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May 1, 1999
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Guidelines for transformer application designs.
Find more articles on: Transformers
Moran, Robert B. | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
You must evaluate various factors when choosing a transformer so that it meets both the needs of the load
and the application.The time you spend in selecting a transformer seems to be in direct proportion to the
size of the unit. All too often, small transformers are selected with just a cursory look at the connected
loads, and frequently a decision is made to choose one with the net larger k!A rating
You must evaluate various factors when choosing a
transformer so that it meets both the needs of the load and
the application.
The time you spend in selecting a transformer seems to be
in direct proportion to the size of the unit. All too often,
small transformers are selected with just a cursory look at
the connected loads, and frequently a decision is made to
choose one with the net larger k!A rating than the
anticipated load. "onversely, large transformers, such as those used in electric utility
applications, are closely evaluated because they represent large investments.
#ost transformers used in commercial and industrial facilities fall in the middle ground,
and they usually have ratings between $%&k!A and '&&&k!A. (n larger projects, they can
"#$% "#$% "#$% "#$% & & & & '#(T%(T '#(T%(T '#(T%(T '#(T%(T & )*+,%-+(%. /#0 T0A(./#0$%0 A11-+'AT+#( & )*+,%-+(%. /#0 T0A(./#0$%0 A11-+'AT+#( & )*+,%-+(%. /#0 T0A(./#0$%0 A11-+'AT+#( & )*+,%-+(%. /#0 T0A(./#0$%0 A11-+'AT+#( ,%.+)(.. ,%.+)(.. ,%.+)(.. ,%.+)(..
12 Recommend
N! "esign #$s % Maintenance !ontractor Safet& 'o(er )ualit&
'roducts
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go up to '&#!A. )ecause these transformers represent the majority, you should evaluate
them carefully before choosing a unit for a specific project and*or application.
+election process
There are three main parameters in choosing a transformer,
- That it has enough capacity to handle the epected loads .as well as a certain amount of
overload/0
- That consideration be given to possibly increasing the capacity to handle potential load
growth0 and
- That the funds allocated for its purchase be based on a certain life epectancy .with
consideration to an optimal decision on initial, operational, and installation costs./
)oth capacity and cost relate to a number of factors that you should evaluate. These
include,
- Application of the unit0
- "hoice of insulation type .liquid1filled or dry type/0
- "hoice of winding material .copper or aluminum/0
- 2ossible use of low1loss core material0
- 3egulation .voltage stability/0
- 4ife epectancy0
- Any overloading requirements0
- )asic insulation level .)54/0
- Temperature considerations0
- 4osses .both no1load and operating losses/0
- Any non1linear load demand0
- +hielding0 and
- Accessories.
Application of the unit
The type of load and the transformer6s placement are two key considerations that must be
understood. 7or eample, if the unit will be used for heavy welding service, such as in an
automotive plant, very rigid construction will be called for because the coils will
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eperience very frequent short1circuit1type loads0 thus, good short1term overload
capability may be required.
You6ll find that sizing a transformer for a particular application with regard to the unit6s
life epectancy requires a good understanding of its insulation characteristics and the
winding temperature due to loading. This, in turn, requires a careful analysis of the load
profile .covering amplitude, duration, and the etent of linear and non1linear loads/.
The standard parameters for transformers operating under normal conditions include,
- 8ominal values of input voltage and frequency0
- Approimately sinusoidal input voltage0
- 4oad current with a harmonic factor not eceeding &.&% p.u.0
- 5nstallation at an altitude of less than '&&& m .99&& ft/0
- 8o damaging fumes, dust, vapors, etc. in installed environment0
- An ambient temperature that does not eceed 9& :degrees; " as a daily average or <&
:degrees; " at any time, and which does not fall below 1 $& :degrees; "0 and
- (verloads within acceptable levels of A8+5*5=== loading guidelines .dry or liquid/.
5f some of the above conditions can6t be met in a particular application, then you should
work closely with the manufacturer so that the selected transformer6s operating
characteristics and*or size will compensate for the particular situation. 7or eample, if
the ambient temperature will eceed standard conditions or if the unit will be installed at
a high elevation, then an appropriate solution might be to specify a transformer that6s
rated higher than what the load requires, in effect under utilizing the unit to compensate
for the local conditions.
"hoice of liquid1filled or dry type
5nformation on the pros and cons of the available types of transformers frequently varies
depending upon which manufacturer you6re talking to and what literature you6re reading.
8evertheless, there are certain performance and application characteristics that are
almost universally accepted.
)asically, there are two distinct types of transformers, 4iquid insulated and cooled .liquid
1filled type/ and nonliquid insulated, air or air*gas cooled .dry type/. Also, there are
subcategories of each main type.
4iquid1filled. 7or liquid1filled transformers, the cooling medium can be conventional
mineral oil. There are also wet1type transformers using less flammable liquids, such as
high fire point hydrocarbons and silicones.
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4iquid1filled transformers are normally more efficient than dry1types, and they usually
have a longer life epectancy. Also, liquid is a more efficient cooling medium in reducing
hot spot temperatures in the coils. 5n addition, liquid1filled units have a better overload
capability.
There are some drawbacks, however. 7or eample, fire prevention is more important with
liquid1type units because of the use of a liquid cooling medium that may catch fire. .>ry1
type transformers can catch fire, too./ 5t6s even possible for an improperly protected wet1
type transformer to eplode. And, depending on the application, liquid1filled
transformers may require a containment trough for protection against possible leaks of
the fluid.
