OPTICAL FIBRE CABLES

INTRODUCTION

Optical communication systems date back to the 1790s, to the optical semaphore
telegraph invented by French inventor Claude Chappe. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell
patented an optical telephone system, which he called the Photophone. However, his
earlier invention, the telephone, was more practical and took tangible shape.
By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao
for long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard.
Dr. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970
Corning Glass invented fiber-optic wire or "optical waveguide fibers" which was capable of
carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which information
carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles
away. Corning Glass developed an SMF with loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nm by doping titanium
into the fiber core. By June of 1972, multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with
a loss of 4 dB per kilometer and much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber. Prof. Kao
was awarded half of the 2009 for "groundbreaking achievements concerning the
transmission of light in fibers for optical communication". In April 1977, General Telephone
and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first live telephone traffic through a fiber-
optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach, California. They were soon followed by Bell
in May 1977, with an optical telephone communication system installed in the downtown
Chicago area, covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-fiber pair carried
the equivalent of 672 voice channels and was equivalent to a DS3 circuit. Today more than
80 percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over optical-fiber
cables.












FIBER_OPTIC APPLICATIONS

FIBRE OPTICS: The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and
optical-fiber applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread,
ranging from global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of
voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using
one of a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their
nationwide networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service
between central office switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or
individual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]).
Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms
need secure, reliable systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings
to the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer data around the world. Cable
television companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and data services. The high
bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband signals,
such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts. Intelligent transportation systems, such
as smart highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable
message signs, also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.
Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic
systems are used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic
images. Other applications for optical fiber include space, military, automotive, and the
industrial sector.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS

Fiber Optics has the following advantages:

SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits

BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity

DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or
strengthened.

RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or
other nearby cables.

MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.
FIBER OPTIC SYSTEM

Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted
through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence give
below:
Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
Light Travels down the Fiber.
A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.
o Inexpensive light sources available.
o Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss
fibers are used at high data rates.
Total Internal Reflection - The Reflection that Occurs when a Light Ray Travelling in
One Material Hits a Different Material and Reflects Back into the Original Material
without any Loss of Light. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction
approaches 90
o
to the normal. The angle of incidence that yields an angle of
refraction of 90
o
is the critical angle. If the angle of incidence increases amore than
the critical angle, the light is totally reflected back into the first material so that it
does not enter the second material. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal
and it is called Total Internal Reflection.


Principle of Operation Theory

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum such as space.
Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass.Light travelling from one
material to another changes speed, which results in light changing its direction of travel.
This deflection of light is called Refraction.
The amount that a ray of light passing from a lower refractive index to a higher one is bent
towards the normal. But light going from a higher index to a lower one refracting away from
the normal, as shown in the figures.

1
Angle of incidence
n
1
n
2

2
n
1
n
2

2
n
1
n
2

2
Angle of
reflection
Light is bent away
from normal
Light does not enter
second material
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner core is
the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive index
that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The index of the cladding is less
than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a core refractive index
of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fiber manufacturers control this difference to obtain
desired optical fiber characteristics. Most fibers have an additional coating around the
cladding. This buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the
propagation of light within the fiber. Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a
fiber. Light injected into the fiber and striking core to cladding interface at grater than the
critical angle, reflects back into core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal,
the reflected light will again be reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length
of the fiber. Light striking the interface at less than the critical angle passes into the
cladding, where it is lost over distance. The cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier,
and light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light through fiber is
governed by the indices of the core and cladding by Snell's law.
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through an optical fiber.
This analysis consider only meridional rays- those that pass through the fiber axis each time,
they are reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel down the fiber without passing
through the axis. The path of a skew ray is typically helical wrapping around and around the
central axis. Fortunately skew rays are ignored in most fiber optics analysis.
The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fiber depend on many factors,
including:
The size of the fiber.
The composition of the fiber.
The light injected into the fiber.


Jacket
Cladding
Core
Cladding
Angle of
reflection
Angle of
incidence
Light at less than
critical angle is
absorbed in jacket
Jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection
Jacket
Cladding
Core
(n
2)
(n
2)
Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre
OPTICAL FIBRE PARAMETERS

Optical fiber systems have the following parameters.
(I) Wavelength.
(II) Frequency.
(III) Window.
(IV) Attenuation.
(V) Dispersion.
(VI) Bandwidth.

WAVELENGTH
It is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in
nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the color of the
light.
For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical wavelength for fiber
use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible.

FREQUENCY
It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is measured in units
of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.

WINDOW
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fiber best operates.
Typical windows are given below:
Window Operational Wavelength
800nm - 900nm 850nm
1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm
1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm



ATTENUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fibre with lower
attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than fibre with higher attenuation.
Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.

