PRIMARY TREATMENT

The primary treatment incorporates unit operations for removal of floating and suspended
solids from the wastewater. They are also referred as the physical unit operations. The unit
operations used are screening for removing floating papers, rages, cloths, plastics, cans
stoppers, labels, etc.; grit chambers or detritus tanks for removing grit and sand; skimming
tanks for removing oils and grease; and primary settling tank for removal of residual
settleable suspended matter.
SCREENS
Industrial wastewater treatment plant may or may not need the screens. However, when
packing of the product and cleaning of packing bottles/ containers is carried out, it is
necessary to provide screens even for industrial wastewater treatment plant to separate labels,
stopper, cardboard, and other packing materials. The cross section of the screen chamber is
always greater (about !! to "!! #$ than the incoming sewer. The length of this channel
should be sufficiently long to prevent eddies around the screen.
Types of %creens

%creens can be broadly classified depending upon the opening si&e provided as coarse screen
(bar screens$ and fine screens. 'ased on the cleaning operation they are classified as
manually cleaned screens or mechanically cleaned screens.
Coarse Screen
It is used primarily as protective devices and hence used as first treatment unit. (ommon
type of these screens are bar racks (or bar screen$, coarse woven)wire screens, and
comminutors. 'ar screens are used ahead of the pumps and grit removal facility. This screen
can be manually cleaned or mechanically cleaned. *anually cleaned screens are used in
small treatment plants. (lear spacing between the bars in these screens may be in the range
of +, mm to -! mm.
Grinder or Comminutor
It is used in con.unction with coarse screens to grind or cut the screenings. They utili&e
cutting teeth (or shredding device$ on a rotating or oscillating drum that passes through
stationary combs (or disks$. /b.ect of large si&e are shredded when it will pass through the
thin opening of si&e !.0 to +.! cm. 1rovision of bye pass to this device should always be
made.

Fine Screen
2ine screens are mechanically cleaned screens using perforated plates, woven wire cloths, or
very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than ! mm, less than 0 mm typical.
(ommonly these are available in the opening si&e ranging from !.!", to 0 mm. 2ine screens
are used for pretreatment of industrial wastewaters and are not suitable for sewage due to
clogging problems, but can be used after coarse screening. 2ine screens are also used to
remove solids from primary effluent to reduce clogging problem of trickling filters. 3arious
types of microscreens have been developed that are used to upgrade effluent 4uality from
secondary treatment plant. 2ine screen can be fi5ed or static wedge)wire type, drum type,
step type and centrifugal screens. 2i5ed or static screens are permanently set in vertical,
inclined, or hori&ontal position and must be cleaned by rakes, teeth or brushes. *ovable
screens are cleaned continuously while in operation. (entrifugal screens utili&e the rotating
screens that separate effluent and solids are concentrated.
Types of Medium and Fine Screens
Inclined (fied!" These are flat, cage, or disk type screens meant for removal of smaller
particles. These are provided with opening of !., to ., mm. They are used for primary
treatment of industrial effluents.

#and" It consists of an endless perforated band that passes over upper and lower sprocket.
'rushes are installed to remove that material retained over the screen. 6ater .et can be used
to flush the debris. /pening si&e of !.7 to ., mm is provided in this screen. They are used
for primary treatment of industrial effluents.

