Modelling and Simulation of Machining Processes

Arch Comput Methods Eng (2007) 14: 173204
DOI 10.1007/s11831-007-9005-7
Modelling and Simulation of Machining Processes
M. Vaz Jr. D.R.J. Owen V. Kalhori M. Lundblad
L.-E. Lindgren
Published online: 8 June 2007
CIMNE, Barcelona, Spain 2007
Abstract The modelling of metal cutting has proved to be
particularly complex due to the diversity of physical phe-
nomena involved, including thermo-mechanical coupling,
contact/friction and material failure. The present work out-
lines the wide range of complex physical phenomena in-
volved in the chip formation in a descriptive manner. In
order to improve and understand the process different nu-
merical strategies have been used for simulation. Several of
these numerical strategies are reviewed and a short discus-
sion of their relative merits and drawbacks is presented. By
means of several examples, where a combined experimen-
tal/numerical effort was undertaken, we try to illustrate what
numerical techniques, models and pertinent parameters are
needed for successful simulations.
M. Vaz Jr. ()
Department of Mechanical Engineering, State University of Santa
Catarina, 89223-100 Joinville, Brazil
e-mail: m.vaz@joinville.udesc.br
D.R.J. Owen
Civil and Computational Engineering Centre, University of Wales
Swansea, SA2 8PP Swansea, UK
e-mail: d.r.j.owen@swansea.ac.uk
V. Kalhori M. Lundblad
Sandvik Coromant, USE-811 81 Sandviken, Sweden
V. Kalhori
e-mail: vahid.kalhori@sandvik.com
M. Lundblad
e-mail: mikael.lundblad@sandvik.com
L.-E. Lindgren
Division of Material Mechanics, Lule University of Technology,
S-971 87 Lule, Sweden
e-mail: Lars-Erik.Lindgren@ltu.se
1 Introduction
Metal cutting is a process in which, by action of a cutting
edge (or edges) of a tool, unnecessary material is removed. It
is one of the most common manufacturing processes for pro-
ducing parts and obtaining specied geometrical dimensions
and surface nish. Turning, drilling, and milling are exam-
ples of different industrial applications that use this principle
with different geometry and number of cutting edges. Nev-
ertheless, in the current work, the analysis is restricted to
models that describe the local behaviour due to one cutting
edge. These models can be used to increase the knowledge
of the cutting process and improve it. Understanding of the
material removal process in metal cutting is important in se-
lecting tool material and design and in assuring consistent
dimensional accuracy and surface integrity of the nished
product.
Although mechanical cutting is one of the most wide-
spread processes, the modelling and simulation of this phe-
nomenon is by no means trivial. It has proved to be particu-
larly complex due to the diversity of physical phenomena in-
volved, including large elasto-plastic deformation, compli-
cated contact/friction conditions, thermo-mechanical cou-
pling and chip separation mechanisms. One factor that has
caused considerable difculty and frustration to researchers
investigating the chip formation is the fact that the phenom-
ena occurring in the vicinity of the cutting edge are highly
localized and not directly observable. After more than a hun-
dred years of research, the study of metal machining still
constitutes a current challenging task. Although the rst the-
oretical models were able to describe the problem only qual-
itatively, their principles and assumptions laid foundations
for further advancements. The main shortcoming of exist-
ing solutions for chip formation mechanisms perhaps lies in
174 M. Vaz Jr. et al.
the oversimplication and consequent disregard of the com-
plex interplay of the different parameters. Numerical simu-
lation by the nite element method has proven to be a reli-
able alternative to analyse several metal forming operations.
Nevertheless, only recently, with the advent of high-speed
computers and robust large-strain/large-displacement proce-
dures, contact/fracture algorithms, adaptive re-meshing pro-
cedures for inelastic problems and robust nite/discrete al-
gorithms, have numerical simulations of forming operations,
which involve material removal become possible.
The purpose of the current paper is to illustrate what
numerical techniques, models and pertinent parameters are
needed for successful simulations. The presentation is orga-
nized as follows. After this introduction, Sect. 2 presents a
short review of books dedicated to the subject. The chip for-
mation fundamentals based on mechanical, thermal and tri-
bological principles are presented in Sect. 3 in a descriptive
manner. In Sect. 4, individual aspects of simulation tech-
niques and numerical strategies are described. Numerical
and experimental examples are provided in Sect. 5, that il-
lustrate the performance of the formulations used in a vari-
ety of conditions. Finally, in Sect. 6, some conclusions are
presented and discussion provided on the need for improve-
ments.
2 Further Reading
Several books have been written about machining processes
and manufacturing productivity. They are mainly concerned
with how mechanical and materials engineering science
can be applied to understand the process and support fu-
ture developments. Metal Cutting Principles by M.C. Shaw
(1984) [1] is one of the rst books to be published on the
subject and carefully discusses, in a descriptive way, the dif-
ferent parameters that inuence the chip formation mech-
anism. Nevertheless, there have been many developments
since this rst publication. Metal Cutting by E.M. Trent
(1991) [2] is another major work, but written more from
the point of view of a materials engineer. Fundamentals
of Machining and Machine Tools by G. Boothroyd and
W.A. Knight (1989) [3] covers mechanical and production
engineering perspectives. Metal Machining: Theory and Ap-
plications by T.H.C. Childs et al. (2000) [4] provides a dis-
cussion of the theory and application of metal machining.
The underlying mechanics are analysed and discussion of
simulation results and process control is undertaken.
3 Chip Formation Fundamentals
Cutting processes involve a wide range of physical phenom-
ena. This section introduces the mechanical, thermal and tri-
bological principles on which understanding of the process
is based. First, Sect. 3.1 reports the types of chips that can be
formed, depending on the material and cutting conditions.
Section 3.2 describes the main regions of plastic ow and
discusses how the dissipation of the inelastic work gener-
ates energy resulting in a subsequent temperature rise. The
forces generated on a tool during cutting are described in
Sect. 3.3. Section 3.4 emphasizes the importance of know-
ing how much of the heat generated is convected into the
chip and how the cutting speed affects the heat transfer. The
role of friction along the toolchip contact is of paramount
importance to the cutting process. Section 3.5 draws atten-
tion to the interdependence of different phenomena that take
place at the toolchip interface.
3.1 Chip Geometry and Inuencing Factors
The type of chip produced can characterize the various cut-
ting processes. Although there exist many individual types
or combinations thereof, a general classication is widely
accepted today. In general, the chips are classied as dis-
continuous, continuous, continuous with built-up-edge and
shear-localized, as shown in Fig. 1. The discontinuous chip
is commonly observed when brittle materials are cut at low
cutting speeds. The chip separation mechanisms have not
been fully explained and several factors are said to affect the
process. The phenomenon is frequently described through
plastic shear strain, shear stress and shear instability models.
The continuous chip is commonly produced when cutting
ductile materials and the operation can be regarded as steady
state. However, long continuous chips cause handling and
removal problems in practical operations. Under conditions
of low cutting speeds where the friction between the chip
and the rake face of the tool is high the chip may weld onto
the tool face. This accumulation of chip material is known
as a built-up edge (BUE).
Finally, the last type of chips are macroscopically contin-
uous chips consisting of narrow bands of heavily deformed
material alternating with larger regions of relatively unde-
formed material. These shear-localized chips can be formed
when the yield strength of the workpiece decreases with
temperature. Under the proper conditions, rapidly heated
material in a narrow band in front of the tool can become
much weaker than the surrounding material, leading to lo-
calized deformation. This type of chip is obtained when cut-
ting hardened and stainless steels and titanium alloys at high
cutting speeds.
The characteristics of crack formation have a signicant
inuence on the chip formation pattern as the cutting process
involves the separation of a chip from the workpiece. Fur-
thermore, Atkins (1985) [5] postulates that fracture is in-
herent in material removal processes, including continuous
chip formation. When the cutting tool movement towards
the workpiece starts, the stress concentration in front of the
Modelling and Simulation of Machining Processes 175
Fig. 1 Four basic types of
chips: (a) discontinuous, (b)
continuous, (c) continuous with
built-up edge (BUE), (d) shear
localized
Fig. 2 Cutting tool starting to
advance into the workpiece
cutting edge is increased [6] (see Fig. 2(a)). When this stress
reaches a certain maximumlimit, the following may happen:
I. If the workpiece material is brittle, then a crack appears
in front of the cutting edge, which nally causes fracture,
Fig. 2(b).
II. If the workpiece material is ductile, then a certain elasto-
plastic zone forms in the workpiece, Fig. 2(c). The di-
mensions of the plastic and elastic parts of this zone de-
pend on the ductility of the workpiece material.
3.2 Process Zones
The major deformations during the machining process are
concentrated in two regions close to the cutting tool edge.
These regions are usually called the primary and the sec-
ondary deformation zones, Fig. 3. The primary deformation
region extends from the tip of the cutting tool to the junction
between the undeformed work material and the deformed
chip. The workpiece is subjected to large deformation at a
high strain rate in this region. The heating is due to energy
dissipation from the plastic deformation. At the secondary
deformation zone, heat is generated due to the plastic defor-
mation and friction between the cutting tool and the chip.
Figure 4 shows the computed plastic strain rate and heating
rate in these regions. The secondary deformation zone may
be divided into two regions [2, 7], the sticking region and the
sliding region, Fig. 3. In the sticking region, the workpiece
Fig. 3 Locations of the primary and secondary deformation zones and
the sliding and sticking regions
material adheres to the tool and shear occurs within the chip.
The heat generation per unit volume is large in this region
due to the highly localized plastic deformation near the sur-
