ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to offer sincere thanks to Mem Mrs. RACHNA

THAKKER who is our project guide and offered us a lot of help, valuable
suggestions in every step to achieve success in our project. Our hearty gratitude goes
to our friends for their technical thoughts, numerous suggestions in debugging the
problems throughout our project.

We are also thankful to Mem Mrs. RACHNA THAKKER, for his

invaluable guidance and encouragement

Last of all, we are pleased to acknowledge our indebtedness to our

Professors of Electronics Department for their unwavering support, enthusiasm and
pride in our project work.

SUBMITTED BY

MASTER ANKIT D.
 ABSTRACT

Now-a-days everything in this worked is getting wireless, infrared rays’

transmission is one of the most important ways of wireless communication. An
infrared transmission/reception apparatus and a method output is changed to transmit
a plurality of station finding commands, and an infrared transmission output for such
a station finding command out of the plurality of station finding commands as
returning a station finding response from a secondary station is used to perform a
subsequent communication. Thus, communication can be performed with the
minimum infrared output regardless of the opposite apparatus. Infrared
communication has heretofore been known in which infrared light is used to perform
communication among apparatuses. According to the infrared communication, for a
distance of about 1m from a communication object the communication can be
performed without performing connection via a cable, and the like, which is
convenient for use, and which provides an advantage that the communication can be
realized with a simple constitution as compared with the communication using radio
waves. From such advantage, the infrared communication is preferably applied to
small apparatuses such as a note type personal computer and a portable information
terminal. In this project we illustrate the process by which music can be transmitted
through IR rays.
 INDEX

SR.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 Introduction 1

2 Circuit diagram 2

3 Layout 3

4 Working 4

Chapter: - 1 Transmitter

1.1 Introduction 6

1.2 Circuit diagram 7

1.3 Layout 8

1.4 Working 9

1.5 Components used in circuit 10

1.5.1 IC UM66

1.5.2 Transistor

1.5.2(a) BC 547

1.5.2(b) BD 140

1.5.3 Zener Diode

1.5.4 Capacitors

1.5.5 Resistors

1.5.6 LED

1.5.7 IR LEDs

1.6 Data Sheet 27

SR.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

Chapter:- 2 Receiver

2.1 Introduction 60

2.2 Circuit diagram 61

2.3 Layout 62

2.4 Working 63

2.5 Components used in circuit 64

2.5.1 IR phototransistor L14F1

2.5.2 ICs

2.5.2(a) LM 386

2.5.2(b) IC 741

2.5.3 Capacitors

2.5.4 Resistors

2.5.5 Loud speaker

2.6 Data Sheet 74

Chapter:-3 Application 93

Advantage 94

Disadvantage 95

Refrences 96
 Introduction

Using this circuit, audio musical notes can be generated and can be
heard up to a distance of 10 meters. The receiver can be placed at a maximum
distance of 1 meter from the transmitter without any considerable noise interference.
The circuits of transmitter and receiver are quite simple and can be placed and carried
any where easily. The small apparatus provided with the infrared communication
function is in many cases operated by a battery incorporated inside so that it is
convenient when a user carries it during movement, and it is preferable the power
consumption be minimized also to lengthen the continuous operation possible time of
IR modulation techniques when working with IR rays. Hence there is no necessity of
carrier generation. This makes the transmitter and receiver designs much simpler.
However the communication distance can be improved by using Far IR LEDs. The
range of communication can be increased to about 250 meters by using Far IR LEDs.
In the apparatus provided with a conventional infrared communication function,
however, the infrared light with a constant intensity is constantly radiated regardless
of the communication distance. This project emphasizes the way by which music is
generated and driven by IR rays and gives an explanation to the one of the methods of
receiving IR rays without considerable noise interference.

~1~
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT

RECEIVER CIRCUIT

~2~

LAYOUT
Transmitter

~3~

LAYOUT
RECEIVER

~4~
WORKING

The circuit can be divided into two parts: IR music transmitter and
receiver. The IR music transmitter works off a 9V battery, while the IR music re-
cleaver works off regulated 9V to12V.

Fig. 1 shows the circuit of the IR music transmitter. It uses popular melody
generator IC UM66 (IC1) that can continuously generate musical tones. The output of
IC1 is fed to the IR driver stage (built across the transistors T1 and T2) to get the
maximum range.

