Hum 2 Ethics 3-28-14

NationsUniversity
Hum 2 Ethics
An introduction to the formation of values
The course deals with moral principles or rules of conduct. The quest is concerned primarily with the
content of different ethical systems and the foundation upon which each rests. The study is organized in
five modules: (1) Introduction to Ethical ystems! (") #i$lical Ethics! (%) #uddhist Ethics! (&) 'indu Ethics!
and (() Islamic Ethics. ( semester hours of undergraduate credit.
Objectives
Identify the principles and issues in four ethical systems and evaluate the merits of each.
)udge the logical consistency of a particular ethical system.
ummarize and evaluate the principles of ethical systems.
ynthesize how $i$lical ethics relates to cultural institutions.
*ompare the #uddhist! 'indu! and Islamic ethical system..
Credit. *redit for the course requires a score of +,- or greater on three multiple choice e.aminations! a
$oo/ review! and a ",,,0word essay. Each element represents ",- of the course grade. 1 sample
pro$lem of the multiple0choice e.am is given $elow.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy concerned with (A) human character and conduct, (B) human
consciousness, (C) outward conduct only, (D) the nature of man.
Resources
The following resources are recommended. If you have difficulty finding these! you are urged to ma/e
compara$le su$stitutions.
#lac/$urn! imon. Ethics: A Very hort !ntroduction. 2.ford 3niversity 4ress! 31! ",,5. 1(" pages.
6+.,7 I#8: 5+90,15"9,&&"7
:udorf! *hristine. Comparati"e #eli$ious Ethics: E"eryday Decisions for %ur E"eryday &i"es. ;ortress
4ress! ",1%. "(7 pages. 6%+."& I#8: 5+90,9,,75971&
'eidt! <ari =apela. 'oral (raditions: An !ntroduction to )orld #eli$ious Ethics. 1nselm 1cademic! ",1,. 1%9
pages. 6"".5( I#8: 5+90,99&95+&51
Letter from Your rofessor
>ear tudent!
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?ou have chosen a worth0while course. Ethics is a field of study that pertains to what may $e considered
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good! proper! and moral against what is inappropriate! evil! and $ad taste. 1ttention given to the su$@ect is
timely in today
A
s world! where people are either frozen in a particular view! or they disclaim any standard $ut
their own.
The course attempts to $e $alanced and o$@ective. 2f course! we have our convictions relative to what we
$elieve to $e right. #ut our purpose should not $e descri$ed as dogmatic. Be aim at providing an
overview of several well0/nown and practiced ethic systems in the world. Be will $e contrasting these to the
*hristian system! $ut that system is e.pected to stand on its own without coercion.
I suspect most people thin/ of ethics with little reference to source! other than their parents. They will no
dou$t /now that the way they $ehave reflects a set of values espoused $y a larger community around them.
They may come to /now the limits placed on their $ehavior out of a sense of duty or safety. erious study as
to why the rules of $ehavior are in place escapes noticeCunless one is see/ing to $rea/ out of the mold. 1t
that point! one may loo/ for a different system or simply see/ to @ustify non0conformity. 1t any rate! our tas/ is
to e.amine the *hristian! Islamic! #uddhist! and 'indu ethical systems and then apply ourselves to
understanding them.
urely! there are more ethical systems in the world than the ones enumerated a$ove. tandards for life
drawn from pure secularism! *ommunism! or Traditional =eligion will have a different $ase than those
drawn from the four religious faiths we shall consider! $ut the three will produce sufficient material for you to
see how all systems wor/.
The study can stretch you! especially if you have never loo/ed at ethical systems $eyond your own. #ut
education is a$out stretching! learning! and opening new vistas on the world. I trust this course will serve
you and your ethical interests.
<ay I encourage you to stic/ with your tas/. <ove from one module to another in a timely fashion. et for
yourself a schedule for study and for ta/ing the e.ams. >o not rush through the course! $ut do not allow it to
$ecome stale either. *onsult the Things to Dnow list on the course menu page as you study and prior to
ta/ing an e.am.
?our advisor can assist you with procedural matters. Bhen you need my assistance! as/ the advisor to
connect us via e0mail address.
?our 4rofessor
rocedure
1. ;irst! review the content of the entire course sylla$us.
2. ;or ma.imum $enefit from the course! secure all te.t$oo/s and read them carefully at the points
designated in the sylla$us.
3. #egin your study with <odule 1. tudy the material thoroughly. ?ou will find the Internet sources
helpful as well! $ut read with discernment as you are developing critical thin/ing s/ills.
4. 1s you come to the end of <odule 1! you should review the material in preparation for a multiple choice
e.amination. 4ay special attention to the Things to Dnow! found in the *ourse <enu.
5. Bhen you are ready for the e.am over <odule 1! you may open it from the *ourse <enu.
6. 2nce you have completed the e.am over <odule 1! move on to the other modules and repeat the
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process! completing the assignments as you go.
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7. *redit for the course will require you to wor/ through all five modules and score a minimum +, percent
on each of three e.ams! a $oo/ review! and a "!,,,0word essay.
!hin"s to #no$
%odu&e '
1. The nature of the ethical de$ate
2. 'ow ethical principles are grounded
3. The relation of scientism and ethics
4. The difference $etween religious and secular ethics
5. 'ow to identify $asic systems of ethics
6. Identify ethical dilemmas
%odu&e 2
1. The relation of $i$lical ethics to common culture
2. 'ow one
E
s ethics influence one
E
s $ehavior
3. The nature of the $i$lical ethical system
%odu&e (
1. The character of #uddhist ethics
2. The $asis of #uddhist ethics
3. The ;ive 4recepts that drive #uddhist morality
4. ;amily and se.ual ethics in #uddhism
5. #uddhist social! medical! and economic ethics
%odu&e )
1. The relation of 'indu theology to ethics
2. The source and foundation of 'indu ethics
3. 'ow 'indu ethics differs from modern scientific ethics
4. The relation of the caste system to ethics
5. The 'indu outloo/ on virtue! marriage and family! and a$ortion
%odu&e *
1. The way Islamic theology drives ethics
2. The Islamic view of women
3. #e familiar with general ethical principles in Islam
E+tended Resources
#urch! <aganlal 1. (he *rinciples of +indu Ethics. *lassic =eprint. ;orgotten #oo/s! ",1".
7(, pages. 61".%" 1I8: #,,9,(F("I
*ahn! teven <. Ethics: +istory, (heory, and Contemporary !ssues. %rd ed. 2.ford 3niversity
4ress! ",,7. 615.59. 1I8: #,,"919?:2
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;asching! >arrell ).G >ell de *hantG and >avid <. Hantigua. Comparati"e #eli$ious Ethics: A
,arrati"e Approach to -lobal Ethics. "nd ed. Biley0#lac/well! ",11. %+7 pages. 6%9.%(
I#8: 5+901&&&%%1%%"
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:eisler! 8orman H. Christian Ethics: Contemporary !ssues and %ptions. #a/er 1cademic! ",1,.
&&9 pages. 615.(% I#8: 5+90,9,1,%9+5"
'arvey! 4eter. 1n Introduction to #uddhist Ethics: ;oundations! Ialues and Issues. *am$ridge
3niversity 4ress! ",,,. &5& pages. 6"5.%7 I#8: 5+90,("1((7&,9
Deown! >amien. Buddhist Ethics: A Very hort !ntroduction. 2.ford 3niversity 4ress! ",,(.
1&9 pages. 65.7" I#8: 5+90,15(7+9+,%
<athewes! *harles. 3nderstanding =eligious Ethics. Biley0#lac/well! ",1,. "9, pages. 6%%.+1
I#8: 5+901&,(11%("&
a@oo! 1myn #. A Companion to 'uslim Ethics. 1 vol. of 'uslim +erita$e eries. I. #. Tauris!
",1,. "(7 pages. 6%7.%7 I#8: 5+9019&99((5(%
tassen! :len '. and >avid 4. :ushee. .in$dom Ethics: /ollowin$ 0esus in Contemporary
Conte1t. II4 1cademic! ",,%. (%9 pages. 6"".+5 I#8: 5+90,9%,9"7791
Thirou.! )acques 4. and Deith B. Drasemann. Ethics: (heory and *ractice. 1&th ed. 4rentice
'all! ",11. &9, pages. 675.55 I#8: 5+90,",(,(%1&9
,e&ect Library
*hristian Ethics! religion0online.org
>eath and >ying! religion0online.org
)ournal of =eligious Ethics! ed. $y 1line Dal$ian and <artin Dav/a! Biley 2nline Hi$rary
Ethics
Hum 2
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Ethics
J
is an English word derived from the :ree/ ethos, the Hatin ethicus, and the ;rench 2thi3ue. The
root pertains to customs or ha$its. In a popular vein! the term has come to signify Ja set of moral
principles.
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1s a science! ethics is a $ranch of philosophy concerned with human $ehavior. It addresses
$oth inward disposition and outward e.pression.