$rum Screen or strainer" It consists of rotating cylinder that has screen covering the
circumferential area of the drum. The li4uid enters the drum and moves radially out. The
solids deposited are removed by a .et of water from the top and discharged into a trough. The
micro)strainers have very fine si&e screens and are used to polish secondary effluent or
remove algae from the effluent of stabili&ation ponds. /pening si&e of + to , mm and !.,
to ., mm is used for primary treatment and opening si&e of 0 to -! 8m is used for polishing
treatment of secondary effluents.
Screen C%am&er
It consists of rectangular channel. 2loor of the channel is normally 9 to +, cm lower than the
invert of the incoming sewer. 'ed of the channel may be flat or made with desired slope.
This channel is design to avoid deposition of grit and other materials in to it. %ufficient
straight approach length should be provided to assure uniform distribution of screenings over
the entire screen area. :t least two bar racks, each designed to carry peak flow, must be
provided. :rrangement of stopping the flow and draining the channel should be made for
routine maintenance. The entrance structure should have a smooth transition or divergence to
avoid e5cessive head loss and deposition of solids (2igure +-.$. ;ffluent structure should be
having uniform convergence. The effluent from the individual rack may be combined or kept
separate as necessary.
'uantities of Screenin(
The 4uantity of screening varies depending on the type of rack or screen used as well as
sewer system (combined or separate$ and geographic location.
<uantity of screening removed by bar screen is !.!!", to !.!"9, m"/ +!!! m" of
wastewater treated. (Typical value = !.!+, m"/+!!! m" of wastewater
In combined system, the 4uantity of screening increases during storm and can be as high
as !., m"/+!!! m" of wastewater.
2or industrial wastewaters 4uantity of the screening depends on the characteristics of the
wastewater being treated.

$isposal of Screenin(s

%creening can be discharged to grinders or disintegrator pumps, where they are ground
and returned to the wastewater.
%creenings can be disposed along with municipal solid waste on sanitary landfill.
In large sewage treatment plant, screenings can be incinerated.
2or small wastewater treatment plant, screenings may be disposed off by burial on the
plant site.
Equalization Tanks
The e4uali&ation tanks are provided (i$ to balance fluctuating flows or concentrations, (ii$
to assist self neutrali&ation, or (iii$ to even out the effect of a periodic >slug> discharge
from a batch process.
Types of Equalization Tanks
;4uali&ation tanks are generally of three types?
+. 2low through type
. Intermittent flow type
". 3ariable inflow/constant discharge type
The simple flow through type e4uali&ation tank is mainly useful in assisting self
neutrali&ation or evening out of fluctuating concentrations, not for balancing of flows
since a flow through type tank once filled, gives output e4ual to input.
2low balancing and self)neutrali&ation are both achieved by using two tanks,
intermittently one after another. /ne tank is allowed to fill up after which it is checked
for pH (or any other parameter$ and then allowed to empty out. The second tank goes
through a similar routine. Intermittent flow type tanks are economic for small flows from
industries.
6hen flows are large an e4uali&ation tank of such a si&e may have to be provided
that inflow can be variable while outflow is at a constant rate, generally by a pump.The
capacity re4uired is determined from a plot of the cumulative inflow and a plot of the
constant rate outflow and measuring the gaps between the two plots. : factor of safety
may be applied if desired.
@enerally, detention time vary from to 7 hours but may be even + hours or more in
some cases. 6hen larger detention times are re4uired, the e4uali&ation unit is sometimes
provided in the form of facultative aerated lagoon.

GRIT C)AM#ER

@rit chamber is the second unit operation used in primary treatment of wastewater and it is
intended to remove suspended inorganic particles such as sandy and gritty matter from the
wastewater. This is usually limited to municipal wastewater and generally not re4uired for
industrial effluent treatment plant, e5cept some industrial wastewaters which may have grit. The
grit chamber is used to remove grit, consisting of sand, gravel, cinder, or other heavy solids
materials that have specific gravity much higher than those of the organic solids in wastewater.
@rit chambers are provided to protect moving mechanical e4uipment from abrasion and
abnormal wear; avoid deposition in pipelines, channel, and conduits; and to reduce fre4uency of
digester cleaning. %eparate removal of suspended inorganic solids in grit chamber and
suspended organic solids in primary sedimentation tank is necessary due to different nature and
mode of disposal of these solids. @rit can be disposed off after washing, to remove higher si&e
organic matter settled along with grit particles; whereas, the suspended solids settled in primary
sedimentation tank, being organic matter, re4uires further treatment before disposal.
$isposal of Grit
(onsiderable 4uantities of grit will be collected at the sewage treatment plant, about !.!!- to !.
m"/*A. 1articularly for combined system this 4uantity will be more. Becessary arrangement
should be made at the treatment plant for collection, storage and disposal of this grit matter. The
grit collected can be disposed in the following manner?
C In large treatment plant, grit is incinerated with sludge
C In the past grits along with screening was dumped into sea.
C @enerally, grit should be washed before disposal to remove organic matter.
C Aand disposal after washing is most common.
)ori*ontal Flo+ Rectan(ular Grit C%am&er
: long narrow channel is used in this type of grit chamber (2igure +,.$. The wastewater
moves through this channel in more or less plug flow condition with minimal mi5ing to
support settling of the particles. Higher length to width ratio of the channel is used to
minimi&e mi5ing. 2or this purpose a minimum allowance of appro5imately twice the
ma5imum depth or ! to ,!# of the theoretical length of the channel should be given for
inlet and outlet &ones. The width of this channel is kept between + and +., m and the depth of
flow is normally kept shallow. : free board of minimum !." m and grit space of about !.,
m is provided. 2or large sewage treatment plant, two or more number of grit chambers in
parallel are generally provided. The detention time of "! to 0! seconds is recommended for
the grit chamber.
S,uare Grit C%am&er