INTRINSIC ATTENUATION

It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. Intrinsic attenuation may occur as

(1) Absorption - Natural Impurities in the glass absorb light energy.




Absorption of Light

(2) Scattering - Light Rays Travelling in the Core Reflect from small Imperfections into a
New Pathway that may be Lost through the cladding.

Scattering

EXTRINSIC ATTENUATION

It is loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur as
(I) Macro bending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling down the fibre
cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
Light
Ray
Light is lost

Light
Ray

Micro and Macro bending

(II) Microbending - Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by crushing
contraction etc. These bends may not be visible with the naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the comparison between the
transmitted and received power in a system.

BANDWIDTH
It is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that each pulse of
light is distinguishable by the receiver.
System bandwidth is measured in MHz or GHz. In general, when we say that a system has
bandwidth of 20 MHz, means that 20 million pulses of light per second will travel down the
fibre and each will be distinguishable by the receiver.
NUMBERICAL APERTURE
Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light - gathering ability" of a fibre. Light injected into the
fibre at angles greater than the critical angle will be propagated. The material NA relates to
the refractive indices of the core and cladding.
NA = n
1
2
- n
2
2

Where n
1
and n
2
are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.
NA is unitless dimension. We can also define as the angles at which rays will be propagated
by the fibre. These angles form a cone called the acceptance cone, which gives the
maximum angle of light acceptance. The acceptance cone is related to the NA
= arc sing (NA) or
NA = sin
where is the half angle of acceptance
The NA of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre accepts and
propagates light. A fibre with a large NA accepts light well, a fibre with a low NA requires
highly directional light. In general, fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower NA. They thus
allow fewer modes means less dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A large NA
promotes more modal dispersion, since more paths for the rays are provided NA, although it
Numerical Aperture of fiber
can be defined for a single mode fibre, is essentially meaningless as a practical
characteristic. NA in a multimode fibre is important to system performance and to calculate
anticipated performance.
* Light Ray A : Did not Enter Acceptance Cone - Lost
* Light Ray B : Entered Acceptance Cone - Transmitted through the Core by Total Internal
Reflection.
DISPERSION
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of an optical fibre as
shown in figure 13. Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a
fibre. The bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and
therefore the greater dispersion can be tolerated.
There are three main types of dispersion in a fiber -
(I) Modal Dispersion
(II) Material dispersion
(III) Waveguide dispersion


Dispersion




BANDWIDTH AND DISPERSION:
A bandwidth of 400 MHz -km means that a 400 MHz-signal can be transmitted for 1 km. It
means that the product of frequency and the length must be 400 or less. We can send a
lower frequency for a longer distance, i.e. 200 MHz for 2 km or 100 MHz for 4 km.
Multimode fibres are specified by the bandwidth-length product or simply bandwidth.
Single mode fibres on the other hand are specified by dispersion, expressed in ps/km/nm. In
other words for any given single mode fibre dispersion is most affected by the source's
spectral width. The wider the source spectral width, the greater the dispersion.
Conversion of dispersion to bandwidth can be approximated roughly by the following
equation.
0.187
BW = --------------------------
(Disp) (SW) (L)
Disp = Dispersion at the operating wavelength in seconds/ nm/ km.
SW = Spectral width of the source in nm.
L = Fiber length in km.
So the spectral width of the source has a significant effect on the performance of a single
mode fiber.

OPTICAL WINDOWS :
Attenuation of fiber for optical power varies with the wavelengths of light. Windows are
low-loss regions, where fiber carries light with little attenuation. The first generation of
optical fiber operated in the first window around 820 to 850 nm. The second window is the
zero-dispersion region of 1300 nm and the third window is the 1550 nm region as shown in
figure 14.

Optical Windows







CABLE CONSTRUCTION

There are two basic cable designs are:
1. Tight Buffer Tube Cable
2. Loose Buffer Tube Cable
Loose-tube cable, used in the majority of outside-plant installations and tight-buffered
cable, primarily used inside buildings.

Tight-Buffered Cable
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with the
fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to
terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network. Single-fiber
tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers to terminate loose-tube
cables directly into opto-electronic transmitters, receivers and other active and passive
components.
Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used primarily for
alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings. The tight-buffered
design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during handling, routing
and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from the fiber.

Tight Buffer Tube Cable





Loose-Tube Cable
The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 or even
more than 400 fibers per cable. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally
armored. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and administration of fibers
in the system.
In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect
optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber length
(relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and
environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central
member, which serves as an anti-buckling element.
The cable core typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength member.
The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required, a
corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an additional jacket
extruded over the armor.
Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and
direct-buried applications.
Here are some common fiber cables types are given below:


(1) Distribution Cable

Distribution Cable (compact building cable) packages individual 900m buffered
fiber reducing size and cost. The connectors may be installed directly on the 900m
buffered fiber at the breakout box location.