Description and discipline. Het us state it again. Ethics is a $ranch of philosophy dedicated to the study of
human character and conduct. The discipline goes $eyond setting forth a code of morality. It concerns itself
with reflections on what may $e considered moral and immoral. ince the time of 1ristotle! who first spo/e of
ethics in systematic form! ethics has $een descri$ed as the systematic study of human character and its
function to show how human life must $e fashioned to realize its end or purpose. 'ence!
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ethics
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is the
rational e1planation of our nature and relations as moral and responsi$le $eings.
#y o$servation! much human action seems to defy
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rational e.planation.
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>oes this mean there is little
connection $etween the study of human $ehavior and actual $ehaviorK 8o! for the study aims at
e.plaining why humans choose one action over another. 8oticea$ly hidden in these studies is the
emotional side of man/ind! which is often incorrectly categorized as
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irrational.
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Be shall not argue for a new definition of the academic discipline. #ut we shall argue that what some
thin/ is
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rational
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in one conte.t is
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irrational
J
in another. Bhat is
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emotional
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in one setting may $e entirely
rational to the individual who is less mechanical in e.pressing inner thoughts. The pro$lem with assigning
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definition of what is
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rational
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is an attempt to oversimplify the power of the human $rain. It
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depends on a readiness to decide what is
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normal
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in human thin/ing. 1nd it rests on an eagerness to
define reason with recent human e.perience. In the latter instance! thought of reveled divine wisdom and
even human reflection prior to the present time may $e discounted.
1s a discipline! ethics may refer to the normal code imposed on a people of a particular grouping! a code
of conduct to which the people under this code are held responsi$le. The code mar/s $oundaries of
accepta$le and unaccepta$le $ehavior. 1ttitudes and motives are ta/en into account only when specific
violations occur! as! for e.ample! in murder cases.
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=ight
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and
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wrong
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may $e defined $y the ethical
standard! $ut these terms do not necessarily mar/ a$solutes! do not apply universally! and do not
necessarily equate with good and evil. 8either do people under the code all agree as to what is right and
what is wrong as applied to all citizens. 8either do they agree as to whether a particular action is moral or
immoral at its root or in its intention. The standard may or may not refer to some
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religious
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value. 1nd in an
eclectic society!
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religious
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is a ne$ulous term su$@ect to interpretation and application.
Theor y and pr act i ce. Ethics pertains to the standard $y which right or wrong actions (as measured $y
the standard applied) may $e @udged. Ethics is closely connected with human $ehavior or conduct that is
voluntary. Ioluntary actions imply one has a choice. 1 person
E
s actions are not predetermined. 2ne can $e
held responsi$le and disciplined for violating the code.
Ethics may $e considered in either a theoretical or an applied state. Theoretical study loo/s for underlying
assumptions and origins. It loo/s for logical thin/ing that defines a particular system.
1pplied ethics investigates how the theory can $e used in real life situations. It is su$@ective in that reason
must $e used to decide when and how a code of conduct should $e put into action. ;or e.ample! one
E
s
moral code may prohi$it /illing on the one hand and protecting the family on the other. o! what decision
will $e made when an intruder threatens to /ill the familyK >oes one stand $y and let it happen! or does
one perform a violent act on the intruderK 2r again! one
E
s code calls for honesty. Bhen the intruder as/s
the wherea$outs of your children with the intent of harming them! should one tell the whole truth when
respondingK
#etween theoretical study and applied ethics! we also $ecome aware of forces that change the rules and
$ring alteration in ethical laws. This force is $est o$served in the ever changing laws enacted $y
governments local and national. Bhat is ethically approved today may $e outlawed tomorrow with a stiff
penalty attached for violation. 2r! the reverse can also $e the case as with the changing glo$al attitude
toward same0se. marriage. These changes may $e unwelcomed and upsetting to some within a society! and
yet they may $e true to the assumptions that underlie the national constitution. The same type of changes
seen in secular societies can also $e o$served in religious circles. 2fficial religious opinions can shift with
changing social views.
Ethics per se is distinct from other disciplines in that it deals with idealized human $ehavior $ased on
given worldviews. 8ot all laws have a moral component $ut yet may create a moral issue when violated.
;or e.ample! running a stop sign may $e a civil violation $ut then $ecomes a
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moral
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issue when someone
is /illed as a result. 1t that point! motive and the mental state of the driver $ecome a consideration. *ivil
laws that redefine right and wrong as in se.ual engagements may $e concerned with health issues (e.g.!
transmission of 1I>)! $ut in the confines of
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secular
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law! no sin is involved. <orality is $etter defined in
religious conte.ts.
Be may spea/ of an ethical syst em where a unified view of what constitutes ideal human conduct is
present. The system must have a recognized foundation and a purpose. 2nly then can it $ecome a
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standard
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for living. 2therwise! it is merely customG it lac/s the essential ingredients that will ena$le critical
analysis. 1ll that can $e said is that people follow a popular predicta$le path to what is proper at a given time
and place.
2$viously! if one $uilds a life on custom! one will im$i$e the spirit of the day! with a foundation on past
precedent or present inclination. In so doing! there may $e little reflection on whether the code of conduct
should $e as it is. #ut then! the science of ethics should lead to reflection as well as description.
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3ltimately! the discipline rests on assumptions a$out reality and human responsi$ility.
The t a sk a he ad. 1s with other disciplines of human inquiry! the study of ethics offers serious minded
persons the opportunity to evaluate their code of conduct in a thoughtful and o$@ective manner. This can
$e accomplished $y a thorough e.amination of a particular system or $y comparing ethical systems. The
present study aims to provide a rather $road survey of well0esta$lished ethical systems. The aim is to
$ring clarification to various ideals on which people orient their lives and @ustify their $ehavior.
The course is constituted in five modules. <odule 1 is given to an Introduction to Ethical ystems. <odule "
addresses #i$lical Ethics. <odule % is titled #uddhist Ethics. <odule & is concerned with 'indu Ethics.
<odule ( covers Islamic Ethics. #y analyzing popular religious views! you will see how ma@or ethical
systems function. 1t the end of the course! you will $e a$le to identify the principles and issues in four
distinct ethical systems and evaluate the merits of each system.
2n a personal level! formulating a pattern of ethics will always $e set in two locus points: one
E
s view of
reality and one
E
s disposition. If one
E
s view of reality is impaired! one
E
s ethical $ase will rest on an unsure
footing. If the footing is unsure! the goal set for o$servation cannot $e achieved as anticipated.
2ne
E
s disposition also influences one
E
s action. If an ethical system requires the heart to $e in the action!
then one can hardly e.pect to reach the goal unless the heart is $ehind the action. If the system requires
only action without heart involvement! then we may $e loo/ing at a dehumanized way of life. This does not
necessarily imply a person $ehaves $adly! $ut it does raise questions a$out how a person $ehaves and
why. ;or e.ample! does one o$ey the laws of his country to /eep out of prison or $ecause it is the right
thing to do according to a chosen ethical orientationK 3nderstanding the formulation of an ethical system
to which one adheres helps predict the what and why of human conduct.
%O-ULE' &ntroduction to Ethica& ,ystems
The tas/ of constructing an ethical system is anything $ut simple. 2ver the history of man/ind! many
approaches have $een made. Each of these rests upon assumptions a$out :od! a standard! society! and the
individual. 2ne
E
s view of :od affects ethical conclusions! $ecause it determines where one loo/s for a
standard and conditions one
E
s view of the purpose of life and relationship to a larger society.
8ot all people agree on the $asis for $uilding an ethical system. <any postulate that it is impossi$le to
esta$lish a code of ethics $ased on the #i$le. 2thers contend that the #i$le alone is the only source
worthy to $e considered in arriving at a standard for living. The tension $etween the e.tremes can $e
critical. The same tension e.ists in countries where Islamic! *ommunist! or other dominant ideologies
prevail.
Bhatever formula one uses to decide on an ethical system! one must settle the question of authority. That
authority may $e self! society! a philosophical statement! religious scripture! natural order! mythology! or
traditional $eliefs. #ut whatever it is! that authority will rule. ;or e.ample! we have seen how in the Bestern
world! homose.uality has $ecome in a short space of time an accepted ethical value. 2ne may as/! why and
$y what meansK #y what authority has this occurredK >id :od change his mindK Is the #i$le wrong in
condemning itK 'as society $een in error for condemning it in the pastK Bhat has suddenly made
homose.uality a value and all reservations a$out it evilK Be only have to loo/ at the
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authority
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cited for the
change.
2ne cannot re0write the #i$le. 8o matter how hard one may try! one cannot reinterpret the #i$le to fit the
new moral standard. *ertainly! one cannot cite evolution! when homose.uality runs counter to the concept.
1uthority for it must start with the individual and grow into a mandate from those whose passions
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and sympathies rally to ma/e it prevail over older positions. 'ence! the authority for homose.uality derives
from the individual and the society that supports it. In short! JIt is o/ay! if I say it is.
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2r! it is true $ecause
society allows it. Bith this reasoning! all ethical values are su$@ect to individual dispositions. 2ne must as/! Is
the human self really an authority on ethical valuesK If the answer is negative! then one must settle the
question $y loo/ing elsewhere.