The hori&ontal flow rectangular grit chamber faces the problem of sedimentation of organic
matter along with grit particles, re4uiring e5ternal washing of the grit before disposal. This
problem can be minimi&ed by providing s4uare shape of the grit chamber rather than long
rectangular channel. :lso, this shape will facilitate compact design of sewage treatment
plant.
Hence these days s4uare grit chambers are used. In s4uare grit chamber, the flow distribution
may not be uniform due to non)ideal plug flow conditions, and hence continuous removal of
grit is generally considered essential. These are designed based on overflow rates that are
dependent on the particle si&e and temperature of wastewater. *inimum two number of grit
chambers should be used to facilitate maintenance of the raking mechanism, whenever
re4uired. The grit deposited at the bottom is raked by rotating mechanism to a sump at the
side of the tank, from which it is moved up by an inclined reciprocating rake or screw pump
mechanism 6hile passing up the incline conveyer, organic solids are separated
from grit and flow back into the basin. Thus, cleaner washed grit is obtained, compared to
washed grit from separate grit washers.
Aerated Grit C%am&er
;5cessive wear of grit handling e4uipment and necessity of separate grit washer can be
eliminated by using aerated grit chamber. It is designed for typical detention time of "
minutes at ma5imum flow. @rit hopper about !.D m deep with steeply slopping sides is
located along one side of tank under air diffusers. The diffusers are located at
about !.-, to !.0 m from the bottom. The si&e of particles removed will depend upon
velocity of roll or agitation. The air flow rate can be easily ad.usted to control efficiency and
+!!# removal of grit can be achieved. 6astewater moves in the tank in helical path and
makes two or three passes across the bottom of the tank at ma5imum flow (and more at less
flow$.
6astewater is introduced in the direction of roll in the grit chamber. The e5pansion in
volume due to introduction of air must be considered in design. The aerated grit chambers
are e4uipped with grit removal grab buckets, traveling on monorails over the grit collection
and storage trough. (hain and bucket conveyers can also be used. Two grit chambers in
parallel are used to facilitate maintenance.
-orte.Type Grit C%am&er
These types of grit chambers are used in small plants and these re4uire lesser area as
compared to earlier types. In this grit is removed with vorte5 flow pattern. The wastewater
enters tangentially and e5it in the perpendicular direction of motion either from top or from
side. Eue to inertia the grit particle will remain in the chamber and li4uid free from grit will
only escape. The rotating turbine maintains constant velocity and helps in separating organic
matter and grit. The centrifugal force on the grit particle can also be maintained without
turbine by properly introducing wastewater in the tangential direction in the chamber.
Toroidal flow path is followed by the grit particles due to action of @rit particle settles by the
action of gravity into hopper from where it is removed by a grit pump or air lift pump.
6ashed grit, free from the organic matter, can be obtained from this device.
Primary Sedimentation
1rimary sedimentation in a municipal wastewater treatment plant is generally plain
sedimentation without the use of chemicals. In treating certain industrial wastes chemically aided
sedimentation may be involved. In either case, it constitutes flocculent settling, and the particles
do not remain discrete as in the case of grit, but tend to agglomerate or coagulate during settling.
Thus, their diameter keeps increasing and settlement proceeds at an over increasing velocity.
(onse4uently, they trace a curved profile.
The settling tank design in such cases depends on both surface loading and detention time.
Aong tube settling tests can be performed in order to estimate specific value of surface loading
and detention time for desired efficiency of clarification for a given industrial wastewater using
recommended methods of testing. %cale)up factors used in this case range from +., to +.9, for
the overflow rate, and from +., to .! for detention time when converting laboratory results to
the prototype design.
2or primary settling tanks treating municipal or domestic sewage, laboratory tests are generally
not necessary, and recommended design values given in table may be used. Fsing an appropriate
value of surface loading from table, the re4uired tank area is computed. Gnowing the average
depth, the detention time is then computed. ;5cessively high detention time (longer than ., h$
must be avoided especially in warm climates where anaerobicity can be 4uickly induced.
Settlin(
%olid li4uid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases H
(larified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow$.
(oncentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow$.
Purpose of Settling
To remove coarse dispersed phase.
To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
To settle the sludge (biomass$ after activated sludge process / tricking filters.
Principle of Settling
%uspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend
to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
'asin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called
the detention period.
Types of Settling
Type I? Discrete particle settling ) 1articles settle individually without interaction with
neighboring particles.
Type II? Flocculent Particles H 2locculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at
a faster rate.
Type III? Hindered or Zone settling HThe mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with
individual particles remaining in fi5ed positions with respect to each other.
Type I3? ompression H The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only
occur through compaction of the structure.
Type I Settling
%i&e, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with time.
%ettling velocity remains constant.
If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it?
(+$ force of gravity? 2
g
=r
p
g3
p

