Proceedings of OMAE2007

26th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering

June 10-15 2007 !an "iego California #!A
OMAE 2007-2$560
%he Effect of Magnetic &ields on Corrosion in Pi'eline !teel
Joshua E( Jac)son Angeli*ue +( ,asseigne-Jac)son "a-id ,( Olson .ra/endra Mishra Meredith !(
0eilig and Jenn1 2( Collins
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401
A.!%3AC%
Measurements performed in earlier research have
indicated a strong effect of magnetization on hydrogen
content (thermodynamics) as well as cracking, and pitting
(kinetics) in pipeline steels as described in Sanchez
(200) and Sanchez et al. (200)! "he effect of cold work,
further increasing hydrogen content, cracking, and pitting,
was also assessed! "heoretical descriptions of both
thermodynamic and kinetic interpretations of the observed
effect is described and correlated to observed results!
"here are two ways that electromagnetic current
influences corrosion# ($) %&' currents (under applied or
(emanent magnetic fields) and )&' electric currents
(which create electromagnetic fields through *enz+s *aw)
may influence magnetocorrosion as described in this
paper, and (2) )&' currents also have the potential to strip
the protective passive layer from materials and greatly
accelerate corrosion! ,lectrochemical charging is
currently being performed at varied magnetic field
strengths to assess the nature of the observed influence of
magnetization on both hydrogen content (thermodynamic)
and cracking&pitting (kinetic), including the role of
controlled-roll cold working! .aval and maritime use of
)&' and %&' electric-powered systems including
propulsion drives, servos, and controls, is increasing
rapidly in sea-going operation and potential for stray
currents is an increasing risk!
Magnetic flu/ leakage inspection, using saturating
magnetic fields, is widely used for reliable and accurate
inspection of pipeline corrosion and wall thickness!
0revious laboratory research shows a significant increase
in both pipeline steel hydrogen content in steel and pitting
and cracking after electrochemical hydrogen charging
under an applied two "esla magnetic field! 'old work was
observed to further increase the observed effects! "he
thermodynamic au/iliary functions, using a derivation of
1elmholtz free energy, are e/amined to assess the
thermodynamic effects of magnetization on hydrogen
content! "he effect of magnetization on the
thermodynamics of electron spin configurations,
interstitial solute-induced strain, magnetostriction
(directional strain induced in steel from an applied
magnetic field) are considered! 2inetic interpretations of
possible interactions with the 1elmholtz %ouble
(capacitor-like) *ayer and the 3ouy-'hapman (diffuse)
layer that may lead to increased diffusion and thus to
hydrogen supersaturation are described! ,lectrochemical
impedance measurements are being performed to assess
the influence of applied magnetic fields on the 1elmholtz
and 3ouy-'hapman layers!
I+%3O"#C%IO+
Strong magnetic fields, typically sufficient for
magnetic saturation, are used to measure pipeline steel to
observe areas of defects or wall thinning! 0revious 'SM
laboratory research has indicated a significant increase in
both hydrogen content and pitting&cracking in steel after
electrochemical hydrogen charging with a two "esla
applied magnetic field compared to unmagnetized
charging, as in Sanchez (200) and Sanchez et al. (200)!
) variety of sources for hydrogen e/ist in steel
pipelines! "hough used for corrosion protection, cathodic
protection is also known to increase the rate of hydrogen
production on steel in a4ueous environments! 1ydrogen
solubility in pipeline steel is usually limited by
e4uilibrium between environmental sources of hydrogen
and solute hydrogen content in the steel! 1igh hydrogen
content can lead to serious damage and failures due to
hydrogen-assisted cracking, especially in higher strength
steels as in 5raid et al. ($666)! Mechanistic interpretation
for hydrogen cracking processes was reviewed by *ynch
(2002)! 1ydrogen content measurements described in
Mazel ($667) in pipeline steel indicate a si/fold increase
over hydrogen measured at installation and tenfold or
greater after ten or more years of service! .umerous
features of defects and failures due to hydrogen in
pipelines with cathodic protection have been described by
Shipilov and *e May (2008)!
)lternating currents can lead to increased corrosion of
steels by magnetocorrosion involving the current and a
magnetic field induced by *enz+s law and&or by stripping
the passive layer from the surface! Shifts in the
