t hem di dn' t
you?
Rita God knows why. For students they don' t half come out with some
rubbish
y'
know.
Frank You' re t el l i ng me?
Rita I only
got talking to them in the first
place because as I was walking
past I heard one of them sayin' as a novel he
preferred Lady Chatteiley
t o Sons and Lovers. l t hought , l can keep wal ki n' and i gnore i t , or I can
put him straight. So I
put
him straight. I walked over an' said,
' Excuse
me but I coul dn' t hel p overheari n' t he rubbi sh
you were spout i n' about
Lawrence' . Shoul da seen t he f aces on t hem, Frank. I sai d t ryi n' t o
compare Chatterleywith Sons and Lovers is like tryin' to compare
sparkl i ng wi ne wi t h champagne. The next t hi ng i s t here' s t hi s heat ed
di scussi on, wi t h me ri ght i n t he mi ddl e of i t .
Frank I thought
you
said the student claimed to
' prefer'
Chatterley, as a
novel.
Ri t a He di d.
Frank So he wasn' t actually suggestingthat it was superior.
Rita Not at first
-
but then he did. He walked right into it . . .
Frank And so
you finished him off, did you Rita?
Rita Frank, he was asking for it. He was an idiot. His argument
just
crumbled. lt wasn' t
just
me
-
everyone else agreed with me.
Frank returns to reading the essaY.
Rita There was this really mad one with them; I' ve only been talkin' to
them for five minutes and he' s inviting me to
go abroad with them all
They' re al l
goi n' t o t he Sout h of France i n t he Chri st mas hol i days,
sl ummi n' i t .
Frank You can' t
go.
Rita What?
Frank You can' t
go
-
you' ve got your
exams.
Rita My exams are before Christmas.
Frank Well
-
you' ve got your results to wait for . . .
Rita Tch. I couldn' t
go anyway.
Frank Why?
(He looks at her.)
65
94 UnitS
70
75
80
85
90
Ri ta l t' s al l ri ght for them. They can
j ust j ump
i nto a bl eedi n' van an'
go
away. But I can' t.
He returns to the essay.
Ti ger they cal l hi m, he' s the mad one. Hi s real name' s Tyson but they
cal l hi m Ti ger.
Frank (looking up) ls there any
point me going
on with this? (He points
to
the essay).
Rita What?
Frank l s there much
poi nt
i n worki ng towards an exami nati on i f
you' re
goi ng to fal l i n l ove and set off for the South of . . .
Ri ta (shocked) What! Fal l i n Love? Wi th who? My God, Frank, I' ve
j ust
been tal ki n' to some students. I' ve heard of matchmaki ng but thi s i s
ri di cul ous.
Frank Al l ri ght, but
pl ease
stop burbl i ng on about Mr Tyson.
Ri ta I haven' t been burbl i ng on.
He returns to the essay.
What' s i t l i ke?
Frank 0h
-
i t
-
erm
-
woul dn' t l ook out of
pl ace
wi th these.
(He places
it on top of a
pile
of other essays on his desk.l
Rita Honest?
Frank Dead honest.
Blackout.
Frank exlfs.
Now read through the extracts a little more slowly. Try to find
evidence from the extracts for your answers. You may feel you want
to change your initial answers.
Hold a class discussion based on your
answers to the two questions.
Intensive reading
Task 1
This activity encourages you to interpret the
evidence in the extracts relating to
Rita's development.
1 Various authors and books are mentioned in the two extracts.
Complete this table about them.
Extract One
Rita's opinion
UnitS
95
a How do Rita's views about writers change?
S/hat does this reveal about her development?
b What evidence is there that Rita feels very insecure in Extract
One?
What evidence is there to suggest that she feels much more
confident in Extract Two?
What explanation can you suggest for this change?
In Extract One Rita says 7 wanna see'
(L.52).
What exactly is it
that she wants to see?
In Extract Two she says 7 can talk nou)'y know'
(L.35).
What
does she mean by this?
What do these two quotations show about the change that has
taken place in Rita?
Task 2
The aim of this activity is to enable
you to interpret
the text by analyzing the way the characters speak.
I Compare the way Rita speaks in Extract One with the way she
speaks at the beginning of Extract Two
(L.
I to 23), and complete
this table.
Feature of Rita's speech ExtractTwo
dialect used
accent used
level of formality
a Why does Rita change the way she speaks?
b What is this change meant to show us about Rita?
c Why doesn't Frank like the change?
d Why do you think Rita abandons her new way of speaking?
2 Make a list of all the colloquial expressions that Rita uses in
Extract One, such as,'goes out on the ale'. Give the formal,
standard English equivalent of each expression.
Now do the same for Extract Two.
96 UnitS
Which extract has more colloquial expressions? What does this
indicate about Rita?
3 Now study the way Frank speaks. Fill in the table below.
Feature of Frank's speech Extract Two
dialect used
accent used
Ievel of formality
How does Frank's way of speaking differ from Rita's?
What is this meant to tell us about the two characters?
To what extent do you think Frank changes the way he speaks?
Extract Two ends with Frank saylng
'Dead
honesf . Which way
of speaking is this an example of2
What does this indicate about Frank's attitude towards Rita?
Extension
Task 1
This activity encourages
you to think about the
theme of Educating Rita and, how you respond
to the two characters.
I Either
a Imagine that you are Frank. Write a brief character sketch of
Rita.
or
b Imagine that you are Rita and write a brief character sketch of
Frank.
Find a student who chose to write about the other character.
Read your description to your partner and then discuss it.
Make suggestions about how your partner could improve his/
her character sketch.
Do you think that Frank completely approves of Rita's
'education'?
Give reasons for your
answer.
To what extent do you think Rita has become
'truly
educated'?
What do you think the author, Willy Russell, thinks a'true
education' consists of?
How do you think the play ends?
a
b
c
d
97
UnitS
3 Review activities
Task 1
In this activity
you will review the
points that
Howard Giles makes about the way we change how
we speak and relate them to the use of language by
the two characters in Educating Rita.
1 Read through the article Our reactions to accent onpages 83 and
86 again and check that you know what the following refer to:
o zccflt rePertoire
o fSpolls matching
.
upward and downward convergence
.
upward and downward divergence
2 What'accent
repertoire'do Rita and Frank each have?
3 Read Extract One of. Educating Rita again. What evidence is
there of any convergence or divergence on Rita's
part? What
motivates this? To what extent does Frank converge or diverge?
4 Now reread Extract Two of Educating Rita. Does Rita converge
or diverge? Does Frank converge or diverge? What explanation
can you give for the way they use language?
5 To what extent does
'response
matching'increase
from Extract
One to Extract Two? What do you think this is meant to show
about the relationship between the two characters?
Task 2
In this activity
you will discuss some of the issues
raised by the reading
passages in this unit.
Why do
you think that most countries have different accents and
dialects within their language?
Do you think that some accents and dialects are better than
others? Why?
What do you think is meant by the term'linguistic snobbery'?
Imagine that
you are a teacher in a British school where most of
the children speak a regional dialect with a regional accent, like
Rita. Work with a partner and discuss whether
you would:
a simply accept the way the children speak
(i'e. let them calry on
speaking as they do)?
b try to change the way they speak. If so, what would
you want
to change and how would
you try to do it?
Or perhaps you have some other idea.
3
4
Argui ng
1 Advice
Preparation
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to think
about the different ways of expressing
disagreement in English?
Think of different ways of disagreeing with the following state-
ments, marked A. For each of your expressions of disagreement
say what situational factors would make it appropriate.
For exantpl e: A
' l
don' t thi nk l ' l l bother to
go
to that meeti ng. She' s
not goi ng
to turn up, i s she?'
B
' Oh.
I ' m f ai rl y conf i dent she wi l l , Mrs Hunt . '
Appropri ate i n a semi -formal si tuati on i n whi ch A i s i n a
posi ti on
of
authori ty over B (A mi ght be the manager and B her assi stant).
'This
car is a good bargain.'
'Futre's
going to be a better player than Maradonna.'
. A
B
. A
B
Unit6
99
. A
'The
poll suggests that the Tories will score an
overwhelming victory at the next
general election.'
8 . " . . . .
. A
'Green
King Abbot is the best strong beer in England.'
8 . . . . . .
. A
'I
think we'll stay at home. It's going to rain.'
B . . . . . .
2 Complete the following table exemplifying different ways of
arguing.
Statement
'You
could've asked
me to help.'
'All
the signs indicate
an imminent increase
in the oil price.'
'I
think we'll
go
to
Majorca again this
year.'
'This
is a nice dress,
dear.'
Formal meeting
between two new
business
partners.
Married couple.
Mother buyrng
teenage daughter a
dress for a party.
Acquaintances talking
in a pub.
3 The following table is taken from a book intended to help
advanced students of English as a foreign language.
a Evaluate the table as a learning aid.
Is it clearly organized and
presented?
fue the examples useful?
Does it provide enough information?
Is the information valid?
Is there anything important missing?
'Sure.
Like when I
needed money for
the rent.'
'No
way; I used to
live there.'
'I'm
not entirely
sure I agree.'
'You
could be right.
But . . . '
'Great
idea!
Who the hell's going
to
pay for it?'
100 Unit6
Expressing disagreement
Stronger
I disagree entirely.
I wouldn't
go along with you
You can't be serious.
You must be
joking.
How on earth can you say such a thing?
I'm not really sure if I'd go along with you
-
on that.
-
there.
I'm inclined to disagree with that.
I'm not sure
you're right there.
That's a little far-fetched, isn't it?
-
on that
-
there.
b How would you make use of this table
(or
an adaptation of it) in
a textbook for advanced students of English as a foreign
language?
c Adapt the same basic framework to provide a more detailed
description of ways of expressing disagreement in English.
4 How does your own language differ from English in the way it
expresses degrees and types ofdisagreement? Does it. . .
o
make use of sarcasm: e. g.' Great idea! Who's
going
to
pay
for
it?'
.
have short utterances for strong disagreement: e.g.,
'Nonsense!'
. have longer utterances for more tentative disagreement: e. g.
,
'I'm
not entirely sure that I completely agree with you.'
. often not signal the disagreement overtly at all: e.g.,
'If
ll be ten
o'cloch when we get there."Eleaen.'
Extensive reading
Task I
In this task you will be asked to interact with the
writer of a
passage about ways of arguing.
1 Read the passage on the next page and as you read it'talk'to the
writer. Express any doubts or disagreements you have and ask
questions about points which are not clear.
Weaker
J
Inf
J
lnf
101
Unit6
Your Way
Successful disagreement requires cunning. Nobody who blurts out an
immediate and honest retort ever wins an argument. Such candid naivety
only succeeds in antagonising the speaker and alienating
potential
supporters amongst any other
participants in the conversation. What is
reouired above all is stealth and deception. A successful arguer has to be
a convincing actor.
But first let us consider what it means to win an argument. what is it we
are trying to achieve when we argue? Are we trying to belittle and defeat
our opponent? Are we trying to impress an audience with our courage and
integrity? Are we trying to achieve some sort of emotive catharsis by
venting our spleen? 0r are we trying to win
people over to our side, to
convert the others to our views and to enlist their support? | would
suggest that anyone who communicates the message,
' Listen
to me' I' m
cleverer than
you. This is what I really think and I feel a lot better for
saying so' can only hope to achieve at best a very cheap and shallow
victory. He might appear to win the argument but he will lose support'
And it is support that he is surely trying to win. Support for his views,
for his
proposed actions, for his reputation. lt is not the argument that
counts but what comes after. lt is what the other
participants in the
argument feel, think and do afterwards that really matters. lt is the
contribution of each victorious argument to
your image that is what
arguing is all about. To really win arguments
you need to obey the
following rules.
Rule I Don't Snap. Think lnstead.
Never
give an immediate, unthinking response.
Always buy time to think out
your first and therefore most
important resPonse.
Use the following
PloYs:
a Pretend to seek clarification.
e. g. ,
' Do
You
mean t hat ' ' . . . . ?'
' You
ar e saYi ng t hat . . . . . . ?'
b Encourage the speaker to continue.
e.g.,
' That' s
interesting. Go on"
c Respond with a respectful, thoughtful silence intended to
encourage the speaker to continue.
NB Getting the speaker to continue not only buys
you thinking time but
often traps him/her into over-emphastzing, over-repeating the
point.
Ruf e 2 Don't Shout. Talk
QuietlY.
Never shout at
your opponent, especially when
provoked.
Always talk
quietly to
give
the impression of being respectful
and rational.
Rufe 3 Don't DestroY. Review.
Never destroy
your opponents totally.
102 Unit6
Always leave them with something positive.
e.g.,
' l
like
your idea for the curtains but I' m not so sure about
the furniture.'
Review
your
opponents' arguments before
proposing your
own.
Rule 4 Don't Negate. Be Positive.
Never
just
attack
your opponents' arguments.
Always suggest
positive alternatives and
preferably
alternatives of
potential
benefit to all those concerned.
e.g., x
' That' s
a silly idea.'
uz
'That
would
give you
a small
profit
but I'm sure you
would make more by investing the money in a building
society.'
Rule 5 Don't Get Upset. Be'0bjective'.
Never risk losing control by becoming emotionally involved in
an argument.
Always try to appear objective and balanced
-
especially if
your
opponent loses control.
Rule 6 Don't Dominate. Be'Fai/.
Never risk annoying
your
opponents and any observers by not
letting other people have an equal share of the argument.
Always appear to be willing to listen. This gains you
support
and often traps
your
opponents into weakening their own
arguments with exaggeration and over-repetition.
Rule 7 Don't Be Abstract. Be Specific.
Never
just
offer abstract ideas.
Always give
concrete examples of the actual or
potential
results of
your
ideas.
Rufe 8 Don't Be Arrogant. Be Modest.
Never give
the impression that you are convinced of your
own
superiority (especially when you are).
Always give
the impression that
you
are right but not superior.
Rule 9 Don't Be Tentative. Be Definite.
Never
give
the impression that you are not sure what you
think.
Always appear confident in
your
considered views.
Rule 10 Never Start An Argument. Always Respond.
Never provoke your potential
opponents and any observers by
starting the attack.
Always trap them into making the first move and risking
making the first mistake.
e.9., x
' l
suppose you will insist on that awful loud music
again for the
party.'