)ecause of the above reasons, and because of the ratings, indoor1installed distribution
transformers of ?&&! and below usually are dry1types.
Arguably, when choosing transformers, the changeover point between dry1types and wet1
types is between %&&k!A to about $.%#!A, with dry1types used for the lower ratings and
wet1types for the higher ratings. 5mportant factors when choosing what type to use
include where the transformer will be installed, such as inside an office building or
outside, servicing an industrial load. >ry1type transformers with ratings eceeding %#!A
are available, but the vast majority of the higher1capacity transformers are liquid1filled.
7or outdoor applications, wet1type transformers are the predominate choice.
>ry1type. >ry1type transformers come in enclosures that have louvers or are sealed. @ere,
subcategories include different methods of insulation such as conventional varnish,
vacuum pressure impregnated .!25/ varnish, epoy resin, or cast resin insulation
systems.
4iquid1filled insulation systems
The insulation system for liquid1filled distribution transformers is typically composed of
enameled wire, cellulose paper impregnated with a dielectric liquid, and the liquid itself.
The dielectric grade paper most often used is derived from sulfate .kraft/ wood pulp from
softwoods. Aith the introduction of dicydianamid to the paper making process, the
standard temperature winding rise is now ?% :degrees; ".
The ambient temperature base in the Bnited +tates is a 9& :degrees; " average over a $<1
hr period with a <& :degrees; " maimum. The present allowable hot spot temperature
.the difference between the average winding temperature rise and the hottest spot in the
windings/ is '% :degrees; ". Thus, the permitted operating hot spot temperature, based on
an average ambient temperature of 9& :degrees; ", is ''& :degrees; ".
8ew synthetic insulating materials are leading to even higher permitted hot spots. These
materials include polyester, fiber glass, and more commonly, aramid paper. CAramid
paperC is a term applied generically for wholly aromatic polymide paper. To keep costs
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reasonable while still achieving gains in acceptable hot spot temperature limits, both
aramid and thermally upgraded kraft paper are used together in a hybrid insulation
system. As of this writing, new type liquid1filled transformers, called @igh Temperature
Transformers .@TTs/ are being built using this technology. The temperature rise of @TTs
is an average winding rise of ''% :degrees; " over a 9& :degrees; " average ambient.
7actoring in the temperature difference .$& :degrees; "/ between the average winding
temperature .'<% :degrees; "/ and the hot spot temperature, the maimum temperature
.'?% :degrees; "/ will be at a level that is higher than the fire point of conventional
transformer oil .mineral oil/. 7or this reason, it6s recommended that fire1resistant fluids
be used for @TTs.
The process of proper impregnation of the paper with a liquid is a standard
manufacturing operation. The core*coil assembly is mounted in the tank, lead assemblies
attached, and the filling process begins. A partial vacuum is produced while the secondary
leads circulate current to heat the coils and drive out any ecess moisture. 4ater, while
still under vacuum, heated degassified and filtered dielectric liquid is introduced. After
filling and additional vacuum time, the tank cover is sealed in place. The head space
between the liquid surface and the tank cover, which allows for the epansion and
contraction due to thermal cycling, can be specified to be dry nitrogen gas in larger units.
=nvironmental concerns
7or liquid1filled transformers containing more than ??& gal, the =nvironmental
2rotection Agency .=2A/ requires some type of containment be used to control possible
leaks of the liquid. =nvironmentally unfriendly fluids, such as polychlorinated biphenyls
.2")s/ and chlorofluorocarbons ."7"s/, have been banned or are severely restricted,
replaced for the most part by nontoic, nonbioaccumulating, and nonozone depleting
fluids, such as fire1resistant silicones and fire1resistant hydrocarbons. These fluids are not
covered by the 3esource "onservation and 3ecovery Act .3"3A/0 however, they are
covered by the "lean Aater Act ."AA/.
+ome transformer liquids .known as nonflammable1type fluids/ are covered under both
the 3"3A and the "AA, and certain requirements may be called for regarding special
handling, spill reporting, disposal procedures, and record keeping. These fluids also
require provisions for special transformer venting. As such, the above factors can have an
effect on installation costs, long1term operating costs, and maintenance procedures.
4iquid dielectric selection factors
The selection of which liquid dielectric coolant to use is driven primarily by economics
and codes. "onventional mineral oil is most often specified as it is very economical and,
unless it6s subject to unusual service, maintains acceptable performance for decades.
As it6s possible that a high1energy arc can occur in a transformer, fire safety becomes an
important issue. Ahen conventional mineral oil is restricted .usually due to fire code
requirements/, less1flammable fluids often are used. The most popular are fire1resistant
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hydrocarbons .also known as high1molecular weight hydrocarbons/ and %& c+t .a
viscosity measurement unit/ silicone fluids. (ther fluids include high fire point polyol
esters and polyalpha olefins. 5n addition to safety considerations, you should also evaluate
performance factors for liquid1filled transformers in regard to dielectric strength and heat
transfer capabilities of the fluid. The fire resistant hydrocarbon fluids have been widely
used in power1class transformations though ?&#!A and have over a %&&k! )54.
At one time, askarel fluid, a generic term for a group of certain fire1resistant electrical
insulating liquids, including often used 2")s, represented the standard for fire safety in
liquid dielectrics. )ut, 2")s were banned because of toicity and environmental concerns.
