Fiberglass (also called fibreglass and glass fibre) is material made from extremely fine

fibers of glass. It is used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products; the resulting
composite material, properly known as fiber-reinforced polymer (F!) or glass-
reinforced plastic ("!), is called #fiberglass# in popular usage.
"lassmakers throughout history ha$e experimented with glass fibers, but mass
manufacture of fiberglass was only made possible with the ad$ent of finer machine-
tooling. In %&'(, )dward *rummond +ibbey exhibited a dress at the ,orld-s .olumbian
)xposition incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers. ,hat is
commonly known as #fiberglass# today, howe$er, was in$ented in %'(& by ussell
"ames /layter of 0wens-.orning as a material to be used as insulation. It is marketed
under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become a generici1ed trademark.
"lass fibers are useful because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. 2owe$er, the
increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack.
3y trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with a
thermal conducti$ity of 4.45 ,6m-7.
"lass strengths are usually tested and reported for #$irgin# fibers8 those which ha$e 9ust
been manufactured. :he freshest, thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner
fibers are more ductile. :he more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity.
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3ecause glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same along the fiber and
across the fiber.
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2umidity is an important factor in the tensile strength. >oisture is
easily adsorbed, and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen
tenacity.
In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks.
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:here is
a correlation between bending diameter of the filament and the filament diameter. /ee
72 2illermeier, %'?(, Freudenstadt. :he $iscosity of the molten glass is $ery important
for manufacturing success. *uring drawing (pulling of the glass to reduce fiber
circumference) the $iscosity should be relati$ely low. If it is too high the fiber will break
during drawing, howe$er if it is too low the glass will form droplets rather than drawing
out into fiber.
)nd uses for regular fiber glass are mats, insulation, reinforcement, sound absorption,
heat resistant fabrics, corrosion resistant fabrics and high strength fabrics.
.orrugated fiberglass panels are also widely used for outdoor canopy or greenhouse
construction. :hese are thin, rigid panels with a wa$y or 1ig-1ag cross-section, usually a
pale green or yellow color (although they are also a$ailable in other colors). :hey are
usually a$ailable in widths of =-@ feet and lengths of A-%A feet. 0$erlapping one wa$e
pattern on each edge is often sufficient to pre$ent most water or wind penetration through
the seams.
[edit] See also
Carbon fiber or Carbon fibre
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(alternately called graphite fiber or graphite fibre) is a
material consisting of extremely thin fibers about 4.444=B4.444@ inches (4.445B4.4%4
mm) in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. :he carbon atoms are bonded
together in microscopic crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of
the fiber. :he crystal alignment makes the fiber incredibly strong for its si1e. /e$eral
thousand carbon fibers are twisted together to form a yarn, which may be used by itself or
wo$en into a fabric.
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.arbon fiber can be combined with a plastic resin and wound or
molded to form composite materials such as carbon fiber reinforced plastic (also
referenced as carbon fiber) to pro$ide a high strength-to-weight ratio material. :he
density of carbon fiber is also considerably lower than the density of steel, making it ideal
for applications reCuiring low weight.
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:he properties of carbon fiber such as high
tensile strength, low weight, and low thermal expansion make it $ery popular in
aerospace, military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports.
.arbon fibers are the closest to asbestos in a number of properties.
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)ach carbon
filament thread is a bundle of many thousand carbon filaments. D single such filament is
a thin tube with a diameter of 5B& micrometers and consists almost exclusi$ely of carbon.
:he atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of sheets of
carbon atoms (graphene sheets) arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern. :he difference
lies in the way these sheets interlock. "raphite is a crystalline material in which the
sheets are stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. :he chemical bonds between
the sheets are relati$ely weak Ean der ,aals forces, gi$ing graphite its soft and brittle
characteristics. *epending upon the precursor to make the fiber, carbon fiber may be
turbostratic or graphitic, or ha$e a hybrid structure with both graphitic and turbostratic
parts present. In turbostratic carbon fiber the sheets of carbon atoms are hapha1ardly
folded, or crumpled, together. .arbon fibers deri$ed from !olyacrylonitrile (!DF) are
turbostratic, whereas carbon fibers deri$ed from mesophase pitch are graphitic after heat
treatment at temperatures exceeding ==44 .. :urbostratic carbon fibers tend to ha$e high
tensile strength, wheresas heat-treated mesophase-pitch-deri$ed carbon fibers ha$e high
Goung-s modulus and high thermal conducti$ity.