/
' Any
ideas about music for the
party?'
Unit6
103
Ruf e 11 Don't Withdraw. Have the Last Word.
Never let
your
opponents end the argument. They might think
you have
given in.
Always end the argument and end it in a
positive way.
Ruf e 12 Don't Be Wrong. Be Right.
Never take
part in an argument when you are not sure of
your
vrews.
Always wait until
you are sure you are right before you
enter an
argument.
Ruf e 13 Don't Be Absolute. Make Small Concessions.
Never insist on
you
being totally right and
your
opponent.
totally wrong.
Always concede a few minor points
to
your opponent.
Rule 14 Don't Lose. Win.
Never enter an argument if you are not confident of winning it.
Always delay
your
contribution in an argument until
you
are
confident of success. Always stick to
your main views during
the argument (even if you
then change them
privately).
Remember it is not the message that counts; it is the way
you
express it.
Truth and wisdom might help but they are not enough. Tactics win
arguments and they require constant and calculated thought. So obey
most of all the final rule:
Rufe 15 Don't FeeL Think.
2 Work in pairs with one student being A and the other B. A should
read the passage again carefully and prepare to represent the
views of the writer. B should read the passage again and prepare
to argue against the points made by the writer.
A should then present the points made in the
passage and defend
them against the disagreements of B.
Intensive reading
Task I
In this task
you will be asked to analyze how
the writer of Your Way l:.as constructed the passage
to try to persuade the reader to agree with
the
points presented.
1 Read the
passage again and find examples of the following:
a rhetorical questions
b symmetry
c statement
plus reinforcement of the statement
d absolute statement
104
Unit6
e
f
e
h
4
tentative statement
highlighting
statement plus explanation of statement
statement not followed by exemplification, explanation or
reinforcement
For each example say what the writer is trying to achieve.
2 Complete this analysis of the first and second paragraphs.
Why does the writer:
a express his ideas in the form of rules?
b follow the same
'NeuerlAlways'approach
in expressing each
rule?
c end with Rule 15?
What does the writer mean by:
a
'cunning'?
b' st eal t h' ?
Utterance Speech act Purpose
Statement of
view
. Command attention
.
Surprise
. Make impact
2 Reinforcement
Explanation
.
Concise sunmary
of main point
6
a
Get reader to thinl<
Prepare reader to
receive an answer
a
I Rhetorical
question
8
I
Unit6
105
c
'uenting
our sPleen'?
d
'a
cheap and shallow uictory'?
e
'reputation'?
f
'to
seek clarification'?
g' reui ew' . ?
h' concede' ?
5 Write a criticism of the passage under the following headings:
Content
Say what
you agree with and what you disagree with'
Expression
Say what
you Iike and what you do not like about the way the
writer expresses his views.
Extensi on
Task 1
In this task
you will be asked to rewrite the passage
in two different ways.
I Rewrite the passage so that it becomes a concise, one paragraph
summary of advice to intermediate level students on how to
disagree in English. You can change, add and omit points and
change the style in any way you feel is appropriate'
2 Rewrite the passage so that it reflects your own views on the
objectives and tactics of disagreement.
2 People arguing
Preparation
In this task
you will be asked to review
your opinions
about why and how arguments take place.
I Think about the situations in which people argue and then add to
the following lists so that they serve as a summary of the features
of typical arguments.
Arguments
Typical
participants Typical reasons Tgical objectiues
Sister and brother Anger To change views
Husbandandwife Misunderstanding Toinfluenceaction
106 Unit6
2 Think of the different tactics people use to try to win arguments
and then complete the list below.
Tactics Examples
'The
label says it's purple.'
'The
guide
said it was built
:' 1.1
'Nobody
would ever vote for you
again.'
'I'm
telling you; I wasn't even
there.'
a
b
c
d
e
f
Quoting'facts'
Quoting
experts
Sarcasm
Irony
Abuse
\\\\i!
I
s . . . . . .
Extensive reading
Task I
In this task you will be asked to respond to the
content and tactics of an argument between a woman
and her brother.
Read the following argument between a woman and her brother, from
Fools and Other Stories by Njabulo Ndebele. As you read it, try to
identify the critical points in the argument. Work out the reasons and
objectives of their argument and think about the tactics they use to
try to win the argument.
' Fancy! '
Mot her shout s.
' Just
f ancy a bi g man l i ke
you. A whol e grown-
up fi ghti ng i n the streets. Where i s your
sel f-respect?'
Uncl e does not answer. He eat s hi s supper qui et l y.
' Just
fancy! What a di sgrace! Today I asked for a speci al day' s l eave
f rom t he cl i ni c so t hat I can spend t hi s Fri day, t he whol e of i t , wi t h my
brother. And what does he do? He
gets
up as i f he was i n a hotel and
di sappears. Look! ' Mot her
get s
up f rom t he t abl e and opens t he canopy
of t he st ove. ' Look! Here i s
your l unch. Here i s my day' s
good
cooki ng. I
t hought I woul d si t t he whol e day wi t h my chi l d' s uncl e and t al k and be
happy. And what ' s my reward? Di sgrace. What wi l l t he
peopl e
say? l t ' s t he
brother of the nurse, they must be sayi ng. And what exampl e were you
being to this mshana of
yours?'
' Si sl ' says
Uncl e.
' What
was done had t o be done. '
' You
mean I had t o be di sgraced? Fancyl '
I am t hi nki ng t hat i t was not ri ght what Uncl e di d t o Nzul e. And I am
wonderi ng where he i s now. I am wonderi ng what he wi l l do t o us when
Uncl e i s gone.
l t was not ri ght. But I don' t say anythi ng.
' Wel l . '
says Uncl e.
' Just
come t o t hi nk of i t , a l i t t l e di sgrace once i n a
whi l e i s i n order. 0r el se you' l l f orget what di sgrace i s l i ke. That ' s how
you
l earn t o keep your name respect ed. By bei ng di sgraced somewhat . You
10
l 5
20
Unit6
107
must be tested all the time.' Uncle
puts
food into his mouth and licks his
fingers.
' Listen
to him,' says Mother.
' What
does he know about respect? This
child of
yesterday. I changed his nappies, and he is teaching me about
respect. Let me ask you: what' s the use of being in the
papers
if
you 25
cannot maintain self-respect? What do
you know about respect?'
'As
for my mshana, he learnt a lot. I taught him that in this world one
has to fight sometimes, and that when one does fight one must do it very
wel l . '
' Did
you
see, mshanai Did
you see how a man who thinks too much of 30
himself is a defeated man? He was too sure of hrs superiority. Did you
see? When he came round that corner dancing and impressing
people,
I
knew he was a defeated man. Studyyour enemy, mshana, and know him
well. Self-righteousness and the feeling of superiority are the weakness of
the
powerful. lf
you
know that,
you
can defeat them with the simplest of 35
things.'
' Don' t
say such things to the child.'
' He' s
a man. '
l' m fingering my food and mixing
papawlth some meat and
gravy.
I am
not looking at Uncle as he talks to me. Why does he look at me? Why 40
address me? He should be looking at Mother. I cannot look at him. Mother
will think I am listening to him. She' ll think I am not respecting her; that I
am taking sides. We are
quiet
for a while.
' Eat
quickly,' says Mother to me.
' And
then wash the dishes.'
' l
will help
you, mshana,' says Uncle.
45
' You
will do no such thing,' says Mother.
' l
am living with this child and
he should learn to carry his own responsibilities.'
' And
after helping
you with the dishes we are
going
to clean up our
bedroom and then have a
good bath afterwards.'
' At
nine? So late at night?' 50
' The
room must be clean, and we must be clean.'
' surely
it could wait for tomorrow. At nine? At night?'
' At
any time of the night!'
' That
boy must be tired. He must
go
to bed now!'
' He' s
a man. '
55
' That
there is my sonl'
' 0-o-o!
When I am here, I have complete responsibility over him.'
' Since
when have
you been so responsible?'
' Even
if
you changed my nappies once, I am that boy' s uncle.'
' Oh
you!' exclaims Mother
putting a bottle in front of Uncle.
' Here' s
60
some honey, I know
you' ve always liked it. See, it' s still in the honeycomb.
Got it from the
priest' s wife
yesterday.'
' Do
you remember when I disappeared with him for a whole Sunday?'
' Only
a fool could remind me of that day,' says Mother as she leaves
the kitchen carrying her cup of tea. She is smiling.
65
Uncl e wi nks at me.
108 Unit6
Answer the following questions about the argument.
1 Why is Mother so annoyed by what her brother did to Nzule?
2 What do you think Uncle really feels about what he did to Nzule?
3 What do you think Mother hopes to achieve by arguing with her
brother?
4 Why do you think Uncle defends himself so stubbornly?
5 What do you think Uncle actually did?
6 Why do you think Mother always refers to her son as a boy whilst
Uncle always refers to him as a man?
7 Who do you think wins the argument? Give your reasons.
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task
you will be asked to analyze in depth the
tactics in the argument.
1 a What is the force of the repetition of
'fancy'in
line 1?
b What is the force of
'whole'in
line 1?
c Does Mother expect an answer to her question in line 2? Why
does she ask it?
d Why does Uncle not answer
(L.3)?
e Why does Mother use the word'special' nlne 4?
f What is Mother accusing Uncle of in lines 4 to 12?
g What do her words tell you about her character?
h Do you think Uncle believes in the logic of his argument in
lines 18 to 22? Why do you think he uses it?
i What is Mother implying in lines 23 to 26?
j
Why does Uncle address his mshana instead of his sister?
k Why does Uncle offer to help his mshana with the dishes
L.4i l ?
Why does his sister refuse his offer?
I What is Mother implying in line 58?
m What does the exclamation'Oh, you!' signalin line 60?
n Why does Uncle remind Mother of the day he disappeared
with his mshana for
'
a whole Sunday'
(L.
63) ?
o Why does Mother smile?
p Why does Uncle wink?
Unit6
109
2 Try to complete the following analysis of the argument.
. exclamations
. exaggeration
. rhetorical questions
. repeated
exclamations
. narrative
. question/answer
. exaggeration
o rhetorical question
3
4
Utterance
1 Ml i nesl t o2
2 M l i nes 4t ol 2
3 U line 13
4 M line 14
5 U l i nes 9t o22
6 M lines 27 to29
7 U lines 30 to 36
8 M line 37
9 U line 38
a
a
a
a
a
a
Objectiue(s)
ridicule
to express anger
to make U feel
ashamed
to show
determination
to make him feel
ashamed
to show how hurt
she is and to make
him feel guilty
Summarize the main features of both Mother's and Uncle's styles
of argument and comment on their effectiveness'
Rewrite lines 1 to 12 with Mother using
gentler, more subtle
tactics to try to make her brother feel ashamed and admit that he
was wrong.
110
Unit6
Preparation
Task 1
In this task you are
going
to imagine yourself
in a difficult, irritating situation, and to predict
how
you would react.
Imagine that you are Professor Vinnie Miner, a fifty-four-year-old
American woman who is in London to research rhymes for her
forthcoming book. On the
plane from America you sat next to
Chuck Mumpson,
'an
engineer from Tulsa specializing in waste-
disposal systems . . . married with two grown children . . . and
three grandchildren . . . and on a two-week Sun Tour of England.'
It is now late at night and you have received an unexpected visit
from Chuck Mumpson who is anxious to tell you about his
abortive visit to Wiltshire to search for his reputedly aristocratic
ancestors.
You listen patiently to his long story but become irritated when he
becomes
pathetically worried about how his wife and her family
will mock him when he returns to Tulsa.
You want to help Chuck but you also want to express
your
annoyance with him and to
get rid of him so that you can go to
bed. What would you say to him?
Form pairs and discuss what each of you has decided you would
say to Chuck.
Still in pairs, complete the following sentences spoken by Vinnie
to Chuck.
a' Al l r i ght t hen, don' t . . . . . . '
b ' L i e d o wn i n . . . . . . a n d l e t a b u s . . . . . . '
c ' On l y s t o p b e i n g . . . . . . '
d
'But
of course, it's none of . . . . . .'
e' I di dn' t meant o but i t ' sver y. . . . . . andl havet o
. . . . . . ,
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to compare
your
predictions with what Vinnie Miner actually said.
I Read the following argument between Vinnie Miner and Chuck
Mumpson, fuomForeignAffairs by Alison Lurie, and as you read
compare her words and behaviour with your predictions.
Unit6
111
' Al l
ri ght then, don' t show a l i ttl e i ni ti ati ve,' Vi nni e says, l osi ng her
temper.
' Li e
down i n the street and l et a bus run over
you i f
you
want to.
0nl y stop bei ng so damn sorry for yoursel f.'
Chuck' s square, heavy
j aw
fal l s; he stares at her dumbl y.
' l
mean for God' s sake.' She i s breathi ng hard, suddenl y enraged.
' A
whi te Angl o-Saxon Ameri can mal e, wi th
good heal th, and no obl i gati ons,
and more money and free ti me than
you know what to do wi th. Most
peopl e i n the worl d woul d ki l l to be i n your
shoes. But
you' re
so stupi d
you
don' t even know how to enj oy
yoursel f i n London.'
' Yeh?
Li ke for i nstance?' Chuck sounds angry now as wel l as hurt, but
Vi nni e cannot stop hersel f.
' stayi ng
i n that awful touri st hotel , l i ke for i nstance, and eati ng thei r
terri bl e food, and
goi ng
to ersatz Ameri can musi cal s; when the town i s ful l
of fi ne restaurants, and
you coul d be at Covent Garden every ni ght.'
Chuck does not respond, onl y
gapes.
' But
of course i t' s none of my busi ness,' she adds i n a l ower tone,
astoni shed at hersel f.
' l
di dn' t mean to shout at you, but i t' s very l ate, and
I have to
get
up earl y tomorrow and vi si t a school i n Kenni ngton.'
' Yeh.
Al l ri ght.' Chuck l ooks at hi s watch, then stands up sl owl y; hi s
manner i s i nj ured, stuffy, formal .