Be should $egin this course $y ac/nowledging that ethical systems laid out over human history are worthy
of consideration. The apostle 4aul suggested that a law of conscience had long $een the standard $y which
:od held men accounta$le for their $ehavior (=om. 1:190%"). #esides! ethical codes have $een around as
long as civilization. These codes! the writing of ancient philosophers! and the theoretical models offered $y
moderns offer a conte.t in which to consider the whole su$@ect of ethics. They help us understand why the
questions posed are so difficult to answer with true definition. #ut a well0rounded education requires some
understanding of the history of ethics and multiple ethical systems! $e they religious or secular. 2f
necessity! we have to $e selective.
The module has three units. These are The Ethical >e$ate (3nit 1)! =eligious and 4hilosophical Ethics
(3nit ")! and 1pplication (3nit %).
Unit '. !he Ethica& -ebate
4eople often differ on what they $elieve constitutes
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right
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and
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wrong.
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The differing attitudes are $ased on
assumed values and rest! furthermore! on assumptions regarding those values. The *hristian and the non0
*hristian may hold many values in common! $ut each will do so with contrasting rationales. 2ne can
imagine! then! how widely the views may vary when parties from all of life
E
s orientations engage in
discussion a$out ethics.
;or the common citizen!
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right
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and
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wrong
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are defined $y the government in civil law. Bithin these
parameters! a more personal code may $e imposed $y society and the family. ;urther! one
E
s code of
conduct may rule out murder! $ut the motivation for not murdering may $e fear of punishment! or it may $e
$ecause one $elieves one has no right to ta/e life that $elongs to :od. The end result may $e the same!
$ut the reason for the lac/ of action is significantly different.
1n ethical system that rises from the human intellect will admit no outside input. That is especially true if
the potential input is $ased on divine revelation. 2n the other hand! a system that arises solely from the
#i$le may not address all modern human situations. >eciding how to deal with modern social issues and
glo$al conflicts requires serious reflection. 8ot all will agree on the premise on which an effort should even
proceed.
<ost people will argue for a particular ethical system $ased on their up$ringing. They will give little thought
as to the circumstance that $rings them to thin/ what they $elieve is not what others should $elieve. ;or
e.ample! a *hristian living in Bestern society historically oriented toward *hristian principles! may not realize
that heLshe lives under a
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secular
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constitution. The dominance of church over state has $een $ro/en. Haws
are passed solely $y popular supportG religious rational has $een re@ected. *onsequently! what is decided is
$y other than $i$lical criteria. 'ence! the foundation for what is ta/en to $e right or wrong for a *hristian will
rest on scripture! $ut what is right or wrong for the larger society rests on secular interests. 8ormally! there is
no conflict for the *hristian! until the government requires the *hristian to do something that is against
hisLher conscience. The *hristian faces a similar situation when the national constitution rests on haria or
*ommunist ideology.
2ne critical issue arises with respect to the responsi$ility toward society in general for those who adopt a
particular ethical standard. ;or e.ample! should a *hristian! <uslim! secularist! or other attempt to
influence the moral code of the society in which heLshe livesK 3nderstanda$ly! in a free society! each of
these has a right and opportunity to advocate change. The ultimate question is! 'ow far should one go
toward su$@ecting society at large to *hristian principles! haria! or secularist ruleK
There are two issues here. 2ne issue pertains to the legitimacy of imposing an ethical standard. The
second issue has to do with how to treat those who hold a different ethical standard. The first issue is
answered partially with the a$solute necessity of having some $asic standard to sustain an orderly society.
This is easy with some issues! li/e murder! theft! property rights! etc. #ut when society $egins to legislate
se.ual $ehavior! drin/! drugs! and the li/e! the more li$ertarian mem$ers of that society voice o$@ection.
The argument for a $asic code of conduct is easily won. #ut the argument remains open with respect to
what constitutes a proper code.
'owever a code is esta$lished! there will $e minorities who are offended or restricted. 8ot only is there a
pro$lem with ideology! there is a pro$lem with the potential misuse of authority $y those in control. The
oppressed are left to decide if they will su$mit or re$el.
The ethical de$ate continues for all of us. Be will ever see tension $etween those who differ in their
worldviews. 1s we engage in the de$ate! let us use sound @udgment.
In this unit! we shall entertain three topics. These are (a) the grounding of ethics! ($) scientism and ethics! and
(c) the search for ethics.
a. !he "roundin" for ethics. Ethicists differ on the $asis on which ethics should $e esta$lished. )ust as
people disagree on the validity of a particular religious $ase! others argue that religion provides no $ase at
all. The question as to whether ethics need to $e grounded in religion is de$ated $y secularists and theists
ali/e.
Even Immanuel Dant defended the idea of :od as necessary for ethics. 'e then insisted that virtue and
duty must $e rewarded $y happiness. Inasmuch as man does not always achieve happiness in this life!
Dant argued that the immortal soul would $e rewarded in the ne.t life. *onsequently! there must $e a
:od to ma/e that happen. :od and immortality thus $ecame the foundation upon which Dant $ased
ethics and morality.
ome theists insist that :od must have made some requirement for good. 2therwise! man could ma/e his
own choices regarding conduct and $e @ustified in his conclusions. <oral relativism would $ecome the $asis
for human ethics. <an is thus o$ligated to do good. #ut who! then! decides what is goodK The requirement
to do good implies that :od has somehow revealed the meaning of goodness! either innately or $y special
revelation.
Eastern religions view reincarnation as a means of @udging and enforcing good deeds. Even without $elief in
@udgment $y :od! the individual has incentive to do good and refrain from $ad if! for no other reason! to insure
that his future lives will not $e worse than this one.
Ethics in Traditional =eligion is $ased on practical $enefits for the individual and group. :od or the
powers are feared for the harm they may do and are respected for the $lessings they may give.
uperstition and common culture dictate the components of the ethical system. The idea of certainty is
noticea$ly lac/ing in Traditional =eligion.
ome religions lay ethical standards on people out of fear. Even *hristianity holds the prospect of
@udgment. ?et! in *hristianity! the deeper motivation for ethical matters lies in the person of :od and his
acts on $ehalf of man. If one follows the ethical code simply out of fear of punishment! then that person
overloo/s the essence of his faith. 2ne thing that distinguishes *hristianity from other faiths is its view of
:od and the universe.
eemingly inherent within modern secular civilization is the impression that given enough time and
resources! man can eventually discover the good life and the ethical standard that will insure its
continuation. 'owever! man
A
s record spea/s volumes on the other side of the issue. The current situation
of the world suggests that man is not capa$le of steering his own course. 1ny ethical system rooted in the
human self leaves open the question! 'ow can a finite $eing (man) possi$ly $ecome the author of a moral
universeK 1s you thin/ through this paradigm! you are only left with each individual doing what seems right
in his own eyes. ;rom a practical point of view! what /ind of world would we have if this were allowedK
Pant hei st i c et hi cs. ince two of the systems analyzed in our course su$scri$e to reincarnation! it seems
proper here to say a word a$out pantheistic ethics. 1n ethical system $ased on a pantheistic perceptive will
tend to $e attached to nature! for it assumes that all that e.ists is part of :od. 4antheistic ethics will tend to
accept fate and living that is in harmony with natural law. Hife! the $ody! and se.uality are affirmed. Ethics
$elonging to a pantheistic worldview may not provide principles that apply to all human actions! $ut one can
e.pect emphasis on human rights and the environment.
The system! $ased on the qualities of nature and the universe! appeals to human emotions. ince all things
are part of :od! the universe is itself divine and sacred. Bhen one contemplates the universe!
contemplation of its ma@esty $ecomes a sacred e.perience. Its properties inspire one to act in /eeping with
natural features. The universe calls upon man to act in certain ways! although it is possi$le for man to act
M
unnaturally.
N
The message of the universe calls constantly and one needs to give attentive heed to its
communication.
#y recognizing the value of other things in the universeC$oth animate and inanimate00a rationale is
created. tanding on the same foundation and possessing the same values! these o$@ects are regarded as
sacredG nature ta/es on aesthetic! cognitive! and ethical value. Everything has an end within itself and is not
there for a single person
A
s desires.
1ccording to pantheism! the universe o$ligates one to respect the power of the universe and to accept the
fate of nature. That is! one must ac/nowledge accidents! death! and disease as part of the law of nature.
'uman in@ustices are not so easily e.cused.
2ne
A
s o$@ect in life is mystical union with the universe. In this union! one $oth admires and e.plores it.
This leads to cele$ration and ritual. 8ature awa/ens human emotionsG it also challenges humans to
protect it from human carelessness. #ut man remains dependent upon nature for food! water! clothing! and
other needs.
4antheism re@ects the $i$lical idea that nature is placed under human control and that it is temporary.
<an is part of nature and nature is part of :od. <an has $ecome so capa$le that he must now act in a
manner that will preserve nature00not $ecause he is its careta/er $ut $ecause he is part of it.
1ll living things have the same rightsG we are family. =espect for other living things is an ethical value in
4antheism. Everything struggles to surviveG humans should respect this need in other living organisms
and respect these $eings as well. <an should not cause suffering in animals or plants. ?et! the right to
survive creates a dilemma! for every living thing is a predator. Ecosystems must $e preserved as well.