face of the chip. The highest temperature usually occurs in
the sliding region close to the sticking region.This will be
treated in more detail later in the paper.
The location of fracture onset is of great importance in
the understanding of the physics of chip formation. It is
shown in [8] that the limiting stress in the workpiece ma-
Fig. 4 Strain-rate and heating
in deformation zones during
orthogonal cutting of AISI 1045.
The cutting speed is 198 m/min
and the feed is 0.25 mm
Fig. 5 Zones where the limiting shear stress can occur
terial may occur in one of two regions, Fig. 5. They are
region A, along the surface separating the workpiece and
the layer being removed, and region B, along the surface of
maximum combined stress. Region A is characterized with
a high combined shear and normal stress. The shear stress
stems from the direct action of the cutting edge whereas the
normal stress is due to the tearing off of a layer of metal
when the chip material is forced upwards. The cracks usu-
ally start at the surface in region B. However, there may be
exceptions as in the cases of cast iron and sintered materials.
3.3 Mechanical Effects
The forces involved in chip formation, in orthogonal cutting,
are depicted in Fig. 6. The fracture in the chip formation oc-
curs due to the combined bending stress, the component S,
and the shearing stress due to compression Q. The pres-
ence of the bending stress in the deformation zone distin-
guishes the processes of metal cutting from other deforming
and separating manufacturing process. The competition be-
tween deformation hardening and thermal softening in the
deformation zone constitutes a cyclical character of the chip
formation process. As a result, the parameters of the cut-
ting system vary over each chip formation cycle. The cutting
force depends on several parameters, such as the tool angles,
feed and cutting speed.
Fig. 6 The interaction between tool rake face and the chip. The pene-
tration force P acts on the chip, causing the compressive force Q and
the bending force S
The more general three-dimensional case occurs, for in-
stance, in lathe turning. In this case the resultant force has
three components, Fig. 7. The component of the force act-
ing on the rake face of the tool, normal to the cutting edge,
in the direction OY is called cutting force F
c
. This is usually
the largest force component, and acts in the direction of the
cutting velocity. The force component acting on the tool in
the direction OX, parallel with the direction of feed, is re-
ferred to as the feed force F
f
. The third component, acting
in the OZ direction, pushes the cutting tool away from the
work in the radial direction. This is the smallest of the force
components.
The specic work done in cutting, W
c
, depends mainly
on two factors: the fracture shear strain and the tempera-
ture. The former changes because the shear stress at fracture
of the workpiece material depends on the strain. The latter
combined with high strain rates that occur in cutting will
affect the frictional shear stress
f
and must therefore af-
fect W
c
.
3.4 Thermal Effects
The effect of temperature on the stressstrain relationship
and fracture properties is well known but difcult to quan-
tify. In general the strength of the material decreases and
ductility increases as the temperature increases. In cutting
Fig. 7 Cutting forces acting on the tool in a semi-orthogonal cutting
operations the heat transfer is strongly dependent on the cut-
ting velocity. At very low cutting speeds there may be ade-
quate time for conduction to occur. At the other extreme,
at very high cutting speeds there is nearly no time for heat
conduction and adiabatic conditions may exist with high lo-
cal temperatures in the chip. Zorev (1966) [7] and Shaw
(1984) [1] assumed adiabatic conditions. This means that
heat generated in the primary deformation zone and the av-
erage temperature T in this region are proportional to the
specic work for metal removal W
c
. The increase of tem-
perature in the chip is related to the increase of plastic de-
formation and thereby W
c
. The average temperature can be
estimated by
T =
W
c
c
+T
0
(1)
where is the density of workpiece material, c is the spe-
cic heat and T
0
is the temperature prior to deformation. The
computed heat generation due to plastic dissipation and fric-
tion is conrmed in the numerical analysis shown in Fig. 4.
3.5 ToolChip Interface
Friction along the toolchip contact interface, during the
cutting process, is a very complex phenomenon. It inu-
ences the chip geometry, built-up edge formation, cutting
temperature and tool wear. Therefore it is necessary to un-
derstand the friction mechanism across the faces and around
the edge of the tool, in order to be able to develop accurate
models for cutting forces and temperature. The most simple
friction model is Coulomb friction,
= (2)
where is the frictional shear stress and is the normal
stress to the surface. Usually the friction coefcient is as-
sumed to be constant for a given interface. There exist ad-
vanced models that are more relevant for the cutting process
where rate, pressure and temperature dependency are ac-
counted for. However, it is not possible to perform direct
measurements of these for the extreme conditions that exist
in the contact region.
4 Numerical Simulation of Metal Machining
The importance of the subject is evinced by the increasing
number of research works which have been published in the
last thirty ve years since the pioneering studies by Usui
and Shirakashi (1974, 1982) [9, 10] and Klamecki (1973)
[11]. A review of modelling methods, including early nu-
merical works, discussed by Ehmann et al. (1997) [12], and
the extensive bibliography presented by Mackerle (1999,
2003) [13, 14] further highlight the efforts being made to
develop new approaches to solve this class of problems.
In this section, a discussion on the application of numeri-
cal models to metal machining is presented, which includes
mechanical and thermo-mechanical simulations. Individual
aspects of simulation techniques and numerical strategies
are presented, such as solution methods, constitutive mod-
els, thermo-mechanical coupling strategies, time integration
schemes, chip morphology, friction models, element tech-
nology, mesh and re-meshing procedures, contact and frac-
ture. The nite element model should incorporate some of
these numerical strategies in order to accurately simulate the
complex physical phenomena.
4.1 Solution Methods
Metal cutting simulations have been modelled using up-
dated Lagrangian, Eulerian and Arbitrary Lagrangian
Eulerian approaches. Lagrangian formulations assume that
the nite element mesh is attached to material and follows
its deformation, which brings the following advantages to
machining simulation: the chip geometry is the result of
the simulation and provides simpler schemes to simulate
transient processes and discontinuous chip formation. How-
ever, element distortion has been a matter of concern and
has restricted the analysis to incipient chip formation or
machining ductile materials using larger rake angles and/or
low-friction conditions [11, 1533]. Pre-distorted meshes
[3451] or re-meshing [5284] have been used to minimize
the problem. An alternative approach to simulate steady
state chip formation using a Lagrangian formulation was
proposed by Usui and Shirakashi (1974, 1982) [9, 10]. The
strategy, known as iteration convergence scheme, com-
putes the chip nal geometry and corresponding variables
based on an initial assumption and on a combination of a
small tool advance and an iterative evaluation of the stress
eld, velocity distribution and cutting forces [85, 86].
In Eulerian formulations, the mesh is xed in space and
material ows through the element faces allowing large
strains without causing numerical problems. Moreover, this
strategy is not affected by element distortion and allows
steady state machining to be simulated. However, Eulerian
approaches do not permit element separation or chip break-
age and require a proper modelling of the convection terms
associated with the material properties. In addition, such
formulations also require the prior knowledge of the chip
geometry and chiptool contact length, thereby restricting
the application range. In order to overcome this shortcom-
ing, various authors have adopted iterative procedures to ad-
just the chip geometry and/or chip/tool contact length [87
97].
In an attempt to combine advantages of both Lagrangian
and Eulerian formulations, a mixed approach, known as Ar-
bitrary LagrangianEulerian formulation (ALE) has been
proposed to model machining operations. This method ap-
plies Lagrangian and Eulerian steps sequentially and uses
the so-called operator split, illustrated in Fig. 8. The rst
step assumes that the mesh follows the material ow, in
which a Lagrangian problem is solved for displacements.
Subsequently, the reference system is moved (the mesh is
repositioned) and an advection problem is solved (Eulerian
step) for velocities. Despite the fact that ALE methods re-
duce the element distortion problem typical of Lagrangian
approaches, a careful numerical treatment of the advection
terms is required. More elaborate discussions on use of ALE
formulations in modelling metal machining are presented by
Rakotomalala et al. (1993) [98], Olovsson et al. (1999) [99],
Movahhedy et al. (2000) [100], Benson and Okazawa (2004)
[101], Pantal et al. (2004) [102] and Madhavan and Adibi-
Sedeh (2005) [103].
4.2 Workpiece and Tool: Constitutive Models and Analysis
A wide range of constitutive models have been employed
for the workpiece, such as rigid-plastic, rigid-viscoplastic,
elasto-perfectly-plastic, elasto-plastic and elasto-viscoplas-
tic. Elas-to-plastic materials have been the most commonly
used in simulations, with the plastic strain-rate dependency
being included in some studies [9, 10, 15, 16, 22, 24, 2628,
39, 40, 50, 51, 61, 68]. The elasto-viscoplastic model has
been adopted by Shih and others [29, 34, 37, 38, 43, 57].
Some authors, aiming at simplifying the analysis, have used
rigid-plastic [59, 65, 87] and rigid-viscoplastic [30, 52, 73,
75, 76, 78, 8890, 9396, 99] materials; however, the ther-
mal strains and residual stresses could not be evaluated.
Rigid tooling has been assumed by most authors except
for Carrol III and Strenkowski (1988) [88], Eldridge et al.
(1991) [90], Xie et al. (1994) [17], Kalhori et al. (1997)
[104], Monaghan and MacGinley (1999) [58], MacGin-
ley and Monaghan (2001) [63], Klocke et al. (2001) [65],
Kishawy et al. (2002) [29] and Madhavan and Adibi-Sedeh
(2005) [103].
4.3 Thermo-mechanical Coupling
In cutting processes, energy is generated due to the dissipa-
tion of both inelastic work and frictional work, being trans-
ferred through the workpiece/chip and tool and lost to the
surrounding environment by convection and radiation. Tem-
perature rise causes thermal strains and affects the material
properties. Most nite element approximations use the con-
cept of the weak form of the governing equation, as
C
T