' Okay,
Professor, I' m
goi ng. Thanks for
t he dri nk. '
' You' re
wel come.' Vi nni e cannot bri ng hersel f to apol ogi ze further to
Chuck Mumpson. She shows hi m out , washes hi s
gl ass and her t eacup
and sets them to dry,
gets back i nto her fl annel ni ghtgown, and cl i mbs
i nto bed, noti ng wi th di sapproval that i t i s ten mi nutes
past
twel ve.
2 With
your partner discuss the similarities and differences
between
your predictions and the text.
Task 2
In this task you will be asked to work out the
attitudes of Vinnie and Chuck to each other and to
predict the development of their relationship.
1 Which of the following statements do you think describe Vinnie's
feelings towards Chuck?
! a She is in love with him
! b She despises him
! c She dislikes him but wants to help him
D d She has no strong feelings towards him at all
! e She finds him irritating but interesting
! f She is furious with him for disturbing her so late at night
!
g She is attracted to him but doesn't want him to know
112 Unit6
Write a sentence of your own describing Vinnie's feelings towards
Chuck.
2 What do you think Chuck thinks about Vinnie?
Why does he decide to leave?
3 Write the following:
a a note from Vinnie to Chuck apologizing for her behaviour
b a note from Chuck to Vinnie apologizing for his behaviour
c an extract from another scene when Chuck and Vinnie next
meet
Intensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to look more closely
at the strategies used by Vinnie and Chuck in
their argument.
I Ct'rticize each of the following lists as an analysis of Vinnie's
sequence of strategies in her argument with Chuck.
a l command b l advi ce c l sar casm
2 opinion 2 anger 2 accusation
3 description 3 opinion 3 exclamation
4 explanation 4 insult 4 exaggerated
5 accusation accusation
6 suggestion 5 exemplification
7 irony 6 distance
8 excuse 7 apology
8 escape
2 Why does Chuck
a stare at Vinnie dumbly?
b becomeangryandhurt?
c
gape at Vinnie?
d look at his watch?
e refer to Vinnie as
'Professor'?
3 Which of Vinnie's strategies do you think are calculated and which
do you think are spontaneous? Give reasons.
4 Imagine you are Vinnie and that you are thinking about the
argument after Chuck has left. How much of what
you said are
you pleased with and what do you regret?
Write a short dialogue in which
you report your argument with
Chuck to a friend.
5 Rewrite the extract as a scene from a play, and either:
a make Vinnie much more restrained and constructive in her
comments and advice, or
Unit6
113
b make Chuck much more aggressive and self-justifying in his
responses.
Preparation
Task 1
In this task
you will be asked to
predict the
continuation of an argument and to work out the
nature and objectives of the
participants.
1 Who do
you think the following conversation is between?
' Woul d
you l i ke a l i t t l e l unch?'
' No,
l ' m not hungrY. '
' l
coul d fi x
you breakfast.'
' l
j ust
sai d I ' m not hungrY. '
' What' s
wrong?'
' Not hi ng
i s wrong. '
' Are
you sure?'
What does the conversation tell us about the two people?
How do
you think the conversation will continue?
2 Read the following extract ftomLaheWobegon Days by Garrison
Keillor to find out if you were right in 1 above and to discover
more about the two people and their argument. As you read
decide whose side you are on and why.
Lake Wobegon Days
The Tol l efson boy who has been up unti l two tn the morni ng for weeks
readi ng books, i s sti l l baski ng i n the
gl ow
of
graduati on and
getti ng
the
Sons of Knut e Shi ni ng St ar Award (a
$200 schol arshi p). Hi s mot her,
Frances, i s st i l l baski ng, t oo, and t hat ' s why, when she comes up behi nd
hi m, she t ouches hi m l i ght l y on t he shoul der and says
gent l y,
' St i l l
i n
your
paj amas, Johnny?' .
He fl i nches as i f she were a snake. He si ghs.
' The
answer to
your
quest i ons, Mot her, i s
yes. These are my
paj amas and I ' m i n t hem. '
' Woul d
you l i ke a l i t t l e l unch?'
' No,
I ' m not hungry. '
' l
coul d f i x
you' breakf ast . '
' l
j ust
sai d I ' m not hungry. '
' What' s
wrong?
' Not hi ng
i s wrong. '
' Are
you sure?'
He si ghs. He' s cornered wi t h her t here behi nd hi m. He wal ks over t o
t he brown cane chai r byt he
porch swi ngand sl ouches down i n i t . l t ' s hard
to
get
comfortabl e i f you' re tal l ,
you have to ease down unti l
you
bal ance
on a parti cul ar vertebra a few notches above the coccyx. He fi nds the
bone he wants,
puts hi s feet up on the swi ng, sets hi s sad bl ue eyes on
the Krebsbach house across the street, and wi shes she woul d l eave hi m
114
Unit6
alone. Why is it the
people who follow you
around asking what' s wrong are
the ones who wouldn' t know if you
told them?
What' s wrong is this
-
and it isn' t this exactly, this is only one thing of
many
-
it' s his mother' s
plan
that at two o' clock they
pick
up his grandma
and Aunt Mary and his uncle Senator K. Thorvaldson, and the whole
motley bunch drive to St. Cloud to see him register at St. Cloud State
College for fall
quarter.
Summer
' lt' s
only registration! lt' s like
getting
a driver' s license! lt takes ten
minutes! What' s the big deal?' he said to her three days ago when she
announced this idea.
' l
thought
you' d
be
pleased. They' re so
proud
ofyou. They want to be
there.'
How do
you
tell
your
mother that there' s something funny about
your
old relatives? They talk funny, and they look funny. lt' s less noticeable in
Lake Wobegon, but put
them in a big city like St. Cloud and everybody
sees it, like they have signs around their neck that say' Hick' . People in St.
Cloud have some shine to them and look comfortable in their clothes as
they stroll along St. Germaine,
going
about their business affairs, and if
you
asked one of them for directions to a
good
restaurant, they' d tell
you
that, but his old relatives dress up like scarecrows, Uncle Senator wears
bagry black
pants
and an old white shirt buttoned up to the neck and no
tie and hightop kangaroo shoes, and if
you
asked him for directions he' d
give you
the story of his life.
For three days they' ve
gone
around and around.
' Why
don' t
you
and them
go
register? You don' t need me.'
' 0h,
Johnny, it' s such a little thing.'
'lf
it's so little, how come they have to
go?'
' l
can' t tell them they can' t come now, they' d be so hurt.'
' Well,
you
should' ve thought of that when you invited them.'
His dad said,
' lf
we' re not good enough to be seen with
you
in
public,
then maybe it's time you started
packing.'
' l
don' t see what that has to do with the fact that I am
perfectly
capable
of
going
to St. Cloud without taking my whole family along.'
' There' s
a lot you
don' t see and I doubt if
you
ever will.'
Extensive reading
Task 1
In this task you will be asked to act out the
scene frorn Lake Wobegon Days and to write a further
scene yourselves.
In groups of four practice acting out the scene
(with
one of you as
director). Add some dialogue of your own at the end of the scene.
Join
another group of four students and watch each other
performing your scenes. Discuss any ffierence of interpretation.
Unit6
115
3 Write a scene from a play in whichJohnny is reporting the
discussion with his mother and father to a friend.
Intensive reading
Task I
In this task you will be asked to'read between the
lines'to find out what the characters really mean and
intend by what they say.
What is his mother implyrng when she says'Still in your pajamas,
tohnny?'?
Why do
you think so many of the family want to see
Johnny
register at St. Cloud State College?
Why do you thinkJohnny doesn't want the
'whole
motley bunch' to
see him register?
Why does
Johnny
refer to his family as having
'signs
around their
nech that say'Hick'
'?
What does
Johnny's
mother mean by
'If
s such a little thing:?
Who do you think says
'There's
a lot you d.on't see and I doubt if you
euer will'?
What do
you think is meant by it?
What tactics are used in the argument by:
.
Johnny
. his mother
. his father
5
6
3 Review activities
In these tasks
you will be asked to relate and
use the knowledge
you have
gained in this
unit about arguments.
Task 1
1 Which of the 15 Rules in Your Way
(page
101) are followed and
which are broken in the three arguments you have read in Section 2 .
Do you think any of the
participants would have gained from
followingmore of the 15 Rules? Which?
2 The first argument in Section 2 takes place in South Africa, the
second in London
(between
two Americans) and the third in
America. Which differences in tactics do you think are attributable
to cultural differences? Would these arguments have been very
ffierent in your country?
116 Unit6
Task 2
Do one of the following:
I Use the
'arguments'you
have read in this unit to help you to write
a scene from a play
or novel which features an argument between
one of the following pairs:
o
a married man and his young mistress
.
a teacher and a student
.
a priest and a member of the congregation
. the manager of a football team and one of his star players
. the director of a film and the star of the filrn
2 Write a magazine article on how to win an argument in English.
Try to make the article both informative and amusing.
117
TEACHER'S
GUIDE
This Teacher's
guide provides suggestions about how to
use the tasks in each unit and detailed answers to the
questions. Many of the questions are
'open'
and so do not
have single, correct answers. The answers provided,
therefore, are not definitive and teachers should be
prepared to accept alternative answers in many instances,
providing they can be
justified.
UNIT 1
1 Argument
There are a large number of questions in this section rr
order to provide a very thorough'text-attack'. You will
need several lessons to complete all the questions. One
possible teaching scheme is:
Les son 7
(1
hour): The tasks in P reparation and E tctens iue
reading
Lesson 2
(1
hour): T ask I in I ntensiae reading
Self-study: Task2inlntensiuereading
Les s on 3
(1 hour) : T ask 3 in I nten siu e reading and lhe
tasks nt Extension
Preparation
Task 1
If you are teaching a mixed class, do this activity with pairs
ofthe same sex. Then, in the class discussion draw out
any differences in opinions between males and females.
Allow the discussion to continue without'ruling'who is
right or who is wrong. Point out that we all tend to have
preconceptions about the kinds of differences in the way
men and women use language. Tell the students that many
of the points of comparison listed in the table are covered
in the passage and that they will have a chance to evaluate
their answers when they read it.
Task 2
The answer is d. Encourage the students to
justify
their
choice and their rejection of the other choices by referring
to specific
quotations.
Extensive reading
Task 1
Make sure the students are clear aboulthe task before
they start to read. Discuss the kinds of strategies needed
to skim effectively: for an example, reading the first and
last lines of each paragraph to identify the topics dealt
with.
Answers: 1 L. 1 to L.93
2L. 94t oL. 275
3L.276 to L.399
Task 2
Ask the students to write down answers to the two
questions before they get into groups. Then let them
compare answers in groups, referring back to the passage
if they need to sort out any differences. Check the
answers in class discussion, asking the students to
justify
their choices.
Note The questions have been framed to have no clear
single answer. They should, therefore, stimulate
argument. For 1, a is probably best; b does not
mention'language'; c and d deal with only part of
the content. For 2, cis perhaps best, although a
case could be made for a and b.
Intensive reading
Task 1
Make sure that the students know which section of the
text to read to do this task. Work through the questions
one at a time. They are intended to build up an
understanding of how the topic is orgaruzed, in a systematic
fashion.
1 Do these
questions orally with all the students.
Answers:
b The general idea is
'fixed
beliefs'.
c The viewpoint might be described as
'the
need to
challenge false assumptions about male/female
language'.
d They are key words because the whole purpose of
the text is to make people rethink their
assumptions.
e Some of the mlths mentioned are:
o males are serious and taciturn speakers/females are
gossipy and gamrlous
o females use more trivial words
. females stop talking in mid-sentence
r females talk about the same things over and over
agaln
. pitch differences are the result of anatomical
differences
2 The diagram is based on the second paragraph. Ask
the students to read the paragraph and to relate the
sentences in it to the different parts of the diagram.
When they have finished, ask them to close their
books and try to give an oral summary.
3 Ask the students to write their answers individually.
Check them orally.
Answers:
a Research has challenged the preconceptions.
b The preconceptions have had to be discarded
because the research has not been able to produce
any evidence to support them.
118 Teacher's
guide
4 These questions canbe done inpairs.
Answers:
a
'Pitch'
provides
an example of a difference that is in
the beholder rather than in the language.
b The preconception is that males are meant to talk in
low-pitched voices and females in high-pitched
volces.
c The true cause of male/female pitch differences is
social, i.e., there are' penalties' .
d The evidence includes:
. no anatomical differences
o pitch in males varies from country to country
depending upon'gender differentiation'
5 The other function ofparagraph ten is to lead in to the
next section. The paragraph tells us that this is
'language
and power'.
6 The purpose ofthis activity is to review the first
section. Ask the students to do the activity
individually, reading through the text carefully. Then
ask one of them to reproduce the first section in their
own words and invite the other students to comment
on the summary.
Task 2
Let the students work through questions 1 to 6 in this task
on their own, perhaps as homework. Make sure they
know which part of the text they have to read. Put them
into groups to compare answers. Go through the answers
with them quickly, or, better still, prepare an answer
sheet which you can give out to the groups for them to
check their own answers. In short, make the students do
the work needed in this task.
Answers:
l a
2 a false; b true; c false; d true; e false; ftrue
(We
leave it to you to work out how to rewrite
sentences a, c and e to make them true.
)
3 athey talkless thanmen
(i.e.,
theylisten to the men
talking)
b they don't interrupt and they don't protest when
men interrupt them.
4
Study Subjects Results Conclusions
I teachers at
conference
a
twice as
much male as
female talk
27t30
participants
believed
there had
been more
female talk
o
women talk
less than men
but are
believed to
dominate talk
Study Subjects Results Conclusions
2 32 females
and 5 males
in workshop
.
32158
minutes of
talk taken up
by males
o
most people
unaware of
dispropor-
tionate
amount of
male talking
time
males have to
talk almost all
the time
before they
are seen to
dominate talk
5 The'double standard'refers to the fact that people
view male and female talk from different points of view
according to their stereotypical ideas of how men and
women behave conversationally.
6 Females are polite because they have less power than
men. Because she is polite, the female forfeits her
equal rights of access to talk.
Question
7 helps students to review the section they have
been studying and to focus on the way the discourse is
organized,. If you decide to ask your
students to draw a
diagram, make sure that they can identify the paragraphs
covering the different sub-topics before they begin. When
they have drawn it ask one student to draw his/her
diagram on the board quickly; then invite other students to
comment on it and suggest improvements.