Here the red LED (LED1) flickers according to the musical tones
generated by UM66 IC, indicating modulation. IR LED2 and LED3 are infrared
transom- fitting LEDs. For maximum sound transmission these should be oriented
towards IR phototransistorL14F1 (T3).
 The IR music receiver uses popular op-amp IC µA741 and audio-
frequency amplifier IC LM386 along with phototransistor L14F1 and some discrete
components (Fig. 2).

The melody generated by IC UM66 is transmitted through IR LEDs, re-

ceiled by phototransistor T3 and fed to pin 2 of IC µA741 (IC2). Its gain can be
varied using pot meter VR1. The output of IC µA741 is fed to IC LM386 (IC3) via
capacitor C5 and pot meter VR2.The melody produced is heard through the receiver’s
loudspeaker. Pot meter VR2 is used to control the volume of loudspeaker LS1(8-
ohm,1W).

Switching off the power supply stops melody generation.

~5~

CHAPTER 1:- TRANSMITTER

1.1 Introduction
Using this circuit, audio musical notes can be generated and can be heard up to a
distance of 10 meters. The circuits of transmitter are quite simple and can be placed
and carried any where easily. The small apparatus provided with the infrared
communication function is in many cases operated by a battery incorporated inside so
that it is convenient when a user carries it during movement, and it is preferable the
power consumption be minimized also to lengthen the continuous operation possible
time of IR modulation techniques when working with IR rays. It uses popular melody
generator IC UM66 (IC1) that can continuously generate musical tones. The red LED
flickers according to the musical tones generated by UM66 IC, indicating modulation.
IR LED are infrared transom- fitting LEDs.
~6~
 1.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT

~7~
1.3 LAYOUT

~8~
 1.4WORKING

The circuit can be divided into two parts: IR music transmitter and
receiver. The IR music transmitter works off a 9V battery, while the IR music re-
ceiver works off regulated 9V to12V.

Fig. 1 shows the circuit of the IR music transmitter. It uses popularmelody

genertor IC UM66(IC1) that can continuously generate musical tones. The output of
IC1 is fed to the IR driver stage (built across the transistors T1 and T2) to get the
maximum range.

Here the red LED (LED1) flickers according to the musical tones gener-
ated by UM66 IC, indicating modulation. IR LED2 and LED3 are infrared transm-
itting LEDs

~9~
 1.5 COMPONENT USE IN CIRCUIT

 I.C

IC :- UM66

 TRANSISTOR

T1 :- BC547

T1 :- BD140

 ZENER DIODE

ZD1 :- 3.3V ¼W

 CAPACITORS

C1 :- 1μ 16V

C2 :- 220μ 25V

 RESISTROS

R1 :- 1K ohm

R2 :- 4.7K ohm

R3 :- 22K ohm

R4 :- 82K ohm

R5 :- 10 ohm 1W

 LED

LED1 :- red LED

LED2 :- IR LED

LED3 :- IR LED
 ~10~

1.5.1 IC UM66

music generator using UM66 IC is shown above,

UM66 is a pleasing music generator IC which works on a supply voltage of 3V. the
required 3V supply is given through a zener regulator. its out put is taken from the pin
no1 and is given to a push pull amplifier to drive the low impedance lowd speker. A
clss A amplifier before pushpull amplifier can be used to decrese the noise and
improve out put. UM66 is a 3 pin IC pakage just looks like a BC 547 transistor.

Pin out of UM66 IC

Pin No Designation Description

1 Out put Melody out put
2 +Vdd Positive power supply
3 -Vss Negative Power supply

~11~

1.5.3 Transistor
 The purpose of this text is to give a basic understanding of the
behaviour of a transistor. It is made for readers with some knowledge about
electricity: voltage, current, resistors, batteries, Ohm’s law. Technical problems like
non-linearity and behaviour under high frequencies are not talked about.

1.5.2(a) BC 547

The transistor is a component with 3 electric wires coming out of it. They are
named B (base), C (collector), and E (emitter).

This is a drawing of the BC 547 transistor, four times bigger:

Such a transistor costs $0.3 in electric components stores.

Here is a classic drawing for a transistor inside electronic diagrams:

~12~

How it is used
 • If one connects a tension source between the wires C and E, the transistor will
not let any current trough (fig. 1).

• But between B and E there is a shortcut. If one wants to make a given current
go trough B and E, one must use a tension source and a resistor (fig. 2).

• If one sends a current of IB amperes between B and E, then the resistor will
allow a current of IC = ß . IB amperes pass between C et E (fig. 3). In this case,
ß is about 100.