"ost coil insulation systems
>ry1type transformers can have their windings insulated various ways. A basic method is
to preheat the conductor coils and then, when heated, dip them in varnish at an elevated
temperature. The coils are then baked to cure the varnish. This process is an open1wound
method and helps ensure penetration of the varnish. "ooling ducts in the windings
provide an efficient and economical way to remove the heat produced by the electrical
losses of the transformer by allowing air to flow through the duct openings. This dry1type
insulation system operates satisfactorily in most ambient conditions found in commercial
buildings and many industrial facilities.
Ahen greater mechanical strength of the windings and increased resistance to corona
.electrical discharges caused by the field intensity eceeding the dielectric strength of the
insulation/ is called for, !25 of the varnish forces the insulation .varnish/ into the coils by
using both vacuum and pressure. +ometimes, for additional protection against the
environment .when the ambient air can be somewhat harmful/, the end coils are also
sealed with an epoy resin miture.
A cast coil insulation system, another version of the dry1type transformer, is used when
additional coil strength and protection are advisable. This type of insulation is used for
transformers located in harsh environments such as cement and chemical plants and
outdoor installations where moisture, salt spray, corrosive fumes, dust, and metal
particles can destroy other types of dry1type transformers. These cast coil units are better
able to withstand heavy power surges, such as frequent but brief overloads eperienced by
transformers serving transit systems and various industrial machinery. "ast coil units
also are being used where previously only liquid1filled units were available for harsh
environments, They can have the same high levels of )54 while still providing ample
protection of the coils and the leads going to the terminals.
Bnlike open1wound or !25 transformers, cast coil units have their windings completely
cast in solid epoy. The coils are placed into molds and cast, usually under vacuum. The
epoy is a special type that keeps the coils protected from corrosive atmospheres and
moisture as well as keeping the coils secure from the high mechanical forces associated
with power surges and short circuits. #ineral fillers and glass fibers are added to the pure
epoy to give it greater strength. 7leibilizers are also added to improve its ability to
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epand and contract with the coil conductors for proper operation of the transformer
under various load conditions.
>ifferent manufacturers use different epoy filling material and in different amounts.
5mportant factors that manufacturers must consider when choosing filler material and
the proportion to use include,
- Temperature rating of the transformer0
- #echanical strength of the coils0
- >ielectric strength of the insulation0
- =pansion rate of the conductors under various loadings0 and
- 3esistance to thermal shock of the insulation system.
"ast coil transformers consist of separately wound and cast high1 and low1voltage coils.
>uring manufacture, the high voltage coil winding wires are placed in a certain pattern
using preinsulated wire. The completely wound coil is then placed in a mold designed to
form a heavy coating of epoy around the coil. After vacuum filling of the epoy, the mold
is placed in an oven for a number of hours to allow the epoy to cure and achieve full
hardness and strength.
There are two types of low1voltage windings available, both of which provide protection
from hostile environments. (ne type is vacuum cast like the high1voltage winding. The
other type uses a CnonvacuumC technique of epoy application to achieve strength. +heet
insulation, such as 8ome or fiberglass, is impregnated with uncured epoy, then
interleaved on the heavy low1voltage conductors to literally Cwind1inC the epoy. >uring
oven curing of the low1voltage coil, the epoy flows onto the conductor and cures into a
solid cylinder of great strength. These Cnon1vacuumC coils are then fully sealed by pouring
epoy into the CmarginsC or ends of the windings. )oth procedures provide good
protection from hostile environments.
)ecause of the additional materials and procedures associated with manufacturing cast
coil transformers, they cost more. @owever, cast coil transformers are designed to operate
with lower losses, require less maintenance than regular types, and effectively operate in
environments that may cause early failure with conventional dry1types. Also, cast coil
transformers, if operated properly, will normally have a longer life epectancy than other
dry1type transformers.
"hoice of winding material
A transformer6s coils can be wound with either copper or aluminum conductors. 7or
equivalent electrical and mechanical performance, aluminum1wound transformers
usually cost less than copper1wound units. )ecause copper is a better conductor, a copper
1wound transformer can be at times slightly smaller than its aluminum counterpart, for
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transformers with equivalent electrical ratings, because the copper conductor windings
will be smaller. @owever, most manufacturers supply aluminum and copper transformers
in the same enclosure size.
Aluminum1wound transformers are by far the majority choice in the Bnited +tates. Aith
both materials, the winding process and the application of insulation are the same.
"onnections to the terminals are welded or brazed. "oils made of copper wires have
slightly higher mechanical strength.
You should determine the transformer manufacturer6s eperience in building its products
and that the firm has a proven record in using both types of conductors. This is especially
true of manufacturers of dry1type units.
Bse of low1loss core material
"hoice of metal is critical for transformer cores, and it6s important that good quality
magnetic steel be used. There are many grades of steel that can be used for a transformer
core. =ach grade has an effect on efficiency on a per1pound basis. The choice depends on
how you evaluate nonload losses and total owning costs.
Almost all transformer manufacturers today use steel in their cores that provides low
losses due to the effects of magnetic hysteresis and eddy currents. To achieve these
objectives, high permeability, cold1rolled, grain1oriented, silicon steel is almost always
used. "onstruction of the core utilizes step lap mitered joints and the laminations are
carefully stacked.