Bith respect to other human $eings! all people should $e treated as family mem$ers. They must $e
preserved and nurtured to do away with poverty! $igotry! discrimination! inequities. 4eople participate
together in divinity in the present life. They are o$liged to help each other realize the meaning of their
sacredness and connectivity with nature. This includes ma/ing the natural landscape more accessi$le to
people and wor/ing to solve pro$lems of pollution! which $loc/ one
A
s view of the heavens.
4antheism also holds that one should do away with addiction! an.iety! and other distractions from one
A
s
feeling of unity with the earth. 1lso! resentment! in@ustice! oppression! and the li/e should $e overcome $y
effort to eliminate the reason for these human pro$lems.
4antheism teaches that all things are equal in the sense that they are equally divine! $ut not equal in
talents! a$ilities! and cultural status. This is the equality that drives the 4antheist to authenticate his life.
(4aul 'arrison!
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Ethics and =eligion: the #asis and anctions of <orality!
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Internet).
Act i vi t y. Evaluate the following statement. J8o ancient religion that offers infle.i$le rules can offer a true
ethical system for the modern world.
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b. ,cientism and ethics. 8o civilization has $een devoid of an ethical system. ome sort of ethical
guidance is necessary for survival. In most instances! these systems have $een commenda$le. They had a
strong preference for what men /now innately is
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right
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conduct. 'ence! most placed murder! incest!
thievery! and terrorism on the $ad side and upheld virtues such as honesty! caring for one
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s neigh$or! and
hard wor/ on the good side of the ethical ledger.
In Bestern societies! :ree/ philosophers li/e ocrates raised the human consciousness. 4lato wrote of the
nature and destiny of man. 'e conceived of an ideal cosmos with a counter $alance of human life in a
heavenly realm. toics promoted man
E
s rationality as an ethical standard. Epicureans promoted happiness
as the chief good and opened the way for human emotions to degenerate into unchec/ed sensual desires.
In time! *hristian0$ased ethics $ecame the dominant ethical system in the Bestern world. This system
started with :od as the foundation for ethics and made man responsi$le to :od for his $ehavior. The first to
articulate what we would call a full systematic ethics was 1m$rose in the (th century. ince then! different
approaches and presuppositions a$out man
E
s nature have $een proposed! with different applications.
In the modern age! an
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enlightenment
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mentality has given rise to scientism. cientism has adopted a
methodology $ased on demonstra$le evidence and physical proofs. The spiritual world lies $eyond what it
allows as truth. ince the scientific method can supposedly answer all r eal pro$lems! a system of
identifying right and wrong was destined to emerge from the human quest.
If scientism can $e trusted as a valid measuring tool for ethics! it is reasona$le to thin/ that science may $e
a$le to e.plain man
E
s place in the cosmos and can provide for man
E
s moral needs. #y dismissing :od and
the spiritual realm from the equation! man is left with the pro$lem of good and evil! $ut the scientific method
is availa$le to him to demonstrate what values are lasting and which ones are not. It is up to each society and
each individual within that society to ma/e preferred choices.
trangely! pure science is s/eptical of the social sciences! yet this is the area that concerns itself with
matters of ethics. This leads to two o$servations. 2ne! if ethics depends on evolution! as science presently
presupposes! an ethical system $uilt on scientism will always $e in flu.. Bhat is right today could easily $e
wrong tomorrow. econd! if ethics loo/s to humans as the final @udge! the system will never $e $etter than
the average ma@ority. The system can never rise a$ove the enforcers. Bhether defined $y pure science
(which is impossi$le) or social science (which always $ecomes the new normal)! such a delimited system
offers no space for religious convictions. Ethics grounded in religion claims an outside source. Therefore
from a
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scientific
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point of view! the principles are illusionary and e.empt from the scientific method.
cientism is attached to the physical cosmos and employs a method of demonstration. #y definition! it
limits itself to the physical realm and to a single method for determining truth. It is incapa$le of peering
into human e.periences! let alone a non0physical universe. The only @udgment it is @ustified in ma/ing
a$out ethics is that it has no $asis for @udgment.
Even if an ethical system could $e determined through science! there is still the pro$lem of acceptance.
4erhaps as in no era of history is there such uncontrolla$le individualism as in the present. :eneral
disrespect for authority $egins with national governments that participate in the overthrow of other
governments. >isrespect for authority tric/les down (or may$e ascends) through individuals who diso$ey
the law whenever it fails to accommodate a particular desire. The attitude $ecomes an infectious virus
that wea/ens the fa$ric of a political! social! economic! or spiritual society. 4erhaps this phenomenon is the
$est argument as to why an ethical system $ased solely on science is impractical and not wor/a$le.
.nternet ,ource
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cientism: cience! Ethics and =eligion
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$y <i/ael tenmar/ (#oo/ =eview $y ;. He=on
hults in 1rs >isputandi! vol. " (",,")
c. !he search for ethics. The human $eing is created in view of an
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ethical
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dimension. Even those who
see man as the product of evolution must admit that there is something different within man. 1nimals may
have an
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ethical
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code when it comes to protecting their young! see/ing food! and associating with one
another. #ut as far as we /now! the animal code is nothing li/e the ethical dimensions of the human race.
The issue is not whether man should live $y an ethical standard. The issue is $y wh a t standard should man
liveK ;or the most part of human e.istence! all commonly held standards have a religious $ase. In these
modern times! Bestern secularist dismiss the influence of religion. ome may go so far as to deny the
concept of immorality! assuming that all that a person desires is
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moral.
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Bhile this is not convincing in light
of the violence! in@ustice! criminal! greedy situations that surround us! it is the $asis for much of secular
ethical theory.
<odern ethicists have attempted to esta$lish a code on the assumption that humanity is capa$le in and of
itself to form a standard of morality. 8either tradition nor special revelation need $e considered. 1ctually!
that is what man has attempted from the $eginning of time and has yet to formulate. The entire #i$le points
in the direction that man
E
s pro$lem is precisely that he tends to esta$lish his own rules outside a covenant
with :od and with the understanding that rule0/eeping is sufficient to regulate his $ehavior. ;urthermore! he
is persuaded restitution to :od
E
s favor is either not important or that he has the a$ility to do so apart from
:od
E
s assistance.
The modern secular movement is $uilt on freedom of thoughtG it reasons from false assumptions. It
dismisses the spiritual yearning of man altogether. In this outloo/! religion is postulated as a crutch to
help people understand reality. It refuses to loo/ $eyond the physical senses and gives free reign to
desire. #ecause morality is delineated from a
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religious
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worldview! secularism argues that it should $e
eliminated altogether.
<odern secularists contend that religious influence unduly constrains human $ehavior. Hi$ertarian values
will always advocate personal freedom and situational ethics. pecific laws cannot cover every situation
and moral laws may need to change as human thin/ing changes. These ideas $elong to secular humanism
and Hi$ertarianism and has roots in the 19th century Enlightenment! the 15th century =omanic period! and
the ",th century humanist movement.
Bhere science and technology are thought to have replaced man
E
s dependence on religion! man is left to
develop his own moral code and do so in /eeping with his own desires. It seems short sided to thin/ that
man has come to a position of doing without the :od who created him.. 2r! to put it in other terms! we are
as/ed to $elieve that man has developed to the point of total independence! when he has so little control
over his own person. 'e had no control over his own $irth and has little to say a$out the time he dies. o!
how is it that he can decide what is right and wrong $y closing out the spiritual world to which he always
returns when in trou$leK
There is no question $ut that modern science has forced the religious man to respond to new questions. 1t
what point in a pregnancy does life $eginK 1t what point is one
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legally
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(really) deadK #ut In a purely
secular atmosphere! religious ethics must $e opposed! $ecause the sanctity of life is replaced with a
sense of convenience and desire on the part of the healthy. If human emotions are elevated to the court of
final appeal! then we are dealing with insta$ility on one hand and authority on the other. In this state!
reason is replaced with feeling and one person is no closer to an a$solute right or wrong than the other.
1nd as we /now! human desire can $e so pre@udiced that it cannot possi$ly steer one in the right path.
4rison is filled with people who desired something that society has decided is a
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crime
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and is therefore
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wrong.
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#ut even then! laws vary from place to place and secularists do not thin/ in terms of sin and
righteousness. The secularists have created a moral dilemma. In claiming a true moral standard lies in
desire! reason! emotion! or pure scientific data there remains a sea of uncertainty! loneliness!
disappointment! and despair. ecularists $ring us no closer to finding a true ethical standard than the
ancient :ree/ philosophers who concerned themselves with such matters.
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Ethics in =eligion
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Unit 2. Re&i"ious and hi&oso0hica& Ethics
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=eligious ethics
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is a term that identifies a system which derives from religious sources and is rooted in
religious ideals. Bhile the overarching term
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ethics
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pertains to a code of human conduct! it does not
specify the source of that code or its nature. The line $etween religious and non0religious (secular) is
$lurred as to ma/e distinctions along this line of less use in the practical arena than in the theoretical. That
is $ecause people readily mi. the two! as when a $eliever in :od su$scri$es to evolution or one claims to
$e a *hristian $ut denies the $odily resurrection of *hrist. Bhen
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religion
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is applied to $elief in :od! we then
need a definition of
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:od.