The electronic diagrams corresponding to figures 1, 2 and 3 are figures 4, 5 and 6:

~13~
 Note: For those who would like to try out these diagrams, one sole battery of
9 Volts can replace the two batteries (fig. 7 and 8):

Take care for the polarity: put the positive wire and the negative wire of the battery on
the right place. The direction of the current is very important for a transistor.

1.5.2(b) BD 140
UTC BD136/138/140

PNP SILICON TRANSISTOR

DESCRIPTION

PNP EPITAXIAL SILICON TRANSISTOR

The UTC BD136/BD138/BD140 are silicon epitaxial planer PNP transistor ,designed
for use as audio amplifiers and drivers utilizing complementary or quasi
complementary circuits. The complementary NPN types are the BD135/BD137/
BD139.

~14~

1
TO-126

1:EMITTER

2:COLLECTOR

3:BASE

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

PARAMETER

Collector-Base Voltage

www.DataSheet4U.com BD136 VCBO BD138 BD140

SYMBOL

RATING

-45 -60 -80 -45 -60 -80 -5 -1.5 -3 -0.5 12.5 1.25 -65 ~ 150 150

UNIT

Collector-Emitter Voltage BD136 BD138 BD140 Emitter-Base Voltage Collector

Current Collector Peak Current Base Current Total Dissipation Storage Temperature
Operating Junction Temperature VCEO VEBO Ic IcM IB (Tc≦25°C) (Ta≦25°C)
Ptot Tstg Tj V V V A A W W °C °C

THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS

PARAMETER

Thermal Resistance, Junction-case Thermal Resistance, Junction-ambient

SYMBOL

θjc θjA

MAX

10 100

UNIT

°C/W °C/W

~15~

1.5.4 Zener Diode

 Solid state voltage regulator diodes or Zeners have been popular since
the late 1950’s when they replaced bulky vacuum tubes. Discrete zeners ranging from
500 Mw to 5 watts or less have particularly remained a commonly used
semiconductor product, despite the evolution of integrated circuits. High power zeners
above 5 watts have increasingly been replaced by regulator ICs for power supply
outputs, nevertheless power zeners are still used in a variety of areas.

A zener diode is a specially processed single PN junction that provides

relatively constant voltage across two terminal despite changes in zener current.
Because of this unique characteristic, it is used as a voltage regulator when placed in
parallel across a load to be regulated. In special compensated multiple PN junction
configurations, it may also be used as a “Zero-TC” reference voltage diode for very
small changes in voltage over a wide operating temperature range. Other zener
configurations for transient suppression have also evolved into their own specialized
design features. These have been identified as Transient Voltage Suppressors
described separately in the MCC Note D001 series. Discrete zeners provide optimum
versatility in many applications with significant levels of dc and transient power
capability compared to those designed into application specific integrated circuits.
These devices are typically available up to 200 volts and dc power levels to 50 watts
or higher. Transient power capabilities are significantly higher.

A zener diode is operated in reverse bias for normal

~16~
 voltage regulation.
When sufficient reverse
voltage is applied (cathode
end biased positively), the
zener is driven into its
reverse breakdown
avalanche mode of
operation. This is usually
displayed in the third
quadrant of a diode current-
voltage relation as shown in Figure1. The initial transition into avalanche breakdown
is often called the ”knee” region, only minor change in voltage ( V Z ) will occur as
further increases in operating current ( IZ) occur. When applied voltage is still below
the avalanche region of the zener, leakage current (IR) is very low typically less than
a microamp. In the forward voltage direction (first quadrant), the voltage is
comparatively low for current flow similar to rectifiers.

A measure of the voltage regulation capability is called dynamic

impedance (ZZ) in ohms which equates to the quotient of VZ / IZ at a given operating
current IZ. The lower this value in ohms, the better the voltage regulation of a. zener
diode. Zeners will experience some operating current fluctuations in typical
applications, since it is powered by a higher unregulated voltage source as shown in
Figure 2. The operating current IZ. Is determined by a resistor value R placed between
the zener and the higher voltage source by:

IZ=[(VS-VZ)/R] – IL

where VS is the higher unregulated voltage source and IL is the current

through the load. When dynamic impedance is specified at the rated teat current
(IZT) for voltage V Z, it is called ZZK. This latter value of ZZK is always higher in
ohms compared to ZZT since it is closer to the transition knee region of the device. At
operating currents as described in MCC Note C002. Temperature and applied power
also influence zener voltage. These will be further described in MCC Note C002.
Temperature and applied power also influence zener voltage. These will be further
described in MCC Note C003 and C004 for zener diodes.