Applications
.arbon Fiber !ano1 *!4% .hamp .ar (right rear Cuarter).
For common applications, see Carbon fiber reinforced polymer or CFRP.
.arbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly the class
of materials known as .arbon fiber or graphite reinforced polymers. Dnother utili1ation
of .arbon Fiber is its added aesthetic $alue to $arious consumer products.
.arbon fiber as a tough and lightweight material is applied in the production of watch
cases and dials. In watchmaking the material is often combined with polymer to impro$e
its strength.
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Fon-polymer materials can also be used as the matrix for carbon fibers. *ue to the
formation of metal carbides (i.e., water-soluble Dl.) and corrosion considerations,
carbon has seen limited success in metal matrix composite applications. einforced
carbon-carbon (..) consists of carbon fiber-reinforced graphite, and is used
structurally in high-temperature applications. :he fiber also finds use in filtration of high-
temperature gases, as an electrode with high surface area and impeccable corrosion
resistance, and as an anti-static component.
.arbon fiber is also used in compressed gas tanks, including compressed air tanks.
.arbon fiber is used in many radio controlled racing $ehicles, with chassis plates and
shock towers commonly composed of the material.
.arbon fiber has recently been used for $arious decorati$e reasons such as doors and
chairs.
.arbon fibre is extensi$ely used in the bicycle industry and for $arious applications in
relation to the frame and componentry.
.arbon fiber is now being used in musical instruments for its weather resilience and
ability to recreate the tone of guitars.
.arbon fiber is usually colored black.
Dn optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length.
Fiber optics is the o$erlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design
and application of optical fibers. 0ptical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic
communication, which permits transmission o$er longer distances and at higher data rates
than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because
signals tra$el along them with less loss, and they are immune to electromagnetic
interference. 0ptical fibers are also used to form sensors, and in a $ariety of other
applications.
+ight is kept in the #core# of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. :his causes the
fiber to act as a wa$eguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or trans$erse
modes are called multimode fibers (>>F). Fibers which support only a single mode are
called singlemode fibers (/>F). >ultimode fibers generally ha$e a large-diameter core,
and are used for short-distance communication links or for applications where high power
must be transmitted. /inglemode fibers are used for most communication links longer
than =44 meters.
Hoining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than 9oining electrical wire or cable. :he
ends of the fibers must be carefully clea$ed, and then spliced together either
mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. /pecial connectors are used
to make remo$able connections.
Optical fiber communication
Main article: Fiber-optic communication
0ptical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it
is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially ad$antageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation
compared to electrical cables. :his allows long distances to be spanned with few
repeaters. Ddditionally, the light signals propagating in the fiber can be modulated at
rates as high as @4 "b6s
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(/ome communication companies are re$ealing that
connections as fast as %:36s are currently being de$eloped.
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), and each fiber can
carry many independent channels, each by a different wa$elength of light (wa$elength-
di$ision multiplexing). 0$er short distances, such as networking within a building, fiber
sa$es space in cable ducts because a single fiber can carry much more data than a single
electrical cable. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference, which pre$ents cross-talk
between signals in different cables and pickup of en$ironmental noise. Dlso, wiretapping
is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core
fibers that are said to be tap-proof. 3ecause they are non-electrical, fiber cables can
bridge $ery high electrical potential differences and can be used in en$ironments where
explosi$e fumes are present, without danger of ignition.
Dlthough fibers can be made out of transparent plastic, glass, or a combination of the
two, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications are always glass,
because of the lower optical attenuation. 3oth multi-mode and single-mode fibers are
used in communications, with multi-mode fiber used mostly for short distances (up to
544 m), and single-mode fiber used for longer distance links. 3ecause of the tighter
tolerances reCuired to couple light into and between single-mode fibers (core diameter
about %4 micrometers), single-mode transmitters, recei$ers, amplifiers and other
components are generally more expensi$e than multi-mode components.
Other uses of optical fibers
D frisbee illuminated by fiber optics
Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. :hey are used as light guides in
medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a
clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from
the roof to other parts of the building (see non-imaging optics). 0ptical fiber illumination
is also used for decorati$e applications, including signs, art, and artificial .hristmas trees.
/waro$ski boutiCues use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many
different angles while only employing one light source. 0ptical fiber is an intrinsic part
of the light-transmitting concrete building product, +i:ra.on.