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?et! #uddhism remains a
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religion
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when it does not necessitate a :od.
cientology is called a religion when it is a$out self0discovery. >escri$ing an ethical system as
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religious
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is
ar$itrary! $ut the idea suggests a sense of reverence for a $eing or force $eyond the human senses.
=eligious ethics can $e further delineated and more precisely defined.
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#i$lical
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ethics delimits the conte.t and
content of the $ehavior $eing defined. The primary resource for the pursuit is the #i$le! which em$races
$oth the 2ld and the 8ew Testament. To $e even more precise! we may spea/ of
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)ewish
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ethics and
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*hristian
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ethics and concentrate on either the 'e$rew criptures (2ld Testament) or the :ree/ criptures
(8ew Testament). In $oth instances! the true $asis of )ewish and *hristian ethical
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systems
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is the nature of
:od and the o$@ect is holiness. The means to the end for each rests on different premises! for while the
systems have much in common! they differ significantly.
Hi/ewise! we may spea/ of
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Islamic
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ethics!
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#uddhist ethics!
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or
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'indu
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ethics. 1ll three have in common
religious themes! and they are $ased on written scriptures. If we were to e.tend the discussion to include
ethics drawn from Traditional =eligion! we may e.pect to study ethics from a Traditional worldview $ut lac/
a common source of scripture. In this case! we must rely more on oral tradition and popular $eliefs.
The opposite of
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religious
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ethics would $e
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secular
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ethics. ecular ethics would not admit to a system
derived from $elief in :od or from revelation $eyond the physical universe. 1dmittedly! the various terms are
not common in a discussion of ethical theory! $ut they will serve our purpose here! for this course is
essentially a$out ethical systems that have a $asis in theism rather than in secularism.
ources $elonging to the religious traditions cited a$ove were not written as a $oo/ of ethics.
8evertheless! they present a foundation for the ordering of human life. Hi/e theology! which is in reality
man
E
s attempt to understand :od and life! ethics calls upon human processes to pull from the sources
those principles which constitute a plan for life. 1s we proceed! we will note that the various ethical
systems will differ in their presentations. ;or e.ample! *hristian ethics does not emerge as a list of rules. It
is essential! therefore! to wrestle with the essence of the gospel. 'ow is one restored to a spiritual
relationship with :odK 'ow is that relationship sustainedK Islamic ethics! on the other hand! is part of a
system of @urisprudence! where su$@ection to 1llah is determined on the $asis of /eeping rules.
Be shall end the unit with a $rief discussion of
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philosophical
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approaches. to ethics. The intention is not to
place religion and philosophy in opposition! $ut to descri$e the particular function of a reasoned approach.
=eligious influences generally come from the top down (:od to man! as in revelation)! while philosophical
approaches come from the $ottom up (man uses his innate capacities to discover :od and
questions of ultimate concern).
trict definitions are hardly an o$@ective of this course. Terms are generally qualified $y their use. 'ere! we
are endeavoring to say that when the term
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religious
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is used in association with
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ethics!
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we are indicating an
element that qualifies the ethical principles. This is most evident when a person claims some
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religious
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commitment.
The unit is divided into three sections. These are (a) the $asis of *hristian ethics! ($) *hristian ethics as
principles! and (c) philosophical approaches to ethics.
.nternet ,ource
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<easuring <orality: 1 *omparison of Ethical ystems
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$y Hou Bhitworth
a. !he basis of Christian ethics. If the revelation of :od through *hrist is true! then it $ecomes the
primary means $y which *hristian ethics is defined. Britten scripture informs us of the act of :od in *hrist.
The testimony of scripture regarding the *hrist demonstrates the e.pectant $ehavior of those who $elieve in
him. In this case! *hristian ethics does not refer to a system of rules! $ut a way of life that is informed from
a$ove.
If *hristian ethics is not humanly devised and does not consist of a litany of laws! then it must $e firmly
$ased in the person of :od. The motivation for su$scri$ing to heavenly values in a secular environment
arises from a relationship with :od that has $een ena$led $y :od himself. o! it is not out of fear that one
o$eys. 8either is it out of a sense of o$ligation. 1 *hristian
E
s values are the outcome of an appreciation of
divine grace.
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*hristian ethics
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(and $i$lical ethics as a whole) is tied to the person of :od in the sense that :od is holy
and he calls humans to $e holy. The overriding command is to love :od with all one
E
s heart and to love
others as self. *hristian values are therefore not derived from individual humans or from the human
community. They represent divine values with respect to life and relationships. Em$racing *hristian values
summons the individual to $i$lical study! commitment! reflection! and implementation. 'ow one
understands the role of
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law
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in the life of the *hristian will ma/e a significant difference in the way the
su$@ect of *hristian ethics is approached.
Bhen comparing
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*hristian
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ethics with ethics in non0*hristian framewor/s! you will notice similarities.
<any of these li/enesses can $e accounted for as a matter of common sense. If human $eings are to live
together in peace and harmony! some common sense rules of conduct must $e forthcoming. <any! if not
most! of the values found within any ethical system will reflect innate virtues. o! favora$le comparisons
should $e e.pected and these similarities will not have changed over time.
In an historical study of ethical systems! however! the modern tendency has $een to override the o$vious
and try to put everything cultural and religions into an evolutionary pattern. It is reasoned that man
E
s
undistinguished $eginning means his social $ehavior and sense of value were primitive! that his first
attempt to construct rules of conduct were crude and would need refinement over time. *onsequently! with
this view in mind! there could $e no divinely0given ethical system00@ust trial and error on man
E
s part. 1fter
all! in the evolutionary chain! the thing that counts is that the fittest survive. 'ow could there $e values that
reflected concern for the wea/! compassion for the poor! or charity toward the dispossessedK Even change
in this primitive outloo/ would ta/e time and effort! $ecause it is against the normal e.pectations of
evolution. 8evertheless! in the process of time! it is con@ectured that law codes were developed such as
that of 'ammura$i. 'is code would $e ta/en over and revised $y <oses. The <osaic code would $e
advanced $y )esus. 1nd that which was lost from )esus would $e restored $y <uhammad. 1nd all those
codes from the past would $e overthrown $y modern man who now /nows how to $e fully li$erated. The
postulation is $ased on an evolutionary hypothesis that rules out a *reator who revealed himself! only to
$e re@ected $y man. The *hristian code of conduct counteracts the evolutionary hypothesis $y assuming
the *reator revealed himself in the $eginning. 1lthough re@ected $y man! :od has revealed himself finally in
his on! )esus *hrist. The code is not $ased on law! for man
has proven he cannot $e @ustified $efore :od $y lawG he simply cannot /eep it satisfactorily.
=ighteousness in )esus *hrist $ecomes the means to reconciliation with :od! who is himself the
standard for any ethics.
Act i vi t y. 1s you wor/ on understanding how ethics applies to personal life! ta/e a piece of paper! divide it into
two columns! and ma/es notes according to the following scheme. In the left column! enumerate ten ethical
standards. These can $e similar to the Ten *ommandments $ut may include statements drawn from 8ew
Testament enumerations such as =omans 1& or :al. (:150"1. In the right column! write out why you are
called upon to o$serve these ethical demands. Is it $ecause :od commands it! or is it for some other
reasonK ?ou statement should ma/e it clear as to how you approach ethics.
.nternet ,ource
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Toward an 1pproach to *hristian Ethics
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$y >ennis '. <c*allum
b. Christian ethics as 0rinci0&es. >efining *hristian ethics as
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principles
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is ris/y. 'ere is the reason why.
Bhile principles are rules that ma/e up a code of conduct! there remains the question of how these
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rules
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are to $e o$served. >o they apply generally or are they a$solute commandsK There is no question $ut that
the principles represent essential elements within what we are calling a system of *hristian ethics. They are
not negotia$leG they never change. #ut man is not @ustified $efore :od $y o$serving rules. 'e responds out
of appreciation for hisLher redemption $ut is still $ound $y the rule of faith! which comes through recorded
revelation (the #i$le). If we had to reduce $i$lical ethics to an ideal that could $e e.pressed in a single
word! that word would $e hol i ness.
If the central ideal is holiness! it follows that three words descri$e *hristian ethics: a$soluteness!
inwardness! and universality. They are a$solute $ecause they come from the one :od and are rooted in his
person. 8othing can surpass this achievementG no evolutionary movement in human thin/ing is allowed.
#ecause spirituality is concerned with the heart as well as the head! *hristian ethics touches the heart. 2ne
follows out of conviction and desire for the holy life. The rules are universal in the sense they apply evenly
to all who esta$lish a faith relationship with :od.