~17~

1.5.4 Capacitors
 Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuit as energy storage
devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high frequency and low
frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters. Practical
capacitor has series resistance, internal leakage of charge, series inductance and other
non-ideal properties not found in a theoretical, ideal, capacitor.
Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condenser. This term is
considered archaic in English, but most other languages use a cognate of condenser to
refer to a capacitor.
A wide variety of capacitors have been invented, including small
electrolytic capacitors used in electronic circuit, basic parallel-plate capacitors, and
mechanical capacitors.
In away a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in
completely different way, capacitors and battery both store electrical energy. If you
have read how batteries work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside
the battery, chemical reaction produce electron on one terminal and absorb electrons
on the other terminal. A capacitor is much simpler then a battery, as it can not produce
new electrons—it only stores them.
Bridge rectifier circuit is applying vcc bar through resistor R6.
Resistor is basic working is voltage drop in circuit. Resistor joining in circuit in
parallel connection through light emitting diode.

~18~
1.5.5 Resistors
 A resister is a two-
terminal electronic component design to
oppose an electric current by producing a
voltage drop between its terminal in
proportion to current that is in
accordance with Ohms law; V=IR. The
voltage drop V across the resister
divided by the current I through resister.
Resisters are characterized
primarily by their resistance and the
power they can dissipate. Other
characteristics include temperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance.
Practical resister s can be made of
resistive wire and various compounds and films and they can be integrated into hybrid
and printed circuits. Size and position of leads are relevant to equipment designers;
resisters must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their
power. Variable resisters, adjustable by changing the position of a tapping on the
resistive element and resister with a movable tap (“potentiometers”), either adjustable
by the user of equipment or contained within, are also used.
Resisters are used as part of electrical
network and electronic circuits. There are special
types of resister whose resistance varies quantities,
most of which have names and articles, of their own:
the resistance of thermistors varies greatly with
temperature, whether external or due to dissipation, so
they can be used for temperature or current sensing;
metal oxide varistors drop to a very low resistance
when a high voltage is applied, making them suitable
for over-voltage protection; the resistance of a
straingauge varies with mechanical load; the resistor
of photo transistor varies with illumination; the resistance of a quantum tunneling
composite can vary by a factor of 10^12 with mechanical pressure applied; and so on.
Resistance is measured in ohms, after Ohms law. This rule states that
electrical resistance is equal to the drop in voltage across the terminals of the resister
divided by the current being applied to the resister. A high ohm rating indicates a high
resistance to current. Thisrating can be written in a number of different ways
depending on theohm rating. For example, 81R represents 81 ohms, while 81K
represent 81,000 ohms.

~19~

Variable Resistors
There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the
variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of
Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by
anyone but a technician. It is used to adjust the operating condition of the
circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the
inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of
the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must
be turned many times to use the whole range of resistance they offer. This
allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These are called
“Potentiometers” or “Trimmer Potentiometers.”

In the photograph to the left,

the variable resistor typically
used for volume controls can
be seen on the far right. Its
value is very easy to adjust.
The four resistors at the
center of the photograph are
the semi-fixed type. These
ones are mounted on the
printed circuit board.
The two resistors on the left
are the trimmer
potentiometers.

This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit diagram.

~20~

1.5.5 LEDs
 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a relatively old technology (1970s) that has
advanced from use in numeric displays and indicator lights to a range of new and
potential new applications, including exit signs, accent lights, task lights, traffic lights,
signage, cove lighting, wall sconces, outdoor lighting and downlighting.

LEDs offer benefits such as small size, long lamp life, low heat output, energy
savings and durability. They also allow extraordinary design flexibility in color
changing, dimming and distribution by combining these small units into desired
shapes, colors, sizes and lumen packages. Currently, relatively low overall light
output, poor color rendering and questions about advertised service life may indicate
that LEDs, while very useful in many applications, are not yet ready for “prime time”
in some architectural applications. Notably promising current applications include
retail display, colored lighting, tight spaces, areas that require low light levels,
exterior lighting and applications where the integration of light sources and
architectural elements is critical.