polarization curves (, vs! log 9) from stray a&c and d&c
currents in underground residential distribution power
lines were measured by 'ompton ($6:2)! 9ncreased use of
)&' and %&' electric-powered systems in naval and
maritime applications re4uires intelligent mitigation and
monitoring of stray currents and corrosion!
O4ser-ation of Magnetic Effect on Pi'eline !teel
0ipelines are commonly tested for defects, flaws, and
wall thinning using magnetic flu/ leakage (M;*)
inspection by smart pigging as detailed by "iratsoo
(2007)! ) saturating magnetic field is applied to the
pipeline steel by powerful permanent magnets and sensors
located between the north and south magnetic poles assess
magnetic leakage from the pipe at defects, flaws, and wall
thinning! "he lower magnetic permeability of such areas
forces the magnetic fields lines outside the pipe (leakage)!
5ray and Stanley ($66<) describes magnetic fields on the
order of $!= to 2!= "esla and <20-=,:00 )&m ($0! to 80
>e) utilized in M;* to reach magnetic saturation of the
pipe! (emanent magnetic fields in the range of 0!7 to $!
"esla will remain in pipeline steel for an e/tended time!
Magnetic assessment by vibrating sample magnetometer
is very dependent on the sub?ective demagnetization
factor arising from the demagnetizing fields arising from
non-radial samples! )n ,pstein frame was utilized so that
a closed magnetic loop can be formed, allowing precision
measurements that are not sub?ect to uncertainty from
demagnetization!
9n ;igure 2, the magnetic hysteresis loops of @<0-
grade pipeline steel are shown with decreasing ma/imum
applied field! "he measured magnetic saturation and
remanence values, $!6 and $!7 "esla respectively, are in
the measured range of magnetic properties reported by
.estleroth and 'rouch ($66<) for 78 pipeline steels! "he
measured remanent magnetic fields from the hysteresis
loops of ;igure $ are given as a function of ma/imum
applied magnetic field strength in ;igure 2, indicating the
remanence remains above one tesla even with ma/imum
applied field of $, 0<: )&m ($7! >e), which is in the
lower range of M;* fields!
&igure 1( Magnetic h1steresis loo's 5ith -aried 06a7 of
870 'i'eline steel s'eci6en(
&igure 2( Magnetic 3e6anence in 870 'i'eline steel as
a function of 06a7(
E7'eri6entall1 O4ser-ed Magneti9ation Effect
on 01drogen Content
"o assess the effect of an applied magnetic field on
hydrogen content, electrochemical hydrogen charging of
pipeline steel was performed in a $.-acid solution with
voltage held constant at 0 mA and current density of 00
)&m
2
applied to unmagnetized steel specimens and
specimens mounted between dual one-"esla permanent
magnet arrangements!
"he hydrogen content in grade @2, @<0, and @:0
(based on minimum yield strengths of 2, <0, and :0 ksi,
respectively) pipeline steel specimens, shown in ;igure 7,
was measured by Sanchez et al. (200) in a *,'>-
1ydrogen %eterminator (1-=0= after various hydrogen
charging times with an without an applied magnetic field!
;igure 7 indicates significant increases in hydrogen
solubility with an applied magnetic field! "he observed
relative increase in hydrogen content decreases in
magnitude with increasing steel strength! 1owever,
increasing steel strength is also linked to increased
susceptibility to hydrogen cracking by 5raid et al. ($666),
so even the relatively smaller increase in hydrogen
content for @:0 pipeline steels with applied magnetic
fields may be enough to cause significant damage!
&igure :( 01drogen content in 852 870 and 8;0
'i'eline steels as a function of h1drogen charging
ti6e 5ith and 5ithout a''lied t5o %esla 6agnetic field
<!anche9 et al 2005=(
0>"3O?E+ !O,#.I,I%> E+0A+CE" .>
MA?+E%I@A%IO+
0ossible thermodynamic e/planations of the observed
effect of magnetization on hydrogen content are
e/amined! "he 1elmholtz ;ree ,nergy was selected as
the proper description of the effect of magnetization on
the interaction of a combination of internal and e/ternal
work contributions to a thermodynamic system! "he
electrochemical work is e/ternal work performed on the
system, as traditionally represented by the 3ibbs ;ree
,nergy and .ernst e4uations! "he magnetization
influence on the electronic spin configurations is
considered as an internal work contribution! "he effect of
magnetostriction, the directional strain induced in steel
from an applied magnetic field, and interstitial solute-
induced strain are considered as volume-change terms!
01drogeni9ation E*uili4riu6 %her6od1na6ics
;or a pure material system, assuming a reversible
process, the change in the 1elmholtz ;ree ,nergy (d)) is
the negative of the total work on or by the system#