*hristian ethics grows out of the 2ld Testament! where covenant relationship with ?ahweh rests in a
covenant. That covenant presupposes a legal code found in The Torah. 4rophets! elders! /ings! and priests
were charged with maintaining the spiritual connection. The teaching of the 2ld Testament $oo/s of
Bisdom is addressed more to individuals than is the prophetic literature. Together! they ma/e divine truth
/nown. )ust as surely! *hristian personalities and writings e.tend the ethical paradigm. The duties of the
*hristian life li/ewise find fulfillment in the threefold relationship of the *hristian to self! to his fellow0man!
and to :od.
The 8ew Testament has relatively little or nothing to say a$out changing the secular institutions of its day!
pro$a$ly $ecause the focus was on changing human society through reconciliation to :od in )esus *hrist.
)esus filled the idea of the /ingdom with religious and moral content and emptied it of political and material
elements. In the ;ourth :ospel!
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eternal life
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ta/es the same place as
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the /ingdom of :od
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in the other three
gospels. The uniqueness and originality of the ethics of *hristianity are to $e sought in the unfolding of an
ideal which is at once the power and pattern of the new life.
1 conte.tualist approach to ethics attempts to reduce the ethical content of the #i$le to one overriding
principle00love. This does not displace holiness. It spea/s to the inner constitution of the redeemed
person. 1 theonomist approach! on the other hand! maintains that ethical dilemmas appear as a
consequence of not structuring society according to $i$lical case laws in e.haustive detail.
The article $y :ary >eHashmutt descri$es one person
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s assessment of a
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principles
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approach to ethics.
Even when one accepts the idea that man is not @ustified $y law0/eeping! there remains the question of
how one should determine what is appropriate $ehavior. o! we leave you with the question! If a
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principles
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approach is to $e made! how does one determine the
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principle
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K =ead the article $elow.
.nternet ,ource
J1n 1pproach to *hristian Ethics
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$y >eHashmutt
c. hi&oso0hica& a00roaches to ethics. Ethicists as a whole struggle to reach a standard for human
$ehavior. 1ll ethicists have a $eginning point. They must ma/e some assumptions a$out :od! society! and
man. If the secular position is correct! one would li/e to as/! Bhy has there not $een consensus after all
these yearsK 'ave secular0$ased ethics finally presented a superior platform for pu$lic and private
$ehaviorK Hoo/ at the result of given secular theories. Is the moral condition of the world $etter today than
yesterdayK
If a religious0$ased ethical system is correct! then which oneK 1 religious system may $egin with a concept
of :od! $ut the various approaches find their foundation in different places and even disagree on the ethical
principles themselves. 2f course! not all
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religious
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systems $egin with monotheism. 1nd not all
monotheistic systems agree on the foundation for human $ehavior. They may differ on a num$er of issues:
the nature of :od! the rationale for human conduct! the role of :od in forming an ethical system! the notion
of determinism! innate qualities of man! the role of the human conscience! the duty of man toward human
society! how man
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hears
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:od! and the ultimate goal of human life.
2$viously! there are some epistemological questions which must $e as/ed. 'ow does man /nowK Is his
reason sufficientK If so! why is there no unanimity of thoughtK >oes man /now $y revelation or intuitionK
'ow can the truth of what one claims to $e revelation $e provenK Bhat should one ma/e of the many so0
called revelationsK
The philosophical approach to ethics may $e conceived in three categories of thought: (1) deontological! (")
utilitarian or consequential! and (%) virtue. Deontolo$ical suggests that an action is determined $y pure moral
motives. The approach is that of )ohn Hoc/e and Immanuel Dant. 'ere! the emphasis is on action $ased on
moral law! is rationally derived! and claims universal acceptance. 2ne routinely as/s! Is it rightK Bhat are
my ethical principles telling me I should doK
The utilitarian approach aims at the greatest pleasure for the greatest num$er of people. The emphasis is
pragmatic! with no moral a$solutes. The leading question is! Is it goodK Bhat impact is my $ehavior having
on the worldK The answer is derived through reason and was fostered $y >avid 'ume! )eremy #entham!
and )ohn tuart <ill.
Virtue0$ased ethics fulfills human nature and is seen as the mean $etween e.cess and deficient $ehavior.
Iirtue ethics as/s what /ind of person do I want to $eK Bhat can $ring me to my goalK Its proponents
include 1ristotle and 1lasdair <acI ntyre.
Each of the philosophical approach comes from man. Each is su$@ective. 8one start with a question a$out
how one should relate to his *reatorK Bhile questions related to ethics that are tied to
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revelation
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are
myriad! those ta/ing their start from philosophy are not only diverse $ut speculative. =evelation assumes a
*reator who has revealed a standard for human $ehavior. 4hilosophy assumes man is capa$le of arriving
at an ideal system. ;urther! if the evolutionary hypothesis is admitted to the discussion! man is constantly
developing the means to survive in a world that represents the survival of the fittest and is certainly not
there yet.
.nternet ,ources
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The 1chievement of 1dasdair <acI ntyre
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4hilosophical Ethics
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4hilosophical Ethics!
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adapted from Thomas Bhite! Ethics: 1 4hilosophical =eader! (<acmillan! 155%)
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1pproaches to Ethics: 4rinciples! 2utcomes! and Integrity
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$y 1rthur >o$rin! *sycholo$y (oday, ",1"
Unit (. 100&ication
1s we complete this first module! we need to ma/e certain we have a framewor/ for investigating and
analyzing some of the ma@or ethical systems that operate in our world. 1t the head of the tas/ is the
identification of $asic systems (section a). If we can get a feel for what is out there! perhaps we can then
proceed to understand the underlying assumptions that drive those systems. Be also need to develop a
frame of reference for assessing the ethical systems encountered (section $). Dnowledge without critical
assessment leads to $lind commitment. 1s we review the ethical systems! we will surely see the ethical
dilemma that they present (section c). The critical personal question is! *an I accept the implications of a
particular system of ethicsK
Be use the word
J
application
J
reluctantly! for it sounds li/e a quic/! mechanical! and simple action. ;or
e.ample! when one paints a ta$le! one applies the paint. The paint has $een purchased! sha/en! opened! and
dipped into with a $rush. It now awaits appl i cat i on to the surface of the ta$le. That is hardly the simple way
an ethical principle or system $ecomes part of one
E
s life. Be cannot allow the application of ethics to $e
considered an hour
E
s @o$. =ather! the process is stretched out over a lifetime.
To get the point across! let us use another inadequate analogy. 1dopting an ethical view is not li/e putting on
clothes! which are worn for a day! then laid aside. The process is $oth gradual and usually permanent. #ut it
is more. 1pplication of ethics involves an internal assimilation of $eliefs and concepts that have made their
way into your $eing $oth consciously and unconsciously.
1pplication of an ethical system is more li/e the maintenance of a well manicured golf course. The soil
naturally possesses the elements necessary for a good crop of ground cover! $ut the natural elements will
not produce the desired outcome. 1 golf course! particularly the greens! requires additional attention00
cutting! watering! fertilizing! weeding! and repairing. These processes represent the need to attend
constantly to the application of ethical principles. Even so! more is required than the routine use of a mower!
water $uc/et! or fertilizer spreader. The right elements in ideal proportions are requisite for perfect results. till
further! menacing moles allowed to dig their tunnels unchec/ed will leave a green unsuita$le for putting.
>isease will destroy the $eauty and ma/e the course unattractive and $arren. 2h! and do not forget the
sunshine and its warmth. To put it in spiritual terms! the soil of the heart must $e ready. The right seed must
$e sown. The correct motivation must $e present. 1nd there must $e allowance for :od to wor/ within.
1pplication is ongoing and needs a lifetime for the principles to $e wor/ed out in real life situations.
:iven the long0term enterprise! one still faces the identification of the correct system. 2ur pro$lem is not
whether there is a perfect ethical system. It is whether we have found it and are $uying into it. 1t the point of
partial discovery! one $egins to as/ how close one is to adopting it for personal growth. 2ne is also left to
wonder why one
E
s ethical outloo/ changes. Is it due to new information! religious conversion! pragmatic
reasons! or conformity to the environmentK 8ew information can certainly $e a good reason to change. To
refuse truth is foolish. =eligious conversion will definitely cause one to change outloo/s and actions. #ut the
e.perience can $e $eneficial only if the conversion is to truth and is genuine. 4ragmatic reasons or
conformity to the environment can $e good if no valid principles are violated! $ut the idea suggests that
some personal advantage is gained at the e.pense of principle.
8evertheless! we spea/ of application! for unless something new is added to our lives! we remain the same
old self! doing things in precisely the same way! and for the same reasons. #ut we change! whether $y design
or default. The lead question is! 'ow should our newly discovered /nowledge or status $e made part of our
livesK
4erhaps the most common rationale for application is e.pressed in the statement!
J
E"er ybody is doing it.
J
It
should $e o$served that hardly ever will everyone $e
J
doing it.
J
The idea is false. Even if every$ody i s
doing it! this does not ma/e it correct. 4eople are not a herd of cattle that rush to a $ad end out of fear. 1nd
yet! they often act li/e a herd of cattle for no reason. Ethical decisions should $e made on evidence of
truth! not on $lind copy0cat action.
a. .dentifyin" an ethica& system. Ethical principles reflect the core values of individual systems. Bhile
some principles remain constant from code to code! others will not. ;or e.ample! murder is condemned $y
most every ethical system. #ut allowances for ta/ing human life are also made in each paradigm. The critical
issue lies with the rationale and what the rationale implies. Het us illustrate.