Amorphous cores
A new type of liquid1filled transformer introduced commercially in 'DE? uses ultra low1
loss cores made from amorphous metal0 the core losses are between ?&F to G&F lower
than those for transformers using silicon steel. To date, these transformers have been
designed for distribution operation primarily by electric utilities and use wound1cut cores
of amorphous metal. Their ratings range from '&k!A through $%&&k!A. The reason
utilities purchase them, even though they are more epensive than silicon steel core
transformers, is because of their high efficiency. B.+. utilities placed more than <&&,&&&
amorphous steel core transformers in operation through 'DD%. The use of amorphous core
liquid1filled transformers is now being epanded for use in power applications for
industrial and commercial installations. This is especially true in other countries such as
Hapan.
Amorphous metal is a new class of material having no crystalline formation. "onventional
metals possess crystalline structures in which the atoms form an orderly, repeated, three1
dimensional array. Amorphous metals are characterized by a random arrangement of
their atoms .because the atomic structure resembles that of glass, the material is
sometimes referred to as glassy metal/. This atomic structure, along with the difference in
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the composition and thickness of the metal, accounts for the very low hysteresis and eddy
current losses in the new material.
"ost and manufacturing technique are the major obstacles for bringing to the market a
broad assortment of amorphous core transformers. The price of these units typically
ranges from '%F to <&F higher than that of silicon steel core transformers. To a degree,
the price differential is dependent upon which grade of silicon steel the comparison is
being made. .The more energy efficient the grade of steel used in the transformer core,
the higher the price of the steel./
At present, amorphous cores are not being applied in dry1type transformers. @owever,
there is continuous developmental work being done on amorphous core transformers,
and the use of this special metal in dry1type transformers may become a practical reality
sometime in the future.
5f you6re considering the use of an amorphous core transformer, you should determine
the economic tradeoff0 in other words, the price of the unit versus the cost of losses.
4osses are especially important when transformers are lightly loaded, such as during the
hours from about D p.m. to ? a.m. Ahen lightly loaded, the core loss becomes the largest
component of a transformer6s total losses. Thus, the cost of electric power at the location
where such a transformer is contemplated is a very important factor in carrying out the
economic analyses.
>ifferent manufacturers have different capabilities for producing amorphous cores, and
recently, some have made substantial advances in making these cores for transformers.
The technical difficulties of constructing a core using amorphous steel have restricted the
size of transformers using this material. The metal is not easily workable, being very hard
and difficult to cut, thin and flimsy, and difficult to obtain in large sheets. @owever,
development of these types of transformers continues0 you can epect units larger than
$%&&k!A being made in the future.
2rotection from harsh conditions
7or harsh environments, whether indoor or outdoor, it6s critical that a transformer6s
core*coil, leads, and accessories be adequately protected.
5n the Bnited +tates, almost all liquid1filled transformers are of sealed1type construction,
automatically providing protection for the internal components. =ternal connections can
be made with Cdead frontC connectors that shield the leads. 7or high corrosive conditions,
stainless steel tanks can be employed.
>ry1type transformers are available for either indoor or outdoor installation. "ooling
ducts in the windings allow heat to be dissipated into the air. >ry1types can operate
indoors under almost all ambient conditions found in commercial buildings and light
manufacturing facilities.
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7or outdoor operations, a dry1type transformer6s enclosure will usually have louvers for
ventilation. )ut, these transformers can be affected by hostile environments .dirt,
moisture, corrosive fumes, conductive dust, etc./ because the windings are eposed to the
air. @owever, a dry1type can be built using a sealed tank to provide protection from
harmful environments. These units operate in their own atmosphere of nonflammable
dielectric gas.
(ther approaches to building dry1type transformers for harsh environments include cast
coil units, cast resin units, and vacuum pressure encapsulated .!2=/ units, sometimes
using a silicone varnish. Bnless the dry1type units are completely sealed, the core*coil and
lead assemblies should be periodically cleaned, even in nonharsh environments, to
prevent dust and other contaminant buildup over time.
5nsulators
>ry1type transformers normally use insulators made from fiber glass reinforced polyester
molding compounds. These insulators are available up to a rating of '%k! and are
intended to be used indoors or within a moisture1proof enclosure. 4iquid1filled
transformers employ insulators made of porcelain. These are available in voltage ratings
eceeding %&&k!. 2orcelain insulators are track resistant, suitable for outdoor use, and
are easy to clean.
@igh1voltage porcelain insulators contain oil impregnated paper insulation, which acts as
capacitive voltage dividers to provide uniform voltage gradients. 2ower factor tests must
be performed at specific intervals to verify the condition of these insulators.
3egulation
The difference between the secondary6s no1load voltage and full1load voltage is a measure
of the transformer6s regulation. This can be determined by using the following equation,
3egulation .F/ I .'&&/.:!.sub.nl; 1 :!.sub.fl;/ * .:!.sub.fl;/,
where :!.sub.nl; is the no1load voltage and :!.sub.fl; is the full1load voltage. 2oor
regulation means that as the load increases, the voltage at the secondary terminals drops
substantially. This voltage drop is due to resistance in the windings and leakage reactance
between the windings. @owever, good regulation may offer some other problems.
!oltage regulation and efficiency are improved with low impedance but the potential for
serious damage also goes up. +ometimes manufacturers, in order to meet demands for
good regulation, design transformers with leakage reactance as low as $F. A transformer
so designed is liable to be severely damaged if a short circuit occurs on the transformer6s
secondary, especially if the total power on the system is large .a stiff source with low
impedance/.
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The mechanical stresses in a transformer vary approimately as the square of the current.
+tresses in a transformer resulting from a short circuit could be approimately si times
as great in a transformer having $F impedance as they would be in one having %F
impedance .where reactance is the major component of the impedance voltage drop/.
