Fuels

o Fuel is a substance containing major ingredient as carbon which

gives large amount of heat when combusted.
o During the process of combustion of a fuel, carbon, hydrogen etc.
will combine with oxygen to liberate heat at a rapid rate.
Fuel + O
2
Products + heat
o Fuels are divided as
a) Primary fuels (or) Natural fuels
b) Secondary fuels (or) artificial fuels
o Further these are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
Fuels
Chemical Fuels
Primary fuels
Or
Natural fuels
Secondary fuels
Or
Artificial fuels
Solid fuels
Wood, coal
Liquid fuels
Petroleum
Gaseous fuels
Natural gas
Solid fuels
Coke
Liquid fuels
Petrol, diesel,
kerosene
Gaseous fuels
Bio gas,
Water gas,
Producer gas
Characteristics of a good fuel
A good fuel should have the following characteristics: A good fuel should have the following characteristics:
o o High calorific value High calorific value
o o Moderate ignition temperature Moderate ignition temperature
o o Low moisture content Low moisture content
o o Low non Low non- -combustible matter combustible matter
o o Moderate velocity of combustion Moderate velocity of combustion
o o Pollution free combustion products Pollution free combustion products
o o Low cost Low cost
o o Easy to transport Easy to transport
o o Controllable combustion Controllable combustion
o o Should not undergo spontaneous combustion Should not undergo spontaneous combustion
o o Storage should be cheap and easy Storage should be cheap and easy
o o Should burn in air easily without much smoke Should burn in air easily without much smoke
No ash and no smoke
are produced
No ash is produced but
some flue gases are
produced
Ash and smoke are
produced during the
process of combustion
6
Can be used in IC
engines but to a lesser
extent
Can be used in IC
engines
Cannot be used in IC
engines
5
Calorific value is higher
that liquid fuels
Calorific value is
relatively high
Calorific value is
relatively low
4
High risk involved in
storage
Risk involved in storage Storage is safe 3
Transportation is easy
through pipelines and
containers
Transportation is easy
through pipelines and
containers
Transportation is
difficult
2
Combustion is rapid and
burning can be
controlled
Quick combustion and it
can be controlled
Slow combustion and
not easy to control it
1
Gaseous fuels Liquid fuels Solid fuels
Calorific value of a fuel Calorific value of a fuel
Higher or Gross Calorific Value (HCV or GCV): Higher or Gross Calorific Value (HCV or GCV):
The amount of heat liberated when one unit weight or
volume of a fuel is completely burnt and the products
of combustion are cooled to room temperature
Net or Lower Calorific Value (LCV or NCV): Net or Lower Calorific Value (LCV or NCV):
The amount of heat liberated when one unit weight or The amount of heat liberated when one unit weight or
volume of a fuel is completely burnt and the products volume of a fuel is completely burnt and the products
of combustion are allowed to escape into the of combustion are allowed to escape into the
atmosphere atmosphere
o Units of heat are Calories, k.calories and B.Th.U (British
thermal unit) or C.H.U (Centrigrade heat unit)
1 B.Th.U = 252 cal = 0.252 k.Cal
1 k.Cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
Determination of Calorific Value Determination of Calorific Value
Bomb calorimeter Bomb calorimeter
Calculation Calculation
m = mass of fuel pellet (g) m = mass of fuel pellet (g)
W = mass of water in the calorimeter (g) W = mass of water in the calorimeter (g)
w = water equivalent of calorimeter (g) w = water equivalent of calorimeter (g)
t t
1 1
= initial temperature of calorimeter. = initial temperature of calorimeter.
t t
2 2
= final temperature of calorimeter. = final temperature of calorimeter.
HCV = gross calorific value of fuel. HCV = gross calorific value of fuel.
Corrections Corrections
Fuse wire correction Fuse wire correction. Heat liberated during sparking should be . Heat liberated during sparking should be
subtracted from heat liberated. subtracted from heat liberated.
Acid correction Acid correction. Fuels containing Sulphur and Nitrogen if oxidized, . Fuels containing Sulphur and Nitrogen if oxidized,
the heats of formation of H the heats of formation of H
2 2
SO SO
4 4
and HNO and HNO
3 3
should be subtracted (as should be subtracted (as
the acid formations are exothermic reactions). the acid formations are exothermic reactions).