Morality. 1ny ethical system will $e deficit if it does not provide a moral standard. The
J
code of conduct
J

that morality represents may $e innate or imposed. #y nature! the normal functioning human $eing has an
awareness of what is right and wrong! what is good and $ad! what is accepta$le and unaccepta$le.
ociety may reinforce this unwritten law with specific legal stipulations that carry penalties for violation.
=eligions may also put their imprint on the standard of accepta$le conduct. ecular society tends to define
morality in terms of what society will generally allow. =eligions place restrictions on their followers in
/eeping with given ideals and
J
spiritual
J
presuppositions.
Activity. >raft a short list of positive and negative guidelines which you $elieve are proper for any human
society. ;or e.ample! the positive list may contain such elements as the following. The larger society
should constantly encourage cleanliness! environment care! decency in dress! etc. 8egatively! the list may
list among the for$idden elements: /illing another person! thievery! cursing! etc.
'aving compiled a list of rights and wrongs! as/ yourself why you $elieve them to $e so. 2n what criteria are
these right or wrongK 2n the $asis of
J
:od said soO
J
K 2n the $asis of JIt is harmful to society
J
K ;or some
other reasonK 1re all moral principles found in the #i$le $inding on all people! whether they $e $elievers or
notK )ot down your thoughts.
Hermeneutics and ethics. 'ow does one move from a statement of right and wrong! proper and
improper! sin and righteousness to general ethical principlesK Be may argue over whether an action is
J
morally
J
wrong or whether it is a
J
sin
J
K *ould there $e a differenceK *ould some
J
moral
J
principles $e
uncouth actions $ut not sinful4 Bhere is the line crossed from $ad to sinK 1nd what is the consequence of
sinK Even sin itself has different meanings among religions. *ertainly! the removal of sin differs as well.
Even when loo/ing at the #i$le! one realizes there are specific commands (in the 2ld Testament) that do not
apply to *hristians. o! the question is not whether it is in the #i$le $ut whether what is in the #i$le applies
to people today as it did to the people addressed in its original conte.t. 'ow does one $ring forward to the
present time an application of a principle found in criptureK 4erhaps the question should $e! Bhat ma/es
a particular restriction found in cripture a
J
principle
J
that governs all peopleK
The central themes in ethics. Ethical themes may $e found if you loo/ for them. ;or e.ample! some will
surely cluster around the sanctity of human life. 2thers are $unched around property.
Activity. Enumerate on a sheet of paper what you $elieve to $e ten principal ethical themes. 'ow did 1re
these the most prominent in criptureK
tarting with the ten principal ethical themes you have identified! can you prioritize themK ;orget for a
moment that if something is right! it has as much priority as anything else that is right. 1ll rights are
equally right. 'aving said that! do you tend to treat some of the principles you have enumerated of more
importance than othersK 1re you more inclined to @udge someone more severely if that person has
violated one of your
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priority
J
ethicsK ;or e.ample! do you tend to $e more critical of a person who
commits adultery or a person who has lied to youK
Identifying the system. Hoo/ at your list again and evaluate it. Bhat elements tend to reflect the *hristian
worldviewK 1re there elements that suggest another religious worientationK 'ow much of what you list as
good morals is due to your innate thin/ingK 'ow much reflects the society in which you lifeK *ritically! what
of your way of thin/ing ties your sense of right and wrong to the nature of :odK 'old onto your thoughts as
we continue through the course.
b. Eva&uatin" an ethica& system. Be assume that! as a whole! $asic human character! personality!
drives! emotions! physical needs! and spiritual longings have not changed over the course of human
history. 1t least no one has shown conclusively that any of these characteristics is significantly different.
=ecorded history suggests that they remain constant! although variations do occur in individuals! as is
easily o$served. 2n the other hand! technology! methodology! conveniences! communication! travel! and
/nowledge have influenced the way people live. #ut have these advancements changed the way people
generally thin/ a$out moral issuesK
2ne is never sure how much economic and political theories have changed! or to what e.tent philosophy!
religious practices! and worldviews differ from the past. 1dmittedly! our understanding of comple. past
civilizations is limited. Be tend to thin/ that current ideas are new and have never $een advanced $efore.
'owever! we are reminded of olomon
A
s timely statement that
M
there is nothing new under the sun
N
(Eccl.
1:5). <en tend to recycle ideas and theories as they refine their civilizations. 1mid all the changes! man
seems to remain much the same as always. If this assumption is correct! we need not loo/ for new ethical
models to fit stages of human development. Be need to evaluate ethical systems against man
A
s $asic
needs.
o! how does one identify an ethical system that fits all people for all timeK If we loo/ to evolution as a
cause for the current state of affairs! we are faced with a dilemma. Evolution assumes advancement and
adaptation. The ",
th
century alone proved the advancement theory wrong. The century did not yield a
more pure ethical world. If ethics adapts to the new normal! then whatever system(s) that arose during the
",
th
century did nothing $ut measure the meanness of man/ind. If the system(s) $lessed the evolving world
character! it did little to change human conduct. It only sanctioned man
A
s immoral $ehavior.
1n ethical system that is only capa$le of measuring human $ehavior will eventually fail. 2nly one that
points to the redemption of sinful flesh is worth its value. It would $e short0sighted to consider ethics as a
mere standard or rule where$y one is @udged deviant or honora$le $y society.
8atural law is good as far as it goes. #ut it does not address the real human situationK 8o one would
argue against the value of human conscience in determining human $ehavior! $ut it needs to $e tempered
$y legal restrictions. Even these regulations are inadequate. Iiolators of national and local ethical
standards are put into prison for punishmentG the ethical code does not provide remediation. Hegal ethical
codes state the limits to what society will tolerateG some religious codes do the same. #ut man needs
more. 'e needs redemption.
The remedy for most code violations is either punishment! restitution! or more $urdensome legislation.
Bhen greed leads people with opportunity to gain advantage over others! more laws are passed to
tighten regulations. ?et! man
E
s real needs are not met. o! how is an ethical system to $e evaluatedK
;ollowing are some suggestions.
1. 1n effective ethical system must $e $road enough to cover every contingency.
2. 1n effective ethical system must $e principled so as to $e fle.i$le and applica$le to every situation or
ma/e allowances.
3. It $enefits all! does not cater to some groups over others.
4. It is enforcea$le.
5. It must $e redemptive.
6. It must $e clearly understood.
7. It must represent divine wisdom.
c. Ethica& di&emmas. The time has arrived for you to see if you can construct some $asic process for
arriving at ethical conclusions. 1t this point in the course! you have not $een e.posed to the details of the
several ethical systems chosen for study. o! we shall not e.pect definitive answers. 'owever! we are
interested in the process $y which one ma/es choices.
In any ethical system! you will face dilemmas. 1n ethical system cannot anticipate all circumstances you will
encounter in life. Bhat appears as an a$solute principle may $e impossi$le to implement. Hi/e the
prover$!
J
Train a child in the way he should go! and when he is old he will not turn from itJ (4rov. "":7)! the
principle is true! $ut stated in a$solute terms removes temptations and freedom of the child
E
s will.
ome situations are presented $elow for you to contemplate. Bhatever ethical code you may presently
su$scri$e! wor/ out the process for reaching a proper course of action. tart with the reason you have
adopted the code! clarify what the codes indicates as proper! then state how you would resolve the
situation. ;ollow this with an enumeration of the assumptions you are ma/ing and the areas where there
may $e room for an alternative. #e honest with yourself.
Telling the truth, the whole truth, and nothing ut the truth.1ssuming that your code of ethics requires
telling the truth! what should one do in a situation where to tell the whole truth would result in $odily harm
for you! your family! or another person. In other words! how much information can you withhold and $e
totally honestK 1re you @ustified in lyingK If so! write out your code of ethics in words that encompass your
feelings. 8ow! as/ what is the $asis on which your code rests. Is it on the $asis of protecting your personal
interestsK Is it what :od would e.pectK Is if for some other reasonK
Aortion and euthanasia. 2n what do you $ase your assumption that a$ortion or euthanasia is right or
wrongK Is it wrong under all circumstancesK If you can rationalize that it is not wrong under one
circumstance! how did you arrive at that conclusionK
!elf defense and going to war. Is one ever @ustified in engaging in defending one
E
s property and family $y
ta/ing human lifeK *an one answer the call of hisLher country to engage in warfareK *an one wor/ in a factory
and ma/e ammunitionK *an one serve as a chaplain on the $attlefieldK Bhat can one do! if anything! in the
face of danger and aggressionK Is one @ustified in refusing to $ear arms in what one $elieves is an
J
un@ust
J

warK
"usiness deals. Bhat do you do when wor/ing in a $usiness where it is customary to pay $ri$es or give a
$ill of sale that is lower than the actual amount when the action is to avoid paying higher ta.esK hould one
J
wor/ the system
J
or
J
challenge the system
J
K To wor/ the system implies doing what others normally do. To
challenge the system means insisting on doing the
J
right
J
thing even though no one else does the right
thing.