LEDs currently dominate the exit sign market and many cities have adopted
them as a replacement for incandescent lamps in traffic signals. In the architectural
market, the development of a visible/white light LED has awakened lighting designers
to new possibilities with this light source. White light LEDs, however, currently do
not produce enough lumen output to make them competitive with many general light
sources. This restricts their use in architectural projects to applications where small
lumen packages are needed and where the characteristics of a lower CRI rating and
high color temperature are acceptable.

~21~

Characteristics
 LEDs are solid state semiconductor
devices. LED illumination is achieved when a semiconductor crystal is excited so that
it directly produces visible light in a desired wavelength range (color). LED units are
small, typically 5mm (T 1-3/4).

Method of Operation

When an LED unit is activated, a power supply converts AC voltage into

sufficient DC voltage, which is applied across the diode semiconductor crystal. This
results in electrons (negative charge carriers [N]) in the diode’s electron transport
layer and holes (positive charge carriers [P]) in the diode’s hole transport layer
combining at the P-N junction and converting their excess energy into light. The LED
is sealed in a clear or diffuse plastic lens that can provide a range of angular
distributions of the light.

Color

The color composition of the light being emitted by the LED is based on the
chemical composition of the material being excited. LEDs are available that can
produce colors including white, deep blue, blue, green, yellow, amber, orange, red,
bright red and deep red.

~22~

Efficacy
 LEDs are low-voltage, low-current devices and efficient light sources. For red,
amber, yellow, green and blue LEDs, new materials have been developed that are
more efficient than traditional materials, producing efficacies (lumens per watt)
greater than incandescent lamps and rivaling fluorescent lamps. According to Philips
Lighting, “In 1993 an array of 200 LEDs was required whereas only 18 LEDs achieve
the same performance today, with prediction of further reduction to only 10.”
Progress continues. Efficacies as high as 100 LPW have already been achieved in
laboratory conditions. According to Steve Johnson, group leader of lighting research
for the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, “It is not unrealistic to expect the
efficacy of solid-state sources to achieve 150-200 lumens per watt in the coming
decades.”

White Light LEDs

The utilization of indium gallium nitride (InGaN) as a semiconductor material

resulted in the brightest LEDs and enabled the development of the white light LED.

White light LEDs feature a phosphor added to a blue LED that converts some
of the light emission into yellow, resulting in a bluish-white light. White light LEDs
are therefore a cool light source with a spectrum of correlated color temperatures of
4,000-11,000K. Color rendering is considered poor. White light can also be achieved
by color mixing the light produced by red, blue and green LEDs. The production of
visible white light offers the promise that LEDs can be used in general lighting
applications. As the light output and color rendering capabilities of LEDs improve,
many more architectural applications will open up for this source.

Several manufacturers currently offer a range of LED fixtures for replacing

MR16 lamps, display lighting, cove lighting, underwater lighting, architectural details
and other applications. Come manufacturers are using colored LED arrays in these
applications, combining red, blue and green LEDs to produce millions of colors,
including white light. Designers should carefully consider requisite lumen packages,
source brightness, viewing angles and color rendering when considering use of this
technology.

~23~

1.5.7 IR LEDs
 IR emitter and IR phototransistor
An infrared emitter is an LED made from gallium arsenide, which emits near-infrared
energy at about 880nm.
The infrared phototransistor acts as a transistor with the base voltage
determined by the amount of light hitting the transistor.
Hence it acts as a variable current source. Greater amount of IR light cause greater
currents to flow through the collector-emitter leads.
As shown in the diagram below, the phototransistor is wired in a similar configuration
to the voltage divider.
The variable current traveling through the resistor causes a voltage drop in the
pull-up resistor.
This voltage is measured as the output of the deviceIR reflectance sensors contain a
matched infrared transmitter and infrared receiver pair.
These devices work by measuring the amount of light that is reflected into
the receiver.
Because the receiver also responds to ambient light, the device works best
when well shielded from abient light, and when the distance between the sensor and
the reflective surface is small(less than 5mm).
IR reflectance sensors are often used to detect white and black surfaces.
White surfaces generally reflect well, while black surfaces reflect poorly. One of such
applications is the line follower of a robot.How Infrared Trans Rex detectors work ?