dA =
ext
PdV
int ($)
where

w
ext
and

w
int
are the e/ternal and internal
work terms, respectively! 0dA represents displacement
work, and may be split into two terms in the presence of a
magnetic field and solute addition, which are the internal
displacement of the lattice by the magnetic field (

PdV
MS
) and the internal strain due to solute additions (

PdV
Sol
)! Bhen considering solutions and including the
contributions of chemical potentials for chemical species
i, the change in the 1elmholtz ;ree ,nergy is given by
e4uation 2#

dA = w
ext
w
int
PdV
MS
PdV
Sol

i
n
i
(2)
where the Cini is additional free energy accounting for
the addition of alloying elements to the solution (in this
case, hydrogen)! "he region of hydrogen solubility where
the appropriate reaction is given in e4uation 7 as#
) (
!) ( D E
s
aq H e H +
+
(7)
9n this derivation,

w
int
is related to magnetic effects
on electron spin alignment and

w
ext
is related to the
electrochemical hydrogen charging process! 9n a
reversible process, the e/ternal work term for the
electrochemical behavior is given as#
where ; is the ;araday constant (the charge of a mole of
electrons) and is the electrochemical potential! "he
chemical potential of species i can be described by two
terms#
where

i
o
is the standard chemical potential, R is the gas
constant, T is temperature, and ai is the chemical activity
of each of i elements. Fnderstanding electrochemical
hydrogen in a magnetic field re4uires the application of
the 1elmholtz ;ree ,nergy (d)), an au/iliary function!
;or the magnetic case, the e4uilibrium of the 1elmholtz
;ree ,nergy, d) G 0, must be considered to determine the
hydrogen solubility of a metal under an applied magnetic
field! )ssuming e4uilibrium conditions and H)G0,
solving ,4uation gives#
Separating the natural log terms and considering that
p1G-logE1D gives#
%ivide by (" and solve for ln E1D (also noting that nG$)#
,4uation 6 gives the hydrogen solubility for the
electrochemical reaction as a function of p1, temperature,
electrochemical potential, and alloy contents#
where the hydrogen concentration with no magnetic field
(EHB=0D) is#

w
ext
= nF (=)

i
=
i
o
+
i
RTlna
i ()

A = 0 = nF w
int
PdV
MS
PdV
Sol
+
i
o
n
i
+

RTln
[H]
[H
+
]
(8)

A = 0 = nF w
int
PdV
MS
PdV
Sol
+
i
o
n
i

+ RTln[H] + 2.3(RT) pH
(<)

ln[H] =
F
RT

w
int
RT

PdV
MS
RT

PdV
Sol
RT


o
in
i

RT
2.3pH
(:)

[H
B
] =[H]
B=0
exp
MB
RT






exp[
PdV
MS
RT
]exp[
PdV
Sol
RT
]
(6)

[H]
B=0
= exp 2.3pH [ ]exp[

i

o
n
i
RT
] ($0)
Influence of !'in Magneti9ation on 01drogen
Content
,4uation $0 is the traditional e/pression for
calculating the e4uilibrium hydrogen in a metal for a
given I and p1! .ow consider the additional work of
magnetization! Magnetic work changes the system by
altering the d-band spin configuration (JM5) as well as
by introducing strain (magnetostriction)! 9n the presence
of hydrogen there is also an additional elastic strain due to
the lattice strain resulting from the incorporation of
interstitial hydrogen atoms (solute-strain)! "he internal
work on a ferrous alloy in a magnetic field is the spin
magnetization, which describes the degree of alignment of
the magnetic domains in the material!
Sanchez (200) proposed a spin magnetization model
of e4uilibrium hydrogen concentration variance with
magnetic spin alignment! "he derived e/pression says
that the hydrogen content will increase e/ponentially with
increasing magnetic flu/! 1owever, calculations of the
effect of one to two "esla magnetic fields on
thermodynamic driving forces indicate that the e/pected
thermodynamic effect from the magnetization effect is on
the scale of hundredths of a volt! "he calculated J) is
effectively the same as the non-magnetic field state! "his
previous calculation was based solely on JM5, which is
associated with the electronic spin states, and suggests
that other work terms must be associated with the
influence of the magnetic field!
Bhere JM is the change in magnetization (net alignment
of the magnetic domains) and 5 is the magnetic field
strength, combining to make JM5 the contribution of the
changed electron spin configuration! "hus, at e4uilibrium
the 1elmholtz ;ree ,nergy is a function of the 3ibbs ;ree
,nergy (non-magnetic terms) and the internal work and
volume change terms related to magnetic effects as given
in e4uation $2#
9nserting all of the contributing terms for the 3ibbs ;ree
,nergy electrochemical reaction gives#
Setting d) G 0 and solving for the solubility of hydrogen
(H) in the metal solid solution#
!olute-!train Aolu6e Change
0revious research reported by 0ark and >lson (2000)
on hydrogen effect on thermal e/pansion coefficient
('",) of 9nvar is given in ;igure = that indicates that
small increases in hydrogen content show a significant
effect on the '", of 9nvar alloys! 9nvar has an e/tremely
small '",, which makes it a sensitive material for
assessment of hydrogen solute-induced strain! .ote that at
a given temperature, such as 80 K', the rise in '",
measurements describes the amount of strain that
interstitial hydrogen is introducing into 9nvar!
&igure B( C%E 6easure6ents of In-ar s'eci6ens 5ith
-ar1ing h1drogen content(
,shelby ($68) described, using a ball-in-a-hole
model, the strain field associated with an interstitial atom
in a lattice! 1e gave an e4uation for the LstressM, the work
to move an interstitial into the lattice interstitial site! "he
strain of a single hydrogen atom is dependent on the
difference between the volume of the interstitial site
occupied with a hydrogen atom (N5) and the unoccupied
interstitial site (N))#
where Ns!f! is the volume size factor, relating the lattice
elastic strain energy due to the presence of a solute atom
of different size than the solvent! "he (N5 -N)& N)) term
is the volume strain ratio relative to the unoccupied strain,
where N5 -N) is the volume change due to the interstitial
hydrogen atom! 9n the case of hydrogen as an interstitial
solute in iron (5'', d-band metal), the hydrogen atom
gives its electron to the d-band and behaves as a localized
proton between the iron atoms! "he coulombic interaction
of the proton with the positive core of the iron atom
causes localized repulsion! "he radius of the interstitial
hole in 5'' iron is 0!78 O for tetrahedral sites and 0!$6 O
for octahedral sites! 1ydrogen atoms lead to an effective
volume increase of 2!: P 0!2 O in 5'' tetrahedral sites
and 2!$ P 0!2 O in 5'' octahedral sites as detailed in
;ukai ($667), that translates to an occupied radius of 0!:<
O in tetrahedral sites and 0!88 O in octahedral sites! "he
elastic strain energy (negative in this case because energy