Distribution Cable



(2) Loose Tube Cable
Loose tube cable is designed to endure outside temperatures and high moisture
conditions. The fibers are loosely packaged in gel filled buffer tubes to repel water.
Recommended for use between buildings that are unprotected from outside elements.
Loose tube cable is restricted from inside building use.

Loose Tube Cable

(3) Aerial Cable/Self-Supporting
Aerial cable provides ease of installation and reduces time and cost. Figure 8 cable
can easily be separated between the fiber and the messenger. Temperature range (-
55C to +85C)

Aerial Cable/Self-Supporting

(4) Hybrid & Composite Cable
Hybrid cables offer the same great benefits as our standard indoor/outdoor cables, with
the convenience of installing multimode and single mode fibers all in one pull. Our
composite cables offer optical fiber along with solid 14 gauge wires suitable for a variety of
uses including power, grounding and other electronic controls


Hybrid & Composite Cable
(5) Armored Cable
Armored cable can be used for rodent protection in direct burial if required. This cable is
non-gel filled and can also be used in aerial applications. The armor can be removed leaving
the inner cable suitable for any indoor/outdoor use. (Temperature rating -40C to +85C)


Armored Cable

Fibre Optic Cables (Loose Buffer Tube) have the following parts in common ;
Optical Fibre
Buffer
Strength member
Jacket
Cable Components
OFC SPLICING

Splices are permanent connection between two fibers. The splicing involves cutting
of the edges of the two fibers to be spliced.

Splicing Methods
The following three types are widely used:
Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
Mechanical splicing.
Fusion splicing.

Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing
This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. After fibre end
preparation, it is axially aligned in a precision Vgroove. Cylindrical rods or another kind of
Component Function Material
Buffer Protect fibre From Outside Nylon, Mylar, Plastic
Central Member
Facilitate Stranding
Temperature Stability
Anti-Buckling
Steel, Fibreglass
Primary Strength
Member
Tensile Strength Aramid Yarn, Steel
Cable Jacket
Contain and Protect
Cable Core
Abrasion Resistance
PE, PUR, PVC, Teflon
Cable Filling
Compound
Prevent Moisture
intrusion and Migration
Water Blocking
Compound
Armoring
Rodent Protection
Crush Resistance
Steel Tape
reference surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment of fibre end, a small
amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material is set between and
around the fibre ends. A two component epoxy or an UV curable adhesive is used as the
bonding agent. The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But
fusion splicing technique is more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used.

Mechanical Splicing
This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing.
This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibers for taking
various measurements.
The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components:
o An alignment surface for mating fiber ends.
o A retainer
o An index matching material.
o A protective housing
A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibres can have an optical performance as
good as fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fibre, this type of
splice cannot have stability of loss.


Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very
low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas
flame.
The process involves cutting of the fibers and fixing them in micropositioners on the
fusion splicing machine. The fibers are then aligned either manually or automatically core
aligning (in case of S.M. Fiber) process. Afterwards the operation that takes place involve
withdrawal of the fibers to a specified distance, preheating of the fiber ends through electric
arc and bringing together of the fiber ends in a position and splicing through high
temperature fusion.
If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the splicing
loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the splicing joint should
be provided with a proper protector to have following protections:
o Mechanical protection
o Protection from moisture.
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy resins
protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the joint.
Nowadays, the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used, which are fixed on the
joints by the fusion tools.
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very
low splice losses. The introduction of single mode optical fiber for use in long haul network
brought with it fiber construction and cable design different from those of multimode fibers.
The splicing machines imported by BSNL begin to the core profile alignment system,
the main functions of which are:
o Auto active alignment of the core.
o Auto arc fusion.
o Video display of the entire process.
o Indication of the estimated splice loss.
The two fibers ends to be spliced are cleaved and then clamped in accurately
machined veegrooves. When the optimum alignment is achieved, the fibers are fused
under the microprocessor control; the machine then measures the radial and angular off
sets of the fibers and uses these figures to calculate a splice loss. The operation of the
machine observes the alignment and fusion processes on a video screens showing
horizontal and vertical projection of the fibers and then decides the quality of the splice.
The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as a final value
as it is only an estimated loss and so after every splicing is over, the splice loss measurement
is to be taken by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer). The manual part of the
splicing is cleaning and cleaving the fibers. For cleaning the fibers, Dichlorine Methyl or
Acetone or Alcohol is used to remove primary coating.
With the special fiber cleaver or cutter, the cleaned fiber is cut. The cut has to be so
precise that it produces an end angle of less than 0.5 degree on a prepared fiber. If the cut is
bad, the splicing loss will increase or machine will not accept for splicing. The shape of the
cut can be monitored on the video screen, some of the defect noted while cleaving are
listed below
o Broken ends.
o Ripped ends.
o Slanting cuts.
o Unclean ends.