($ the buoyant force 4uantified by :rchimedes as? 2
b
=rg3
p
If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is e5erted and the particle
is accelaratd in the direction of the force?
2
net
=(r
p
)r$g3
p

This net force becomes the driving force.
/nce the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous friction. This force,
called the drag force, is 4uantified by?
2
d
=(
E
:
p
rv

/
(
E
= drag coefficient.
:
p
= pro.ected area of the particle.
'ecause the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and increases as the
s4uare of the velocity, accelaration occurs at a decreasing rate until a steady velocity is reached
at a point where the drag force e4uals the driving force?
(r
p
)r$g3
p
= (
E
:
p
rv

/
2or spherical particles,
3
p
=pd
"
/0 and :
p
=pd

/-
Thus, v

= -g(r
p
)r$d
" (
E
r
;5pressions for (
E
change with characteristics of different flow regimes. 2or laminar, transition,
and turbulent flow, the values of (
E
are?
(
E
= - (laminar$
I
e

(
E
= - J " J!."- (transition$
I
e
I
e
+/
(
E
= !.- (turbulent$
where Ie is the Ieynolds number?
I
e
=rvd
m
Ieynolds number less than +.! indicate laminar flow, while values greater than +! indicate
turbulent flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional flow.
Stokes Flow
2or laminar flow, terminal settling velocity e4uation becomes?
v= (r
p
)r$gd

+7m
which is known as the stokes e!uation.
Transition Flow
Beed to solve non)linear e4uations?
v

= -g(r
p
)r$d
" (
E
r
(
E
= - J " J!."-
I
e
I
e
+/
I
e
=rvd
m
(alculate velocity using %tokes law or turbulent e5pression.
(alculate and check Ieynolds number.
(alculate (
E
.
Fse general formula.
Iepeat from step until convergence.
Types of Settling Tanks
%edimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously.The
intermittent tanks also called 4uiescent type tanks are those which store water for a
certain period and keep it in complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow
velocity is only reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an
intermittent type.
%ettling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Aong narrow
rectangular tanks with hori&ontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks with
radial or spiral flow.
"ong #ectangular Settling $asin
Aong rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes
is easier with this configuration.
: typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from to - times their width. The
bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. : slow moving mechanical sludge
scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is
pumped out periodically.

