Climate of Antarctica

1
Climate of Antarctica
Surface temperature of Antarctica in winter and
summer from the European Centre for
Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on the whole of Earth.
Antarctica has the lowest naturally occurring temperature ever
recorded on the surface on Earth: 89.2C (128.6F) at Vostok
Station. Satellites have recorded even lower temperatures, down to
-93.2C(-135.8F). It is also extremely dry (technically a desert),
averaging 166mm (6.5in) of precipitation per year. On most parts of
the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to
become the glacial ice that makes up the ice sheet. Weather fronts
rarely penetrate far into the continent. Most of Antarctica has an ice
cap climate (Kppen EF) with very cold, generally extremely dry
weather.
Temperature
The lowest reliably measured temperature of a continuously occupied station on Earth of 89.2C (128.6F) was
on 21 July 1983 at Vostok Station.
[1]
For comparison, this is 10.7C (19.3F) colder than subliming dry ice (at sea
level pressure). The altitude of the location is 3,900 meters (12,800 feet).
The lowest recorded temperature of any location on Earth surface was 93.2C (135.8F) at 81.8S 59.3E
[2]
,
which is on an unnamed Antarctic plateau between Dome A and Dome F, on August 10, 2010. The temperature was
deduced from radiance measured by the Landsat 8 satellite, and discovered during a National Snow and Ice Data
Center review of stored data in December, 2013. This temperature is not directly comparable to the -89.2 quoted
above, since it is a skin temperature deduced from satellite-measured upwelling radiance, rather than a
thermometer-measured temperature of the air 1.5m above the ground surface.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Antarctica was 14.6C (58.3F) in two places, Hope Bay and Vanda
Station, on 5 January 1974. The mean annual temperature of the interior is 57C (70F). The coast is warmer.
Monthly means at McMurdo Station range from 26C (14.8F) in August to 3C (26.6F) in January.
[3]
At the
South Pole, the highest temperature ever recorded was 12.3C (9.9F) on 25 December 2011. Along the Antarctic
Peninsula, temperatures as high as 15C (59F) have been recorded,Wikipedia:Please clarify though the summer
temperature is below 0C (32F)in most time. Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance
from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation.Wikipedia:Citation
needed The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast
and average slightly below freezing.
Climate of Antarctica
2
Precipitation
Map of average annual precipitation on
Antarctica (mm liquid equivalent)
The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire
continent, is about 166mm (6.5in) per year (Vaughan et al., J Climate,
1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the
Peninsula (meters/yards per year) to very low values (as little as
50mm (2in) per year) in the high interior. Areas that receive less than
250mm (10in) of precipitation per year are classified as deserts.
Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow. Note that the quoted
precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being
the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The
low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means
that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and
expeditioners working in the continent.
Weather condition classification
The weather in Antarctica can be highly variable,and the weather
conditions can often change dramatically in short periods of time. There are three classifications for describing
weather conditions in Antarctica. At least one of the following criteria must be met for each category described
below:
Condition 1
Windspeed over 55 knots (100 km/h)
Visibility less than 30 metres (98ft)
Wind chill below 73C (99F)
Description: Dangerous conditions; outside travel is not permitted.
Condition 2
Windspeed of 48 to 55 knots (90 to 100 km/h)
Visibility 400 to 30 metres (1/4 of a mile to 100 feet)
Wind chill of 60C (76F) to 73C (99F)
Description: Unpleasant conditions; outside travel is permitted but not recommended.
Condition 3
Windspeed below 48 knots (90 km/h)
Visibility greater than 400 metres (1/4 of a mile)
Wind chill above 60C (76F)
Description: Pleasant conditions; all outside travel is permitted.
Ice cover
Nearly all of Antarctica is covered by an ice sheet that is, on average, at least a mile thick (1.6km). Antarctica
contains 90% of the world's ice and more than 70% of its fresh water. If all the land-ice covering Antarctica were to
melt around 30 million cubic kilometres of ice the seas would rise by over 60 metres. This is, however, very
unlikely within the next few centuries. The Antarctic is so cold that even with increases of a few degrees,
temperatures would generally remain below the melting point of ice. Warmer temperatures are expected to lead to
more snow, which would increase the amount of ice in Antarctica, offsetting approximately one third of the expected
Climate of Antarctica
3
sea level rise from thermal expansion of the oceans. During a recent decade, East Antarctica thickened at an average
rate of about 1.8 centimetres per year while West Antarctica showed an overall thinning of 0.9 centimetres per
year.
[4]
For the contribution of Antarctica to present and future sea level change, see sea level rise. Because ice
flows, albeit slowly, the ice within the ice sheet is younger than the age of the sheet itself.