T
n
+K
T
T
n
=Q(t
n
) (3)
in which T are the nodal temperatures at time t
n
, C
T
and
K
T
are, respectively, the heat capacity and heat conduction
matrices and Q is the heat ux and heat generation due to
inelastic deformation.
In adiabatic processes no heat transfer takes place (K
T
is
assumed zero in (3)), i.e., the heat generated due to inelastic
deformation and friction is kept inside the element causing
the temperature to rise [19, 21, 25, 28, 33, 46, 48, 56, 64, 83,
88, 90, 104]. The solution of the eld equation for the heat
conduction is not required when this assumption is made,
but this approximation can only be safely adopted for low-
diffusivity materials or in high-speed processes. If the cool-
ing to room temperature is needed in order to evaluate resid-
ual stresses of the workpiece, it is not advisable to adopt this
simplication. One possible technique is to perform a cou-
pled thermal-mechanical analysis by the so-called staggered
approach, as has been used in references [38, 53, 78]. The
most common staggered approach combines a rigid ther-
mal step with a mechanical step. This algorithm is condi-
tionally stable [106108]. Nevertheless, the results obtained
Fig. 8 The ALE operator
split [101]
by such simulations are reliable, provided the time step limit
is adhered to.
4.4 Time Integration Schemes
In general, there are two strategies for time integration,
namely quasi-static implicit and dynamic explicit schemes.
The former requires convergence at every time step or load
increment and the latter predicts stresses and strains by solv-
ing an uncoupled equation system based on information
from the previous time steps.
Quasi-static implicit time integration schemes have been
largely used in metal cutting simulations for either La-
grangian or Eulerian formulations, as inertia forces can
usually be ignored when compared with the deformation
forces. The equilibrium equations and constitutive relation
are highly non-linear (both material and geometrically),
thereby requiring a proper discretization and solution pro-
cedure. In the rst case, the NewtonRaphson scheme for
the nite element equations can be generally expressed as
K
n+1
(u
n+1
)u
n+1
=R
n+1
(u
n+1
),
R
n+1
(u
n+1
) =F
int
n+1
F
ext
n+1
and
(4)
u
n+1
=u
n
+u
n+1
(5)
in which K
n+1
is the tangent stiffness matrix, F
int
n+1
and
F
ext
n+1
are, respectively, internal and external global force
vectors, u
n+1
is the vector of unknown incremental dis-
placements, and u
n+1
and u
n
are the current and previous
total nodal displacements.
The general form of the nite element equations for
Eulerian formulations is represented as follows:
K
n+1
u
n+1
=F
n+1
(6)
where K
n+1
is the stiffness matrix, F
n+1
is the load vector
and u
n+1
are the nodal velocities. Difculties dealing with
discontinuous chip formation and restrictive contact condi-
tions are the main drawbacks of implicit schemes. This type
of approach has been used by most authors.
Dynamic explicit time integration schemes have been em-
ployed in metal forming problems that involve high non-
linearity, complex friction-contact conditions and fragmen-
tation. The nite element discretization can be derived from
the weak form of the mechanical equilibrium equations as
M u
n
+C u
n
+F
int
n
(u
n
) =F
ext
n
(t
n
) (7)
where u, u and u are the nodal acceleration, velocity and dis-
placement at time t
n
, M and C are mass and damping matri-
ces (the latter is disregarded in some explicit formulations)
and F
int
and F
ext
are internal and external forces. Nodal
velocity and acceleration can be approximated in terms of
the displacements using central differences, which enables
derivation of the following recurrence equation,
u
n+1
=
_
M+C
t
2
_
1
+
_
2Mu
n
t
_
F
int
n
+F
ext
n
_
_
MC
t
2
_
u
n1
_
. (8)
Although no iteration procedure is required, the stabil-
ity of the algorithm depends strongly on the time step size,
which is invariably much smaller then its implicit counter-
part. However, this restriction makes possible use of mass
lumping, which, with the assumption of mass proportional
damping, leads to an uncoupled equation system easily par-
allelised. Pioneered by Hashemi et al. (1994) [18], explicit
schemes have been extensively applied to chip removal
processes [19, 21, 25, 26, 28, 29, 33, 47, 51, 53, 56, 64,
83, 103], in special those involving chip breakage and re-
meshing procedures.
4.5 Chip Morphology
For a long time, continuous chip formation had been the
only cutting condition analysed. This is primarily due to
issues, such as restricted computer capacity, limitation of
stress update and contact algorithms, convergence problems
or even the lack of complete understanding of chip separa-
tion/fragmentation mechanisms.
The use of explicit algorithms by Hashemi et al. (1994)
[18] and Marusich and Ortiz (1995) [53], combined with
robust contact algorithms and brittle/ductile fracture cri-
teria, made possible the simulation of discontinuous chip
formation. In both works the path of chip separation and
breakage is not assigned in advance, which constitutes a
signicant advance in metal cutting simulation. Although
Obikawa and Usui (1996) [40] use a pre-dened cutting
line, the chip is allowed to fracture, forming a serrated
geometry which is characteristic when adiabatic shear is
present. It can be observed in recent years a steady in-
crease in the number of simulations using chip breakage
strategies, some of which combining re-meshing procedures
[33, 54, 56, 59, 64, 67, 76]. Further details on chip separa-
tion and breakage are presented in Sect. 4.10.
The great improvement in computer capacity in the last
years and further renement in modelling strategies made
possible attempts to simulate transient 3D chip formation.
One of the rst simulations of material removal processes
was presented by Guo, Dornfeld and co-workers for incip-
ient cutting in drilling [19, 21] and hard turning [25] using
an elasticplastic material model associated with an explicit
time integration scheme. Lin and Lin (1999, 2001) [20, 23]
used a structured mesh and a pre-dened parting line to sim-
ulate a 3D machining operation. Similar approach was also
utilized by Soo et al. (2004a) [32] and Ng et al. (2002) [26].
An ALE formulation was used by Pantal et al. (2004) [102]
to simulate 2D and 3D oblique machining and milling. Re-
meshing techniques in association with unstructured meshes
were adopted by Ceretti et al. (2000) [62] and Fang and
Zeng (2005) [77] to simulate oblique cutting and Soo et al.
(2004b) [74] to simulate a milling process. Further aspects
of 3D machining simulation are presented in Sect. 5.4.
4.6 Friction Models
Friction between chip and tool constitutes one of most im-
portant and complex aspects of machining processes. It can
determine, not only the tool wear and quality of the ma-
chined surface, but also structural loads and power to re-
move a certain volume of metal. Zorevs (1963) [109] tem-
perature independent, stickslip friction model has been one
of the most commonly used approximations to frictional
contact between chip and tool. Zorev advocated the exis-
tence of two distinct chip/tool contact regions: near the tool
tip, shear stresses
f
are assumed to be equal to the shear
strength of the material being machined,
Y
, whereas, in the
sliding region, the frictional stress is proportional to the nor-
mal stress,
n
,
f
=
_
Y
, 0
c
(
n
Y
) st ick,
n
, >
c
(
n
<
Y
) slid
(9)
in which is commonly associated with the Coulombs
friction coefcient and
c
is the transitional zone, assumed
to be known in advance in most cases (see Fig. 9). Sim-
ilar approaches have been applied to simulate machining
processes, such as dening an average friction coefcient
over the rake face, separate coefcients for each region, dif-
ferent lengths for the sticking region, or even neglecting al-
together the low stress variation of shear and normal stresses
and simply assuming
f
=m
Y
(m<1) along the rake face
[17, 1927, 2932, 3439, 43, 4548, 5761, 65, 68, 73, 75,
7779, 83, 9496, 98, 103105].
Other researchers attempted to use more realistic friction
models. Experimental models were introduced by Usui and
co-workers [9, 10, 4042, 50], who used a non-linear stress
expression to relate the normal stress and frictional stress as
f
=
Y
_
1 exp
_
Y
__
(10)
where is a tool/chip material constant and
Y
is the max-
imum shear stress of the chip surface layer in contact with
the rake face of the tool. Equation (10) approaches
f
=
Y
for large normal stresses (sticking region) and the classical
Coulombs law,
f
=
n
, for smaller values of
n
(sliding
region), as illustrated by the dashed line shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Frictional and normal stresses along the rake face
Childs and co-workers (2000, 2001) [4, 85] introduced fur-
ther modications in (10) so that
f
=m
Y
_
1 exp
_
n
m
Y
_
n
_
1/n
(11)
in which n controls the transition from the sticking to the
sliding region and m accounts for a lubrication effect. zel
(2006) [84], by comparing experimental results with several
friction models based on (9, 10) and (11), concluded that
predictions are more accurate when utilising friction mod-
els based on the measured normal and frictional stresses on
the tool rake face and when implemented as variable friction
models at the toolchip contact in the nite element simula-
tions.
Based on the experiment where a bar-shaped tool slides
over the inner surface of a ring specimen, Iwata et al. (1984)
[87] proposed an expression for frictional stress dependence
on Coulombs friction coefcient, normal stress and Vickers
hardness of the workpiece material, H
v
, as
f
=
H
v
0.07
tanh
_