Task 3
1 Do this orally with the students.
Answers:
The
probLem
is that girls get less opportunity to talk in
mixed-sex schools than boys and tend to accept this
state of affairs. The solution is for teachers to helo
girls to enjoy the same rights to talk as boys, and
encourage them to demand these rights.
2 and3 Do these questions in groups. If you want to
save time give 2 and 3 to different groups.
Answers:
2 The best order is d, e, b, c, a, f. Other orders are
possible.
3 1. . . . qui et anddoci l e
2 . . . . talktoother girls
3. . . . rebuked for calling out
4. . . . k eeps i l ent
5 . . . . accept any task
(i.
e.
, Just
get on with it')
4 One way to do this is to instruct the students to write
down key
fhra.ses
from the text as they reread the
section. Then ask them to turn over their textbooks
and produce a summary of Spender's argument based
on the key phrases
they have noted down.
Teacher s
guil.e
119
Extension
Task 1
The purpose of this task is to explore to what extent
different students have responded differently to the article
-
in particular, according to whether they are male or
female! In the group work, encourage the students to
refer back to the passage to find evidence to support their
opinions. Check up on this in a class discussion at the end.
Task 2
Do this task as a class discussion. Take a class vote on 1 if
you like. Encourage the students to say whether they
think the article will charge their behaviour in mixed-sex
talk and. if so. how.
2 First person narrative
This section is deliberately shorter than section 1 and can
be completed in two one-hour lessons:
Lesson 7: AII the tasks inPreparation, Extensiae reading
and Intensiae reading.
Lesson 2: The Extensionlask.
Preparation
Do 1 with the whole class. Give the students only two or
three minutes to make their lists in 2 and tell them to
'brainstorm'.
Try and make sure that the groups are
mixed-sex. Perhaps the students could go on to discuss
what they think are the features of a
'sexist
wife'.
Extensive reading
The students should work individually on ttris task. Short
written answers are enough. Write the correct answers on
the board and let the students correct their own answers
without discussion.
Answers:
1 She disobeys him.
2 Hit her.
3 Tries to hit Sofia.
4 Sofia beats up Harpo.
Intensive reading
Do this task as group work. You can give 1 and 2 to
different
groups if time is short. Make time for class
discussion at the end, though.
Answers:
1
'he
sound a little proud of this to me'.
2 He feels that he has to make Sofia
'mind',
i. e.
,
accept
his authority because he is a man.
3 We are told that Sofia acts very differently from Celie,
i. e.
,
she shows no fear of Harpo or Mr. -.
Therefore Celie must be afraid. A.lso we are told that
Celie
Jumps'when
Mr. - calls her.
She keeps talking when the men come into the room.
We are told that Celie thinks Sofia pities her. Celie
resents this and therefore suggests that Harpo beat
his wife.
6 He is embarrassed to admit to his father that he has
never beaten Sofia.
Celie Sofia Harpo Mr. -
stoical
jealous
vam
spirited
conformist
stubborn
aITOgant
cruel
Extension
Do 1 as a class discussion. 2 needs careful preparation
before the students start working in their
groups. In
particular, you need to get the students to identify the
different scenes mentioned in the extract:
e Harpo, Mr. - and Celie on the porch
.
Sofia and Harpo talking while Sofia is getting ready to
visit her sister
.
Sofia and Celie talking when the men come into the
room
r Harpo trying to beat up his wife and getting beaten up
himself
.
Celie meeting Harpo the next day
3 Review activities
Begin this section by allowing a few minutes for the
students to skim through the texts in the previous sections
to remind themselves of their content.
Task 1
This task can be done as group work. In addition to
providing evidence ftom The C olour P urple extract you
could ask the students to provide evidence from their own
expenences.
Sofia's spirit is finally broken, she ends up working as a
servant for a white familyl
Task 2
1 The
'ideal'characteristics
should take the form of:
'Shelhe
should be. . . . . .'
Encourage the students to think about language
behaviour
(i.e.,
talkative, silent, etc.). When the pair
work is over ask the students to what extent they
found evidence of stereotypical views.
2
'Positive
discrimination' consists of deliberate
attempts to favour women in society. Some
suggestions of what forms this might take are:
. reserve places for women in university in subjects
such as engineering
o reserve a given number of places for women in
parliament
.
deliberately allow women to interrupt, while
rebuking men for doing so
.
appoint women as the chairpersons in mixed
committees/meetings
4
5
120 Teachet/s guide
UNIT 2
1 Exposition
Preparation
Task 1
l-4 These questions don't have
'correct'answers.
Their main point is to encourage students to think
and talk about what is involved in comprehensron.
They are therefore best done as group discussron
tasks.
5-G Try to get as many different interpretations as
possible and to ask students why they responded to
the sentences in certain ways. Try to get them to
appreciate the importance of previous experience,
of cultural norms, of stereotypes, of personal
opinions, of expectations, etc, when trying to
comprehend a written text.
7 This could be done as a class activity with the main
components of the theory written on the board.
The teacher should act as a facilitator rather than as
an informant but should try to make sure that the
students appreciate that comprehension does not
just
involve knowing the words.
Task 2
You could discuss the implications of each heading with the
class and then get students to work in pairs to predict the
content of the passage.
Extensive reading
Task 1
This could be done as a pair reading task with the partners
discussing the match between their predictions and the
passage as they read. They should be clear that they don't
need to spend time discussing the meanings of difficult
words or sentences.
Task 2
The main points made by Christine Nuttall about reading
comprehension are:
1 The reader plays an active role in getting out ofthe
text the message that the writer has put into the text.
2 The reader needs to try to work out what linguistic,
cultural and topic assumptions the writer has made
about the readers.
3 For most reading purposes it is not necessary to have
total understanding of the text.
4 In order to achieve the degree ofunderstanding
required the reader needs to interact with the writer
and to ask questions about the text.
5 Predicting the likely language, content and attitude of
the text can be a great aid to comprehension.
Intensive reading
Task 1
This activity is best done as a group discussion in
which the sharing and
justifyine
of opinions is more
important than the answers decided upon.
Our answer is:
b r by getting the reader to think about and answer
questions: e.g.,
'Is
the reader's role passive?'
.
by getting
the reader to do actual reading tasks:
e. g. , 4. 2
r by challenging the reader's assumptions about
reading: e. g.
,
that reading is passive
d
.
by the use of simple diagrams: e. g.
,
Fig 4
.
by analogies with non-linguistic activities: e. g.
,
assembling furniture
f .
by getting the reader to do reading activities
which prove her points: e.9., 4.4 and 4.9
h .
by not treating her answer as absolute: e.g.,
'Here
are my comments; you may well find other
things.'
Any answer is acceptable provided it is
justified
by an
example from the text.
a 4.1
'Why
do we reject this?'
b 4.8 Making a table.
c 4.6
'The
meaning is not merely lying . . . or
intellectual limitations.'
To help them understand what she is saying Nuttall:
. encourages her readers to interact with her text by
asking them to think about questions before she
provides her answers.
o gets her readers to use their knowledge of the
world, of the topic and of English to lead them into
predictions about what she is going to say next
(e. g.
,
to predict what she is going to say about
Reader b in 4.6).
o involves them as active readers by getting them to
do tasks as they read.
o gets them to use their experience of reading and of
the world to help them to understand what she is
saying
(e. g.
,
comparing reading with carpentry).
r gets them to relate what she is saying to what she
has said before
(e. g., the reference in 4.3 back to
the chemistry text in 4.2).
In this activity the process of analysing and discussing
is more important than getting the answer right. It is
therefore a good idea to do it as a pair or group activity
and to accept any answers which are
justified
by
reference to the text.
Task 2
1 This is best done first as an individual task so that all
the students have to think of an example, and then as
a group task in which they share their examples and
then reach general conclusions about the causes of
misinterpretation.
Teachels guide 121
6
The diagram should indicate in some way that the
reader has to do something to the text in order to get
meaning out of it and it should show some of the water
spilling down the face.
One possible answer is:
'A
text is difficult to understand if the reader does not
share with the writer the same code, knowledge or
way of thinking.'
One interesting way of doing this activity is for groups
to write the texts collectively and then for each group
to read its texts at random and to ask the other
students to say who the message of each text is
intended for. Students and the teacher can then give
feedback to the group on the appropriacy of the text
for the intended decoder.
We think she presupposed that the readers would:
.
be either educated native speakers of English or
educated advanced level non-native speakers of
English.
o have a reason for wanting to find out about the
process of reading comprehension.
o not akeady have expert knowledge about the
processes ofreading.
r not be familiar with specialist linguistic
terminology.
o find some of her points initially surprising.
There are many possible situations in which only
partial understanding is needed. For example:
o finding the arrival time of a train in a timetable.
r listening to a song for pleasure.
An example of a situation requiring total
understanding would be following written instructions
on how to operate a machine.
Reading for partial understanding only requires the
reader to focus on those aspects of the message
which are relevant and important to the reader. It
does not require careful reading of every word and
can often be done quickly. Reading for total
understanding requires slow, careful reading and
rereading of the whole text.
Easy: Situations in which you are reading about
something you have a lot of experience and
knowledge of. For example:
o the venue of an international soccer match in a
country in which internationals are nearly always
played in the same stadium
(e.g.,
Wembley in
England).
r
the instruction' Now stir the mixture' in a recipe
which has told you to put different ingredients intc
the same bowl.
Difficult: Situations in which you are reading about
something
you have no previous knowledge or
experience of. For example:
r instructions on how to play a game you have never
heard of before.
o
the age of a character mentioned in the lirst line of
a novel.
Try to get as many examples as possible from
students.
9 The
'value'
of an utterance is
'the
significance of the
utterance for particular speakers in a particular
situation'
(i.
e.
,
what the speaker is trying to
achieve). For example, the value of
'Aren't
you cold?'
could be a request for the window to be closed.
Obviously you cannot expect your students to
predict such an accurate answer. Accept any
prediction which is feasible but then tell the students
what Nuttall does mean by'value'.
See 5. 1 page 12 to 13 of Teaching reading skills in a
foreign
languageby Christine Nuttall for a full
explanation of
'value'.
10 This is best done as an individual task followed by
group discussion. The compansons are:
r text-j ugofwater
.
mind
-
sponge
r reading
-
walking up a hill
o reading a difficult text
-
chopping down trees to get
to the top of a hill
o reading a text
-
assembling furniture from a kit
Extension
Task 1
1 What matters is that students are able to use the visual
and textual clues
(e. g. the contrast between the
childish toothbrush and the razor; the frequent
reference to spots, etc) to make predictions about the
content of the book from their theories of the world. It
does not matter whether the predictions are accurate
or not as long as they are feasible.
2 Any feasible predictions are acceptable. The crucial
point to understand is that the dedication is
deliberately deceptive and that its irony can only be
appreciated by relating to the new information in b and
the satirical tone of the extract in c.
Task 2
Each student could decide to write the story individually,
in a pair or in a group. The stories could be pinned on the
wall for everybody to read or possibly monitored and then
published in a class magazine.
2 Narrative
Preparation
Task 1
1 There are several feasible answers to these questions.
Don't give the actual answers
(below) yet, as that will
spoil the next task.
.
'them'
in the first extract refers to prisoners
o
they are in a prison cell together
r they are there as prisoners ofwar
Extensive reading
Task 1
The characters are so obsessed by time because they
122 Teacher s
guide
never know the exact time and because the ritual of trme
probably helps to give a comforting sense of routine and
system to a very uncomfortable and disturbing situatron.
The author probably started the novel in this way to first of
all involve our curiosity in working out what is happening
(through
using our theories of the world) and then to
provide us with a frrsthand experience of the situation the
prisoners are in which will help us to understand the
motives of some of the characters later on in the novel.
Intensive reading
Task 1
1 It involves the reader actively from the start in
having to work out who'them'refers to.
2 (e.g.the
card game) To occupy themselves; to stop
them thinking about what might happen to them.
3 Each prisoner had his own awareness of what time it
was. Time meant a way of keeping sane, by relating
their situation to something routine and reliable.
4 They wanted the prestige of being the only reliable
keepers of the time.
5 In a way the watches had become more important
than their owners; they were of more value to the
other prisoners.
6 They were the only two men with access to the time;
the others depended on them for'news'about the
tlme.
7 They were terrified of becoming hostages and had
nothing else to think about to distract them from
their growing fear.
8 To compare it with his own time. Possibly in the
hope that the antique watch had stopped.
9 He felt he had betrayed his fellow prisoners by losing
the only way of giving them the correct time.
10 They were the only two men of position among the
prisoners (i.
e. a mayor and a lawyer). The mayor
hated Chavel because he suspected him of trying to
become the leader of the prisoners and because
Chavel's criticisms of him showed he had no resDect
for his position.
11 Because if the others found out he would lose the
credibility and power he had gained as one of the
providers of the time.
' Pursued' conveys
the mayor' s desperate need to
catch up with Pierre's time.
12 Possibly because he suspected something was wrong
from the mayor's appearance and behaviour.
13 o
the time told by his watch
o the time he had invented and which therefore onlv
belonged to him
14 It would be useful to prepare the class for this task by
analyzing the statement with them before asking
them to analyze the text in pairs.
lean
-
no unnecessary words or details
shar!-eyed
-
helping to visualize the essential details
of the scene
Greene has done a lot of work as a film script-writer.
Coray is saying this has helped him to write this
scene in such a way that it becomes dramatically
visible to the reader.
Preparation
Task 1
Encourage the students to use their imaginations and
theories of the world by getting them to consider all the
possibilities of choice within the situation. At this stage
don't tell them the actual answers to the questions.
Extensive reading
Task I
You could help the students by getting them to answer
questions 2a-eby detailed reference to the text as a
preparation for doing 2f and 3 as group activities.
Intensive reading
Task 1
1 Possibly because it was a task which befitted his
position, because he wanted to be seen to be
important and perhaps because he hoped to be able to
manipulate the draw to his own advantage.
2 a to be systematic and to appear to be fair.
b so that he will draw near the end when the marked
papers have possibly already been drawn.
c because it gives him the chance to go first and get it
over with.
3 His mind was on his fate.
4
r Because it reduced his chances of drawing a marked
paper.
. Because the odds were narrowing as each man drew
a blank piece of paper.