Schematic Diagram for a Single Pair of Infrared Transmitter and Receiver To

get a good voltage swing , the value of R1 must be carefully chosen. If Rsensor = a
when no light falls on it and Rsensor = b when light falls on it. The difference in the
two potentials is:
~24~
Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) }
Relative voltage swing = Actual Voltage Swing / Vcc
= Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) } / Vcc
= a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1)

The resistance of the sensor decreases when IR light falls on it. A good sensor will
have near zero resistancein presence of light and a very large resistance in absence of
light. We have used this property of the sensor to form a potential divider. The
potential at point ‘2’ is Rsensor / (Rsensor + R1). Again, a good sensor circuit should
give maximum change in potential at point ‘2’ for no-light and bright-light conditions.
This is especially important if you plan to use an ADC in place of the comparator

To get a good voltage swing , the value of R1 must be carefully chosen. If

Rsensor = a when no light falls on it and Rsensor = b when light falls on it. The
difference in the two potentials is:
Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) }

Relative voltage swing = Actual Voltage Swing / Vcc

= Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) } / Vcc
= a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1)If the emitter and detector (aka phototransistor) are not blocked,
then the output on pin 2 of the 74LS14 will be high (apx. 5 Volts).
When they are blocked, then the output will be low (apx. 0 Volts). The 74LS14 is a
Schmitt triggered hex inverter.

A Schmitt trigger is a signal conditioner. It ensures that above a threshold

value, we will always get "clean" HIGH and LOW signals.
Not Blocked Case: Pin 2 High Current from Vcc flows through the detector. The
current continues to flow through the base of Q2.
Current from Vcc also flows through R2, and Q2's Drain and Emitter to ground.
As a result of this current path, there will be no current flowing through Q1's base.

The signal at U1's pin 1 will be low, and so pin 2 will be high. Blocked Case:
Pin 2 Low Current "stops" at the detector.
Q2's base is not turned on. The current is re-routed passing through R2 and into the
base of Q1.
This allows current to flow from Q1's detector and exiting out Q1's emitter. Pin 1 is
thus high and pin 2 will be low.
To detect a line to be followed, we are using two or more number of poto-reflectors.

~25~
 Its output current that proportional to reflection rate of the floor is converted to
voltage with a resister and tested it if the line is detected or not.
However the threshold voltage cannot be fixed to any level because optical current by
ambent light is added to the output current.
Most photo-detecting modules are using modurated light to avoid interference by the
ambient light.
The detected signal is filtered with a band pass filter and disused signals are
filtered out. Therefore only the modurated signal from the light emitter can be
detected. Of course the detector must not be saturated by ambient light, this is
effective when the detector is working in linear region.The line position is compeared
to the center value to be tracked, the position error is processed with
Proportional/Integral/Diffence filters to generate steering command. The line folloing
robot tracks the line in PID control that the most popular argolithm for servo control.

The proportional term is the commom process in the servo system. It is only a
gain amplifire without time dependent process.
The differencial term is applied in order to improve the responce to disturbance, and it
also compensate phase lag at the controled object.
The D term will be required in most case to stabilize tracking motion. The I term that
boosts DC gain is applied in order to remove left offset error,
however, it often decrease servo stability due to its phase lag.
When any line sensing error has occured for a time due to getting out of line or end of
line, the motors are stopped and the microcontroller enters sleep state of zero power
consumption. Typical Examples of infrared Transmitter and Receiver installation.

~26~
DATASHEET

~27~
 Chapter:- 2 Receiver

2.1 Introduction

Using this circuit, audio musical notes can be generated and can be
heard up to a distance of 10 meters. The receiver can be placed at a maximum
distance of 1 meter from the transmitter without any considerable noise interference.
The circuits of transmitter and receiver are quite simple and can be placed and carried
any where easily. For maximum sound transmission these should be oriented towards
IR phototransistorL14F1.The IR music receiver uses popular op-amp IC µA741 and
audio-frequency amplifier IC LM386 along with phototransistor L14F1 and some
discrete components. The output of IC µA741 is fed to ICLM386 via capacitor and
pot meter VR2.The melody produced is heard through the receiver’s loudspeaker. Pot
meter VR2 is used to control the volume of loudspeaker.

~60~
 2.2CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

RECEIVER CIRCUIT

~61~

2.3LAYOUT
 ~62~

2.4WORKING
. For maximum sound transmission these should be oriented towards IR
phototransistorL14F1 (T3).

The IR music receiver uses popular op-amp IC µA741 and audio-

frequency amplifier IC LM386 along with phototransistor L14F1 and some discrete
components (Fig. 2).