n
H
v
/0.07
_

f
=m
Y
tanh
_
n
m
Y
_
.
(12)
which was later approximated using the shear ow stress
to guarantee that
f
<
Y
in the elements immediately
in contact with the rake face. Noticeably, (12) yields a
close approximation of Usuis friction model when dening
H
v
/0.07 m
Y
, as illustrated by the dotted line depicted
in Fig. 9.
Eldridge et al. (1991) [90] used an experimental curve
that relates shear ow stress and yield stress in shear and
the position along the chiptool interface,
f
(x, T
0
). The
temperature dependency is accounted for by an exponential
function, so that
f
=
f
(x, T
0
) exp
_
A
T
_
. (13)
Sekhon and Chenot (1993) [52] adopted Nortons friction
lawwhich assumes that frictional stresses are proportional to
the relative sliding velocity between the chip and tool, v
f
,
as
f
=Kv
f
p1
v
f
(14)
where is the friction coefcient, K is a material constant
and p is a constant dependent upon the nature of the tool
chip contact.
Yang and Liu (2002) [28] proposed a friction law based
upon a polynomial series to relate frictional stress and nor-
mal stress as
f
=
4
k=0
k
(
n
)
k
=
0
+
1
n
+
2
(
n
)
2
+
3
(
n
)
3
+
4
(
n
)
4
(15)
in an attempt to reproduce a non-linear behaviour of the
frictional stresses. The fourth-order polynomial can also ap-
proximate Usuis and Iwatas models with good accuracy by
setting the series coefcients accordingly.
Finally, frictionless contact has also been assumed by
several authors [11, 33, 43, 69, 71, 72, 80, 81]. Despite the
importance of friction in machining simulation, most au-
thors agree that the existing models present limitations and
further experimentalnumerical efforts are still required to
describe interaction between tool and workpiece.
4.7 Contact
Contact modelling is of great importance in metal machin-
ing due to the important effects associated with the tool
chip interface. The two most common algorithms for solv-
ing contact problems are the penalty approach [110116]
and the method of Lagrangian multipliers [113]. Laursen
and Simo (1993) [117] also describe a combined method
called the augmented Lagrangian technique. Other proce-
dures, such as the perturbed Lagrangian method [118, 119],
can also be applied. Other important issues are associated
with contact detection [111, 120122]. The latter is simpler
with lower order elements and, also for this reason these
low-order elements are popular. Many of the low-order con-
tact formulations have origins in the non-linear slide-line
procedure presented by Hallquist [111, 121, 123]. In rela-
tion to these techniques, important issues are associated with
the use of one-pass or two-pass algorithms. In particular,
Papadopoulos and Taylor (1992) [114] have shown that a
two-pass formulation is essential if the contact patch test
[124, 125] is to be passed. Additional special procedures
have been developed for the explicit integration method
[111, 120, 123], such as momentum-related techniques in
which modications are made to the acceleration, velocities
and displacements. One of the aims of the latter is to avoid
the penalizing effect on the time step of the explicit proce-
dure, which can be introduced by the high stiffness, associ-
ated with penalty approaches.
The contact condition is not fullled exactly in the
penalty approach. A method proposed by Zavarise et al.
(1998) [126], which combines a penalty procedure with a
barrier method [127], may also be applied to improve con-
vergence when solving the equation of motion. Regularizing
the friction does also improve the convergence in presence
of contacts.
In contrast to the penalty formulation, the Lagrangian
multiplier method ensures exact satisfaction of the required
contact constraints [124]. The multipliers can be interpreted
as contact forces. However, it increases the number of vari-
ables with the introduction of the Lagrange multipliers. It is
also possible to combine the penalty and Lagrangian mul-
tiplier methods, as in the augmented Lagrangian technique
[117, 127], with the aim of retaining the merits of each ap-
proach.
4.8 Elements
One aspect of paramount importance in the present context
is the fact that any adopted nite elements must be able to
cope with the range of techniques employed in the simula-
tion of cutting. As the incompressible limit is approached,
elements with low order shape functions are known to per-
form poorly, showing the typical volumetric locking behav-
iour which, in many circumstances, invalidates the nite el-
ement solution. In spite of such a major drawback, low order
elements, often together with special formulations to avoid
this locking problem, are preferred due to their inherent sim-
plicity. This is particularly true in cutting simulations where
a number of complex interacting phenomena, such as the
ones discussed in this paper, may be present. Barge et al.
(2005) [33], well aware of such difculties, presented a dis-
cussion on the inuence of the numerical parameters, in spe-
cial the hourglass effect upon the equivalent stress, equiva-
lent plastic strain and cutting forces.
Linear, plane strain, isoparametric quadrilateral ele-
ments and structured meshes have been generally adopted
throughout previous simulations. Quadrilateral, 8-nodded
elements were employed by Joshi et al. (1994) [92], Mc-
Clain et al. (2002) [47] and Fihri Fassi et al. (2003) [31],
whereas quadrilateral, 9-nodded elements were used by El-
dridge et al. (1991) [90] and Tyan and Yang (1992) [91].
Enhanced four-nodded elements have also been used by sev-
eral authors [17, 28, 29, 33, 35, 3840, 43, 50, 52, 5456,
61, 64, 6872]. Linear, triangular elements have been used
widely in the works of Usui and Shirakashi (1974, 1982)
[9, 10] and Lin and co-workers (1992,1993) [15, 16], and re-
cently by Ng et al. (1999) [57] and Borouchaki et al. (2002)
Fig. 10 Pre-distorted meshes
[67]. Sekhon and Chenot (1993) [52] and Marusich and Or-
tiz (1995) [53] have used 6-nodded triangular elements and
re-meshing strategies.
The approaches previously outlined use the classical -
nite element approximation. Recently, Lorong et al. (2006)
[128] presented preliminary results using a meshless method.
The authors used the so-called constrained natural element
method (CNEM), in which the shape functions are com-
puted based on the constrained Voronoi diagram. Results
for incipient chip formation illustrated application of the
method.
4.9 Large-Deformations and Adaptive Meshing
Numerical simulation of metal cutting operations present an
additional degree of complexity caused by the necessity of
a proper modelling of both plastic deformation and material
removal. Large plastic deformations not only bring compli-
cations from the mathematical point of view, but can also
cause rapid solution degradation due to element distortion.
The problem was rstly tackled using pre-distorted
meshes, most of which dened as illustrated in Fig. 10
[3451]. This strategy has been extensively used since the
early nineties, e.g. Shih (1990) et al., to this date, such as the
works of Ohbuchi and Obikawa (2005) [50] and Mabrouki
and Rigal (2006) [51]. In spite of this approach, application
of adaptive re-meshing techniques seems to be essential to
obtain reliable numerical solutions. In general, adaptive re-
meshing techniques encompass three main aspects, as rep-
resented in Fig. 11:
(i) Meshing techniques;
(ii) Error and distortion metrics guiding the re-meshing;
(iii) Data transfer from old to new mesh.
4.9.1 Meshing
There are several methods employed to improve the mesh,
namely: h-adaptivity, p-adaptivity and r-adaptivity. The rst
Fig. 11 Adaptive meshing procedure
method, h-adaptivity, consists of changing the element size
h. This general procedure can be used to generate well-
shaped elements. It is also an efcient way to change the
mesh density by rening/coarsening the domain according
to the error estimator/indicator. The new mesh has a differ-
ent number of elements and the connectivity of the nodes
is changed. A subset of the h-method is a method where
existing elements are split or merged based on the original
mesh topology. Therefore, there exists a hierarchy between
old and new elements and the approach may be called a hi-
erarchical h-method. In p-adaptivity the degree of the in-
terpolating polynomials is changed in order to increase the
accuracy of the solution.
Another technique, r-adaptivity, consists of relocation
of the nodes without changing the mesh connectivity. It is
called smoothing when used to improve the shape of ele-
Table 1 Comparison of re-meshing methods
Methods Advantages Disadvantages
General h-method The most general and exible method Requires more elaborate algorithms
Hierarchical h-method Fast method. Easy to implement for regular mesh Difcult to implement for irregular mesh. Will not re-
duce element distortion
r-Method Easy to implement. Inexpensive Limited capacity to improve mesh
p-Method Fast and simple The degree in the shape functions cannot be increased
too much so the improvement is limited. Cannot reduce
element distortion
ments. A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of
the different methods is shown in Table 1.
There exist several algorithms for mesh generation in h-
adaptivity. The Delaunay triangulation method for generat-
ing six-nodded triangular elements with quadratic interpola-
tion functions was used by Marusich and Ortiz (1995) [53].
A local re-meshing in which the crack tip was surrounding
with a rosette of elements has also been used to increase
the angular resolution when computing the crack direction.
Sekhon and Chenot (1993) [52] employed an automatic re-
meshing technique performed through a DelauneyVoronoi
type of algorithm.
The hierarchical adaptive meshing scheme proposed by
McDill et al. (2001) [129], and used in [66], provides an ef-
cient way to change the mesh density by rening/coarsening
a given mesh and facilitates data transfer. However, this does
not reduce the element distortion. The advancing front tech-
nique, so-called paving, is another procedure for generating
a mesh. The elements are added one by one to the mesh-
ing area along the exterior paving boundaries, as illustrated
in Fig. 12. As the elements are added, fronts may be subdi-
vided or closed when the enclosed volume is lled by the
last element. The mesh generation is completed when no
more fronts exist. This method was also used by Kalhori
(2001) [66] in combination with the hierarchical adaptive
meshing.
During the r-adaptivity or smoothing process, the nodes
are shifted to more favourable positions. Using an optimi-
sation algorithm to determine the node positions by min-
imizing an element distortion metric [130] is an effective
but time consuming approach [131]. Some algorithms were
evaluated by Hyun and Lindgren (2001) [131].
4.9.2 Error and Distortion Metrics
One aspect of great importance in adaptive re-meshing is
the assessment of the quality of the solution. In recent years,
several error estimates have been proposed for inelastic
problems based not only on mathematical aspects, but also
on physical considerations. In the late seventies Babuka
and Rheinboldt (1978) [132] proposed an a posteriori error
estimate procedure using Sobolev spaces. The topic gained
momentum when Zienkiewicz and Zhu (1987) [133] intro-
duced error estimates based on post-processing techniques
of the nite element solutions, which could easily be used
in conjunction with mesh renement strategies. The advent
of Zienkiewicz and Zhus estimator instigated a healthy dis-
cussion on the best approach to a posteriori error estima-
tion. From that point forward, two general strategies have
been established: the so-called residual estimators, based
on Babuka-type strategies [132, 134], and indicators based
on projection/smoothing, after Zienkiewicz and Zhus tech-
nique [133, 135138].
Marusich and Ortiz (1995) [53] used the plastic work rate
in each element in order to rene the nite element mesh in
cutting simulations. Owen and Vaz Jr. (1999) [56] proposed
an error indicator based on rate of fracture indicators

I . The
mesh renement should not only capture the progression
of the plastic deformation but also provide a ne mesh in
regions of possible material failure. Further investigations
were carried out by Vaz Jr. and Owen (2001) [64] for error
indicators based on plastic work rate,
I
W
=
Y

p
, (16)
uncoupled integration of Lemaitres [139] damage model,
I
D
=

2s
Y
(2Er)
s
_
2
3
(1 +) +3(1 2)
_
Y
_
2
_
s

p
, (17)
and total damage work,
I
W
D
= (Y)

D
=

2
Y
2E(1 D)
_
2
3
(1 +) +3(1 2)
_
Y
_
2
_

D,
(18)
in which (Y) is the damage strain energy release rate, D
is the damage variable,
p
is the equivalent plastic strain, E
and are the Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio, and r
and s are damage parameters. These criteria were based on
the procedure originally proposed by Zienkiewicz and Zhu
[133] and extended to elasto-plasticity at nite strains [138].
Fig. 12 Paving method for
mesh generation
Other measures that complement error indicators are
sometimes needed to detect excessive element distortion.
There exist several measures of how the element deviates
from ideal shape. The distortion metric proposed by Oddy
et al. (1988) [130] is formulated as
D
m
=
n
i=1
n
j=1
C
2
ij