.
Because there was now a one-in-three chance that
he would draw a marked card.
5
o To check that his paper really was marked.
o He did not really know how to behave.
6 Because there now appeared to be a one-in-two
chance of getting
the marked paper. He wanted
Chavel to have to draw again and thus to lengthen the
odds.
Extension
Each pair or group could be made responsible to another
pair or group for monitoring their work and suggesting
improvements to it. The revised work could then be
'published'on
the walls or in a class magaztne.
3 Review activities
1 It would help if you
could provide books for the
students to use in this activity.
3 If possible the paragraphs should be written for a
particular class of students. The most suitable
paragraph could then be selected and improved by the
whole class and given to the intermediate students to
read.
Teacher's
gu'ilt
123
UNIT 3
I Reporting an experiment
You will need several lessons to complete this section.
One possible teaching scheme
you could follow is:
Lesson 7
(1
hour): The tasks nPrefaration and Extensiue
reading
Lesson2
(1
hour): Tasks 1 and,2of Intensiuereading
Self-study: Tasks 3 and 4 of Intensiue reading
Lesson 3
(1
hour): The tasks in Extension
Preparation
Task 1
Begrn by writing
'parrot-talk'
on the board and asking the
students what it means.
Do 1 orally with the whole class, spending most time on
the differences between human and animal
communication. Make a list of the differences the students
suggest on the board.
The students should then do 2 individually. Don't spend a
long time going over their responses and don't attempt to
indicate which responses are correct or incorrect. Tell
them that they will have the chance to compare their
answers to those given in the passage later.
Ask the students to do 3 and 4 in groups. Allow about
eight minutes only. In the class discussion that follows, the
following criticisms of the experiment should emerge:
o the experiment only tests the parrot's ability to
remember the names of objects, but language is more
than
just
memory for words.
.
the experiment only tests the parrot's ability to say the
words when it can see the objects they name.
.
the researcher's conclusion is unjustified, as children
are not taught to speak in this way and the parrot cannot
be said to have'learnt language'.
Children learn their language as a result of communicating
with their parents; to find out if parrots can learn English
like a child, one would have to carry out an experiment in
which the experimenter spent time holding'conversations'
with a parrot.
The answer to 4 is b.
Extensive reading
Task I
Encourage the students to read through the passage
quickly without referring to the table. They can then read
through the statements and put a tick next to those they
are certain about. If there are any statements they are not
sure about they will need to check the passage again.
When they have finished the exercise, ask the students to
compare their responses to those they made to the same
statements nPreparation Task 1.2
(page
43).
Answers:
The passage provides direct or indirect evidence to
support statements 1, 3, 5, 6,7,8, 10, 11, 12, L3 and
14. However, the parrot's ability to do some of these,
such as 13, is very limited.
Task 2
1 The students should skim through the text
individually; they may need to be reminded of the best
way to skim to discover how the text is organized into
sections.
Answers:
1 L. l t o L. 89
2 L. 90 t o L. 140
3 L. 141 t o L. 159
2 Do the second part with the n'hole class. The tlpe of
organization described here is that which would be
found in a report of a scientific experiment in a
journal.
The passage does not follort this organization because
it is intended for a more general, less academic
readership. The passage is more
journalistic
in
or ganizalion and style.
Task 3
This task helps to consolidate rvhat the students should
already have discovered from Task 2. If there is time, ask
the students to do it in groups; if not, thel can do it for
homework.
Answers:
a The passage was written for the educated general
reader.
Some of the clues are:
o the title
(it is flippant)
.
use of colloquialisms
(e.g.,
' So
what?' )
r avoidance of too many technical terms
r
short sent ences
(e. 9. , ' ALex
can' . )
o the informal way the information is organized
r
the writer does not assume the reader alreadv has
knowledge about language experiments involring
animals
(i.
e. , everything is made explicit r.
Intensive reading
Task 1
Make sure that the students know u'hich section of the
passage the questions in this task are based on.
Give the students a few minutes to sort out the sentences
individually. Then ask a student to act as' teacher' by gohg
through the statements with the rest of the students; if the
'teacher'is
wrong replace himther with another student
who is right.
Answers:
1 subject + results
3 method
5 method
7 conclusions
2 conclusions
4 results
6 method * results
8 results
Task 2
Again make it clear to the students which section of the
passage this task is based on.
1 Do this quickly with the whole class.
No, the information in the passage does not follow the
order suggested.
An academic article would Dresent its information in
this order.
124 Teacher's
guide
If time is short, you could distribute questions 2,3 and 4
to different groups to work on. Then instead of going
through each question in class discussion afterwards, you
could ask the group leaders to give brief oral reports on
what they have discovered about the information in the
paragraphs they have been studying.
2 a
(c) provides the most accurate summary.
b
' So
what?' means
' what
is special about this?' It is
meant to challenge the reader to pay attention.
c The writer's point is that previous experiments with
parrots have not demonstrated that a parrot can
really learn language
(i.
e.
,
they have been
problematic), but the present experiment has
succeeded to a much greater extent and is,
therefore, worth paying attention to.
3 a These paragraphs provide information on the
method.
b One method is called model/rival training and
involves making the parrot compete for the trainer's
attention. The other method involves repetition and
reward.
4 a Results:
o
807o right on object naming test
o produced novel combinations of words
(e.
9.,'
blue
hide' )
r learnt to say' no'
. learnt to count to five
b Conclusions:
o capable of
'segmentation'
. seems to understand the concept of
'rejection'
(i.
e.
,
a more complicated idea)
c The first conclusion is contained in the sentence.
'This
suggests that he is capable. . . different
combinations.' The generalization is the first
sentence of paragraph six.
Tasks 3 and 4
Ask the students to work through the questions in these
two tasks in their own time, for homework. Let them
check their answers in groups with the help of answer
cards in the next lesson. Deal only with major problems of
understanding.
Ansuers:
Task 3
1 b apes.
2
'The
argument is about whether apes can understand
slmtax or segmentation' .
3 debates
-
acrimony
-
argument
-
disputed
-jeer -
sceptics
-
allegation
4 b Novel combinations may occur through sheer
chance.
c Researchers may give unconscious cues to the
animals.
Task 4
1 b
2 Parrots are better subjects than apes because it is not
so easy to give unconscious cues to a parrot which
might help it to produce complicated language.
Extension
Task 1
1 Make sure that the students understand the pairs of
adjectives in the table. They may need to undertake
some preliminary dictionary work. It is important to
make sure that students can
justify
their opinions by
quoting evidence from the passage. To show them
how to do this it might help to do the first pair
(sceptical -
convinced) with the whole class.
Task 2
The questions in this task are challenging. Put the
students into groups and ask them to work through the
three questions, allowing plenty of time for discussion.
Have the leaders report their group's opinions to the rest
of the class and allow other
groups to challenge them.
Answers:
1 a The evidence is in the parrotlearning to say'no'.
It is difficult to see how this is a'more complicated
idea'. Many animals have communicative devices for
expressing rejection.
b
'Segmentation'refers
to the ability to recognize that
an utterance is composed of separate elements
(e. g., words). It is crucial to language learning
because without it we would only be capable of
learning whole chunks
(i.
e., complete utterances)
and would not be able to create our own sentences.
The experiment gives some limited evidence that
the parrot is capable of experimentation, but a
single instance
(and
that is all that is reported) does
not constitute definite proof.
2 The answers here are largely a matter of opinion. One
would want to see more evidence that parrots are
capable of learning the grammar of a language: for
example, the ability to produce sentences with a
different word order as in statements or questions.
3 The article would need to be reorganized
(introduction
-
subject
-
method
-
conclusion), the style would need
to be made more formal, and a more objective analysis
of the experiment provided.
2 Third person narrative
You will need about two hours
(together
with some
homework time) to complete the tasks in this sectior,.
Preparation
Task 1
Questions
1 and 3 are best done with the whole class.
Question
2 canbe done in group work. Ifyou have
students from different cultures
you may find that they
have different ideas about the characteristics of some of
the animals,
(for
example, spiders might be seen as
Teachels
guide 125
'creepy'or
as'cunning'). In the class discussion that
follows the group work try to bring out any cultural
differences. You might like to end question 2 by asking'If
you were to become an animal, which of the animals in the
list would
you like to be and why?'.
Extensive reading
Task 1
Discuss the kinds of reading strategies the students should
use to read the passage in order to answer question 1.
Emphasize that it is not necessary to read every sentence.
Set a time limit for doing the reading and answering
question 1: four minutes should be ample. Short answers
only are needed. Do question 2 otally with the class.
Answers:
I a Hazel and Fiver
b Bigwig
c Abandon the warren.
d Fiver thinks something very bad is going to happen
to them.
f. Hazel gives evidence of Fiver's previous predictions
that have proved correct
(L.
50). He has also risked
coming to see the Chief Rabbit with Fiver!
Quotations
Comment
This indicates that
Bigwig is trusting and
also capable of making
his own decisions. He is
a good judge
of
character.
He is very nervous
(he
stutters) and excitable.
He is unable to explain
things clearly.
He is forgetful. A
rational rather than
intuitive person.
Authoritative.
Hazel does not seem
unduly embarrassed by
Fiver's behaviour. He is
calm and collected,
unawed by the situation.
4 ,A.dams makes us think of the rabbits in human terms;
they have all the mannerisms of humans. But he
constantly reminds us that they are indeed rabbits by
references to the
'world'
of rabbits
(e.9.,
'burrow'
and
'lettuce'),
their actions
(e.g.,'sniffind)
and parts of
their body
(e.
9.,' forePaws').
Task 2
These questions can be done as self-study. Afterwards go
through the answers quickly and then spend some time
discussing with the students what they have found out
about the theme from doing the questions.
Answers:
1 a soldiers of some kind
b they keep control; they steal lettuce for the Chief
Rabbit
c they
'threaten
and bully'
(L.32)
2 Hazelis an
'outskirter'
(i.
e. , commoner).
Bigwig is a royal guard.
The Chief Rabbit is a kind of president or king.
3 The rabbits'society is very hierarchical: each person
has a clearly defined place with clearly defined rights
and privileges.
4 c
Extension
Ask the students to do questions 1, 2 and 3 in pairs. Tell
them there are no
'correct'
answers, but that they should
be prepared to
justify
their answers with reference to the
passage. The film script should be prepared in class
(i.
e.
,
the main episodes covered in the extract listed) and then
f
2 c
Fiver; the warren is
for allowing Fiver and
Intensive Reading
Task 1
Before the students turn to the exercises, ask them to
write down all the names of the characters in the extract
and to pick two adjectives to describe each of them. Then
ask them to do question 1 individually. Put them into
groups and ask them to compare their answers to 1 and
then to work through questions 2 and3 together. After a
general class discussion of their answers, do question 4
orally.
Answers:
2 a Bigwig ignored Fiver
(L.
3). Bigwig refers to tum as
' he' L. 6.
b Bigwig says
'I'll
do it
for
you' (L.
9).
c Bigwig comments that the Chief Rabbit ought to
know Hazel but doesn't. He also comments Ihat'he
is getting ol.d'.
The Chief Rabbit keeps forgetting Hazel's name.
'.
. . or so they tell me'
(L.70)
suggests that he does
not keep in direct contact with the affairs of the
warren.
d He behaves in a distant way with Hazel and Fiver,
quickly irritated if corrected. He tells Bigwig off for
allowing the two rabbits in to see him.
e Bigwig comments'I'll
frobably
get mry head bitten
off
,
meaning
'be
scolded by the Chief Rabbit.'
He sees no reason to believe
thriving.
The Chief Rabbit scolded htm
Hazelto disturb him.
Chief Rabbit
Bigwig Hazel Fiuer Chief Rabbit
dutitul
trusting
sensible
confident
neurotic
clairvoyant
supenor
forgetful
126 Teacher/s
guid.e
written collaboratively in small groups. Ask the students
to act out their scripts if there is time.
3 Review activities
Task 1
Help the students to get a clear idea of the different types
of information
(Orientation,
etc.
)
by telling them an
anecdote or short story and getting them to identify which
information belongs to which category. The task itself can
be done in group work or individually. Students can be
invited to give oral summaries based on their completed
tables.
Task 2
Do question 1 orally. Ask the students to do 2 individually.
When they have finished pair them off
(both
students in a
pair should have done the same task); they can take it in
turns to explain their outline and to ask questions or offer
suggestions for improvements about their partner's
outline.
UNIT 4
I Analysis
Preparation
Task 1
1 Rules tell people what they are and are not allowed to
do in a particular situation
(such
as a particular place,
sport, club, institution, etc). Probably the first
definition is the clearest, most precise and most valid.
The others only focus on one aspect of rules.
b
c
There is no law which enforces the use of
' some' in
positive statements and makes people liable to
prosecution if they disobey it.
acceptable
Paying bribes is against the law. You are not
normally sent to prison for breaking regulations.
d It is advisable to follow the instructions as they are
written to help you to use the machine. Instructions
are never compulsory.
e You can break laws but not procedures. He lost his
job
because he did not follow the procedures.
f acceptable
g
acceptable
3 Examples of' things that haoe rules': competitsons,
factories, companies, trade unions.
Other
'common
linguistic
features
of rules' include:
c Modals: for example,
'You
must report any accident
to the supervisor.'
d Passive of allow/permit: for example,
'You
are not
allowed to sign in more than two guests per month.'
e No * noun/gerund: for example,
'No
glasses
allowed by the swimming-pool.'
'No
singing.'
Task 2
Accept any feasible rules and help the students to phrase
them correctly.
Intensive reading
Task 1
They are four rules of communication expressing the
need to be clear and to be polite.
a Hearer
b Speaker
c First language
d Second language
e Contrastive Analysis
bandc
He makes assumptions that certain linguistic terms
will be understood, such as,
'addressee
citation'but
explains his points with a thoroughness and
explicitness which would not be necessary with
experienced linguists.
'Non-free
goods: people's age, salaries, politics,
love affairs, ambitions, etc.
'Free'goods:
distances,times,populations,
etc.
A Hallo. That's a nice shirt. How much did you pay
for it?
B
Quite
a lot.
A Where are you going?
B To see a friend.
A A girlfriend?
B Maybe.
A How old is she?