(f course, a good circuit protection scheme can address this problem. +hort circuit
integrity is readily available if you wish to include in your transformer specifications that
it follow the A8+5*5=== Juide for +hort "ircuit Testing0 "%G.'$.D&1'DD9 for wet units
and "%G.'$.D'1'DD% for dry units.
!oltage taps
=ven with good regulation, the secondary voltage of a transformer can change if the
incoming voltage changes. Transformers, when connected to a utility system, are
dependent upon utility voltage0 when utility operations change or new loads are
connected to their lines, the incoming voltage to your facility may decrease, or even
perhaps increase.
To compensate for such voltage changes, transformers are often built with load tap
changers .4T"s/, or sometimes, no1load tap changers .84T"s/. .4T"s operate with the
load connected, whereas 84T"s must have the load disconnected./ These devices consist
of taps or leads connected to either the primary or secondary coils at different locations to
supply a constant voltage from the secondary coils to the load under varying conditions.
Tap changers connected to the primary coils change the connections from the incoming
line to various leads going to the coils. Ahen tap changers are connected to the secondary
coils, the changing of connections is made from the coils to the output conductors.
Tap changers can be operated by either manual switching or by automatic means.
Transformers with tap changers usually have a tap position indicator to allow you to know
what taps are being used.
4ife epectancy
There6s a common presumption that the useful life of a transformer is the useful life of the
insulating system, and that the life of the insulation is related to the temperature being
eperienced. You should recognize that the temperature of the windings vary0 there are so
1called hot1spots usually at an accepted maimum 9& :degrees; " above average coil
winding temperature for dry1type transformers. The hot1spot temperature is the sum of
the maimum ambient temperature, the average winding temperature rise .where the
winding refers to the conductor/, and the winding gradient temperature .the gradient
being the differential between the average winding temperature rise and the highest
temperature of the winding/.
The nameplate k!A rating of a transformer represents the amount of k!A loading that
will result in the rated temperature rise when the unit is operated under normal service
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conditions. Ahen operating under these conditions .including the accepted hot1spot
temperature with the correct class of insulation materials/, you should achieve a CnormalC
life epectancy for the transformer.
5nformation on dry1type transformer loading from A8+5*5=== "%G.D?1'DED indicates
that you can have a $&1yr life epectancy for the insulation system in a transformer.
@owever, due to degradation of the insulation, a transformer might fail before an elapse
of $& yrs. 7or dry1type transformers having a $$& :degrees; " insulating system and a
winding hot1spot temperature of $$& :degrees; ", and with no unusual operating
conditions present, the $&1yr life epectancy is a reasonable time frame. .The $$&
:degrees; " represents a transformer used in a location with a <& :degrees; " :'&<
:degrees; 7; maimum ambient temperature, an average '%& :degrees; " rise in the
conductor windings, and a 9& :degrees; " gradient temperature./
#ost '%& :degrees; " rise dry1type transformers are built with $$& :degrees; " insulation
systems. (perating such a transformer at rated k!A on a continuous basis with a 9&
:degrees; " average ambient should equate to a CnormalC useful life. .8ote, <& :degrees; "
maimum ambient in any $<1hr period with 9& :degrees; " as the $<1hr average is
considered a standard ambient./
Ahen based solely on thermal factors, the life of a transformer increases appreciably if
the operating temperature is lower than the maimum temperature rating of the
insulation. @owever, you should recognize that the life epectancy of transformers
operating at varying temperatures is not accurately known. 7luctuating load conditions
and changes in ambient temperature make it difficult, if not impossible, to arrive at such
definitive information.
(verloading
7or effective operation of an electrical system, transformers are sometimes overloaded to
meet operating conditions. As such, it6s important that you have an understanding with
the transformer manufacturer as to what overloading the unit can withstand without
causing problems.
The main problem is heat dissipation. 5f a transformer is overloaded by a certain factor,
say $&F beyond k!A rating for a certain period of time, depending upon that period of
time, it6s probable that any heat developed in the coils will be transferred easily to the
outside of the transformer tank. Therefore, there6s a reasonable chance that the
overloading will not cause a problem. @owever, when longer time periods are involved,
heat will start to build up internally within the transformer, possibly causing serious
problems.
An effective way of removing this heat is to use built1in fans0 this way, the load capability
can be increased without increasing the k!A rating of the transformer.
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>ry1type transformers typically have a fan1cooled rating that is '.99 times the self1cooled
rating. +ome transformer designs can provide ratings of '.< to '.% times self1cooled units.
5f you have such requirements, you should prepare a carefully written specification.
4iquid1filled transformers, because of their double heat1transfer requirement .core*coil1
to1liquid and liquid1to1air/, have a lower forced air rating. Bsually, the increased rating is
'.'% times the self1cooled rating for small units and '.$% times self1cooled rating for larger
Csmall power transformers.C Ahen above '&#!A, the ratio may be as high as '.?G to '.
You should recognize two distinct factors when forced cooling is used. 7irst, the concept is
used to obtain a higher transformer capacity0 but when doing so, losses are increased
substantially. A dry1type transformer operating at '99F of its self1cooled rating will have
conductor losses of nearly '.E times the losses at the self1cooled rating. And, there will be
some losses in the form of power to operate the fan motors. The normal no1load losses
remain constant regardless of the load. The other liability is that when additional
equipment is used, such as fans, the chance of something malfunctioning increases.