1
n
_
n
k=1
C
kk
_
2
and (19)
C
ij
=
1
det [J]
n
k=1
J
ki
J
kj
(20)
where n is the dimension of the problem. This metric is
size and orientation independent and combines the effects of
stretching and shearing of elements. However, the measure
fails in case of a negative determinant of the Jacobean J.
4.9.3 Transfer Operators
After assessing the quality of the solution it is necessary to
transfer variables from the old mesh to the new mesh. The
necessity for reliable and efcient transfer operators was
highlighted with the development of adaptive re-meshing
techniques for history dependent problems. In this class of
problems, not only nodal displacements or nodal velocities
have to be transferred, but also Gauss point variables, which
create a complex problem of compatibility and consistency.
Ortiz and Quigley (1991) [140], in the context of strain
localization, proposed a transfer operator based on the weak
form of the equilibrium equations in conjunction with inter-
polation of the internal variables. An adaptive strategy was
introduced by Lee and Bathe (1994) [141] for large-strain
elasto-plasticity, which adopts separate transfer strategies
for nodal displacements and history-dependent variables.
The former uses the so-called inverse isoparametric map-
ping technique. The internal variables are transferred (and
smoothed) to nodes of the old mesh followed by transfer to
the nodes of the new mesh and, nally interpolation to the
Gauss points.
Peri c et al. (1996) [142] presented further considera-
tions on transfer operators for small-strain elasto-plasticity,
in which aspects of reliability and consistency were ad-
dressed. The transfer strategy resembles Lee and Bathes
(1994) [141] technique, however the basic mesh generation
algorithm and implementation strategy are markedly differ-
ent.
The basic principles described in reference [142] for
implicit time integration schemes were applied to explicit
schemes by Dutko et al. (1997) [143] and Peri c et al. (1999)
[138]. This strategy constituted the basis of the Owen and
Vaz Jr. (1999) [56] algorithm for the numerical simulations
of high speed machining.
4.10 Chip Separation and Breakage
A diversity of physical phenomena, such as large plastic de-
formations, heat generation, friction, damage, etc., exists in
the process zone where the chip separation occurs. Most au-
thors acknowledge that the physics of chip separation is not
yet completely understood but is a key issue in the com-
putation of the cutting forces. The ideal numerical model
should be able to simulate continuous, discontinuous and in-
termediate states of chip formation, in which material failure
should not be restricted to either a pre-dened parting plane
or progression of a simple crack. In general, simulations
follow three basic strategies (i) continuous chip separation
along a pre-dened cutting plane (ii) chip separation and
breakage (iii) no chip separation. The last option is based on
large plastic deformation and continuous re-meshing, as de-
scribed in Kalhori (2001) [66]. The options for the two rst
principles are summarised in Table 2 and described below.
4.10.1 Chip Separation
The most common approach to machining simulation pre-
denes a chip separation line (or plane), along which a sep-
Table 2 Chip separation and breakage criteria
Criterion Denition
Nodal distance [9, 10, 22, 24, 27, 3438, 4043, 47, 68, 105]
a
d =d
cr
Equivalent plastic strain [17, 18, 26, 28, 29, 32, 88]
a
[19, 21, 83]
b
I
cr
=
p
Energy density [15, 16, 20]
a
[23, 44]
b
I
cr
=
_
: d
Tensile plastic work [87]
b
[54, 59, 76]
c
[30]
a
I
cr
=
_ _
Y
_
d
p
Brozzo et al. [75]
c
I
cr
=
_
2
1
3(
1
H
)
d
p
Oskada et al. [87]
b
I
cr
=
_
p
+b
1
H
+b
2
d
p
Stress index [4548, 104]
a
f =
_
_
n
f
_
2
+
_

f
_
2
Maximum principal stress [18]
c
f
=
1
Toughness [53]
d
f
=
K
IC
2
Rice and Tracey [53]
c
f
=2.48exp
_
3
2
Y
_
Obikawa et al. [42]
c
f
=
0

Vc
Obikawa and Usui [40]
c
f
=
_
0.075ln
_
p
100
__

H
37.8
+0.09exp
_
T
293
_
JohnsonCook [26, 101]
c
[33, 51]
a
f
=
_
D
1
+D
2
exp
_
D
3