d
int
= MB
($$)

dA = dGMBPdV
MS
PdV
Sol
($2)

dA = nF + G
o
RTln[H
+
] + RTln[H] MB PdV
MS
PdV
Sol
($7)

[H
B
] =[H]
B=0
exp
MB
RT






exp[
PdV
MS
RT
]exp[
PdV
Sol
RT
]
($=)
2
! !
2
Q ! ) !( ) (
f s
A
A B
strain
const const c E =

=
($)
80 K'
is applied to the system) is given in the form derived by
,shelby ($68) for an ellipsoidal inclusion with uniform
eigenstrain as#
where c is the solute composition, R is the shear modulus,
N is the mean volume per atom of the alloy, and f(c) is
typically a linear function of composition for a dilute
solution! Aegard+s *aw is the empirical rule that a linear
relation e/ists between concentration of constituent
elements and the crystal lattice constant, at constant
temperature! ,/pressions for calculating deviations from
have been given by 2ing ($68)! 9nserting ,shelby+s
e/pression into e4uations $7 and $=, the effect of all the
work terms on hydrogen solubility are described#
,4uation $< includes all of the discussed effects of
magnetization on the thermodynamics of hydrogen in a
ferrous material! "he amplifying effects of the
e/ponentials are such that magnetization only
significantly alters the hydrogen solubility if the
magnetostriction term is positive (promoting lattice
tensile strain), as seen in e4uation $<! "he s4uare of the
magnetic field strength in the e/ponential
magnetostriction work term further amplifies the effect of
Magnetostriction work on hydrogen solubility!
Magnetostriction Cor)
Magnetostriction is the change in physical dimensions
of a material due to an applied magnetic field! "he
interaction of magnetic fields with ferrous materials
induces a magnetism-based strain that usually results in
greater d-band electron orbital overlap and therefore a
larger d-band with more electrons! Strain caused by
magnetostriction may be an e/planation for the e/cessive
hydrogen content under 2 "esla field in high-strength
steel! Saramillo et al. (200=) found that transformation
temperatures and the resulting microstructures of steel are
significantly changed by large applied magnetic fields
during the phase transformations while cooling! )n
increase in hydrogen content in steel is known to produce
changes in the electron d-band shape and concentration
(;igure ) due to hydrogen being an electronic donor that
causes lattice strain! 1ydrogen is described by ;ukai
($667) to act as an electron donor when the solvent is
made primarily of elements to the right of manganese and
as an electron acceptor to manganese+s left, as shown in
;igure 8! "his electron behavior effect has been measured
using thermoelectric power (",0) coefficient
measurements by *asseigne et al. (200=)! ,lectron donor
behavior allows the ",0 measurement to be correlated to
the diffusible soluble hydrogen content of metal! "he
effect of magnetostriction on lattice strain should also be
measurable by ",0 measurement!
&igure 5( Electron d-4and 4efore Dto'E and after
D4otto6E a''lied strain indicating ho5 strain changes
the energ1 and si9e of d-4and(
&igure 6( 01drogen 4eha-ior as a function of
ele6ental grou' in the 'eriodic ta4le(
9n iron, magnetostriction usually is linear during the
application of magnetic fields as the magnetic domains in
the material align along the cube edge! "he alignment
results in a force which perturbs the cubic symmetry,
resulting in linear distortion! "he atomic separation in the
direction of the magnetic moment can change as a result,
typically an increase in steels! "here is also a small
inverse change in the size of the cross section of the
ferrous material (decrease for steels), called transverse
magnetostriction! >ften the volume change is small! ;rom
one ferrous alloy to another, the effect can vary as much
as an order of magnitude! Bith random distribution of the
magnetic domains, the magnetostriction can create a
volume increase of about 0!0 percent! Most
ferromagnetic materials are sensitive to magnetostriction,
and previous research by Sohmura and ;u?ita, ($6:0) has
shown that the response of 9nvar materials was changed to
a strongly ferromagnetic effect by electrolytic hydrogen
charging! 9t is suggested that a strong applied magnetic
field may induce increased hydrogen solubility! Fnia/ial
magnetic fields applied during magnetic flu/ testing at
saturation values may lead to the magnetostriction effect
and raise hydrogen solubility, as seen in e4uation $<
above!