B Mind your own business.
a reLatioistic notion
-
somellttng which is viewed
differently in different cultures
(e. g. in England it is
considered rude to ask a stranger where he/she is
going; in Indonesia it is quite normal).
2
talfc
Sides
Teacher/s
guid.e
127
euphemisms
-polite
expressions used to refer to
things which are considered unpleasant or
embarrassing.
aaoi.dance leremes
-
words used to avoid using other
words which are considered to be rude,
embarrassing or unpleasant.
taboo areas
-topics
which are not supposed to be
referred to in public.
a Eating flying ants is revolting.
b
'little
room'- toilet
7 By offering to make a sacriflce.
e.g. S' I' l l take that sack of wood toMrs Brown' s
when I walk home tonight.'
H
'Oh
no. I'll take it in the car now.'
One possible dialogue is:
S
'These
flowers are looking a bit sad. They
could do with some water.'
H
'They'll
be all right. It looks as if it's going to
rain.'
8 A question which implies a command: for example,
'Do
you like sitting in a draught?'
(i.e.
Close the
door).
9 a
'Hi.
Everything OK?'
b' Hal l o. Howare thi ngs?'
c
'Good
morning. How are you?'
10 The writer rarely uses the first person singular
pronoun and does not give his personal views.
Instead he uses the first person plural pronoun, uses
special terminology
(e. g.
'addressee'),
uses tentative
modals
(e. g.
'The
reader might care to consider') and
frequently uses formal expressions
(e. g.
'must
be
construed';
'lest').
These characteristics are typical
of a semi-formal, objective, expository style.
11 Grice
Toric Effective
conversatlon.
Lakoff
Acceptably polite
conversation.
Content Keep the interest and At least appear to be
attention of the considerate to the
listener. listener.
Slyle Affirmative Negative and
imperatives. affirmative
lmperauves.
Purpose As an aid to speakers As an aid to speakers
in conversations. in conversations
Extension
Task 1
Possible openings:
o
Question
with known answer
(e. g.
'Have
you been to the match?')
o Provocative statement
(e.g.
'People
shouldn't be allowed to smoke in
here, shouldthey?')
r Topic nomination
(e.g.
'See
the bus
fares are going up again.').
Possible closings:
. Reasons for closing
(e. g. I must go.
I'm expected home bY ten.')
o Expression ofgood wishes
(e.g.
'Well,
I hope you win the game.')
The maxim writing could be done as a pair competition
with everybody voting for the pair they consider to have
written the most accurate and pithy maxims.
2 Using rules
Preparation
Task 1
1 An alcoholic drink made with apples.
2 Abuildingwhereciderismade.
3 It only lasts for a short period ofthe year (i.e. just
after the apple harvest).
It attracts people who don't have a permanentjob,
people who are prepared to move around the country
looking for work and people who choose to work
during their holidays.
4 This could be done as a plenary session with the
teacher eliciting ideas, suggestions and then rules
from the class. The rules could be written up on one
side of the board exactly as they are dictated by the
students. Then, if necessary, they could be rewritten
on the other side with suggestions for corrections and
improvements coming from the students.
5 There are no correct answers to these questions. Any
feasible suggestion will help the students when they
come to reading the passage.
Extensive reading
Task 1
It might be useful to create an impression of Homer first
(e.g.
his age, appearance, background, character, etc).
Intensive reading
Task 1
1 The tone ofpolite appeal and especially the use of
'Please'.
The writer is probably a well-meaning person who has
the interests of the workers at heart. Heishe has
probably tried to get the workers to follow these rules
without much success and has probably tried many
different ways of phrasing them. He/she obviously
does not want to bully, order or offend the workers,
preferring to appeal to their sense of reason instead.
The workers obviously like to enjoy themselves in the
evening. They are a bit reckless in their behaviour;
they drink a lot
(sometimes whilst working), smoke in
bed and like to congregate on the roof. They are not
always responsible in their attitude towards their work.
128 Teacher's guide
2 1 It is dangerous and could damage the operator and/
or the machine.
This is a fire risk
-
especially after drinking.
There might be an accident.
Otherwise they might not be usable the next time
they are needed.
Otherwise it will not work properly next time.
They might drop
(or
be dropped) off the roof and
cause injury/damage/mess.
7 This could be fatal if the door gets locked.
8 AJter that it might disrupt the work.
9 Otherwise the roof might collapse.
Obviously in the past the workers have been guilty of
the practices which are appealed agairst in the Rules.
3 To draw special attention to it. Obviously the rotary
screen is frequently not washed until the pomace has
dried on it.
4 The writer is trying to stress the importance of this
rule by being more authoritarian in the wording.
6 Either as a sign ofrejection ofthe rules or of
indifference towards them,
(or possibly to use the
paper for another purpose).
7 a the device which crushes the apples into small
pleces.
b the device which crushes the apples with great
force in order to squeeze out their
juice.
c the cloth which allows only the
juice
to pass
through.
d a device which moves round and prevents anything
but the
juices
from getting through.
e presumably what is left of the flesh of the apples
after they have been ground and pressed.
f a large refrigerated room for keeping things fresh.
g
the person in charge ofthe workers.
Extension
Task 1
You could lead short preparatory discussions for each of
the activities, and then invite each student to chose which
activity to do.
Preparation
Task 1
You could ask the students what they know already about
the workers and about Mrs Worthington
(obviously
she is
the writer of the rules). and then leave them to do the task
ln pars or groups.
Extensive reading
Task I
1 This could be done as a pair-work reading activity in
which two students read the text together and stop to
discuss any sentence relevant to their predictions or
which reveals information about Mr Rose.
2 He probably expected them
(from previous years),
and wanted to show he had noticed them and
appreciated them but didn' t place any value on them.
3 He implies that he has got his own rules which he will
make the workers follow.
4 He probably appreciates her concern for the workers
and her pleasant manner with him but thinks she is not
strong enough as a boss.
5 She respects him as a worker but there is something
about him she dislikes and fears.
There are obviously many other possible
interpretations.
Intensive reading
Task 1
1 a True.
'It
was a hot, Indian-summer dq,',
(i.e.
after
summer). Also apples are usually harvested in
autumn
(called'fall'in
the USA).
b He is not mentioned so has probably died or is
permanently ill. Mrs Worthington obviously runs
the farm and has done so for a long time.
c No. Olive is Mrs Worthington.
d The seventeen pickers, the cook and Mr Rose are
negroes who have travelled together from the
South. As they waited in their cars, there was'an
orchestra of black
fingers
strumming' .
e Yes. They wait in their cars for him to represent
them to Mrs Worthington.
f Probably, Mrs Worthington implies that Mr Rose
should read the rules to them.
g They are in the parking lot at first but then they
move inside the cider hous e:
'Mrs
Worthington
touched the rules she'd tacked to the wall . . .'.
h It is their first meeting. Mr Rose invites Homer to
watch the first press (i.
e. he has never seen one
before) and Mrs Worthington afterwards tells
Homer her views of Mr Rose.
i He obviously tries to
(he
is proud of how much cider
they can produce so quickly) but does not
completely succeed. Mrs Worthington implies that
they do not work as hard as Mrs Rose.
j
He implies this when he says with a smile,
'I'm
good
at rules'.
k This is implied in the last sentence.
2 They are probably impatient to get out of the cars after
a long
journey.
3 Probably to cheer up an unattractive place and to show
her consideration for the workers.
4 They may cause problems (such
as fights over the
women, or accidents with the children).
5 So that they are bound to be seen.
6 Probably because he knows that Mrs Worthington is
aware that her rules will be ienored and his will be
followed.
7 He wants to impress him and to show him who is really
in charge.
8 To signal that he is the boss ofthe workers and should
be treated with resoect.
2
3
4
c
6
Teacher's
guide
129
Extensive reading
This could be done as a pair reading activity or with the
teacher reading the text aloud and stopping every so often
to invite responses from the class.
a Homer seems to really hope that one year the rules
will actually be obeyed. He also wants to show his
sy'rnpathy towards the workers while at the same
time asserting that he is in charge and refuses to be
defeated by their pranks and insults.
b The rules weren't obeyed because the workers
probably felt insulted by them, especially by the
pretence of consideration for their welfare. They
probably also saw disobeying the rules as an
opportunity to assert their independence.
Extension
Task 1
Both activities could be prepared through class discussion
with each student then deciding which one to do and
whether to do it individually, in a parr or rn a group.
Preparation
Task 1
This is best done as a group activity as its main purpose ts
to get the students thinking about various possibilities for
the rules of the race.
Extensive reading
Task 1
The rules could be described as follows:
I Each team has three men and a horse.
2 The race is over ffieen miles
-
three laps of five miles'
3 The winning team is the one which wins most laps.
4 One runner from each team must cover all three laps'
5 On the first lap the sprinters ride the horses whilst the
distance runners run most of the way. However the
sprinters must run at least the last furlong of the lap.
6 On the second lap the quarter-milers ride the horses
whilst the distance runners run most of the way.
However the quarter-milers must run at least the last
quarter of a mile of the lap.
7 On the last lap the distance runners ride the horses for
four miles and then run the last mile.
The Indian probably won the first lap as Moriarty's
team obviously needed to win the last two laps to wn
the race.
Buck won the second lap.
Moriarty won the third lap.
Moriarty's team won the race.
Before writing the newspaper report, it would be useful to
have a class discussion about the likely style and content of
the article.
Intensive reading
Task 1
Accept any feasible answers. The original words were:
Thus itwas that, on 20 April 1 878, the micles of the Yuta County Foot R*e Ee sign4
Articles of Agreement
1 The competition !o take place owr thre five-mile Iaps stming at noon on 20
Ocrober 1878, a circulu cou$e encompassing the Bigv/cti El Diablo Mounhin
dd the town of Y"t4 c+j itself, the stm to be +he svena VisLA Hot.l
2 Each @m will consist of three men *J oe hoae
3 The comp!,!'on will be arelay over th@ sepdate laps, two men from
each tem dd a horse competrng over each lap, with only the JisLme on"ers
completing the full fifreen-mile couse, the other runners completing one lap
onl5 Thus, the sprinter md distance-runner from each tem will .owr th
{irst l.p, rhe qumr-milels mddistcn"e
-r.""ecs the second, with the final
lap covereA hg the Jisl*e -.-n"e"s J-rc
4 The two-mo tems will be . w.J bo lu or ride at lheir dis@tion on each
lap, dle only ploviso being that on the f rrst lq bhe sgi"tees udtrun the fmal
fulong to the fuish, on the second lap the
t@rtr
F,l.rs melt nn the frnal quder-
mile md on the last lap the Ji.t4.< -.*,
t|.e ,"J nile, these distmces being
mdked by Union flags and being scrudnised by officials appointed by a"{e
Hag"cs The distmce-runne$ ee requircd to .o...
"ll
Ll-' l"fs the
other two runners coFpctiq -5.r^rt .a<h othe. only on oae lap
5 The winner of the competition is the t* -l,r.l hd wo^ k hq+ lap
v, ct or, es i . e. 2-0
-
2-1. Lhe f i nal t bi t er on al l compedt i ons bei ng Judge
Haynes. Shoul dt hef i st t wo . . c resol t t . wi ct oel
f or any one t em,
then tle final lap by the drstece-runne$ will not be runi
6 The L-. horscs ee to be selected by Judge Haynes, md the pffies in dispute
(Peter Boyle md William Brcnnm) will throw dice for . hote of rc"nts
7 The owneNhip and watering rights of the aEa known as The Big Wet will be
assi gned o t he sponsorof t he vt . t d. i ous l e^
Extension
Task 1
If ttre class got really interested in this task you could turn
it into an extended
project with newspaper and video
interviews, letters of invitation to actual athletes and
commentaries and reports on the actual event. You might
even sell the idea to an actual sponsor and manage to
achieve a real race.
3 Review activities
1 a Visitors to a private club.
b In the entrance to the club and probably also in the
bar and restaurant.
c To make sure there are no embarrassing scenes
when guests try to pay for drinks or meals.
d To make the rule absolute.
2 a Players of a game.
b In the instructions contained in the box the game is
packed in.
To help people understand how to play the game.
To be helpful and supportive. It is not an absolute
rule.
Someone learning
Japanese.
In a textbook.
To provide helpful advice.
To be helpful and to indicate that it is not
compulsory.
a Drivers.
b In a highway code.
c To provide a definite rule of behaviour.
d To stress that it must be followed.
a Smokers.
b In a cinema.
c To stop
people smoking.
d To make it absolute.
c
d
3 a
b
c
d
130 Teacher's
guid.e
6 a Parents.
b At the entrance to a school.
c To cover the school in the event of a child not being
collected before 16.30.
d To make it clear but not offensive.
7 a To guests in a hotel.
b On the wall of the shower.
c To prevent the shower getting blocked with hair.
d To make it very clear that it is not allowed.
There are obviously other possible answers to many parts
of these questions.
UNIT 5
1 Classification
You will need several lessons to complete all the questions
in this section. One possible teaching scheme is:
Lesson 1
(1
hour): The tasks in Preparation and Extensiue
reading
(part
one) and Intensiue
reading
(part
one)
Lesson 2
(1
hour): The tasks in Extension
(part
one),
Extensiue reading
(part
two) and
I nt ens ia e reading
(part
tw o)
Lesson 3
(1
hour): The tasks in Extension
(part
two)
Preparation
Task 1
Begin this task by giving your own answers to these
questions in the form of a short talk. Then ask the
students to read through the questions silently and work
out their own answers. Put them into groups and
encourage the group leader to make a note of any
differences in opinion. Finally, ask one member from each
group to give a short talk about the different opinions that
emerged.
Note: Itmtght help to remind the students that accents can
be divided into'native' and'foreign' accents and that they
can consider both.
Task 3
Ask the students to work out the answers individually and
then go through the questions quickly in class, making the
students give evidence from the heading and abstract to
support their answers.
Answers:
1 d 2 b 3 b
Part One
Extensive reading
Task I
The activities in this task are designed to help the students
skim the passage to obtain a general idea of its content. Do
1 orally with the whole class. Then ask them to do 2
individually and compare answers in pairs.
Answers:
I The sentences come either at the beginning or end of a
paragraph.
b
2 a
b
c
is the main function of these sentences.