H
Y
__
_
1 +D
4
ln
_
p

0
p
___
1 +D
5
_
T T
TmT
__
Damage considerations [56, 64]
e
f
=A
_

2
Y
2Er
_
2
3
(1 +) +3(1 2)
_
Y
_
2
__
s
+
f
T
(T T
0
)
a
Chip separation along a pre-dened parting line/plane
b
Chip breakage
c
Steady-state analysis without actual chip separation or breakage
d
Fracturing material and brittle-type fracture
e
Multi-fracturing materials and chip breakage
Accounts for positive values only
aration indicator is computed. There are basically two types
of indicators: those based on either geometrical or physical
considerations. Usui and Shirakashi (1974, 1982) [9, 10] pi-
oneered the discussion by proposing a chip separation cri-
terion based on the distance between the tool tip and the
nearest node along a pre-dened cutting direction, as illus-
trated in Fig. 13(a). The criterion is purely based on geomet-
rical considerations and does not account for possible chip
breakage outside the cutting line. On the other hand chip
separation can be easily controlled. In simulations using this
strategy, as the tool advances, the distance between the node
F
W,C
and the tool tip decreases and, at a critical distance d
cr
,
either a new node is created or a restriction in superimposed
nodes are removed, which makes possible for the material
to separate.
Equivalent plastic strain, advocated by Carrol III and
Strenkowski (1988) [88] and others (see Table 2), gave rise
to a whole family of chip separation criteria (physical indi-
cators). In this case, the chip is said to separate when
p
,
calculated at the nearest node to the cutting edge, reaches
a critical value. This criterion has been frequently criticized
due to the fact that, if uncontrolled, node separation prop-
agates faster then the cutting speed forming a large open
crack ahead of the tool tip. The process is illustrated in
Fig. 13(b), in which the chip separation indicator I
cr
rep-
resents the equivalent plastic strain. Furthermore, the criti-
cal value was found to affect the magnitude of the residual
stresses [15]. A chip separation criterion based on the total
strain energy density, introduced by Lin and co-workers [15,
16], is said to overcome the previous shortcomings.
The use of ductile fracture concepts was rst introduced
by Iwata et al. (1984) [87], who suggested a version of Cock-
roft and Latham (1968) [144] (tensile plastic work) and Os-
akada et al. (1984) [145] as possible chip separation criteria.
Although the initial consideration had been quite tentative,
the model simulates steady state machining and, therefore,
no actual chip separation takes place. The fracture criteria
are computed a posteriori based on the nal stress-strain
state. According to the authors, Osakadas criterion is said
to be the best chip separation indicator once it produces
the largest fractured area (the total area where the indica-
tor reaches its critical value). Actual chip separation using
Cockroft and Lathams (1968) [144] criterion was presented
by Ko et al. (2002) [30].
In recent years, a chip separation criterion based on a
stress index parameter has been used by several authors [45
48, 104]. The indicator assumes that the chip separates when
a parametric measure of normal and shear stresses with re-
spect to the normal and shear failure stresses, respectively,
reaches a critical value.
Fig. 13 Chip separation along a
pre-dened parting line/plane
A separation criterion based on a critical strain to frac-
ture was used by Barge et al. (2005) [33] and Mabrouki and
Rigal (2006) [51] based on the general Johnson and Cooks
[146] yield stress equation. The criterion accounts for equiv-
alent plastic strain rate, hydrostatic and yield stresses and
room and melting temperatures.
In all the previous cases chip separates along a pre-
dened cutting plane. It is worth mentioning that the rst
systematic analysis of material separation in orthogonal ma-
chining was presented by Huang and Black (1996) [39],
who evaluated chip separation along a pre-dened cutting
plane using criteria based on geometrical (nodal distance)
and physical (equivalent plastic strain, energy density and
stresses) considerations. The authors conclude that neither a
geometrical nor a physical criterion simulate incipient cut-
ting correctly.
4.10.2 Chip Breakage
A combination of equivalent plastic strain, to model chip
separation, and maximum principal stress, to simulate chip
breakage, was used by Hashemi et al. (1994) [18] to model
high-speed machining. The authors pioneered use of explicit
nite element schemes in association with fracturing mate-
rials.
Marusich and Ortiz (1995) [53] proposed use of either
brittle or ductile fracture criteria depending on the machin-
ing conditions. The former is formulated in terms of the
toughness, K
IC
, being used in conjunction with a multi-
fracturing algorithm. The latter is expressed in terms of the
fracture strain, derived from Rice and Traceys (1969) [147]
void growth criterion.
Obikawa et al. (1996, 1997) [40, 42], based on experi-
ments, obtained general expressions for the strain to frac-
ture, which account for the equivalent plastic strain, equiv-
alent plastic strain rate, hydrostatic stress and absolute tem-
perature.
Owen and Vaz Jr. (1999) [56], using a combined -
nite/discrete element algorithm and multi-fracturing mate-
rials, adopted a chip breakage criterion based on Lemaitres
ductile damage model. Borouchaki et al. (2002) [67] also in-
cluded damage mechanics in the simulation of crack prop-
agation based on Lemaitres model. The formulation pro-
posed by Lemaitre (1985) [139] postulates that damage pro-
gression is governed by void growth.
The effect of hydrostatic stress on chip segmentation dur-
ing orthogonal cutting is emphasised by Umbrello et al.
(2004) [75] who adopted a chip breakage criterion based on
Brozzo et al. (1972) [148].
Some criteria previously used to indicate chip separa-
tion were also used as chip breakage criteria. Ceretti et al.
(1996, 1999) [54, 59] adopted a chip breakage criterion
based on the combination of the effective stress and Cocroft
and Lathams (1968) [144] maximum tensile plastic work.
The latter was also used by Hua and Shivpuri (2004) [76] to
simulate chip breakage in orthogonal cutting of Ti6Al4V
titanium alloy. Lin and co-workers et al. (2001) [23, 44] ex-
tended use of the maximum strain energy density, and Ng et
al. (2002) [26] and Benson and Okazawa et al. (2004) [101]
proposed use of the strain to fracture based on the modied
Johnson and Cooks [146] yield stress equation to simulate
discontinuous chip formation.
5 Applications
This section presents three examples aiming to illustrate ba-
sic aspects of the techniques described previously. Different
numerical techniques have been assembled in each of the
programs used to numerically simulate the problem at hand.
Comparing the model predictions with experimental data al-
lowed an assessment of the algorithms.
5.1 Orthogonal Cutting and Residual Stresses
The machining process evokes a residual stress in the sur-
face layer of the component. This unwanted phenomenon
is usually the outcome of aggressive machining conditions.
The residual stresses on the machined surface are an im-
portant factor in determining the performance and fatigue
strength of the workpiece. It is therefore important to under-
stand and control the residual stress state in the machined
part so that undesired failure can be avoided.
A combined numerical/experimental study of the behav-
iour of different cutting parameters on cutting forces and
residual stresses was undertaken by Kalhori (2001) [66].
This study is by no means trivial, even in orthogonal ma-
chining, where a number of complex interacting phenom-
ena, such as the ones discussed in this paper, may be present.
Measurements in the cutting zone are particularly difcult to
perform due to the hostile environment and numerical simu-
lations require the use of complex algorithms. Several labo-
ratory experiments were performed in order to simulate dif-
ferent cutting conditions frequently encountered in practice.
Relevant measurements on the component were undertaken.
The experimental procedure was then reproduced numeri-
cally using two nite element codes: AdvantEdge [149] and
SiMPle.
5.1.1 Experimental Procedure
In order to reproduce orthogonal cutting (see Fig. 14), the
workpiece periphery was rst turned to remove the hardened
surface and then it was turned to the shape of a pipe with a
large diameter. Finally, orthogonal cutting was achieved by
turning the end of the pipe. The material of the workpiece
was SANMAC 316L. It is a machine-ability improved AISI
316L stainless steel manufactured by SANDVIK Steel. The
material properties of the workpiece, at room temperature,
obtained from tensile specimens are depicted in Table 3.
Although the tensile tests were preformed for constant
strain rate, the stress-strain relations at different tempera-
tures were obtained and are presented in Fig. 15. The tool
insert was TNMG 160408-QF in grade 235 produced by
SANDVIK Coromant. It has an edge radius of 45 mm and a
rake angle of +6 and with a 0.2 mmwide chamfer with 6
rake angle. The geometry of the insert is shown in Fig. 14(b).
In order to analyse the process under the conditions usually
found in practice, several cutting tests were undertaken. The
different cutting parameters used are given in Table 4.
A Kistler dynamometer was used to measure the cutting
forces in a lathe in three directions: cutting, feeding and pas-
sive. Since this device has a low bandwidth it was necessary
to use a 300 Hz low pass lter to avoid the inuence of res-
onance in the machine tool and cutting tool.
Quick-stop tests were done to measure the residual
stresses on the surface. The specimens were cut out from
Table 3 Material data for SANMC 316L at room temperature
Description Symbol Value
Yield stress
0
240 MPa
Youngs modulus E 186 GPa
Poissons ratio 0.3
Specic mass 7900 kg/m
3
Specic heat c 445 J/kgK
Thermal conductivity k 14 W/mK
Thermal expansion 16.5e-6 1/K
Table 4 Cutting parameters used in the experimental procedure and
numerical simulations
Test Cutting speed Feed Cutting depth
# [m/min] [mm/rev] [mm]
1 120 0.05 3.0
2 120 0.15 3.0
3 180 0.05 3.0
4 180 0.15 3.0
5 240 0.05 3.0
6 240 0.15 3.0
Fig. 14 Orthogonal cutting
using an insert TNMG
160408-QF from SANDVIK
Coromant in grade 235
Fig. 15 True strainstress for
SANMAC 316L at