D fiber-optic .hristmas :ree
0ptical fiber is also used in imaging optics. D coherent bundle of fibers is used,
sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging de$ice called an endoscope, which
is used to $iew ob9ects through a small hole. >edical endoscopes are used for minimally
in$asi$e exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes (see
fiberscope or borescope) are used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as 9et
engine interiors.
Dn optical fiber doped with certain rare-earth elements such as erbium can be used as the
gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. are-earth doped optical fibers can be used to
pro$ide signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular
(undoped) optical fiber line. :he doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser
wa$elength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal wa$e. 3oth wa$elengths
of light are transmitted through the doped fiber, which transfers energy from the second
pump wa$elength to the signal wa$e. :he process that causes the amplification is
stimulated emission.
0ptical fibers doped with a wa$elength shifter are used to collect scintillation light in
physics experiments.
0ptical fiber can be used to supply a low le$el of power (around one watt) to electronics
situated in a difficult electrical en$ironment. )xamples of this are electronics in high-
powered antenna elements and measurement de$ices used in high $oltage transmission
eCuipment.
[edit] Principle of operation
Composite materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two
or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties
and which remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic le$el within the finished
structure.
Examples of composite materials
Fiber reinforced polymers or F!s include wood (comprising cellulose fibers in a lignin
and hemicellulose matrix), carbon-fiber reinforced plastic or .F!, and glass reinforced
plastic or "!. If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fiber
thermoplastics, long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics. :here
are numerous thermoset composites, but ad$anced systems usually incorporate aramid
fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix.
.omposites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix
composites or >>.. >agnesium is often used in >>.s because it has similar
mechanical properties as epoxy. :he benefit of magnesium is that it does not degrade in
outer space. .eramic matrix composites include bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with
collagen fibers), .ermet (ceramic and metal) and concrete. .eramic matrix composites
are built primarily for toughness, not for strength. 0rganic matrix6ceramic aggregate
composites include asphalt concrete, mastic asphalt, mastic roller hybrid, dental
composite, syntactic foam and mother of pearl. .hobham armour is a special composite
used in military applications.
Ddditionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal
powders resulting in materials with a density range from = g6cc to %% g6cc (same density
as lead). :hese materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as aluminum,
stainless steel, brass, bron1e, copper, lead, and e$en tungsten in weighting, balancing,
$ibration dampening, and radiation shielding applications. 2igh density composites are
an economically $iable option when certain materials are deemed ha1ardous and are
banned (such as lead) or when secondary operations costs (such as machining, finishing,
or coating) are a factor.
)ngineered wood includes a wide $ariety of different products such as plywood, oriented
strand board, wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix),
!ykrete (sawdust in ice matrix), !lastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles,
Drborite, Formica (plastic) and >icarta. 0ther engineered laminate composites, such as
>allite, use a central core of end grain balsa wood, bonded to surface skins of light alloy
or "!. :hese generate low-weight, high rigidity materials.
[edit] Typical products
D metal matrix composite (>>.) is composite material with at least two constituent
parts, one being a metal. :he other material may be a different metal or another material,
such as a ceramic or organic compound. ,hen at least three materials are present, it is
called a hybrid composite. Dn >>. is complementary to a cermet.
Matrix
:he matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded, and is
completely continuous. :his means that there is a path through the matrix to any point in
the material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In structural applications, the
matrix is usually a lighter metal such as aluminium, magnesium, or titanium, and
pro$ides a compliant support for the reinforcement. In high temperature applications,
cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.
[edit] Reinforcement
:he reinforcement material is embedded into the matrix. :he reinforcement does not
always ser$e a purely structural task (reinforcing the compound), but is also used to
change physical properties such as wear resistance, friction coefficient, or thermal
conducti$ity. :he reinforcement can be either continuous, or discontinuous.
*iscontinuous >>.s can be isotropic, and can be worked with standard metalworking
techniCues, such as extrusion, forging or rolling. In addition, they may be machined using
con$entional techniCues, but commonly would need the use of polycrystaline diamond
tooling (!.*).
.ontinuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as carbon fiber or
silicon carbide. 3ecause the fibers are embedded into the matrix in a certain direction, the
result is an anisotropic structure in which the alignment of the material affects its
strength. 0ne of the first >>.s used boron filament as reinforcement. *iscontinuous
reinforcement uses #whiskers#, short fibers, or particles. :he most common reinforcing
materials in this category are alumina and silicon carbide.
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