'This
process of modelling the other person's
speech in a conversation could also be termed
speech convergence.'
'This
is what Michael fugyle has called'response
matching'.'
'Not
only this, but, in many cases the way someone
speaks affects the response of the person to whom
he is speaking in such a way ttrat'modelling'is seen
to occur.'
d
'It
may be that response matching can be more
profitably considered as an unconscious reflection of
speakers'needs for social integration with one
another.'
e
'In
other situations, speech divergence may occur
. . . he is dealing with.'
f
'Nevertheless,
distinct contexts . . . from one and
the same speaker.'
The highlighted sentence that has not been paraphrased is
'Response
matching has, in fact, been noted . . . and voice
loudness.'
There are many possible headings for Part One of the
text: How u)e uary the way we speak would do.
Intensive reading
Task 1
Tell the students to try to work out the way the content of
the text is organized, as they read: i. e.
,
to spot its
'architecture'.
Ask them to write down sub-headings they
could insert into the text to show its structure. Then let
them do 2.3 and,4 can be done individually, but 5 is best
done in pair or group
work.
Answers:
2 a
'Langtage
variation'goes before paragraph one.
b
'Response
matching'goes before paragraph two.
c
'Speech
divergence'goes before paragraph four.
Here i 3 ls a suqqesteo answer:
Topic Definition Examf Le
Language
variation
Different patterns
of speech used by
same speaker in
different
contexts.
How English
schoolchildren
speak to friends
and to their
teacher.
Response
matching
Changing the way
one speaks so
that it matches
more closely the
way the person
spoken to speaks.
Correspondence
between length of
reporters'
questions and
Kennedy's
replies.
Speech
divergence
Modifying one's
speech away from
the way the
person spoken to
speaks.
The brigadier's
wife and the car
mechanic.
Teachels
guide 131
4 1 Speechchange; 2 Speechdivergence
5 Further information about speech convergence and
divergence.
Extension
Task 1
Set these
questions for self-study out of class. Start the
next lesson with a discussion based on the answers the
students come up with.
Part Two
Extensive reading
Task 1
Do 2 with the whole class. Ask one half of the class to do
the first part of 3 and the other half the second part of 3.
Then form pairs with one student from each half. One
student reads out hisftrer completed description while the
other listens and checks it against the diagram,
querying
any'thing that is not clear.
Answers:
2 Types of speech change: fi,gre2
A speaker's accent repertoire: figure 1
3 1 idiolect 2 receivedpronunciation 3 broad
regional 4 broadregional 5 affectedreceived
pronunciation
1 convergence 2 divergence 3 Upward
4 receivedpronunciation 5 downward 6 regional
7 upward 8 downward
Intensive reading
Task 1
These questions guide the student into a discovery of how
the information in the text is structured. They are best
done by the students working individually through all three
questions. The teacher should then check the answe:s
quickly.
Answers:
1
'Accent
repertoire' starts with paragraph two.
'Types
of accent change' begins with paragraph five.
3 1 convergence 2 downward 3 divergence
4 upward
Task 2
The students can do this task in pairs. When they have
finished ask them to close their books and prepare brief
note summaries of the text from memory. Invite a student
to give a talk of his/trer surnmary to the rest of the class.
Answers:
1 a example b generalization c generalization
d generalization
2 a
'Obviously
accent response matching is not of such
a power . . . of their regional self-colourings.'
b
'such
as Cardiff. . . south Wales lilt'
c
'ghetto
children. . . public school children'
d
'Think
of a woman . . . in an urefined marner'
(the
whole of the rest of the paragraph)
Extension
Task 1
Do 1 with the whole class and 2 in groups or pairs. Make
sure that the students realize lhat 2 requires them to
comment on Grles's aiews i. e., not
just
to produce
definitions of upward convergence, etc.
Answers:
1 a Giles's choice of words
('immobile"limitation'
'ghetto')
suggests a negative view towards speakers
without an accent repertoire.
b Giles's talks about downward convergence helping
to'reduce embarrassment' and creating'a common
basis for the communication of ideas and feelings'.
2 Giles' view is largely neutral: i. e., he simply describes
what upward convergence consists of.
Upward divergence
(of
the kind practised by the floor
manager) is related to'aloofness'and social
'superiority'.
Downward divergence
(of
the kind practised by the
woman shopper) is related to'indignation'and an
'unrefined
marurer'. However, in general Giles seems
to find divergence of both sorts amusing
(as
shown rn
his choice of examples).
Task 2
Let the students do this task individually, then check the
answers. Put the students into pairs arrd ask them to think
of four different situations to illustrate each type of accent
change.
Answers:
1 downward convergence
2 upward divergence
3 upwardconvergence
4 downward divergence
Task 3
Ycu will have to do some preliminary work with the
students on the kind of style that will be needed. A good
starting point would be to go through the text and identify
'technical'
words
(e. g.
,
'accent
repertoire') and ask the
students if they can think of
'everyday'
ways of expressing
them
(e. g.,
'more
than one way of speaking').
2 Drama
Preparation
Task 1
These questions are best done in group work. If you have
students with mixed language backgrounds, make sure
that the groups are mixed.
Answers:
2 Upper/middle-classes are likely to speak with a
received pronunciation accen! loweriworking-classes
are more likely to speak with a regional accent.
3 There may be differences in accent and dialect.
'Educated'people
may use a different kind of
vocabulary and may choose to talk about different
tooics.
132 Teachels
guide
Task 2
Do this task with the whole class. Encourage the students
to speculate. Don't evaluate their answers but encourage
them to
justify
their predictions. Write up their
suggestions. Later, when they have read the extracts,
they can check which of their predictions were right.
Extensive reading
Task 1
Some background information may help you to explan
points to the students ifthe need arises. Older students
generally enrol with the Open University in order to study
for a degree in their spare time. Most of the work is by
correspondence, but students are given a tutor whom they
can visit occasionally. Rita is a Liverpudlian and speaks the
local accent and dialect. She clearly has not had much
formal education. During the play she leaves her working-
class husband and moves in with a middle-class flat-mate
called Trish
(short
for Tricia). Frank is middle-aged. He
has been a lecturer at this university for a long time. Once
he used to write poetry, but he has long since stopped
because he felt his poetry was too academic and lacked
feeling.
This task should be done with the students working
individually. If there is time, let them discuss their
answers in pairs or groups before the class discussion.
Answers:
1 Rita becomes much surer of herself. She becomes
'educated'in
the sense that she is able to talk
objectively about literature and to mix on equal terms
with university students.
2 Frank is proud of what she has accomplished but
thinks that she is betraying her own nature
(e. g.
,
when she puts on a false accent).
Intensive reading
Task I
Ask the students to work through these questions in pairs.
Answers:
I
Author Book Rita's opinion
Extract
One
. Dylan
Thomas
. Roger
McGough
.
E M
Forster
. Lawrence
. Lawrence
Howards
End
. Never heard of
him.
.
' dead
good'
. Probably difficult
to read and
understand
Extract Lady
Chatterly
Sons and
Louers
Limited literary
work
-
like
'sparkling
wine'
Great literary
work
-
like
'champaRne'.
a
a
2 a Irutially Rita likes popular writers; later she comes
to appreciate great literary writers.
She learns to play the'educational'game; she
masters the skills of literary criticism but in so doing
also becomes conventional in her responses.
b In Extract One Rita appears to try to shock Frank,
by suggesting thatHowards Ezdis
'filthy'and
by
swearing. She talks about'packing the course in'.
She belittles her own'brain'.
In Extract Two she feels confident enough to talk to
and argue with the students about literature.
3 She wants to be able to understand and appreciate
those aspects of life
(ballet,
literature, etc.
)
which she
associates with educated people.
She has achieved what she wants and is now able to
talk about these aspects with other educated people.
Rita feels that she has become articulate because she
can talk about literature. However, she always was
highly articulate
(note
how she talks about'stuck-up
idiots' in Extract One).
Task 2
Try setting this task as self-study. Choose a student to go
through the answers with the rest of the class
(i.
e., to take
on the role ofthe teacher).
Answers:
1
a Rita changes the way she speaks because she
believes it suits her new status as an'educated'
person.
b This change shows us that Rita is rejecting her past
and her true identity.
c Frank finds it artificial.
d In a way, the different way of speaking is only an
'experiment'for
Rita. She isn't really committed to
i t.
Rita uses too many colloquial expressions to list here!
Extract One has more colloquial expressions,
indicating that Rita's style of speaking becomes more
formal and more standard.
In both extracts Frank speaks standard English, with a
received pronunciation accent
(probably)
and uses a
formal style.
a Frank speaks in the standard way ofan educated
Derson,
Two
Feature of
Rita's speech
regional
regional
informaV
colloquial
Teachels Guide
133
They come from diametrically different social
backgrounds.
Frank does change a little: his speech is less formal
in Extract Two.
'
D ead honest' is dialectal:' dead' means' very' or
'absolutely'.
It is one of Rita's favourite
expresslons.
It suggests that Frank responds
positively to Rita:
he warms to her.
Extension
Task I
Ask the students to quickly read through the two extracts
again before they write their character sketch in 1. If they
need guidance in writing the character sketch ask the class
to suggest adjectives that describe the two characters and
write these on the board. AJter the pairwork, ask one or
two students to read their character sketches to the rest
of the class. 2 and,3 can be done as a class discussion.
The play ends with Frank leaving for Australia and asking
Rita to go with him. She refuses. However, she
recognizes that she has never done anything for him and
so gives him a haircut
(she
used to be a hairdresser).
3 Review activities
Task 1
It is important to check that the students have a clear
understanding ofthe terms in 1. After you have done this,
Iet the students work through the rest of the questions in
pairs. Emphasize the importance of finding evidence from
the texts to support their answers. End with a class
discussion of whether Giles's framework can be used to
interpret the way the characters speak to each other in
EducatingRita.
Answers:
2 Neither Rita nor Frank have much of an
'accent
repertoire'. Rita can only speak with the Liverpudlian
accent at the beginning of the play, while Frank only
appears to know received
pronunciation.
3 Rita seems to be diverging downward
(i.e.,
emphasizing her Liverpudlian way of speaking). She
feels threatened and vulnerable during her first
meeting with Frank.
There is some evidence to suggest that Frank is
converging downwards: for example, he echoes Rita's
'
packing it in'
(L.
39). In general, however, Frank
neither converges nor diverges.
4 Rita converges upwards
(she puts on a'posh'accent).
She wants to appear'educated'like Frank. But it is a
conscious rather than spontaneous convergence.
Frank converges downwards by using colloquialisms
llke'finished him off
'
(L.55) and by borrowing a
dialectal expression,
'dead
honesf . He wants to get
closer to Rita.
5 The degree of'response matching' increases
considerably from Extract One to Extract Two,
indicating the degree of mutual liking and
understanding the two characters have for each other.
Task 2
These are'opinion'
questions. They are designed to make
the students think about the relationship between social
factors and language. Do L,2 and.3 in groups and, after a
class discussion, do 4 in pairs. Encourage them to make
use of the ideas in the texts they have read in this unit.
UNIT 6
A suggested teaching scheme for this unit is:
Lesson 7: The tasks in Section 1 Preparation and
Extensiue reading
Lesson2: The tasks inIntensiue reading
Self-study: The tasks nExtension
Lesson3: The tasks inSection2 PreParationand,
Etctensiue reading
Self-study: Task 1. 1 of.Intensiae read:ing
Lesson4: Tasks 1, 2, 3 and4 of.Intensiae reading
Lesson 5: The tasks inPreparation and Extensiue
reading, and Task I.I of. Intensiue reading
Self Study: Tasks 1, 2, 3, 4 and'5 of. Intensiue reading
Lesson 6: The tasks in Preparation, Extensiue reading
and Intensiue reading
Lesson 7: The tasks in Extension
1 Advice
Preparation
Task 1
1 This task could be done initially in pairs. The pairs
could then form groups of four to monitor each other's
answers. In each group each pair could read its five
dialogues to the other pair and ask them to suggest in
what situations they might be appropriate. The pairs
could then try to improve each others'answers. This
could then be opened up to the rest of the class, with
groups reading some of their dialogues and the class
suggesting appropriate situations.
Finally the teacher could help the students to make
generalizations about disagreement in English: for
example, lengthy utterances containing modal verbs
such as,
'I
am not quite sure that I would agree', are
appropriate in formal, polite situations whereas short,
verbless utterances, such as
'No
way', are more
appropriate in informal situations.
There are obviously many possible dialogues in this
task. The following are
just
some examples:
r A
'This
car is a good bargain.'
B'I don't really thinh it's such a good bargain as
vou sav.'
134 Teachels
guide
A is a sales assistant. B is a potential customer who
does not want to buy that particular car
(or
who is
trying to reduce the price). B does not want to
offend A.
B
'You
must be
joking.'
B is not interested in the car and is not worried
about offending A.
r A
'Futre's
going to be a better player than
Maradonna.'
B
'No
way.'
A and B are friends. B completely disagrees with A,
and wants A to know that.
B
'I
don't realLy think he's going to be that good.'
A and B are acquaintances. B disagrees with A but
doesn't want to risk offending A by expressing this
disagreement too strongly.
2 This activity is best done in groups so that the
students can share and extend their knowledge of
different ways of arguing in English.
One of the many possible answers is the following:
Statement Situation
Two brothers
who haven't seen
each other for a
long time.
Formal meeting
between two new
business
partners.
Married couple.
Mother buying
teenage daughter
a dress for a
party.
Acquaintances
talking in a pub.
An advisor
responding to a
politician.
Two strangers
waiting for a bus
together.
Boyfriend
responding to
girlfriend's
suggestron.
It would be useful to collect in the group answers and
follow up any confusions in the next lesson.
3 This is best done as a pair or group activity followed by
class feedback.
a Obviously there are no'correct'answers in
evaluating the table. Any points justified
by
evidence are valid. In the feedback it would be
useful to give your own opinions.
b You could elicit various suggestions regarding the
use ofthe table from the pairs/groups, collate them
on the board and then ask the class to decide which
would be the most useful.
c The pairs/groups could brainstorm at random
different ways of expressing disagreement in
English, then consult available textbooks/reference
books and finally fit their examples into the
framework.