E
strain
(c) =
2
3

(
d
dc
)
2
f (c)
($8)

[H
B
] =[H]
B=0
exp
MB
RT






exp[
M
s
2

o
2

2
9
s
2
YRT
]exp[
2
3

(
d
dc
)
2
f (c)
RT
]
($<)
where Ts is the saturation magnetization constant for the
material, U is the applied stress, and V is the angle
between the domain magnetization and the stress! Bhen
d,&dV G 0 the e4uilibrium position has been attained!
(earranging and solving for stress gives#
)ssuming elastic work, where is the bulk modulus is
a constant for specific units#
9nserting this term into the 1elmholtz ;ree ,nergy#
)gain setting the 1elmholtz ;ree ,nergy e4ual to zero
and solving for the hydrogen concentration gives#
2I+E%IC MO"E,
1ydrogen is absorbed in the atomic form in steels
rather than as molecules! "he process may be e/amined as
a series of steps, any of which may be the rate-limiting
factor! 1ydrogen ions in a4ueous solution must first
diffuse to the surface, then reduce to hydrogen atoms,
followed by absorption to the surface, and finally
diffusion into the metal bulk! 9n environments with high
hydrogen content, such as pipelines, the first step is not
rate-limiting! "he hydrogen ion reduction may or may not
be rate-limiting! 5ulk diffusion of hydrogen is e/tremely
rapid, so normally the kinetics of hydrogen e4uilibrium
are determined by penetration of the surface barriers!
)ccording to ;ukai ($667), absorptionis the kinetic effect
which may most strongly influence hydrogen content
according to ;ukai ($667)!
)t the interface between steel and the transported
li4uid two layers e/ist that limit the adsorption and
transport of hydrogen ions! "he 1elmholtz %ouble *ayer
(1%*) is a capacitor-like separation of cation and anion
charges! 9n additions to this compact layer, there e/ists a
diffuse layer known as the 3ouy-'hapman *ayer (3'*)
in which the concentration of ions near the charged
surface is reduced to some degree, altering the availability
of ions to be reduced and absorbed! "hese layers act to
limit the diffusion of hydrogen content into steel and
therefore limit the hydrogen content! 9n the event of
breakdown or disturbance of these layers, increased
diffusion occurs and hydrogen supersaturation may occur!
'athodic protection or an applied magnetic field leave
these layers essentially undisturbed when applied
separately! 1owever, the application of cathodic
protection currents in the presence of remanent magnetic
fields leads to the creation of *armor loops! 9n a metal, on
the LeffectiveM surface (LskinM) electrons contribute to the
conductivity#
where .eff is the number of electrons in the skin layer, W is
the time of their interaction with the electromagnetic
field, and m is the electron mass! "he conductivity (U
n
)
may be further split into contributions from the trapped
electrons (Utrap), skipping electrons (Us), and *armor
electrons (U*) as described in Makarov ($66)#
,lectromagnetic waves are sinusoidally periodic in
nature, and there e/ists two intervals of interest# when the
electric field is dominant and when the magnetic field is
dominant! %uring the period when the electric field is
dominant, there e/ist trapped electrons, the group of
electrons in which the electron tra?ectory lies at or near
the surface region throughout the electrical field period!
9n the presence of small electrical and magnetic fields,
these are the greatest contributors to current! Skipping
electrons are electrons which move along the sample
surface boundaries and collide repeatedly with the
surface, and they contribute to conductivity in both time
intervals according to Makarov ($66)!
,lectromagnetic waves propagate appro/imately
perpendicular to metal surfaces, independent of the
incident angle, leading to higher surface fields! %uring the
interval when the magnetic field is dominant, electrons
move in L*armor loopsM due to the interaction of the
electron charge and the magnetic field, creating a cross-
product (A/5) force that create looping orbits in the
conduction band electrons in the metal! Sample thickness,
applied current, and e/ternal magnetic fields all contribute
to the oscillating current and voltage conditions which
occur at the surface as described in Makarov ($66)!
9ndustrial use of magnetic flu/ leakage and cathodic
protection for field measurement and protection
applications has e/panded in number of application as
well as strength of applied magnetic field! ;igure < shows
the effect of *armor electrons in disturbing the metal-side
of the 1%* and induced *armor electrons disturbing the
electrolyte-side of the 1%* and 3'*!