Morphometric data for Antarctica (from Drewry, 1983)
Surface Area
(km)
Percent Mean ice
thickness
(m)
Volume
(km)
Percent
Inland ice sheet 11,965,700 85.97 2,450 29,324,700 97.39
Ice shelves 1,541,710 11.08 475 731,900 2.43
Ice rises 78,970 .57 670 53,100 .18
Glacier ice (total) 13,586,380 2,160 30,109,800
Rock outcrop 331,690 2.38
Antarctica (total) 13,918,070 100.00 2,160 30,109,800 100.00
The total ice volume is different from the sum of the component parts because individual figures have been rounded.
Regional ice data (from Drewry and others, 1982; Drewry, 1983)
Region Area
(km)
Mean
ice
thickness
(m)
Volume
(km)
East Antarctica
Inland ice 9,855,570 2,630 25,920,100
Ice shelves 293,510 400 117,400
Ice rises 4,090 400 1,600
West Antarctica (excluding Antarctic Peninsula)
Inland ice sheet 1,809,760 1,780 3,221,400
Ice shelves 104,860 375 39,300
Ice rises 3,550 375 1,300
Antarctic Peninsula
Inland ice sheet 300,380 610 183,200
Ice shelves 144,750 300 43,400
Ice rises 1,570 300 500
Ross Ice Shelf
Ice shelf 525,840 427 224,500
Ice rises 10,320 500 5,100
Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
Ice shelf 472,760 650 307,300
Ice rises 59,440 750 44,600
Climate of Antarctica
4
Ice shelves
Antarctic ice shelves, 1998
Most of the coastline of Antarctica is ice shelves (floating ice sheet) or
ice walls (grounded ice). Melting or breakup of floating shelf ice does
not affect global sea levels, and happens regularly as shelves grow.
Known changes in coastline ice:
Around the Antarctic Peninsula:
19361989: Wordie Ice Shelf significantly reduced in size.
1995: Prince Gustav Channel no longer blocked by ice. Last
open from about 1900 years ago to 6500 years ago, probably due
to warmth during the Holocene Climatic Optimum.
Parts of the Larsen Ice Shelf broke up in recent decades.
1995: The Larsen A ice shelf disintegrated in January 1995.
2001: 3,250km of the Larsen B ice shelf disintegrated in February 2001. It had been gradually retreating
before the breakup event.
The George VI Ice Shelf, which may be on the brink of instability,
[5]
has probably existed for approximately 8000
years, after melting 1500 years earlier.
[6]
Warm ocean currents may have been the cause of the melting. The idea that
it was warmer in Antarctica 10,000 years ago is supported by ice cores, though the timing is not quite right.
Climate change
Antarctic Skin Temperature Trends between 1981 and 2007, based on thermal
infrared observations made by a series of NOAA satellite sensors. Skin
temperature trends do not necessarily reflect air temperature trends.
The continent-wide average surface
temperature trend of Antarctica is positive
and significant at >0.05C/decade since
1957.
[7][8][9][10]
The West Antarctic ice
sheet has warmed by more than
0.1C/decade in the last 50 years, and is
strongest in winter and spring. Although this
is partly offset by fall cooling in East
Antarctica, this effect is restricted to the
1980s and 1990s.
Research published in 2009 found that
overall the continent had become warmer
since the 1950s, a finding consistent with
the influence of man-made climate change:
"We can't pin it down, but it certainly
is consistent with the influence of
greenhouse gases from fossil fuels",
said NASA scientist Drew Shindell,
another study co-author. Some of the
effects also could be natural
variability, he said.
[11]
The British Antarctic Survey, which has undertaken the majority of Britain's scientific research in the area, has the
following positions: [12]
Ice makes polar climate sensitive by introducing a strong positive feedback loop.
Climate of Antarctica
5
Melting of continental Antarctic ice could contribute to global sea level rise.
Climate models predict more snowfall than ice melting during the next 50 years, but models are not good enough
for them to be confident about the prediction.
Antarctica seems to be both warming around the edges and cooling at the center at the same time. Thus it is not
possible to say whether it is warming or cooling overall.
There is no evidence for a decline in overall Antarctic sea ice extent.
[13]
The central and southern parts of the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula have warmed by nearly 3C. The cause
is not known.
Changes have occurred in the upper atmosphere over Antarctica.
September 20, 2007 NASA map showing previously un-melted
snowmelt
The area of strongest cooling appears at the South Pole,
and the region of strongest warming lies along the
Antarctic Peninsula. A possible explanation is that loss
of UV-absorbing ozone may have cooled the
stratosphere and strengthened the polar vortex, a
pattern of spinning winds around the South Pole. The
vortex acts like an atmospheric barrier, preventing
warmer, coastal air from moving into the continent's
interior. A stronger polar vortex might explain the
cooling trend in the interior of Antarctica. [14]
In their latest study (September 20, 2007) NASA
researchers have confirmed that Antarctic snow is
melting farther inland from the coast over time, melting
at higher altitudes than ever and increasingly melting
on Antarctica's largest ice shelf.