Table ', on page %&, lists the loading capability for liquid1filled, ?% :degrees; " rise
transformers, based on normal loss of life. This information is from Table % in
A8+5*5=== "%G.D'1'DE', Juide for 4oading #ineral (il 5mmersed 2ower Transformers
3ated %&&k!A and 4ess.
Table $, on page %&, lists the loading capability for $&& :degrees; " dry1type insulation
system transformers, based on normal loss of life. This information is from Table ? in
A8+5*5=== "%G.D?1'DED, Juide for 4oading >ry1Type Transformers.
5nsulation level
The insulation level of a transformer is based on its basic impulse level .)54/. The )54 can
vary for a given system voltage, depending upon the amount of eposure to system
overvoltages a transformer might be epected to encounter over its life cycle. A8+5*5===
+tandards "%G.'$.&&1'DD9 and "%G.'$.&'1'DED indicate the )54s that may be specified for
a given system voltage. You should base your selection on prior knowledge with similar
systems, or on a system study such as performed by a qualified engineering firms or by
selecting the highest )54 available for the system6s voltage.
5f the electrical system in question includes solid1state controls, you should approach the
selection of )54 very carefully. These controls, which when operating chop the current,
may cause voltage transients.
4iquid1filled temperature considerations
4iquid1type transformers use insulation based on a cellulose*fluid system. The fluid
serves as both an insulating and cooling medium. 7orms are used .which are rectangular
or cylindrical shaped/ when constructing the windings and spacers are used between
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layers of the windings. The spacing is necessary to allow the fluid to flow and cool the
windings and the core.
7or cooling, fluid flows in the transformer through ducts and around the coil ends within
a sealed tank that encompasses the core and coils. 3emoval of the heat in the fluid takes
place in eternal tubes, usually elliptical in design, welded to the outside tank walls.
Ahen transformer ratings begin to eceed %#!A, additional heat1transfer is required.
@ere, radiators are used0 they consist of headers etending from the transformer tank on
the bottom and top, with rows of tubes connected between the two headers. The
transformer fluid, acting as a cooling medium, transfers the heat picked up from the core
and coils and dissipates it to the air via the tubes.
The paper insulation used today in liquid1filled transformers is thermally upgraded,
allowing a ?% :degrees; " average winding temperature rise as standard. Bntil the 6?&s, %%
:degrees; " rise was the standard.
+ometimes, transformer specifications are written for a %% :degrees;*?% :degrees; " rise.
This provides an increase in the operating capacity by '$F since the k!A specified is
based on the old %% :degrees; " rise basis but the paper supplied is thermally upgraded
kraft type.
7or both wet1 and dry1type units, a key factor in transformer design is the amount of
temperature rise that the insulation can withstand. 4ower temperature rise ratings of
transformers can be achieved in two ways, )y increasing the conductor size of the
winding .which reduces the resistance and therefore the heating/ or by derating a larger,
higher temperature rise transformer. )e careful when using the latter method0 since the
percent impedance of a transformer is based on the higher rating, the let1through fault
current and startup inrush current will be proportionately higher than the rating at which
it is being applied. "onsequently, downstream equipment may need to have a higher
withstand and interrupting rating, and the primary breaker may need to have a higher
trip setting in order to hold in on startup.
The lower temperature rise transformers are physically larger and, therefore, will require
more floor space. (n the plus side, a lower temperature rise transformer will have a
longer life epectancy. The latest energy codes recommend selecting transformers to
optimize the combination of no1load, part1load, and full1load losses without
compromising the operational and reliability requirements of the electrical system.
>ry1type temperature considerations
>ry1type transformers are available in three general classes of insulation. The main
features of insulation are to provide dielectric strength and to be able to withstand certain
thermal limits. 5nsulation classes are $$& :degrees; " ."lass @/, 'E% :degrees; " ."lass 7/,
and '%& :degrees; " ."lass )/. Temperature rise ratings are based on full1load rise over
ambient .usually <& :degrees; " above ambient/ and are '%& :degrees; " .available only
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with "lass @ insulation/, ''% :degrees; " .available with "lass @ and "lass 7 insulation/
and E& :degrees; " .available with "lass @, 7, and ) insulation/. A 9& :degrees; " winding
hot spot allowance is provided for each class.
The lower temperature rise transformers are more efficient, particularly at loadings of
%&F and higher. 7ull load losses for ''% :degrees; " transformers are about 9&F less than
those of '%& :degrees; " transformers. And E& :degrees; " transformers have losses that
are about '%F less than ''% :degrees; " transformers and <&F less than '%& :degrees; "
transformers. 7ull load losses for '%& :degrees; " transformers range from about <F to
%F for 9& k!A and smaller to $F for %&& k!A and larger.
Ahen operated continuously at ?%F or more of full load, the ''% :degrees; " transformer
will pay for itself over the '%& :degrees; " transformer in $ yrs or less .' year if operated at
D&F of full load/. The E& :degrees; " transformer requires operation at G%F or more of
full load for a $1yr payback, and at '&&F load to payback in ' yr over the '%& :degrees; "
transformer. 5f operated continuously at E&F or more of full load, the E& :degrees; "
transformer will have a payback over the ''% :degrees; " transformer in $ yrs or less .'.$%
years at '&&F loading/.
You should note that at loadings below %&F of full load, there is essentially no payback for
either the ''% :degrees; " or the E& :degrees; " transformer over the '%& :degrees; "
transformer. Also, at loadings below <&F, the lower temperature rise transformers
become less efficient than the '%& :degrees; " transformers. Thus, not only is there no
payback, but also the annual operating cost is higher.