E = E

+ E
H
=
3
2

s
sin
2
M
s

0
cos(
0
)
($:)

= 2M
s

0
/(3
s
)
($6)

PdV
MS
= m4M
s
2

0
2

2
/(9
s
2
Y) (20)

A = nFe MB +
i
o
n
i
+

RTln
[H]
[H
+
]
4M
s
2

0
2

2
/(9
s
2
Y)
(2$)

[H
B
] =[H]
B=0
exp
MB
RT






exp[
M
s
2

o
2

2
9
s
2
YRT
]exp[
2
3

(
d
dc
)
2
f (c)
RT
]
(22)

eff
=
N
eff
e
2

m
e
(27)

n
=
trap
+
s
+
L
(2=)
&igure 7( Illustration of 0el6holt9 "ou4le ,a1er and
and ?ou1-Cha'6an ,a1er including ,ar6or ,oo'
effects fro6 co64ined electrical and 6agnetic fields(
Magnetism will cause *orentz forces to stir the
moving ions in the electrolyte passing within a pipeline!
Sufficiently high magnetic fields, such as may be
remanent after magnetic flu/ leakage, may create a
sufficient *orentz force to stir the electrolyte and increase
the limiting e/change current density! Bithout any
magnetic or electrical fields, corrosion occurs at a rate
icorr, where the lines for hydrogen reduction and iron
o/idation cross on the ,vans diagram! 'athodic
protection increases the rate of hydrogen production while
decreasing the corrosion current! %isturbance of the 1%*
will increase the e/change current and thus shift the
polarization curve to greater currents, increasing
hydrogen content as well as the corrosion current, as
shown in ;igure :!
&igure ;( E-ans diagra6 indicating increased
h1drogen 'roduction and corrosion current due to
cathodic 'rotection and 0el6holt9-,a1er-controlled
effects on h1drogen content(
"he suggested mechanism based on 'SM laboratory data
predicts that magnetization-enhanced corrosion damage to
the pipeline steel will occur late in the pipeline coating
service life! Bith loss of coating protection, increased
cathodic protection return currents through the pipe will
increase the *orentz force (A/5) stirring phenomena if
remanent magnetization is present!
AFC CO33O!IO+ E&&EC%!
) related corrosion phenomena has been reported
from electromagnetic induction from high-power )&'
power lines that parallel pipelines, causing magnetic field
variation ad?acent to the pipeline through *enz+s *aw,
possibly resulting in 1%* or 3'* stirring! "his
phenomena was measured as shifts in the polarization
curves in the , vs! log 9 plots by 'ompton ($6:2)!
;our mechanistic models have been identified and are
being assessed to understand the effects of alternating
current ()&') on corrosion!
AFC Passi-e ,a1er 3ectification Model
3iven the similarity in the hindrance of passage of
current due to alternating potential in the two cases of arc
welding and electrochemical corrosion, a model
suggesting enhanced corrosion in )&' currents has been
developed! (ectification (stripping) of the passive film
may result from the influence of the cyclic potential
between the pipe and ad?acent electrode in the e/ternal
environment! %ue to lower chromium content, $7'r
Super Martensitic stainless steel is likely more susceptible
than type 7$8 stainless steel to rectification damage to the
passive film! (ectification models developed for )&'
welding of passive alloys are being modified to consider
how the oscillating potential in the wire relates to an
e/ternal corrosion current through the electrolyte (salt
water), similar to the analysis of 0okhodnaya et al.
($66$)! ;igure 6 below illustrates the changes in welding
parameters during a typical )&' welding cycle! "he
asymmetry of voltage and current due to )&' may
potentially result in differences between the anodic and
cathodic behavior in solution!
&igure $( AFC arc 'ara6eter changes in DIE 'ositi-e and
DIIE negati-e half-c1cles Dnot including inducti-e
effects in the circuitE(
"he )&' arc stability changes during each new half-
cycle in ;igure 6, where t$ is the time that passes before
the power supplied to the electrode attains a level re4uired
for the recovery of the arc discharge, u$ is the voltage on
the electrodes at moment of discharge recovery, and 9$ is
the current in the interelectrode space at the moment of
discharge recovery!