: long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional &ones?
Inlet %one& Iegion in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that the
flow through settling &one follows hori&ontal path.
Settling %one& %ettling occurs under 4uiescent conditions.
'utlet %one& (larified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir.
Sludge %one& 2or collection of sludge below settling &one.
Inlet and 'utlet (rrangement
Inlet devices& Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water e4ually and at uniform velocities. :
baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should pro.ect several feet
below the water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow;
'utlet Devices& /utlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities
suitable for settling in the basin and to minimi&e short)circuiting. 6eirs shall be ad.ustable, and
at least e4uivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are not
acceptable as they tend to cause e5cessive short)circuiting.
)eir 'verflow #ates
Aarge weir overflow rates result in e5cessive velocities at the outlet. These velocities e5tend
backward into the settling &one, causing particles and flocs to be drawn into the outlet. 6eir
loadings are generally used upto "!! m
"
/d/m. It may be necessary to provide special inboard weir
designs as shown to lower the weir overflow rates.
Inboard )eir (rrangement to Increase )eir "ength
ircular $asins
(ircular settling basins have the same functional &ones as the long rectangular basin, but
the flow regime is different. 6hen the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow
radially towards the perimeter, the hori&ontal velocity of the water is continuously
decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thus, the particle path in a circular
basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular tank.
%ludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and re4uire less maintenance.

Settling 'perations
1articles falling through the settling basin have two components of velocity?
+$ 3ertical component? v
t
=(r
p
)r$gd

+7m
$ Hori&ontal component? v
h
=</:
The path of the particle is given by the vector sum of hori&ontal velocity v
h
and vertical
settling velocity v
t
.
:ssume that a settling column is suspended in the flow of the settling &one and that the
column travels with the flow across the settling &one. (onsider the particle in the batch
analysis for type)+ settling which was initially at the surface and settled through the depth
of the column K
!
, in the time t
!
. If t
!
also corresponds to the time re4uired for the column
to be carried hori&ontally across the settling &one, then the particle will fall into the
sludge &one and be removed from the suspension at the point at which the column
reaches the end of the settling &one.
:ll particles with v
t
Lv
!
will be removed from suspension at some point along the settling
&one.
Bow consider the particle with settling velocity M v
!
. If the initial depth of this particle
was such that K
p
/v
t
=t
!
, this particle will also be removed. Therefore, the removal of
suspended particles passing through the settling &one will be in proportion to the ratio of
the individual settling velocities to the settling velocity v
!
.
The time t
!
corresponds to the retention time in the settling &one. t= 3 = AK
!
6
< <
:lso, t
!
= K
!

v
!

Therefore, K
!
= AK
!
6 and v
!
= <
v
!
< A6
or v
!
= <
:
%
Thus, the depth of the basin is not a factor in determining the si&e particle that can be removed
completely in the settling &one. The determining factor is the 4uantity </:
s
, which has the units
of velocity and is referred to as the overflow rate 4
!
. This overflow rate is the design factor for
settling basins and corresponds to the terminal setting velocity of the particle that is +!!#
removed.
Design Details
+. Eetention period? for plain sedimentation? " to - h, and for coagulated sedimentation? to
., h.
. 3elocity of flow? Bot greater than "! cm/min (hori&ontal flow$.
". Tank dimensions? A?' = " to ,?+. @enerally A= "! m (common$ ma5imum +!! m.
'readth= 0 m to +! m. (ircular? Eiameter not greater than 0! m. generally ! to -! m.
-. Eepth ., to ,.! m (" m$.
,. %urface /verflow Iate? 2or plain sedimentation +!!! to +7!!! A/d/m tank area; for
thoroughly flocculated water -!!! to "!!!! A/d/m tank area.
0. %lopes? Iectangular +# towards inlet and circular 7#.
Flocculation
2locculation is stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate destabilised particles
into compact, fast settleable particles (or flocs$. 2locculation or gentle agitation results
from velocity differences or gradients in the coagulated water, which causes the fine
moving, destabili&ed particles to come into contact and become large, readily settleable
flocs. It is a common practice to provide an initial rapid (or$ flash mi5 for the dispersal of
the coagulant or other chemicals into the water. %low mi5ing is then done, during which
the growth of the floc takes place.
#apid or Flash mi*ing is the process by which a coagulant is rapidly and uniformly
dispersed through the mass of water. This process usually occurs in a small basin
immediately preceding or at the head of the coagulation basin. @enerally, the detention
period is "! to 0! seconds and the head loss is ! to 0! cms of water. Here colloids are
destabilised and the nucleus for the floc is formed.
Slow mi*ing brings the contacts between the finely divided destabilised matter formed
during rapid mi5ing.
Perikinetic and 'rthokinetic Flocculation
The flocculation process can be broadly classified into two types, perikinetic and
orthokinetic.
1erikinetic flocculation refers to flocculation (contact or collisions of colloidal particles$
due to 'rownian motion of colloidal particles. The random motion of colloidal particles
results from their rapid and random bombardment by the molecules of the fluid.
/rthokinetic flocculation refers to contacts or collisions of colloidal particles resulting
from bulk fluid motion, such as stirring. In systems of stirring, the velocity of the fluid
varies both spatially (from point to point$ and temporally (from time to time$.
+echanism of Flocculation
Gravitational flocculation: 'affle type mi5ing basins are e5amples of gravitational
flocculation. 6ater flows by gravity and baffles are provided in the basins which induce
the re4uired velocity gradients for achieving floc formation.
Mechanical flocculation: *echanical flocculators consists of revolving paddles with
hori&ontal or vertical shafts or paddles suspended from hori&ontal oscillating beams,
moving up and down
Coa(ulation in /ater Treatment
%alts of :l(III$ and 2e(III$ are commonly used as coagulants in water and wastewater
treatment.
6hen a salt of :l(III$ and 2e(III$ is added to water, it dissociates to yield trivalent ions,
which hydrate to form a4uometal comple5es :l(H