The melody generated by IC UM66 is transmitted through IR LEDs, re-

ceiled by phototransistor T3 and fed to pin 2 of IC µA741 (IC2). Its gain can be
varied using pot meter VR1. The output of IC µA741 is fed to IC LM386 (IC3) via
capacitor C5 and pot meter VR2.The melody produced is heard through the receiver’s
loudspeaker. Pot meter VR2 is used to control the volume of loudspeaker LS1(8-
ohm,1W).

~63~

2.5 COMPONENT USE IN CIRCUIT

 I.C

IC2 :- 741

IC3 :- LM386

 TRANSISTOR

T13 :- L14F1 IR PHOTO TRANSISTOR

 CAPACITORS

C3 :- 0.1 μ

C4 :- 220 μ 16V

C5 :- 0.1 μ

C6 :- 10 μ 25V

C7 :- 0.1 μ

C8 :- 220 μ 25V

C9 :- 0.1 μ

C10 :- 220 μ 25V

 RESISTROS

R6 :- 10K ohm

R7 :- 10K ohm

R8 :- 15K ohm

R9 :- 100K ohm

R10 :- 680ohm

R11 :- 1K ohm

~64~

R12 :- 10 ohm
 R13 :- 15K ohm

VR1 :- 1M ohm

VR2 :- 10 K ohm

 LOUD SPEAKER

LS1 :- 8 ohm 1W

~65~
 2.5.1 IR phototransistor L14F1
(

~66~
 2.5.2 ICs

2.5.2(a) LM 386

The LM 386 is a high power op-amp. It is used to drive a speaker. The

inverting input has been connected to the negative rail and the non-inverting input has
been connected to a capacitor. Resistors inside the chip bias this input so that it only
requires about 7mV before the chip turns on. This voltage is called the off-set voltage.
When a signal is applied to the “+” input, the chip amplifies the waveform and the
result appears on pin 5. The gain of the chip depends on the impedance of the path
between pins 1 and 8. We have placed a variable impedance, made up of a 22u and
10k pot between these pins and by varying the resistance of the pot, the gain of the
chip will be adjusted. The gain can be adjusted from 30 to 200 and these figures are
shown on the overlay of the board.

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 2.5.2(b) IC 741

Op -Amp.

An operational amplifier, often referred as an op-amp, is a very high gain

performance amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc voltage voltages. Modern IC
technology and large scale production techniques have brought down the prices of
such amplify within reach of all amateurs, experimenters and hobbyists. The op-amp
is now used as a basic gain element, like an elegant transistor, in electronic circuits.

A symbol used to represent an op-amp in schematics is shown. The op-amp

has two inputs and only one output. One input is called the inverting input and is
denoted by a minus sign. A signal applied to this input appears as an amplified but
phase inverted signal. The second input is called a non-inverting input and is denoted
by a plus sign. A signal applied to this input appears at the output as an amplified
signal which has the same phase as that of the input signal.

The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes
the op – amp a highly versatile device. If a feedback is applied from the output to the
inverting input terminal, the result is a negative feedback which gives a stable
amplifier with precisely controlled gain characteristics. On the other hand, if the
feedback is applied to the non-inverting input, the result is positive feedback which
gives oscillators and multi vibrators. Special effects are obtained by combination of
both types of feedbacks.

uA741.

Of the different types of op – amps produced, type 741 has achieved a very
wide popularity. It is available in 14- pin dual-in line, 8 – pin dual-in line or in TO-
style packages.Integrated circuit type 747 accommodates two type 741 operational
amplifiers in a single package.

The op-amp needs a dual symmetrical power supply. With its center tap
grounded. This enables the op-amp to amplify dc signals of both polarities, positive or
negative, with respect to ground. The circuit is so designed that if both inputs are
connected to ground, the dc output voltage is zero. However, because of small internal
unbalances, a small dc voltage may appear at the output. It is too small to be
objectionable in normal applications. For critical applications, the output voltage can
be set precisely to zero by connecting a 10K potentiometer between terminals marked
“offset-null”.

It is possible to operate the 741 on a single rail supply also. This is usually
done by raising the standing dc input voltage to the non-inverting input terminal to
approximately half the supply voltage by a voltage divider network. The output dc
voltage in such cases stands at half the supply voltage. Bt this does not matter because
the dc can be easily blocked by a capacitor allowing only the ac signal to be passed on
to the next stage.