4osses
)ecause the cost of owning a transformer involves both fied and operating costs, and
because the cost of electric power is constantly on the rise, the cost of energy lost over a
period of time due to a transformer6s losses can substantially eceed the purchase price of
a unit. As such, it6s important that you evaluate transformer no1load and load losses
carefully.
8o1load losses consist of hysteresis and eddy currents in the core, copper loss due to no1
load current in the primary winding, and dielectric loss. The core losses are the most
important.
4oad losses include 73 loss in the windings, 73 losses due to current supplying the losses,
eddy current loss in the conductors due to leakage in the field, and stray losses in the
transformer6s structural steel. +pecifying higher efficiency requires larger conductors for
the coils to reduce 73 losses. This means added cost, but the payback may be significant.
k1factor
+ome transformers .liquid1 and dry1type/ are now being offered with what is called a k1
factor rating. This is a measure of the transformer6s ability to withstand the heating
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effects of nonsinusoidal harmonic currents produced by much of today6s electronic
equipment and certain electrical equipment. )ecause of the problems created by
harmonics, A8+5*5===, in the late 'DE&s, formulated the "%G.''&1'DE? standard,
3ecommended 2ractice for =stablishing Transformer "apability Ahen +upplying
8onsinusoidal 4oad "urrents. 5t applies to transformers up to %&#!A maimum
nameplate rating when these units are subject to nonsinusoidal load currents having a
harmonic factor eceeding &.&% per1unit .pu/, the percent value of the base unit.
.@armonic factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of all the harmonics to the
effective value of the fundamental ?&1@z frequency./
5n >ecember, 'DD&, B4 announced listings for dry1type general purpose and power
transformers affected by nonsinusoidal currents in accordance to the above A8+5*5===
"%G.''&1'DE?. The Clisting investigationC is directed to submitting transformers for
testing to certain factors relating to rms current at certain harmonic orders in a specified
way that correlates with heating losses. The factors involved in the tests are collectively
called the k1factor.
Transformers meeting k1factor requirements also address the need for providing for high
neutral currents. )ecause the neutral current may be considerably greater than the phase
current, the neutral terminal of the transformer is sometimes doubled in size for
additional customer neutral cables. 5t6s important that you recognize the impact caused
by harmonic currents.
(versized primary conductors are used to compensate for circulating harmonic currents.
The secondary is also given special consideration. As the frequency increases to 'E& @z
.as in the case with the 9rd harmonic/, and greater, the skin effect .where current begins
to travel more on the circumference of the conductor/ becomes more pronounced. To
compensate for this, the windings are composed of several smaller sizes of conductor,
with the circumference of the total conductors being greater. The transformer design also
incorporates a reduction in core flu to compensate for harmonic voltage distortion.
7or help in determining what k1factor to use when you specify a transformer while
designing an electrical system for a facility, identify what harmonic producing equipment
is going into the system. Then, obtain information on the harmonic spectrum and the
associated amplitudes produce by the offending apparatus from the manufacturer of the
equipment.
"autionary note, )e careful when using k1rated transformers having abnormally low
impedance, particularly those units with ratings of k1$& and higher. +uch low impedance
transformers can actually increase harmonics neutral current problems and even cause
some loads to malfunction or cause damage to equipmentK Bse of abnormally low
impedance transformers will act to significantly increase the neutral current and,
therefore, negate some of the benefits of doubling the neutral conductors. 5t6s important
that isolation transformers be used for high harmonic loads having normal .9F to ?F/
impedance. +ome highly knowledgeably engineers believe that it6s wrong to specify
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transformers with ratings k1$& and higher for commercial office loads. 5f the harmonics
are of such high magnitude and it6s believed a transformer with a rating of k1$& or higher
should be used, then careful attention should be given to make sure that the impedance of
the unit be at least 9F.
+hielding
>epending upon the loads being served, the ability of a transformer to attenuate electrical
noise and transients would be a helpful attribute. Ahile what is commonly referred to as
Cdirty powerC possibly can6t be stopped at the source causing the noise, corrective
measures can be taken, including the application of a shield between the primary and
secondary of a transformer. This type of construction is usually considered when a
distribution transformer is serving solid1state devices such as computers and peripheral
equipment.
There are two types of noise and voltage transients, common mode noise and transients
and normal or transverse mode noise and transients. "ommon mode power aberrations
are disturbances between the primary lines and the ground .phase1to1ground/0 transverse
mode power aberrations are line1to1line disturbances. 5t is important to recognize this
difference because an electrostatic shield will not reduce transverse disturbances.
@owever, transverse disturbances are slightly reduced by a transformer6s impedance, and
this is true whether or not a transformer has a shield.
To substantially reduce transverse mode power aberrations, surge suppressors are used to
handle the transients, and filters are used to handle the noise. +ome literature show
voltage sine curves with disturbances imposed on the curve as well as clean voltage sine
curves, and information is included to the effect that an electrostatic shield is responsible
for reducing or eliminating the disturbances. This is incorrect because the voltage sine
curve portrays line1to1line characteristics, and shielding has no effect upon such
disturbances.