/$
0
"J
and 2e(H

/$
0
"J
. These
comple5es then pass through a series of hydrolytic reactions in which H

/ molecules in
the hydration shell are replaced by /H
)
ions to form a variety of soluble species such as
:l(/H$
J
and :l(/H$
J
. These products are 4uite effective as coagulants as they adsorb
very strongly onto the surface of most negative colloids.
$esta&ili*ation usin( Al(III! and Fe(III! Salts
:l(III$ and 2e(III$ accomplish destabili&ation by two mechanisms?
(+$ :dsorption and charge neutrali&ation.
($ ;nmeshment in a sweep floc.
Interrelations between pH, coagulant dosage, and colloid concentration determine
mechanism responsible for coagulation.
(harge on hydrolysis products and precipitation of metal hydro5ides are both controlled
by pH. The hydrolysis products possess a positive charge at pH values below iso)electric
point of the metal hydro5ide. Begatively charged species which predominate above iso)
electric point, are ineffective for the destabili&ation of negatively charged colloids.
1recipitation of amorphous metal hydro5ide is necessary for sweep)floc coagulation.
The solubility of :l(/H$
"
(s$ and 2e(/H$
"
(s$ is minimal at a particular pH and increases
as the pH increases or decreases from that value. Thus, pH must be controlled to establish
optimum conditions for coagulation.
:lum and 2erric (hloride reacts with natural alkalinity in water as follows?
:l