temperatures: 23C, 200C,
400C, 600C and 800C
the workpieces, ground polished, etched and studied by mi-
croscope. The residual stresses in the surface layer were de-
termined using X-ray diffraction showing the change in the
spacing of atomic planes in the crystal. This change of spac-
ing between atomic planes represents the elastic strain in the
crystal from which the stress can be calculated. The X-ray
diffraction measurements were done with a Siemens D5000
with a geometry with 11 -tilting in the region of 45
to 43, with a step length of 0.08, a time step of 30 s and
CuK radiation. Primarily, a soler slit and a 1 mm diver-
gence slit were used and secondary, a n lm attachment
(0.40) LiF-monochromator with scintillation detector was
used. The scanned surface area was 2 mm by 15 mm with a
penetration depth of approximate 5 m. Hardness measure-
ments were performed at different depths in order to get an
estimate of the depth of the machine-affected zone.
5.1.2 Simulations
Two different nite element codes were used in the simu-
lations to compute the state of residual stress in the work-
piece after being cooled down to room temperature. Orthog-
onal cutting was simulated using a 2D plane-strain model.
In these simulations both codes model the chip formation
mechanism by continuously updating the mesh.
AdvantEdge [149] is a commercial computational pack-
age specially developed for simulation of mechanical cut-
ting. The process is modelled using an updated Lagrangian
formulation combined with a dynamic explicit time integra-
tion scheme. A staggered method for coupled transient me-
chanical and heat transfer analysis is used. First an isother-
mal mechanical step is taken followed by a rigid transient
heat transfer step with constant heating from plastic work
and friction. A six-node quadratic triangle element with
three quadrature points is used. The material model accounts
for elasto-plastic strains and has an isotropic power law
for strain hardening. The strain rate also affects the ow
stress. The material properties are temperature dependent
and therefore also account for thermal softening. The fol-
lowing power viscosity law with [149] constant rate expo-
nent was chosen,
_
1 +

p

0
p
_
=
_

g(
p
)
_
(21)
and a power hardening law with a cut-off strain at which the
increase in deformation hardening stops. The strain harden-
ing and temperature dependency of the plastic ow proper-
ties are determined by the function g(
p
) as:
g(
p
) =
0
(T )
_
1 +

p
0
p
_
1/n
if
p
cut
p

p
=
cut
p
(22)
where
(T ) =c
0
+c
1
T +c
2
T
2
+ +c
5
T
5
. (23)
The temperature dependency of thermal properties of the
workpiece were modelled with polynomial functions,
c
p
(T ) =c
p0
+c
p1
T +c
p2
T
2
+ +c
p5
T
5
, (24)
(T ) =
0
+
1
T +
2
T
2
+ +
5
T
5
, and (25)
(T ) =
0
+
1
T +
2
T
2
+ +
5
T
5
. (26)
The coefcients for the material models for 316L and ce-
mented carbide are included in a database of the software,
which is not open for the user. This is a serious drawback
when using this kind of software.
SiMPle is an in-house research code with similar features
to AdvantEdge. However, it models the process using an up-
dated Lagrangian formulation combined with a quasi-static
implicit time integration scheme. The full NewtonRaphson
procedure is used for the solution of the non-linear system
of equations. The material of the workpiece accounts for
thermo-elasto-plastic strains with a von Mises yield surface
and associative owrule. The material properties are consid-
ered temperature dependent, which allows thermal softening
to be reproduced. Nevertheless, the effect of strain rate on
the yield stress is not taken into account.
The simulations are performed by a graded nite element
[129]. It is a four to eight node quadrilateral element with
piecewise bilinear shape functions. The element volumet-
ric strain eld is under-integrated in order to avoid the phe-
nomenon of volumetric locking that arises under constitutive
constraints, such as the near incompressibility that charac-
terizes ductile materials. The nature of the shape functions
used by the element, allows a straightforward mesh genera-
tion where an element with three nodes on one side can be
combined with two elements, each with two nodes along this
side. This technique does not require additional constraints
for interelement compatibility, which enables a simple gen-
eration of a graded mesh. The re-meshing strategy, origi-
nally proposed by McDill et al. (2001) [129], has been ex-
tended to include r- and h-adaptivity. The contact constraint
is enforced by means of the classical penalty method and a
thermal resistance is used when the surfaces are in contact
to model the heat transfer.
5.1.3 Results
The chip morphology obtained by the so-called quick-stop
method can be classied as shear localized (see Sect. 3.1).
This type of chip is continuous with narrow bands of heavily
deformed material alternating with larger regions of relative
undeformed material.
This morphology results from the shear localization on
the primary deformation zone and provokes a uctuation
of the measured cutting forces. These high frequency force
uctuations cannot be measured by the relatively slow cut-
ting dynamometer. Therefore, the measured cutting forces
are obtained in an average sense. In Table 5, it is possible
to compare the forces in the cutting, F
c
, and feed directions,
F
f
, obtained by the two nite element codes with the exper-
imental values.
The hardness was measured in order to get an estimate
of the depth of the machine-affected zone. The workpiece
material has an increased hardness down to about 0.15 mm
from the surface, see Fig. 16.
The results of X-ray diffraction measurements of the
specimen surfaces were evaluated using elliptical tting.
The averaged residual stresses from simulations are given
in Table 6. The results presented have the uncertainty from
the determination of the peak in the diffraction pattern listed
as value. It should be noted that this is not the total er-
ror as there are also other experimental uncertainties. The
simulations showed that the stresses uctuated in the cutting
direction.
The variations of the residual stresses in the depth direc-
tion are shown in Fig. 17 for AdvantEdge and in Fig. 18 for
SiMPle. They are evaluated at positions of a typical stress
distribution along a line perpendicular to the surface of the
workpiece.
Table 5 Measured and computed average cutting forces in cutting and
feed direction
Test Measured SiMPle AdvantEdge
F
c
[N] F
f
[N] F
c
[N] F
f
[N] F
c
[N] F
f
[N]
1 422 390 400 290 420 380
2 1005 729 780 400 860 470
3 404 360 450 330 425 375
4 890 584 780 400 840 460
5 391 357 430 320 420 375
6 857 520 770 390 845 475
Fig. 16 Measured Vickers
micro-hardness using a load of
0.3 kg vs. depth from surface of
specimen
Fig. 17 Computed residual
stress
xx
in cutting direction
vs. distance from surface for
simulated machined surface
after workpiece has cooled
down using AdvantEdge
Table 6 Measured and computed average cutting forces in cutting and
feed direction
Specimen Measured AdvantEdge SiMPle
# [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
1 361 17 640 130
2 130 9 179 200
3 629 28 550 630
4 138 8 164 600
5 703 31 240 680
6 500 25 171 690
5.1.4 Comments on Results
In this example a combined numerical/experimental study
of the behaviour of different cutting parameters on cutting
forces and residual stresses has been undertaken. Experi-
mental evidence demonstrated that the stainless steel 316L
under the cutting conditions analysed produces a shear lo-
calized chip. However, the chip morphology predicted by
the numerical simulations was not consistent with observa-
tion, perhaps the most severe test for any machining model.
The programs used assemble several numerical techniques
and the analysis of the results obtained for the cutting forces
(Table 5) and residual stresses (Table 6) by AdvantEdge and
SiMPle enables us to conclude that the values predicted for
the cutting forces are within the same order of magnitude,
whereas the values obtained for the residual stresses reveal
substantial discrepancies.
The problem of chip formation and its control is also a
key issue because metal cutting is a chip-formation process.
The deviations between measured and computed values may
be due to several factors:
The numerical strategy used to simulate the chip forma-
tion by continuously updating the mesh without account-
ing for fracture, severely limits the type of chip morpholo-
gies which can be predicted.
The material model used does not account for the material
degradation caused by large and localized plastic defor-
Fig. 18 Computed residual
stress
xx
in cutting direction
vs. distance from surface for
simulated machined surface
after workpiece has cooled
down using SiMPle
Fig. 19 Problem geometry and
initial mesh
mation. The inclusion of damage in the behaviour close
to collapse could improve the numerical model.
The friction law for the tool/chip interface.
5.2 Orthogonal Cutting: Adiabatic Shear Localization
The present example focuses on the simulation of machining
processes involving material failure due to adiabatic strain
localization and addresses important issues such as adaptive
mesh renement and material failure. Solution is achieved
using a dynamic explicit time integration scheme in con-
junction with a combined nite/discrete element algorithm.
The thermal solution is approximated using an adiabatic
thermo-mechanical model since heat conduction within the
chip and workpiece is very low in high-speed machining.
Titanium alloys are particularly susceptible to adiabatic
shear localization due to their very low thermal diffusivity
and associated high sensitivity of the yield stress to tem-
perature. High-speed machining, therefore, amplies these
effects due the high rate of energy generation. The present
example simulates machining of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy,
for which the following aspects are addressed:
Evaluation of the mesh renement procedure.
Evaluation of the strain localization process.
Evaluation of the failure process.
The geometry of the problem and initial mesh for a rake
angle, , of 3 are depicted in Fig. 19, whereas material
data and other simulation parameters are presented in Ta-
ble 7. The yield stress law adopted in the simulations is
Y
=
0
(
0
+
p
)
n
+