Cooling correction Cooling correction. The rate of cooling of the calorimeter from . The rate of cooling of the calorimeter from
maximum temperature to room temperature is noted. From this rate maximum temperature to room temperature is noted. From this rateof of
cooling (i.e., cooling (i.e., dt dt /min) and the actual time taken for cooling (t min) then /min) and the actual time taken for cooling (t min) then
correction ( correction (dt dt t) is called cooling correction and is added to the (t2 . t) is called cooling correction and is added to the (t2 .
t1) term. t1) term.
Corrections Corrections
Dulong Dulong s Formula s Formula
The approximate calorific value of a fuel can be determined by knowing the
amount of constituents present:
Gross or higher calorific value (HCV) from elemental constituents of a fuel.
H =34500 kcal/kg; C =8080 kcal/kg; S =2240 kcal/kg
Oxygen present in the fuel is assumed to be present as water (fixed
hydrogen).
Available Hydrogen =Total hydrogen - Fixed hydrogen
=Total hydrogen - 1/8 mass of oxygen in fuel.
Dulongs formula for calorific value from the chemical composition of fuel
is,
Knocking Knocking
Knocking characteristics of a fuel depends on the chemical Knocking characteristics of a fuel depends on the chemical
structure structure
Maximum power Maximum power Gasoline when burnt uniformly, silently in Gasoline when burnt uniformly, silently in
an ICE an ICE
Presence of certain constituents in gasoline, rate of oxidation Presence of certain constituents in gasoline, rate of oxidation
becomes so great that the unburnt fuel may rapidly react with becomes so great that the unburnt fuel may rapidly react with
the formation of explosive violence. This is called the formation of explosive violence. This is called Knocking Knocking
Knocking results in loss of efficiency of the engine Knocking results in loss of efficiency of the engine
Knocking tendency: Knocking tendency:
Straight chain paraffins > Branched chain paraffins > Straight chain paraffins > Branched chain paraffins >
Cycloparaffins > Olefins > Aromatics Cycloparaffins > Olefins > Aromatics
Knocking characteristics of a combustion engine fuel Knocking characteristics of a combustion engine fuel octane octane
number number
Octane number Octane number
Antiknock quality of a fuel is expressed as its octane number Antiknock quality of a fuel is expressed as its octane number
Percentage of Percentage of iso iso- -octane (2,2,4 octane (2,2,4- -trimethyl pentane). in n trimethyl pentane). in n- -heptane heptane- -iso iso- -octane octane
blend blend octane number octane number
Isooctane Isooctane best antiknocking properties and assigned O.N of 100 best antiknocking properties and assigned O.N of 100
n n- -heptane heptane poor antiknocking property and assigned O.N. of 0 poor antiknocking property and assigned O.N. of 0
Most effective antiknock agent is tetraethyl lead (TEL) along wi Most effective antiknock agent is tetraethyl lead (TEL) along with ethylene th ethylene
dibromide which prevents deposition of lead by forming volatile dibromide which prevents deposition of lead by forming volatile lead lead
halides halides
Others are tetramethyl lead, tertiary butyl acetate, diethyl tel Others are tetramethyl lead, tertiary butyl acetate, diethyl telluride luride
Greater the octane number, greater is the resistance of Greater the octane number, greater is the resistance of
knocking knocking
Diesel knock Diesel knock
Long ignition delays lead to accumulation of more Long ignition delays lead to accumulation of more vapours vapours in in
the engine and when ignited an explosion results as the the engine and when ignited an explosion results as the
combined effect of temperature and pressure. This is combined effect of temperature and pressure. This is
responsible for diesel knock. responsible for diesel knock.
Diesel Index: Specific gravity (API) X Aniline point ( Diesel Index: Specific gravity (API) X Aniline point (
o o
F)/100 F)/100
API API American Petroleum Institution American Petroleum Institution
Cetane number Cetane number
Long ignition delays lead to accumulation of more vapours in Long ignition delays lead to accumulation of more vapours in
the engine and when ignited an explosion results as the the engine and when ignited an explosion results as the
combined effect of temperature and pressure. This is combined effect of temperature and pressure. This is
responsible for diesel knock. responsible for diesel knock.