[15]
There is also evidence for widespread glacier
retreat[16] around the Antarctic Peninsula.
[17]
Researchers reported December 21, 2012 in Nature
Geoscience that from 1958 to 2010, the average temperature at the mile-high Byrd Station rose by 2.4 degrees
Celsius, with warming fastest in its winter and spring. The spot which is in the heart of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet
is one of the fastest-warming places on Earth.
[18][19]
References
[1] http:/ / wmo. asu.edu/ world-lowest-temperature
[2] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Climate_of_Antarctica& params=81. 8_S_59. 3_E_dim:10000km
[3] Antarctica Climate Data and Climate Graphs (http:/ / www. coolantarctica. com/ Antarctica fact file/ antarctica environment/ climate_graph/
vostok_south_pole_mcmurdo. htm)
[4] Davis et al., Science 2005 Snowfall-Driven Growth in East Antarctic Ice Sheet Mitigates Recent Sea-Level Rise, Science, 24 June 2005: Vol.
308 no. 5730 pp. 1898-1901
[5] Millennial-scale variability of George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ BAS_Science/ Highlights/ 2001/
george_vi.html)
[6] http:/ / igloo.gsfc. nasa. gov/ wais/ pastmeetings/ abstracts00/ Bentley2. htm
[7] Retrieved=2009-01-22 (http:/ / climatechangepsychology. blogspot. com/ 2009/ 01/ eric-j-steig-temperature-in-west. html)
[8] Retrieved=2009-01-22 (http:/ / www.ess. washington.edu/ web/ ess/ people/ faculty_bio/ steig-bio. html)
[9] Retrieved=2009-01-22 (http:/ / www.nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v457/ n7228/ full/ nature07669. html)
[10] Retrieved=2009-01-22 (http:/ / news.smh. com.au/ breaking-news-world/
global-warming-hitting-all-of-antarctica-scientists-20090122-7mul. html)
[11] Antarctica study challenges warming skeptics (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 28693329/ ns/ us_news-environment/ t/
antarctica-study-challenges-warming-skeptics/ #. T1Rp_d2dyAs), Jan 21, 2009
[12] http:/ / www.antarctica. ac. uk/ Key_Topics/ Climate_Change/ Climate_Change_Position. html
Climate of Antarctica
6
[13] In Antarctica, melting may beget ice; Disintegration of floating glaciers could be responsible for freezing of seawater (http:/ / www.
sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/ 349277/ description/ In_Antarctica_melting_may_beget_ice) March 29, 2013 Vol.183 #9 Science News
[14] http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa.gov/ Newsroom/ NewImages/ images. php3?img_id=17257
[15] "NASA Researchers Find Snowmelt in Antarctica Creeping Inland" September 20, 2007 (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ goddard/ news/
topstory/ 2007/ antarctic_snowmelt.html)
[16] http:/ / toolserver.org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. py?page=Climate_of_Antarctica& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/
editintro& client=Template:Dn
[17] IPCC 2007, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working
Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/ assessment-report/
ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-chapter4. pdf), Cambridge University Press, 2007, page 376.
[18] West Antarctica warming fast; Temperature record from high-altitude station shows unexpectedly rapid rise (http:/ / www. sciencenews.
org/ view/ generic/ id/ 347241/ description/ West_Antarctica_warming_fast) December 21, 2012 Science News
[19] Figure 1: Map of Antarctica and annual spatial footprint of the Byrd temperature record. (http:/ / www. nature. com/ ngeo/ journal/ v6/ n2/
fig_tab/ ngeo1671_F1. html)
Notes
D. G. Vaughan, G. J. Marshall, W. M. Connolley, J. C. King, and R. M. Mulvaney (2001). "Devil in the detail".
Science 293 (5536): 17779. doi: 10.1126/science.1065116 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1065116).
PMID 11546858 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 11546858).
M.J. Bentley, D.A. Hodgson, D.E. Sugden, S.J. Roberts, J.A. Smith, M.J. Leng, C. Bryant (2005). "Early
Holocene retreat of the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula". Geology 33 (3): 1736. Bibcode:
2005Geo....33..173B (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2005Geo. . . . 33. . 173B). doi: 10.1130/G21203.1 (http:/ /
dx. doi. org/ 10. 1130/ G21203. 1).