AFC !urface ,a1er !tirring Model
9nvestigation of surface layer effects on corrosion
under an applied magnetic field with an )&' current is
being conducted! )&' fields may cause stirring of the
1elmholtz and the 3ouy-'hapman layers in the salt water
ad?acent to the stainless steel! "his stirring, resulting
from rapid changes of the self-generated magnetic field
(*enz+s *aw), may increase the e/change current density
within these layers and thus amplify the potential
corrosion current!
AFC !elf-.iasing Model
Self-biasing of the metal surface resulting from
anodic&cathodic oscillation, similar to radio-fre4uency
((;) self-bias during megahertz physical deposition
(;igures $0) is being evaluated! 9n (; applications, self-
biasing occurs at near-vacuum conditions! 9f the concept
of self-biasing can be translated from behavior in (;
sputtering to )&' corrosion, then a self-biasing model can
be developed to e/plain the behavior of )&' corrosion! 9n
a4ueous environments, self-biasing (as shown in ;igure
$$) may potentially appear at much lower fre4uencies
(e!g! corrosion at 801z)! 'hapman ($6:0) described the
phenomena of self-biasing, which could potentially be
modified to e/plain the )&' corrosion effect on the
stainless steel surface!
&igure 10( Aoltage and target current 5a-efor6s
5hen a high fre*uenc1 glo5 discharge circuit is
s*uare 5a-e e7cited DCha'6an 1$;0E(
&igure 11( Pro'osed -oltage 5a-efor6s for self-
4iasing due to AFC corrosion on stainless steel 'i'e(
AFC Interfacial %ension Model
"he effect of an alternating electric field on interfacial
tension has been investigated at the metal-slag interface
during welding! (elating this effect to a metal-seawater
interface will be considered! ) lower interfacial tension
will reduce the stress intensity factor for stainless steel
(%eev et al!, $6:0)! "his interfacial concept is consistent
with the 3riffith 'rack "heory for brittle fracture!
!#MMA3>
"he results of previous research indicate that
corrosion is accelerated under the application of
sufficiently large magnetic fields! *aboratory tests of
magnetocorrosion indicate that saturating magnetic fields,
as used in magnetic flu/ leakage testing, appear to
increase hydrogen content and therefore the likelihood of
hydrogen -related damage in older cathodic-protected
coated pipelines! "hermodynamic and kinetic models
have been introduced and are being e/perimentally
assessed to e/plain the observed magnetocorrosion effect!
,lectrochemical thermodynamics, using the 1elmholtz
free energy to incorporate all of the internal work,
e/ternal work, and volume strain terms, was developed!
2inetic models were developed to assess the observed
kinetic effects!
)&' corrosion on structures due to the presence of
high )&' current densities, such as those used in offshore
and marine applications, is being studied! ;our
mechanistic models e/plaining the potential driving
forces for )&' corrosion are presented!
>ngoing research at the 'olorado School of Mines
will assess the thermodynamic and kinetic effects
associated with magnetocorrosion and )&' corrosion to
allow determination of the causative factors!
AC2+OC,E"?EME+%!
"he F!S! Mineral Management Service, F!S! 0ipeline
and 1azardous Materials Safety )dministration, and the
.ational 9nstitute of Standards and "echnology are
acknowledged for their support and guidance, with
particular thanks to %r! (on 3oldfarb of .9S"-5oulder
for his help with many magnetic measurements and ideas!
3E&E3E+CE!
5raid, S! ,! M!, 1yatt, '! A!, >lson, %! *!, and
Aigilante, 3! .!, $666, Hydrogen Management for
Welding Applications, 0roc! 9ntern! Borkshop, 9S5.# 0-
882-2<6:6-$ ').M,", (>ttawa, $666) pp! $-2:2!
5ray, %!,!, and Stanley, (!2!, $66<, Nondestrcti!e
E!alation, a "ool in #esign, Manfactring, and
$er!ice, (evised ,dition, ('(' 0ress, .ew Xork, .X!
'hapman, 5!.!, $6:0, 3low %ischarge 0rocesses,