Y
T
(T T
0
), (27)
in which the component
Y
/T represents the thermal
softening and T and T
0
correspond to the current and initial
temperature respectively. An enhanced 4-node one-Gauss
point element is used in the simulations [150].
5.2.1 Thermal Softening
Chip breakage in high-speed machining of Ti6Al4V ti-
tanium alloy takes place primarily due to adiabatic (local-
ized heating) shear strain localization (see Sect. 5.2.4). The
process can be summarised as follows: large plastic defor-
mation associated with high stresses cause localized heat-
ing, which in turn, prompts thermal softening and eventual
material failure. Therefore, computational approaches to er-
ror estimation, mesh adaption and material failure must be
Fig. 20 Thermal softening
effect
Table 7 Material data for Ti6Al4V and other simulation parameters
Description Symbol Value
Specic mass 4420 kg/m
3
Specic heat c 582.2 J/kgK
Thermal conductivity k 5.86 W/mK
Youngs modulus E 115.7 GPa
Poissons ratio 0.321
Yield stress data
0
1231.5 MPa
0
0.008
n 0.059
Softening data T
0
298 K
Y
/T 2.3 and 7.0 MPa/K
W
0
33 to 1339 J/m
2
r
t
0.236
Damage data s 1.0
Dissipation factor 0.85
Coupling interval Every time step
Target error
I
8%
Maximum element size h
max
0.1 mm
Minimum element size h
min
0.007 mm
Cutting speed v 4 to 20 m/s
Cutting depth t 0.5 mm
Rake angle 9 to +9
Flank angle 5
Coulomb friction 0.1
Tool tip radius r
tip
25 m
able to account for such effects. The thermo-mechanical
binding variable is a temperature-dependent yield stress,
which, in present simulation, is expressed by the parame-
ter
Y
/T .
It is interesting to note that (27) accounts for two op-
posing effects: strain hardening and thermal softening. Fig-
ure 20 illustrates the typical behaviour of such materi-
als using a simple adiabatic model (material properties
are presented in Table 7). It has been found that, for the
present yield stress denition, the equivalent plastic strain
at instability onset decreases exponentially with increasing
|
Y
/T |. Furthermore, investigations reported by Bker
(2005) [80] for titanium alloys have shown that an increase
of the thermal softening effect causes an increase of chip
segmentation and reduction of the cutting forces. Some is-
sues that relate thermal softening to mesh adaption and other
physical aspects are addressed in the following sections.
5.2.2 Error Estimation and Adaptive Re-meshing
The simulations employ the error indicators based on the un-
coupled integration of Lemaitres damage model, proposed
in reference [56], and are performed for cutting speeds be-
tween 5 and 20 m/s and rake angles between 9 and +9.
Separate tests are undertaken to evaluate the effects of the
cutting speed, rake angle and thermal softening on the ca-
pacity of the adaptive re-meshing procedure to describe the
process evolution.
The material properties of titanium alloys create
favourable conditions for strain localization at cutting speeds
as low as 0.0051 m/s [151]. Therefore, an efcient error
indicator should be able to translate the strain localization
phenomena into rened meshes over the critical zones for
a wide range of cutting conditions. Figures 21(a)(c) show
typical meshes for cutting speeds v =5 m/s, v =15 m/s and
v =20 m/s and thermal softening
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K,
in which no substantial difference in the renement pattern
has been found.
The rake angle directly affects the conguration of the
shear band, which in turn, inuences the distribution of the
mesh density over the workpiece. Figures 22(a)(c) present
meshes for
Y
/T = 2.3 MPa/K, a cutting speed of
Fig. 21 Mesh renement for
rake angle 3 and
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K
Fig. 22 Mesh renement for
cutting speed of 10 m/s, depth
of 0.5 mm and rake angles from
9 to +9
10 m/s, rake angles 9, 0 and +9 and a tool advance
U 0.15 mm. As in the previous example, the distribution
of mesh density follows the same pattern, which shows re-
ned meshes over the localization zone and near the tool tip.
It is worth noting that the small tool tip radius requires a re-
ned mesh to ensure a proper contact between the cutting
edge of the tool and workpiece. An error indicator based on
the rate of fracture criteria has been proposed [56] based on
the principle that mesh renement should be able not only
to capture the progression of the plastic deformation but also
to produce efciently rened meshes at regions of possible
material failure.
This concept is clearly illustrated in Figs. 23(a)(d)
which shows the evolution of the mesh renement process
for both
Y
/T = 2.3 MPa/K and 7.0 MPa/K. It is
worth mentioning that, in this example, material failure is
inhibited, otherwise the chip would have separated before
reaching the stage shown in Figs. 23(b) and (d).
5.2.3 Adiabatic Strain Localization in High-Speed
Machining
The numerical simulations show that, during early stages of
the development of the shear band, the stresses decrease out-
side the localization zone, which may fall within the elastic
domain. The unloading of the elements causes a small move-
ment of the material towards the localization zone, which
is clearly visible at the opposite side of the tool. Figure 24
shows the velocity vector at an early stage of deformation
for a region near the free surface of the workpiece. Not only
can the plastic ow direction along the shear band be seen,
but also the material movement during the elastic unloading.
The very essence of thermoplastic shear localization is
presented in Figs. 25(a)(d), which show the distribution of
the temperature and yield stress for thermal softening para-
meters
Y
/T =2.3 and 7.0 MPa/K. Highly localized
plastic deformation causes the temperature to rise sharply,
well above the neighbouring regions, which in turn, causes
the yield stress to decrease. Furthermore, the regions of low
yield stress are more susceptible to larger plastic deforma-
tions, which favour the cyclical response localized plastic
deformation temperature rise yield stress reduction
unloading in the neighbourhood large and local-
ized deformation. Thereafter localized plastic deformation
is built up again repeating this cycle. This shear localization
instigates a signicant upward movement of the portion of
the chip above the shear band, which can eventually lead to
its separation.
An increase of |
Y
/T | noticeably causes a signicant
reduction of both yield stress and temperature rise. It is ob-
served in Figs. 25(c) and (d) an average of 45% decrease
of the yield stress along the shear band. Such behaviour can
be readily explained from (27). Temperature distribution is
dictated by heat generation due to inelastic deformation as
follows: the heat generated between two consecutive time
steps is estimated as Q=
Y
p
, where is the dissi-
pation factor,
Y
is the current yield stress and
p
is the
equivalent plastic strain increment. Therefore, the reduction
of yield stresses causes heat generation to decrease, thereby
leading to a smaller temperature rise.
In the present case, localization was found to be con-
ned, in average, to a 35 m zone, corresponding to a region
approximately ve-element wide, as depicted in Fig. 26(a)
for
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K. The distribution pattern of the
equivalent plastic strain rate can change during the process
Fig. 23 Typical meshes for
negative rake angles. Cutting
speed v =10 m/s and rake
angle 3 (a) U =0.18 mm
(
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K),
(b) U =0.38 mm
(
Y
/T =7.0, MPa/K),
(c) U =0.16 mm
(
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K),
(d) U =0.34 mm
(
Y
/T =7.0 MPa/K)
Fig. 24 Velocity vector at an early stage of plastic deformation for
=3, v =10 m/s and t =0.5 mm
due to the cyclical character of the mechanisms of chip for-
mation. However, even at very early stages,
p
was found
to be signicantly high, reaching values up to 1.2 10
6
1/s
for this particular example. A high strain rate causes local-
ized plastic deformation, which is reected by the distrib-
ution of the equivalent plastic strain shown in Fig. 26(b).
The shear band geometry in high-speed machining is not
a straight line, and, therefore, its characterisation based on
the shear angle is not particularly appropriate [56]. More-
over, the simulations showthat initial inclination of the shear
band increases with the rake angle and tool advance. Some
of these issues were also addressed by Bker et al. (2002)
[69] using a different computational approach.
The analysis of progression of the strain localization
process provides useful information on when a fractured
chip is formed. Therefore, chip breakage is inhibited by
de-activating the algorithm responsible for failure soften-
ing. Figures 27(a)(c) shows the shear band progression as
a function of the tool advance for a cutting speed of 10 m/s,
a rake angle of = 3 and
Y
/T = 2.3 MPa/K.
When the tool tip touches the workpiece a well-dened
shear band is rapidly developed, as shown in Fig. 27(a).
A further tool progression gives rise to a second shear band,
as shown in Fig. 27(b). The importance of the present as-
sessment is highlighted by the fact that the chip breaks be-
fore the development of a new shear band. Therefore, for
the present cutting conditions, the critical fracture indicator
is estimated from values corresponding to a tool advance be-
tween 0.04 mm and 0.25 mm.
5.2.4 Material Failure
Material failure in high-speed machining is essentially due
to phenomena associated with adiabatic strain localization.
The present section illustrates the mechanisms of the failure
Fig. 25 Thermal softening:
temperature and yield stress for
U =0.16 mm, =3 and
v =10 m/s
Fig. 26 Thermoplastic strain
localization: U =0.16 mm,
v =10 m/s and
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K
process associated with adiabatic strain localization. Mater-
ial failure is simulated using an element erosion technique.
Material failure in high-speed machining takes place over
the plastic strain localization zone. Therefore, the dominant
question is when material failure initiates. According to the
previous analysis of shear band progression, chip forma-
tion is of a cyclical character when machining Ti6Al4V.
Therefore, in this example, fracture is assumed to initiate
before the second cycle begins, corresponding to a tool ad-
vance U =0.1037 mm.
It is worth noting that a denitive fracture criterion is,
as yet, unavailable, however, experimental observations sug-
gest that a fracture strain,
f
, may indicate failure onset due
to void growth in problems involving plastic strain local-
ization [152, 153]. Therefore, in the present study, fracture
indicators based on the equivalent plastic strain and uncou-
pled integration of Lemaitres damage model are assessed in
association with
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K [56].
The chip breakage process for a fracture strain based on
the equivalent plastic strain is illustrated in Figs. 28(a)(c),
which show the elements undergoing a failure softening and
Fig. 27 Progression of the
shear band: =3,
v =10 m/s and
Y
/T =2.3 MPa/K
Fig. 28 Failure process based
on the equivalent plastic strain
for W
0
=670 J/m
2
and
r
t
=0.236
Fig. 29 Failure process based
on the Lemaitres damage
model for W
0
=670 J/m
2
and
r
t
=0.236
fracture propagation. This criterion assumes that fracture
initiates when
f
=
p
1.0. The use of this criterion im-
plies that fracture initiates near the tool tip and progresses
rapidly towards the free surface of the chip. The incremental
tool advance, U, which promotes a complete chip sepa-
ration from the workpiece depends directly on the energy
release factor. For 33 J/m
2
W
0
1339 J/m
2
no substan-
tial difference in the breakage pattern is observed, however
larger values of W
0
may inhibit the fracture from progress-
ing the full length of the shear band. For W
0
= 670 J/m
2
and r
t
= 0.236, complete chip separation takes place for a
tool advance of U =0.0089 mm.
The fracture strain based on Lemaitres damage model,
promotes a different breakage pattern, as illustrated in
Figs. 29(a)(c) for s = 1, Ar
s
= 3.0 MPa and
f
/T =
0.0013251/K. Fracture onset is assumed when
f
1.0. In
this case, the failure process initiates at the free surface of
the chip and propagates towards the tool tip. The effect of
the temperature is accounted for
f
/T so that the ductility
increases with increasing temperature, i.e., higher tempera-
tures cause a complete material failure at later stages. This
approach appears to provide a better physical description of
chip separation for this class of problems [154].
5.2.5 Comments on Results
In high-speed machining, the combined effects of high strain
rate and low thermal diffusivity of some materials give rise
to adiabatic strain localization (and eventual material fail-
ure), which requires an efcient adaptive mesh renement
procedure. An error indicator based on the uncoupled in-
tegration of Lemaitres damage model is found appropri-
ate for this class of problems due to its capacity to capture
shear band formation efciently. Machining simulation of
Ti6Al4V for rake angles 9 +9 cutting speeds
5 m/s v 20 m/s and cutting depth t =0.5 mm illustrate
the adaptive procedure.
This study assumes that a fracture strain is the governing
parameter of material failure in high-speed machining. Fur-
thermore, two different indicators are assessed: equivalent
plastic strain and a fracture strain based on Lemaitres dam-
age model. The former indicates fracture onset near the tool
Fig. 30 Effect of edge
reinforcements on shear angle
Fig. 31 Effect of edge
reinforcements on shear angle
tip whereas the latter indicates the free surface of the chip as
a possible failure initiation site.
5.3 Application of Two-Dimensional Model in Tool
Design
Some of the vital demands on the metal cutting tools are
(i) high productivity high speeds and feeds, (ii) low cutting
forces and power consumption, (iii) low residual stresses be-
neath machined surface, (iv) long and predictable tool life,
and (v) a smooth surface of the work piece.
Simulations may be used to investigate how alterations in
the cutting geometry inuences these factors without having
to rst manufacture prototype-cutting tools and then per-
form the testing. The latter is a rather expensive and time-
consuming method, but still is the most commonly used ap-
Fig. 32 Pressure on surface of
cutting tool
Fig. 33 Insert temperature
proach today. The simulations have been performed using
AdvantEdge [149], previously described in Sect. 5.1.
Figure 30 shows two-dimensional models, utilizing dif-
ferent cutting edge geometry, with the shear plane angle
marked. The shear plane angle is a good measurement of
the effectiveness of a cutting geometry. An increasing of the
shear angle reduces volume of deformed workpiece mater-
ial and the inuence from the machining on the generated
surface. A large shear plane angle implies also a low cut-
ting force, especially a low feed force. It is also of interest
to reduce the feed force to get a freer owing chip. The feed
force is also reduced by increased cutting speed, more posi-
tive rake angle, decrease in friction and contact area between
chip rake face and chip. Increasing the chip rake will, on the
other hand, increase the risk for rupture of the cutting edge.
The strength can be improved by a reinforcement of the cut-
ting edge geometry with a negative chamfer which then will
counteract some of the advantages by having a sharp tool.
The effect of different rake angles and reinforcements on
the shear plane angles is presented in Fig. 30. The effect
on the cutting forces can be investigates for these geome-
tries, Fig. 31. There are small variations between the cut-
ting and feed forces for the different cutting tool designs.
Furthermore, the stresses on the tool were investigated (not
shown here). The nal outcome was that the intermediate
case in Fig. 30, having a small reinforcement chamfer with a
chip rake angle of zero which was attaining the largest shear
plane angle, was chosen. Wear can also be investigated by
the use of simulations. Figure 32 shows an example where
this is done. This pressure distribution in combination with
temperature and relative sliding velocity affect the wear rate.
Fig. 34 Workpiece temperature
in turning
Fig. 35 Temperature during
milling
5.4 Three-Dimensional Cutting
Most of the industrial applications that remove material by
action of a cutting edge (or edges) cannot be reproduced by
a two-dimensional model. The simulation of cutting using
three-dimensional models is naturally less common than us-
ing plane strain models, as in the previous examples, be-
cause the degree of complexity is increased. We include
some examples of simulation of turning and milling below
using the nite element code SuperForm [155]. There is no
computation and measurement of residual stresses available
for these cases. SuperForm [155] is an implicit nite ele-
ment program. It is based on a solid formulation and uses an
updated Lagrangian mesh. The full NewtonRaphson pro-
cedure is used for the solution of the non-linear system of
equations. The quasi-static analyses are performed using
eight-node brick elements with constant dilatation. The lat-
ter is applied in order to relieve the plastic incompressibil-
Fig. 36 Workpiece temperature
in milling with the tool removed
ity constraint. A re-meshing procedure is used to update the
mesh in order to avoid excessive element distortions.
The turning is performed with a feed of 0.15 mm and a
speed of 4 m/s. The insert geometry has been created by
rotating the shape in Fig. 14 by an angle of 80. The temper-
ature of the insert is shown in Fig. 33 and the temperature of
the workpiece, with the insert removed from the picture, is
shown in Fig. 34.
An example of simulation of milling is shown in Fig. 35.
The feed is 0.15 mm and the speed is 4 m/s, as in the previ-
ous turning example. Thus the difference between the two
examples is the path of the tool. The temperature of the
workpiece with the tool removed is shown in Fig. 36.
6 Concluding Remarks
Numerical simulation of machining has proved to be a chal-
lenge to existing algorithms and computational tools. Large
and localized plastic deformation and complex contact con-
ditions are some of the difculties associated with this class
of problems. The intent of this review is to illustrate differ-
ent approaches used and the advancements in this eld. In
spite of the current progress, there is still a need for more
research before a modelling practice is established that can
predict residual stresses with an acceptable degree of accu-
racy. The modelling of the material behaviour and friction in
the process zone is particularly uncertain. Void nucleation,
growth and coalescence constitute the main mechanisms
of material failure problems. However a detailed model or
theory is still unavailable. The problem of chip formation
and its control has been studied by attempting to dene the
mechanism of chip formation, chip ow and chip breaking.
Once this is known, forces, stresses and temperatures may
all be reasonably predicted.
Acknowledgement We gratefully acknowledge the discussions and
contributions to this work made by F.M. Andrade Pires.
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