~68~
 The operational amplifier type 741 has many features that have made it so
popular. It has an in-built circuitry that provides full protection against output
overloads or even shorts to ground for any length of time. The 741 does not need any
external component for phase compensation or adjusting its frequency response. This
simplifies its circuit design and minimizes the number of components used. Its
frequency response has a smooth roll off at the high end which keeps the circuit fully
stable in all feedback configurations.

uA 741 Various package styles .

uA 741 Pin assignment.

uA 741 Absolute maximum ratings.

~69~
 2.5.3 Capacitors

Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuit as energy storage
devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high frequency and low
frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters. Practical
capacitor has series resistance, internal leakage of charge, series inductance and other
non-ideal properties not found in a theoretical, ideal, capacitor.
Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condenser. This term is
considered archaic in English, but most other languages use a cognate of condenser to
refer to a capacitor.
A wide variety of capacitors have been invented, including small
electrolytic capacitors used in electronic circuit, basic parallel-plate capacitors, and
mechanical capacitors.
In away a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in
completely different way, capacitors and battery both store electrical energy. If you
have read how batteries work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside
the battery, chemical reaction produce electron on one terminal and absorb electrons
on the other terminal. A capacitor is much simpler then a battery, as it can not produce
new electrons—it only stores them.
Bridge rectifier circuit is applying vcc bar through resistor R6.
Resistor is basic working is voltage drop in circuit. Resistor joining in circuit in
parallel connection through light emitting diode.

~70~
 2.5.4 Resistors

A resister is a two-
terminal electronic component design to
oppose an electric current by producing a
voltage drop between its terminal in
proportion to current that is in
accordance with Ohms law; V=IR. The
voltage drop V across the resister
divided by the current I through resister.
Resisters are characterized
primarily by their resistance and the
power they can dissipate. Other
characteristics include temperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance.
Practical resister s can be made of
resistive wire and various compounds and films and they can be integrated into hybrid
and printed circuits. Size and position of leads are relevant to equipment designers;
resisters must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their
power. Variable resisters, adjustable by changing the position of a tapping on the
resistive element and resister with a movable tap (“potentiometers”), either adjustable
by the user of equipment or contained within, are also used.
Resisters are used as part of electrical
network and electronic circuits. There are special
types of resister whose resistance varies quantities,
most of which have names and articles, of their own:
the resistance of thermistors varies greatly with
temperature, whether external or due to dissipation, so
they can be used for temperature or current sensing;
metal oxide varistors drop to a very low resistance
when a high voltage is applied, making them suitable
for over-voltage protection; the resistance of a
straingauge varies with mechanical load; the resistor
of photo transistor varies with illumination; the resistance of a quantum tunneling
composite can vary by a factor of 10^12 with mechanical pressure applied; and so on.
Resistance is measured in ohms, after Ohms law. This rule states that
electrical resistance is equal to the drop in voltage across the terminals of the resister
divided by the current being applied to the resister. A high ohm rating indicates a high
resistance to current. Thisrating can be written in a number of different ways
depending on theohm rating. For example, 81R represents 81 ohms, while 81K
represent 81,000 ohms.

~71~
Variable Resistors
There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the
variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of
Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by
anyone but a technician. It is used to adjust the operating condition of the
circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the
inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of
the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must
be turned many times to use the whole range of resistance they offer. This
allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These are called
"Potentiometers" or "Trimmer Potentiometers."

In the photograph to the left,

the variable resistor typically
used for volume controls can
be seen on the far right. Its
value is very easy to adjust.
The four resistors at the
center of the photograph are
the semi-fixed type. These
ones are mounted on the
printed circuit board.
The two resistors on the left
are the trimmer
potentiometers.

This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit diagram.

 ~72~

2.5.5 Loud speaker

A miniature loudspeaker suitable for use with our small amplifiers, sound
recorders and other small portable equipment.

Fitted with paper cone and ferrite magnets. Solder connections tags.

66mm diameter, 18mm deep, 8 Ohm, 300mWatt.

 ~73~

DATASHEET
 ~74~

Chapter:-3 Application
-Wireless Speaker System

-Welcome Tone generators at entrance

 ~93~

Advantage

-Highly sensitive
-Two stage Gain control

-Very low noise

-Low cost and reliable circuit

-Can transmit up to 10 meter

 ~94~

Disadvantage

-Not for long distance

-work in fixed range

-Noise if object between transmitter and receiver

~95~
 REFRENCE

 www.electronicsproject.com
 www.all datasheet.com
 www.scribd.com
 www.electronic4you.com

~96~