(%/
-
$
"
.+-H

/ J 0 H(/
")
:l(/H$
"
(s$ J 0(/

J+- H

/ J " %/
-
)
2e(l
"
J " H(/
")
2e(/H$
"
(%$ J" (/

J " (l
)
0ar Test
The .ar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum operating
conditions for water or wastewater treatment. This method allows ad.ustments in pH, variations
in coagulant or polymer dose, alternating mi5ing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or
polymer types, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale treatment
operation.
0ar Testin( Apparatus
The .ar testing apparatus consists of si5 paddles which stir the contents of si5 + liter containers.
/ne container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among the
remaining five containers. : rpm gage at the top)center of the device allows for the uniform
control of the mi5ing speed in all of the containers.
0ar Test Procedure
The .ar test procedures involves the following steps?
2ill the .ar testing apparatus containers with sample water. /ne container will be used as
a control while the other , containers can be ad.usted depending on what conditions are
being tested. 2or e5ample, the pH of the .ars can be ad.usted or variations of coagulant
dosages can be added to determine optimum operating conditions.
:dd the coagulant to each container and stir at appro5imately +!! rpm for + minute. The
rapid mi5 stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
Turn off the mi5ers and allow the containers to settle for "! to -, minutes. Then measure
the final turbidity in each container.
Ieduce the stirring speed to , to ", rpm and continue mi5ing for +, to ! minutes. This
slower mi5ing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions which
lead to larger flocs.
Iesidual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are
determined. The values that are obtained through the e5periment are correlated and
ad.usted in order to account for the actual treatment system.
Filtration
The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may contain some very fine
suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still
further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular material, such as sand, etc. The
process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is known as 2iltration.
)o+ Filters /or1" Filtration Mec%anisms
There are four basic filtration mechanisms?
S,DI+,-T(TI'- ? The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity and the
associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the streamlines and reach the
collector.
I-T,#,PTI'- ? Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large enough
particle follows the streamline, that lies very close to the media surface it will hit the media grain
and be captured.
$#')-I(- DIFF.SI'- ? Eiffusion towards media granules occurs for very small particles,
such as viruses. 1articles move randomly about within the fluid, due to thermal gradients. This
mechanism is only important for particles with diameters M + micron.
I-,#TI( ? :ttachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast enough to travel off
their streamlines and bump into media grains.
Filter Materials
Sand& %and, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The si&e of the sand is
measured and e5pressed by the term called effective si&e. The effective size, i.e. E
+!
may be
defined as the si&e of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight
will pass. The uniformity in si&e or degree of variations in si&es of particles is measured and
e5pressed by the term called uniformity coefficient. The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (E
0!
/E
+!
$ may
be defined as the ratio of the sieve si&e in mm through which 0! percent of the sample of sand
will pass, to the effective si&e of the sand.
/ravel& The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to move
freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.
'ther materials& Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as filter media. :nthrafilt is
made from anthracite, which is a type of coal)stone that burns without smoke or flames. It is
cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.
Types of Filter
Slow sand filter& They consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. They capture particles near the
surface of the bed and are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of sand that contains
the particles.
#apid0sand filter& They consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture particles
throughout the bed. They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to Nlift outN the
particles.
+ultimedia filters& They consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with
different densities. Fsually, anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers
combined may provide more versatile collection than a single sand layer. 'ecause of the
differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after backwashing.
Principles of Slo+ Sand Filtration
In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes?
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
Euring the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical)chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer
on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the
spaces between the sand grains.
:s this layer (referred to as O%chmut&deckeP$ develops, it becomes living 4uarters of vast
numbers of micro)organisms which break down organic material retained from the water,
converting it into water, carbon dio5ide and other o5ides.
*ost impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it
passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand .ust below. The purification
mechanisms e5tend from the filter skin to appro5. !.")!.- m below the surface of the
filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified
and contains less organic material.
6hen the micro)organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high 4uality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter.
They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial
contents.
Sand Filters 2s3 Rapid Sand Filters
$ase material& In %%2 it varies from " to 0, mm in si&e and "! to 9, cm in depth while
in I%2 it varies from " to -! mm in si&e and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 0! to D!
cm.
Filter sand& In %%2 the effective si&e ranges between !. to !.- mm and uniformity
coefficient between +.7 to ., or ".!. In I%2 the effective si&e ranges between !.", to
!.,, and uniformity coefficient between +. to +.7.
#ate of filtration& In %%2 it is small, such as +!! to !! A/h/s4.m. of filter area while in
I%2 it is large, such as "!!! to 0!!! A/h/s4.m. of filter area.
Fle*ibility& %%2 are not fle5ible for meeting variation in demand whereas I%2 are 4uite
fle5ible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
Post treatment re!uired& :lmost pure water is obtained from %%2. However, water may
be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Eisinfection is a must after I%2.
+ethod of cleaning& %crapping and removing of the top +., to " cm thick layer is done to
clean %%2. To clean I%2, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without compressed
air.
"oss of head& In case of %%2 appro5. +! cm is the initial loss, and !.7 to +.m is the final
limit when cleaning is re4uired. 2or I%2 !."m is the initial loss, and ., to ".,m is the
final limit when cleaning is re4uired.