L(; %ischargesM, 'hapter , .ew Xork# Sohn Biley Y
Sons, pp! $=7-$=8!
'ompton, 2!3!, $6:2, L,ffect of )' on 'orrosion of
'oncentric .eutrals of F(% 'ableM, Materials
%erformance, Aolume 7=, pp! 7$-7<!
%eev, 3!;!, and 0atskevich, 9!(!, $6:0, )rt! Svarka,
.o! , pp! 8<-8:!
,shelby, S! %!, $68, %roc. %&ys. $oc. 'olme 586,
pp! $0$7!
;ukai, X!, $667, "&e Metal(Hydrogen $ystem,
Springer-Aerlag 0ress, 5erlin!
Sackson, S!,!, 1ays, S!, Salmans, *!, and Byatt, S!,!,
2008, L"he influence of electric current and magnetic
fields on corrosion in steel wireM, 'SM 9nternal (esearch
(eport, May, 3olden, '>!
Sackson, S!,!, 0ark, X!%!, *asseigne, )!.!,
Sangphagdee, '!, >lson, %!*!, Mishra, 5!, and 2aydanov,
A!, 2008, L'haracterization of ,ngineering Materials
Ftilizing "hermoelectric 0ower MeasurementsM,
Materials in 'lean 0ower Systems# )pplications,
'orrosion, and 0rotection, ,dited by Z!3! Xang, 2!S!
Beil, and M!0! 5rady, "MS ("he Minerals, Metals Y
Materials Society) )nnual Meeting, pp! $-$0!
Saramillo, (!)!, 5abu, S!S!, *udtka, 3!M!, 2isner,
(!)!, Bilgen, S!5!, Mackiewicz-*udtka, 3!, .icholson,
%!M!, 2elly, S!M!, Murugananth, M!, and 5hadeshia,
1!2!%!1!, 200=, L,ffect of 70 "esla Magnetic ;ield on
"ransformations in a! .ovel 5ainitic SteelM, $cripta Mat.
Aolume 2, pp! =8$-=88!
2ing, 1!B!, $68, L)tomic Aolume and Size
'orrelations in Solid SolutionsM, in )lloying 5ehavior
and ,ffects in 'oncentrated Solid Solutions, ,d! by "!5!
Massalksi, 3ordon and 5reach Science 0ublishers, .ew
Xork, .X!
*ynch, S,0!, 2002, Hydrogen Effects on Material
Be&a!ior and )orrosion #eformation *nteractions, ("MS,
Barrendale, 0)), pp! ==6-=88!
Mazel, )!3!, $667, L>n stress corrosion cracking of
gas pipelines! (eliability and safety of gas pipelines
sub?ect to stress corrosion crackingM, S"0 2[=, Moscow#
()> 3azprom, pp! $$[22!
Makarov, .!M!, "kachev, 3!5!, Xarnpol+ski?t, A!)!,
and (odriguez, ;! 0erez, $667, L'urrent States in a Metal
0lateM, +. %&ys, )ondens. Matter, Aolume , pp! <=86-
<=:0!
Makarov, .!M!, "kachev, 3!5!, Xarnpol+ski?t, A!)!,
;isher, *!M!, and Aoloshin, 9!;!, $66, LSign-)lternating
'urrent Structure and >scillations in 9-A 'haracteristics
of a Metal 0lateM, +. %&ys, )ondens. Matter, Aolume <,
pp! 82-87<!
.estleroth, S!5!, and 'rouch, )!,!, $66<, LAariations
of Magnetic 0roperties in 0ipeline SteelsM 0repared for
F!S! %epartment of "ransportation \%"(S8-68-'-00$0,
Bashington, %!'!
Sanchez, ;! S!, Mishra, 5!, and >lson, %! *!, 200,
LMagnetization ,ffect on 1ydrogen )bsorption in 1igh-
strength Steels and its 9mplicationsM, $cripta Mat., Aol!
7, .o! $2, pp!$==7-$==:!
Sanchez, ;!S!, 200, L)n )ssessment of
Magnetization ,ffect on 1ydrogen 9nduced 'racking ;or
"hick Balled 0ipelinesM, 'olorado School of Mines
0h!%! "hesis!
Shipilov, )!S!, and May, 9!*!, 2008, LStructural
9ntegrity of )ging 5uried 0ipelines 1aving 'athodic
0rotectionM, ,ngineering ;ailure )nalysis $7, ,lsevier
Science, pp! $$6-$$<8!
"iratsoo, S!, ,d!, 2007, %ipeline %igging and *ntegrity
"ec&nology, Scientific Surveys, *td!, 5eaconsfield, F2,
and 'larion "echnical 0ublishers, 1ouston, "@!
0ark, X!%!, and >lson, %!*!, 2000, L"he ,ffect of
1ydrogen on 9nvar 0ropertiesM, 'SM 9nternal (esearch
(eport, May, 3olden, '>!
0okhodnya, 9!2!, 3orpenyuk, A!.!, Milichenko, S!S!,
0onomarev, A!,!, Starodubsev, *!A! and Shvachko, A!9!,
$66$, Metallurgy of )rc Belding# )rc 0rocesses and
,lectrode Melting, Aol! $, 'hapter 2, (iecansky Sci!
0ublishing, 'ambridge, F2!
"ermsuksawad, 0!, .iyomsoan, S!, Mishra, 5!,
3oldfarb, (!5!, >lson, %! *!, and 3avra, Z!, 2002,
Measrement of Hydrogen -y Magnetic and Electronic
"ec&niqes in Metallic Materials, 20$
st
,lectrochemical
Society Meeting, 0hiladelphia, 0), May $2-$<!
Sohmura, "! and ;u?ita, ;!,!, $6:0, L"he effect of
hydrogen on the magnetic properties of ;e-.i base 9nvar
alloysM +. %&ys. ., Met. %&ys.Aolume $0, pp! <=7-<=!