There is a delay period between injection of diesel fuel There is a delay period between injection of diesel fuel
Cetane number Cetane number
There is a delay period between the injection of diesel fuel and There is a delay period between the injection of diesel fuel and its ignition. its ignition.
If this delay period is large, too much fuel accumulates in the If this delay period is large, too much fuel accumulates in the cylinder and cylinder and
burn very rapidly and causes diesel knock. burn very rapidly and causes diesel knock.
Increasing delay period occurs in the series : n Increasing delay period occurs in the series : n- -paraffin < Olefins < paraffin < Olefins <
naphthenes <isoparaffins <aromatics. naphthenes <isoparaffins <aromatics.
Order is the reverse for gasoline antiknock quality. Order is the reverse for gasoline antiknock quality.
n n- -hexadecane ; Cetane number 100 hexadecane ; Cetane number 100
methyl naphthalene ; cetane number 0 methyl naphthalene ; cetane number 0
A given fuel matches in quality with the blend having 40/60 ble A given fuel matches in quality with the blend having 40/60 blend of nd of
cetane and methyl naphthalene, it is assigned a cetane number 40 cetane and methyl naphthalene, it is assigned a cetane number 40
Cetane number of diesel can be improved by adding amyl/butyl nit Cetane number of diesel can be improved by adding amyl/butyl nitrite, rite,
carbamates, ditertiary butyl peroxide and metal organic compound carbamates, ditertiary butyl peroxide and metal organic compounds. s.
Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas: Natural gas:
Found in oil wells. Found in oil wells.
Can be liquified by compression and cooling Can be liquified by compression and cooling
Methane : 70 Methane : 70- -90%; Ethane :5 90%; Ethane :5- -10% and other gases like CO 10% and other gases like CO
2 2
- - N N
2 2
etc are found in traces etc are found in traces
Calorific value : 12,000 Calorific value : 12,000- -14,000Kcal/m 14,000Kcal/m
3 3
Dry gas Dry gas Natural gas +crude oil Natural gas +crude oil
Wet gas Wet gas Natural gas +petroleum Natural gas +petroleum
Applications
Applications
Domestic fuel Domestic fuel
Raw material for the manufacture of carbon black (filler for Raw material for the manufacture of carbon black (filler for
rubber) and hydrogen (used in ammonia synthesis) rubber) and hydrogen (used in ammonia synthesis)
Microbiological fermentation of methane yields synthetic Microbiological fermentation of methane yields synthetic
protein used as animal feed. protein used as animal feed.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
Natural gas compressed to high pressure of 1000 atm. Natural gas compressed to high pressure of 1000 atm. substitute for petrol substitute for petrol
and diesel and diesel
Less polluting as during combustion as it doesn Less polluting as during combustion as it doesn

t evolve nitrogen, carbon t evolve nitrogen, carbon
and sulphur and sulphur
Initial cost of engine designing Initial cost of engine designing - - high high
Advantages over LPG: Advantages over LPG:
Ignites at higher temperature Ignites at higher temperature
Cheaper Cheaper
Lesser CO emission than gasoline Lesser CO emission than gasoline
Mixes well with air than liquid fuels Mixes well with air than liquid fuels
No emission of smoke, SO No emission of smoke, SO
2, 2,
SO SO
3, 3,
etc., etc.,
LPG
LPG
Obtained as a byproduct during cracking process or from Obtained as a byproduct during cracking process or from
natural gas natural gas
Consists of hydrocarbons of such volatility that they can exist Consists of hydrocarbons of such volatility that they can exist
as gas at atmospheric pressure but can be liquified under as gas at atmospheric pressure but can be liquified under
pressure. pressure.
Dehydrated, desulphurised and traces of organic sulphides Dehydrated, desulphurised and traces of organic sulphides
mercaptans are added mercaptans are added warning of leak and compressed under warning of leak and compressed under
pressure pressure
Calorific value 27,800Kcal/m Calorific value 27,800Kcal/m
3 3
Constituents are n Constituents are n- -butane, iso butane, iso- -butane, butylene and butane, butylene and
propane with trace amounts of propylene and ethane propane with trace amounts of propylene and ethane
Domestic, industrial and automobile fuel. Domestic, industrial and automobile fuel.
Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages: Advantages:
Cheaper than gasoline Cheaper than gasoline
High efficiency and heating rate High efficiency and heating rate
Complete combustion with no smoke Complete combustion with no smoke
Can easily mix with air Can easily mix with air
High knock High knock- -resistant resistant
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Difficult to handle as fuel Difficult to handle as fuel
Limited to only to certain classes of vehicles Limited to only to certain classes of vehicles
Poor blending characteristics Poor blending characteristics
Bio
Bio
-
-
gas
gas
Raw materials : Animal dung, poultry wastes, vegetable wastes,
waste paper and cotton clothes, plant wastes,
human excreta, birds excreta etc.,
Forms of biogas Forms of biogas
Natural gas Natural gas biogas obtained long period decay of animal and vegetable biogas obtained long period decay of animal and vegetable
matters inside the earth matters inside the earth
Gobar gas Gobar gas anaerobic fermentation of cattle dung anaerobic fermentation of cattle dung
Can also be produced by sewage wastes and organic wastes Can also be produced by sewage wastes and organic wastes
Constituents of biogas Constituents of biogas: :
Methane = 50 Methane = 50- -60% 60% - - makes it an excellent fuel makes it an excellent fuel
CO CO
2 2
=30 =30- -40% 40%
H H
2 2
S =traces S =traces
H H
2 2
=5 =5- -10% 10%
N N
2 2
=2 =2- -6% 6%
Calorific value : 1200Kcal/m Calorific value : 1200Kcal/m
3 3
Gobar gas
Gobar gas
Dung + water slurry Dung + water slurry fed in to digester tank fed in to digester tank undergoes undergoes
fermentation fermentation anaerobic bacteria anaerobic bacteria evolution of bio gas evolution of bio gas fresh fresh
feed to let inside the well feed to let inside the well (Refer book for figure) (Refer book for figure)
Uses / Advantages: Uses / Advantages:
As a domestic fuel, run engines, illuminant in villages As a domestic fuel, run engines, illuminant in villages
Burns without smoke and harmful gases Burns without smoke and harmful gases
Waste from biogas plant Waste from biogas plant manure manure
Economical Economical
Limitation: Limitation:
Need to have gas lamp or burner within 10metres of the plant. Need to have gas lamp or burner within 10metres of the plant.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel
Diesel equivalent biofuel from renewable Diesel equivalent biofuel from renewable
biological materials such as vegetable oils or biological materials such as vegetable oils or
animal fats animal fats usually a transesterified oil usually a transesterified oil
Used alone or can be blended with petrodiesel Used alone or can be blended with petrodiesel
B factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any B factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any
fuel mix. Pure biodiesel B100; Fuel containing fuel mix. Pure biodiesel B100; Fuel containing
30% biodiesel is labelled B30 30% biodiesel is labelled B30
Also derived from triglycerides of plant Also derived from triglycerides of plant
(BOTADIESEL) or animals (ZOODIESEL) (BOTADIESEL) or animals (ZOODIESEL)
Biodiesel from plant and animal sources Biodiesel from plant and animal sources
Plant oils are from sunflower, soyabeans, jatropha, corn, canola Plant oils are from sunflower, soyabeans, jatropha, corn, canola, ,
safflower and rapeseed oil safflower and rapeseed oil
From animal source, it is less prevalent From animal source, it is less prevalent though the process is though the process is
comparatively cheaper than extraction from plant source comparatively cheaper than extraction from plant source
PROCESS PROCESS
Made by transesterification where organically derived oils Made by transesterification where organically derived oils
(vegetable oils, animal fats) are combined with alcohol (vegetable oils, animal fats) are combined with alcohol
(methanol) and chemically altered to form fatty esters such as (methanol) and chemically altered to form fatty esters such as
methyl ester. The process results in two products methyl ester. The process results in two products
- - methylesters methylesters chemical name for biodiesel chemical name for biodiesel
- - Glycerine Glycerine valuable by valuable by- -product sold for use in production of product sold for use in production of
soap soap
Bomb calorimeter
Bomb calorimeter