External links
Climate
Climate data from Antarctic surface stations with trends (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ met/ gjma/ )
Temperature data from the READER project (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ met/ READER/ )
A pamphlet about the weather and climate of Antarctica (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ met/ jds/ weather/
weather. htm)
Information concerning recent ice shelf [[Ice calving|calving (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ met/ bas_publ.
html)]]
(unreliable) maps of snowfall and temperature (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ met/ climate/ wmc/ )
Temperature statistics at the Amundsen-Scott station on the South Pole (http:/ / wayback. archive. org/ web/
20120229073011/ http:/ / www. nerc-bas. ac. uk/ icd/ gjma/ pole. temps. html)
Warmer temperatures, more snow... (http:/ / www. science. org. au/ nova/ 082/ 082key. htm) Australian Academy
of Science
Antarctica's central ice cap grows while glaciers melt (http:/ / sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2005/ 05/
20/ MNGS9CS5141. DTL& type=science)
"AWS and AMRC Real-Time Weather Observations and Data" (http:/ / amrc. ssec. wisc. edu/ realtime. html).
University of Wisconsin-Madison's Antarctic Weather Stations Project and Antarctic Meteorological Research
Center. Retrieved May 31, 2005.
Antarctica Climate and Weather (http:/ / www. coolantarctica. com/ Antarctica fact file/ antarctica environment/
climate_graph/ climate_weather. htm)
Climate of Antarctica
7
Climate change in Antarctica
http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ Key_Topics/ Climate_Change/ Climate_Change_Position. html Wikipedia:Link
rot
http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ Key_Topics/ IceSheet_SeaLevel/ ice_shelf_loss. html Wikipedia:Link rot
Western Antarctica warming confirmed (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ story/ tech/ sciencefair/ 2012/ 12/ 23/
antarctica-warming-global/ 1782829/ ) December 23, 2012 USA Today
Antarctic ice
"Sea Ice Index Trends in extent Southern Hemisphere (Antarctic)" (http:/ / www. nsidc. org/ data/
seaice_index/ ). National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved Jan 9, 2009.
"Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of Antarctica" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ 2005/ 3055/ ). USGS Fact
Sheet 20053055. Retrieved May 31, 2005.
"Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of Antarctica" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ fs50-98/ ). USGS Fact Sheet
05098. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
"Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Eights Coast area, Antarctica; 19722001" (http:/ / pubs. usgs.
gov/ imap/ 2600/ E). U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-E. Retrieved
February 28, 2005.
"Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Bakutis Coast area, Antarctica; 19722002" (http:/ / pubs.usgs.
gov/ imap/ 2600/ F). U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-F. Retrieved
February 28, 2005.
"Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Saunders Coast area, Antarctica; 19721997" (http:/ / pubs.
usgs. gov/ imap/ 2600/ G). U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-G. Retrieved
February 28, 2005.
"Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World Antarctica" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ prof/ p1386b/ ). U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386-B. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
Further reading
Warm Snap Turned Antarctica Green Around the Edges; Thawed-out continent was lined with trees 15 million
years ago, study says. (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2012/ 06/
120620-green-antarctica-trees-global-warming-science-ancient/ ) June 20, 2012 National Geographic
Taking Antarctica's temperature; Frozen continent may not be immune to global warming (http:/ / www.
sciencenews. org/ view/ feature/ id/ 351507/ description/ Taking_Antarcticas_temperature) July 27, 2013;
Vol.184 #2 Science News
Article Sources and Contributors
8
Article Sources and Contributors
Climate of Antarctica Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=610209185 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 1to0to-1, 3centsoap, A.amitkumar, Accurizer, Achowat, Addshore,
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Chris the speller, Christian75, Chupon, Circeus, Closedmouth, CogitoErgoSum14, Cohesion, Coolguy911, Courcelles, Courtaz, CoyneT, CrazyC83, CsDix, CurtisSwain, Cyclopia, Cynical,
DAK4Blizzard, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Darth Panda, Dave souza, Daven200520, Davnor, Decoolguy, Denisarona, Dfrg.msc, Disambigutron, Discospinster, Dittaeva, DiverDave, Domitori,
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Cornelius, Geonarva, Gilliam, Glane23, Guttlekraw, Guy Macon, Gkhan, H3nrik3sommer, HMSSolent, Halowand, Hammersoft, HexaChord, Hike395, Hmains, Hot Kafe, Howcheng,
HueSatLum, Hurricane111, I dream of horses, Icystar181, Id5276, Iketsi, Ivanelo, Ja 62, Jackol, Jeffjnet, Jianhui67, John Cline, Johnminerson, Jonverve, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joyous!,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Antarctic surface temperature.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antarctic_surface_temperature.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
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File:File-Dgv-surfbal-1.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:File-Dgv-surfbal-1.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: William M. Connolley
(talk)
File:Antarctica ice shelves.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antarctica_ice_shelves.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was SEWilco at
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Image:Antarctic Temperature Trend 1981-2007.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antarctic_Temperature_Trend_1981-2007.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Robert Simmon
Image:Antarctic Ice Melt-First Year.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antarctic_Ice_Melt-First_Year.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Rob
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