An electrostatic shield is a grounded metal barrier between the primary and secondary
that filters common mode noise, thus delivering cleaner power and reducing the spikes
caused by common mode voltage transients. The shield takes most of the energy from the
voltage spike and delivers it to the ground. A number of authorities agree that
transformers built to deliver a ?& decibel .d)/ .a '&&&1to1' ratio/ reduction in common
mode disturbances .noise and voltage transients/ will help solve or prevent such power
aberrations from causing problems. +ome transformers are built with the ability to
provide a '&& d) .'&&,&&&1to1' ratio/ attenuation, and even larger ratios. 5f poor power
quality may be a problem on a system where you plan to install a transformer, get
information on the unit6s attenuation ratio and verify that the power problem stems from
common mode disturbances.
An eample of the effect of attenuation would be a lightning strike that induces a '&&&!
spike on a power line connected to the primary of a transformer. A shield would take most
of this energy to ground, and if the attenuation is ?& d) .'&&&1to1' ratio/, an approimate
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a 5! CbumpC will be passed to the secondary and onto the feeder or branch circuit. A
number of loads can take a CbumpC of this magnitude without damage. 5f there6s a branch
circuit and another shielded transformer ahead of a load, the CbumpC will be further
reduced by the second transformer. This type of reduction is caused by an effect called
transformer cascading.
2lacing transformers near the load
4ocating a transformer indoors, on the rooftop, or adjacent to a building in order to
minimize the distance between the unit and the principal load results in reducing energy
loss and voltage reduction. 5t also reduces the cost of secondary cable.
(n the other hand, such placements of high1voltage equipment require closer
consideration of electrical and fire safety issues. These conflicting goals can be satisfied by
using transformers permitted by "ode and insurance companies.
Ahen liquid1filled transformers are preferred, less1flammable liquids are widely
recognized for indoor and close building proimity installations. Aet1type transformers
using less1flammable, or high fire point liquids, have been recognized by the 8=" since
'DGE for indoor installation without the need for vault protection unless the voltage
eceeds 9%k!. )ased on this type of transformer6s ecellent fire safety record, "ode and
insurance restrictions have become minimal. "onventional mineral oil units are allowed
indoors, but only if they are installed in a special 91hr1rated vault .with a few eceptions/
per the construction requirements of 8=" Article <%&, 2art ". There6s a requirement for
liquid containment when wet1type transformers are used, regardless of the type fluid
employed.
Ahen dry1type units are preferred, they have fewer code restrictions. (bviously, these
types of transformers do not need liquid containment. 2er the requirements listed in 8="
+ec. <%&1$', there are minimum clearances that you must observe, and units over
''$.%k!A require installation in a transformer room of fire1resistant construction, unless
they are covered by one of two listed eceptions. As with liquid units, dry transformers
eceeding 9%k! must also be located in a 91hr1rated vault.
A liquid1filled transformer may eperience leakage around gaskets and fittings0 however,
if the installation was carried out correctly, this should not be a problem. #ajor
maintenance procedures may require inspection of internal components, meaning that
the coolant will have to be drained. "oils in liquid1type units are much easier to repair
than coils in dry1type transformers. "ast coils are not repairable0 they must be replaced.
Accessories
Accessories are usually an added cost, and sometimes they are installed while the
transformer is being bulk. Therefore, you should have some knowledge of accessories and
incorporate in the transformer specification those accessories that, when installed, would
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be beneficial to the transformer6s performance. +ome of the accessories available include
the following,
- +tainless steel tank and cabinet for etra corrosion protection .liquid1filled only/0
- +pecial paint*finishes for corrosive atmospheres and ultraviolet light .liquid1filled only/0
- Aeather shields for outdoor units, protective provisions for humid environments, and
rodent guards .dry1type only/0
- Temperature monitors. There are a number of options available from simple
thermometers to more etensive single1 or 91phase temperature monitoring as well as
options for contacts to initiate alarms and*or trip circuits as well as starting cooling fans0
- +pace heaters to prevent condensation during prolonged shutdown .usually with
thermostats/0
- (ptional location of openings for primary and secondary leads0
- +pecial bushings for connecting primary to right1angle feeders0
- 4oadbreak switches installed in transformer cabinet or a closely coupled cabinet0
- Tap changing control apparatus .usually a nonload device that can change the output
voltage by about %F/0
- 5nternal circuit protection devices to open primary line when there1are short circuits
and severe overloads0
- =quipment such as liquid level gauges, drain valves, radiator guards, sampling devices,
and pressure relief valves .for liquid1filled transformers only/0
- 5nternal lightning arresters0
- 5nternal surge arresters for protection against line or switching surges0
- 2rovisions for current and potential transformers and metering0
- 7uture fan provision for such installation at a later date0
- Ley interlocks or padlocks to coordinate opening of enclosure panels with operation of
@! switch0
- 2rovisions for ground fault detection0
- 5nstallation of small control power transformers in cabinet to operate various '$&*$<&!
accessories for medium1voltage transformers0 and
- +eismic bracing for units installed at locations subject to earthquakes.
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12 Recommend
Ste,e Sammet (not verified)
on (ct $D, $&'9
-ogin or register to $ost comments
>ear +ir,
5 have always grounded one side of the secondary of my class A power transformer in case of a
pri to sec short. 5 thought 5 read that a code, years ago, stated 5 had to in order to protect the
3"A jacks from having potential and possibly shocking someone. .3"A jacks are insulated from
the chassis./
8ow a friend says there is no code of such, and we would minimize the problem of a ground loop
by floating signal ground*3"A jacks.
Am 5 imagining or is there a provision in any code that requires any eternal orifice on a chassis
to be grounded, to protect the publicM
Your time and epertise is much appreciated.
+teve +ammet
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