4 This could be done as a class discussion with a
monolingual group or as a group discussion with a
multilingual group. It is a good idea to try to prepare
some examples in advance in case the students have
problems with this activity.
It is obviously not essential that students do all the
Preparation tasks. One possibility would be to ask
each pair/group to choose three of the activities to
work on.
Extensive reading
Task 1
It would be helpful to explain and exemplify what is
meantby'talk' to the writer. You could ask your
students to read each sentence silently and at the end
of each sentence comment or ask a question aloud to
the writer. For example,
'Successful
disagreement
requires cunning.'(17fty?)'Nobody who . . . wins an
argument.'
(Is
this really true? What do you mean by
'wins
an argument' anyway?)
Encourage the A students to summarize the main
points rather than to present each point in detail.
Encourage the B students to anticipate the main points
of their partner's summary and to prepare objections
to these points. There is no need for a detailed follow-
up to the pair work but it might be interesting if you
give your opinions about the author's points and invite
students to respond.
Intensive reading
Task 1
1 a
'Or
are we trying to win people over to our side . . .
to enlist their support?'
b
'Don't
be wrong. Be Right.'
c
'Always
end the argument and end it in a positive
way.'
d
'Always
give the impression you are right but not
superior.'
e
'I
would suggest that anyone who communicates the
message . . . can only hope to achieve at best a very
cheap and shallow victory.'
f
'So
obey most of all the final rule:
Rule 15 Don't Feel. Think.'
' You
could' ve
asked me to help.'
'All
the signs
indicate an
imminent increase
in the oil price.'
'I
think we'll go to
Majorca again this
year.'
'This
is a nice
dress, dear.'
'Charlestown
is a
very attractive
pl ace. '
'What
we need to
do is to build more
secondary schools.
'l
think it's going to
rain this afternoon.
' Let' s
go out for a
meal tonight.'
'Sure.
Like when
I needed money
for the rent.'
' I' m
not sure
that's quite how I
read the
situation.'
'Not
again?'
'Come
off it mum;
the guys would
laugh at me.'
' No
way; I used
to live there.'
'I'm
not entirely
sure I agree.'
' You
could be
r i ght . But . . . '
' Great
idea! Who
the hell's going to
pay for it?'
Teacher s
guid.e
135
'Always
appear to be willing to listen. This gains you
support and often traps
your opponents into
weakening their own arguments with exaggeration
and over-repetition.'
'Review
your opponent's arguments before
proposing your own.
The writer is trying to:
a influence the readers'opinions by inviting them to
answer a question to which the answer has already
been
given.
b give the impression of balance, system and
organization; make an impact by restating a
negative statement in a positive way.
c make an impact through forceful repetition; stress
the importance of the point.
d suggest that there is no question at all about the
wisdom of the advice.
e to indicate that this is a considered, thoughtful
conclusion; to command attention by a dramatic
difference to styles.
f to
give prominence to the writer's main point.
p
to convince the reader of the wisdom of the initial
statement.
h to suggest that the statement is so self-evident as to
not need
justification
or reinforcement.
There are obviously many other examples of some of the
devices, such as sy'rnmetry and statement plus
explanation, and other valid interpretations ofthe writer's
reasons for using them: for example, h
-
the writer was
finding it tedious to keep conforming to a self-imposed
pattern of statement
plus explanation or reinforcement.
2
Utterance Purpose
Utterance
Tentative
statement
' Hemi ght . . .
St at ement
lose support.'
Purpose
Give the
impression of it
being a
thoughtful,
well-
considered
pomt.
Provide reason
for the
statement in 8.
3 The writer uses rules to express his ideas to make
them easier for the reader to follorr; to give authority
to the ideas; to make an impact.
He follows the same
'NeveriAln-a]'s'approach
to
reinforce a negative with a posinve and thus gain
impact; to provide a clear course of action; to give the
impression of system and organ2ation.
The writer ends with Rule 15 to proride a climax to
the text; to highlight the main poinu to provide a final
simple summary of the whole text.
4 a clever planning of the argument in order to trick the
listener(s) into giving thea support.
b arguing in such a way that the listeners do not
realize they are being manipulated.
giving expression to our anger.
the appearance of having won the argument without
rea.lly convincing anyone or gaining their support
(i.
e.
,
cheap in the sense of
'haring
little value' and
shallow in that it is not significant or lasting).
for what he is known for.
to invite the listener to make their meaning clear
(and
therefore to imply a criticism of the
statement).
g glve your opinions.
h admit that they are correct.
5 Obviously any reasoned answer is acceptable here.
The main point is to encourage the learners to be
critical of the content and expression of what they read
and to develop skills of evaluation.
Extension
Task 1
1 It might be a good idea to get your students to list the
main points on the board and then to elicit suggestions
for expressing and linking the points.
2 This is best done as an individual task, possibly as
homework.
2 People arguing
Preparation
I TlpicaLparticifants
This could be done on the board with suggestions
coming from the students. For example, mother and
daughter; teacher and student; customer and waiter,
etc.
c
d
e
f
2
' Nobody.
. .
argument.'
3
'Such
candid . .
stealth and
deception.'
4
'A
successful
arguer. . .
convmcng
actor.'
5
' But .
. .
argument.'
6 ' Wh a t i s i t . . .
our spoken.'
7 ' Or a r e we . . .
their support?'
Reinforcement
Explanation
Restatement
Statement of
mtent
Questions
Rhetorical
Question
Give a reason
to support 1.
Give further
support to 1.
Concise
summary of
main point.
Get reader to
think.
Get reader to
think.
Prepare reader
to receive an
answer.
Provide a
Con'v'lnCng
answer to the
questions in 6.
136 Teachey's
guide
Tlpical reasons
Again this could be done as a class effort on the board. For
example, conviction; desire to persuade/convert; self-
defense; provide an excuse, etc.
Tgical objectiues
This could be done in groups as preparation for 2. For
example, to enhance a reputation; to divert blame; to hurt
someone; to avoid doing something, etc.
2 Tactics
c Sarcasm
d Irony
e Abuse
f Warning
Examples
'That's
the most useful idea since
earthquakes.'
'Yes,
that would certainly reveal to
everyone how well you are doing
the
j ob.'
'What
absolute nonsense!'
'Nobody
would ever vote for you
again.'
g Refutation
'I'm
telling you; I wasn't even
there.'
The main point of this activity is to encourage students
to think about different tactics used in arguments
before they read the three argument texts. It is best
done as a pair or group activity so that students can
pool their knowledge and stimulate each other to
think.
The exemplification of a variety of different tactics is
more important than the terminology used to label
them.
Extensive reading
Task 1
This could be done as pair-reading with two students
reading one text and talking to each other as they read it.
1 Because people will link her to the incident and she will
be disgraced.
2 He is possibly a little ashamed but doesn't want to
admit it.
3 She probably wants to make sure her son is not
impressed by what Uncle did to Nzule and to make
Uncle realize that what he did was shameful. She also
wants to dissociate herself from Uncle's actions and to
express her annoyance at the way he has responded to
her hospitality.
4 Possibly so as not to lose face in front of his nephew,
and as an indication of his chauvinistic reluctance to
accept being told offby a woman.
5 He obviously attacked Nzule in the street. He may
have tricked him in a cowardlv wav or used unfair
tactics in the fight.
6 Mother wants to emphasize that he is still young and
needs her guidance and protection; Uncle wants to
stress that he is old enough to be more independent
and that he needs guidance from a fellow man
(i.
e.
,
himself).
7 Mother manages to make her point and to make Uncle
feel some shame. But Uncle manages to escape from a
very tricky situation without losing face and without
really antagonizing his sister
(he
manages to make her
smile). Perhaps then he is the winner because his
tactics succeed even though his case is weak.
Intensive reading
Task 1
1 a To give sarcastic emphasis to her points.
b To mock him (i.
e., Can he really be grou'n up if he
behaves like that?).
c No. She is stating emphatically that he has no self-
respect.
d He doesn't want to respond to her provocation. He
wants her to weaken her argument by getting
angry.
e To stress his lack ofappreciation.
f Taking her for granted; abusing her hospitality; not
valuing her company; letting her down.
I
She is a proud woman. She makes a lot of
sacrifices. She gets easilyroused and she worries
about what people say/think about her.
h We don't think so. Possibly he wants to provoke
her. Possibly he is acknowledging the validity of
what she says but is also signalling that he will not
allow her to win an argument against him in front of
the boy.
i As the younger brother he ought to respect her.
j
To annoy his sister and to claim the boy's support.
Possibly also because he is really too ashamed to
face his sister.
k He wants to gain the support of the boy and
possibly to show that he is not as selfish as his
sister implies. She doesn't want him to win the
sympathy of her son and possibly doesn't want to
have to be grateful to her brother.
I That he only claims responsibility when it is
convenient and that he usually behaves in an
irresponsible way.
m That she is appeased and has forgiven him.
n To show how well he gets on with the boy and
possibly to refer to a past argument which has
become a family
joke (ust as this one probably
will).
o She recognizes what he is doing and wants to
signal that the argument is over.
p To signal his victory.
Other answers will obviously be acceptable. What is
important in this activity is not the actual answers but
the way the questions encourage the students to read
between the lines. The questions could be answered in
pairs or groups, or individually and then the answers
compared and evaluated in groups.
Teachels guide 137
3 The summary could be done on the board. For
example:
Mother: Features of slyle Effect
sarcasm fails to provoke
4 This could be written in
pairs
and then acted out and
evaluated.
Preparation
Task 1
Obviously there are no correct answers to these activities
and no need for any lengthy feedback from the pair work.
The teacher's main task is to encourage and respond to
the pair discussions.
Extensive reading
Task 1
It might be useful for students to note down their
predictions before they start to read.
Task 2
1 c, e and
g
-
even though c and
g
appear to be
contradictory.
Other answers may be acceptable if students can
justify
them using the text.
2 There are a number of possible interpretations.
Chuck is intrigued, irritated but impressed by Vinnie.
He leaves because he wants her to feel sorry for her
outburst and then to feel s1'rnpathy for him.
3 This could be done in pairs with one person
responsible for the note from Vinnie, the other
responsible for the note from Chuck and both
responsible for the extract from the later scene.
Intensive reading
Task 1
1 a This is not comprehensive enough and describes
only the superficial functions of her utterances: for
example,
'don't
show a little initiatiue'is not really a
command but a sarcastic comment on Chuck's
apparent inability to show initiative.
This analysis is more thorough and informative than
a, but not all the labels are accurate descriptions of
the functions of the utterances they refer to: for
example, 6 suggestion and 7 irony.
This is the most complete and accurate analysis.
But even so its labels are a mixture of descriptions
of the form of the utterances
(e. g., exclamation),
the function in the text
(e. g.
,
exemplification of the
accusation) and the situational purpose (e. g.
,
distance; escape).
Try to get the students to produce an improved
version of c.
a He is amazed by her outburst and has no idea how
to respond to it.
b He is angry that she insults him so strongly
(e. g.
,
'you're
so stupid') and hurt because he cannot see
what he has done to deserve such an outburst.
c He cannot believe that she can still continue her
outburst when he has signalled his anger and hurt.
d He is looking to see if it really is as late as Vinnie
claims and to refute the implied accusation of
disturbing her late at night.
e He wants to hurt her back by implying that she is
behaving towards him as a lecturer rather than a
friend.
She seems to be initially carried away by her
exasperation and to blurt out spontaneous criticisms,
accusations and insults. But then when she realizes
how emotive she has become and how her outburst
seems to have hurt rather than helped she deliberately
changes to a lower
(therefore gentler) tone of voice
and becomes apologetic in order to excuse her
outburst and to escape from what has become a very
awkward situation.
Utterance
. personal appeal
. answer
rhetorical
nr r cqf i nn
request for
clarification
exclamation
statement
explanation of
statement
further
explanation
reinforcement
statements
rhetorical
questions
statements
interpretations
advice
command
.
statement
Objectiue(s)
justification
an attempt to
close the
2r q r mcnt
without losing
face
non-acceptance
of his
justification
refusal to close
the argument
provocation
further
justification
provocation
o justification
e justification
r
change offocus
of discussion
r to escape from
the argument
o refutation of
advice
o signalling
recognition of
his tactics
o justification
of
advice
a
a
a
o
a
o
a
138
Teachels
guide
It might be helpful to encourage students first of all to
decide how Vinnie would feel the next day and
whether $he would be aiming to amuse her friend,
explain and excuse her own conduct or be candid and
frank.
The scene could be written in pairs with one partner
writing Vinnie's part and the other Chuck's.
Preparation
1 There are a number of possibilities.
mother/son
I
husband/wife F
or uce versa
brother/sister I
two friends
This actMty could be done as pairwork. Encourage
the students to
justify
their answers, and maybe ask
them to act out the scene according to their own
interpretation.
Extensive reading
The director should allocate the parts, give advice on tone
of voice, attitude, gestures, movement, etcandthen
rehearse the actors in the
performance of their scene.
Intensive reading
She is communicating her pride in her son as a late-
night student but at the same time she is suggesting
that he ought to be up and dressed by now.
They are proud to be related to someone who has
graduated and want to show off in public'
Because he will be seen with them and will be ridiculed
for being part of such a peculiar, unsophisticated
family.
Because the way they dress and behave makes it
obvious that they don't belong in the city'
She means that it's not asking very much forJohnny to
agree to his family sharing his great moment. She is
implying that he is being selfish.
Johnny's
father. He is much more direct in his criticism
thanJohnny's mother.
He is implying thatJohnny is being selfish and does not
realize how important the registration is to his mother.
Johnny
is sullen and taciturn; he is sarcastic; he
appeals to his parents to leave him alone. He implies
that he is being unfairly treated.
His mother ties to be gentle, reasonable and
sympathetic. She appeals to him to consider others'
She attempts
gentle persuaston.
His
father
is direct in his criticism of
Johnny's
selfish
behaviour.
3 Review activities
Task 1
1 There are many possible answers. Certainly Mother in
F o o ls and O ther S tories
(p.
106), Y innie in F oreign
Affairs
(p.
111) and
Johnny
in I ake Wobegon D ays
(p.
113) would all have gained more support if they
hadn't broken Rules 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11 and 15.
Task 2
Let each student decide whether they want to work
individually, in pairs or in groups.
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