!e+tboo2 Readin"
1t this point! we recommend that you read #lac/$urn! Ethics.
E+amination
8ow that you have come to the end of this module! you should review the material in preparation for a
multiple0choice e.amination. Bhen you are ready for the e.am! you may open it from the *ourse <enu.
%O-ULE2 3ib&ica& Ethics
I remem$er as a child attending one of my first movies. It was 'odern (imes, featuring *harlie *haplin. In it
the poor little hero was caught up in assem$ly0line wor/! even ta/ing his lunch off the line as it passed
$y him rapidly! some of it hitting him in the face. Be live today in what is called a 4ostmodern world! or
even a 4ost0*hristian world. It is a world of dizzying change! the $rea/down of family and society in
general and a time of fuzzy ethical positions. <uch li/e *haplin
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s assem$ly line! it races past us! hardly
giving us time to ad@ust to it. 1 computer si. months old! for instance! is already considered out of date. <y
first computer had a memory capacity of 7&,/. The genius of #ill :ates in that year could not envision today
E
s
computers of thousands of times more memory. 'e even commented that he could not imagine anyone
ever needing more than 7&,/ of memory for a personal computer. *onstant change has $rought a$out a
condition called future shoc/! coming from the title of a $oo/ $y 1lvin Toffler (15+1). In it he dealt with the
death of permanence! our throw0away society and other issues of life in the fast lane. This is a world in
which there seems to $e no a$iding values! no a$solutes! no firm values and no deep convictions. It is a
world in which everyone seems to have his or her own style of thin/ing! $elieving! and doing. uch a world!
although it has many miraculous devices to improve and prolong life! is dangerously detrimental to high
ethical standards! and particularly to *hristian standards.
2ur purpose in this unit is to review many different facets of life today in the light of cripture. Be will loo/ at
cultures of today and the danger of ungodly elements. Be will e.amine the elements of cultures that are
either good or neutral and consider how to incorporate these into the church without $ecoming li/e the
world. Be will review negative aspects of culture that are un$i$lical and destructive. Be will e.amine the
satanic efforts launched continually against *hristians to ma/e them slip $ac/ into the world. Be will loo/ at
worldviews of different cultures! worldview change! and how to ta/e advantage of upheavals in society to
draw others to *hrist. Be will loo/ at how to $ecome all things to all men without $ecoming li/e them. Be
will survey the principles of *hrist against culture! *hrist of culture! *hrist a$ove culture! *hrist and culture
in parado.! and *hrist the transformer of culture. 1s a part of our study we will ta/e a loo/ at the realms of
*hristian ethics and cultural relativity. Be will also consider how to communicate the *hristian culture
effectively to the world. Be shall demonstrate the $lessings of *hristianity and the hope it offers a lost
world! as well as how to guide *hristians to a healthy relationship with their culture.
Bhen the Titanic set sail from England on its maiden voyage! it was heralded not only as the most
lu.urious and speedy passenger ship yet $uilt! $ut also as unsin/a$le. BrongO It was really on a collision
course. The first ice$erg it hit cut it open li/e a tin can. 2ur world today is on a collision course with forces that
are far more destructive than ice$ergs. #lissfully unaware! multitudes a$out us are passengers on this
J
Titanic
J
racing along toward moral destruction. omeone must spea/ up loudly and clearly!
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*hange
course! change courseO Ice$erg aheadO
J
Incidentally! *hristians are also on a collision course. The world is
out to either destroy the *hristian witness or at least to neutralize the message (:lover hipp).
Unit '. Human Cu&tures and 4or& dvi e$s
If ethics is defined as
J
the standard of conduct and moral @udgmentG moral philosophyG the system or code of
morals of a particular individual! group or society!
J
then *hristian ethics refers to the standard of *hristian
conduct and morality. In this unit we will consider $i$lical ethics (particularly
J
*hristian
J
ethics). This first unit
is divided into three sections: (a) cultural and reality! ($) :od and culture! and (c) *hrist and culture. ;irst!
we shall set the stage for loo/ing at $i$lical ethics.
)ust as a fish is surrounded $y water! so human $eings are surrounded $y human cultures. In some
instances! there is @ust one culture in our region or city. #ut often there are competing cultures. This is
especially true of such ur$an centers as 8ew ?or/! 4aris! 'ong Dong! Hagos! ao 4aulo. ince we are so
engulfed in culture! let us ta/e a closer loo/ at it. The >ictionary defines culture as
J
the ideas! customs!
s/ills! arts! etc.! of a given people in a given period.
J
1nthropologist Houis Huz$eta/ descri$es culture as Ja
way of life . . . a total plan for livingG it is functionally organized into a systemG it is acquired through learningG
it is the way of life of a social group! not of an individual as such
J
(Huz$eta/ 15+,:7,). *hristian
anthropologist 4aul 'ie$ert says that
J
people in other societies loo/ at life in different ways. ;or e.ample!
the 1shanti of Best 1frica $elieve that spirits play pran/s on people $y $eing $orn as $a$ies $ut also that
within a few days! the spirits lose interest in the game and leave the $ody. 2nly infants that live more than
eight days are considered human $eings and given names and places in society
J
('ie$ert! 159%:%).
'ie$ert goes on to define culture as
J
the integrated system of learned patterns of $ehavior! ideas and
products characteristic of a society (op. cit. :"(). 'ow does our culture function in relationship to life! :od!
eternity! good and evil! right and wrongK 2ur culture surrounds us to the point where we do not recognize it
and can hardly define it. The worst species to as/ a$out water is a fish. BhyK #ecause it is so surrounded
$y water that it never stops to analyze its environment. Every tri$e! clan! family! city! or even country has a
culture and multiple su$0cultures. Be could not function as a group of people without a culture to guide us
in daily functioning as a society.
*ultures are not perfect. 8either are they neutral. They all have their strengths and wea/nesses!
consistencies and inconsistencies! positive and negative aspects. These cultures are generally defined $y
tri$es and su$0tri$es! $ut not totally. <ost cultures today are $eing influenced $y international television. 1ll
cultures are in a state of change in today
E
s world! $ecause they are not as isolated as they were in the past.
*ultures are humanly devised and passed down through the generations. They are not static in our rapidly
changing world! $ut change as they are transmitted from place to place and generation to generation.
'aving $een created and developed $y humans! cultures are therefore imperfect. They may have many
good features! $ut also have some ungodly characteristics. 1s we shall see! the positive and neutral
aspects of a culture should not $e a$andoned when its people $ecome *hristians. Be should not go to war
against these good aspects of culture. 2ur war is against evil. 2nly the negative and ungodly aspects of a
culture (those that are clearly against *hristian principles) must $e com$ated. )esus said! JBe are in the
world! $ut not of the world ()ohn 1+:1(017).
*ulture is the way in which a society (tri$e! clan! family! city! nation) adapts itself to its physical! social!
mental! and spiritual environment. This includes:
religion on the Indian civilizations! $ut at heart the people did not change that much. 8ow in many places
Indians go to *atholic mass! $ut may also worship their ancestral gods and offer sacrifices to them. 1frican
slaves in #razil held onto their animistic religious traditions! mi.ing them with *atholic saints and practices.
The result is that today! 1frican spiritism is syncretized with *atholicism. 2ne can go to a spiritist shop and
purchase an image of Ieman@
E
! the ?oru$an goddess of the sea. The strange thing is that this same
goddess is also the Iirgin <ary! so the one statue can represent either entity.
>isasters or plagues such as droughts! fires! floods! 1I>! wars! and other calamities can so disrupt a
culture that it never returns fully to what it was $efore. 4erhaps its old cultural $eliefs were not adequate to
e.plain what happened! so a new way of loo/ing at things developed.
The influence of the media (radio! TI! video! movies! newspapers! magazines) can change cultures slowly
$ut steadily. 8o longer does there seem to $e a firm idea of what is right and what is wrong. 8o longer is
there a strong principle of a$solute truth in Bestern societies. 1ll is in the realm of individualism and
pluralism.
J
Bhatever feels right for me is right.
J
Inversely! whatever appears to $e right for the other person
should $e permitted him or her without question.
.nternet ,ource
J
*ulture
J
a. Cu&ture and rea&ity. Every nation! city! people group! culture! su$0culture! society! family! place of
$usiness! school! church! and even individual! has a unique worldview. Be generally @udge a culture or
society $y its traditions! customs! and ha$its. These! however! are e.ternals we can see! even though we
may not understand why things are done as they are in that group. There are factors at wor/ in any society
that are normally une.pressed and even unanalyzed. These factors must $e understood! if we are to
understand any group or individual in that group. These factors contri$ute to a general worldview00how it
perceives everything in the universe.
The hear t of a wor l dvi ew. 1t the heart of worldview are assumptions! which are seldom! if ever!
questioned. These assumptions are simply felt to $e reality! even if they are not. Bhat is their sourceK They
come from e.periences over the centuries! o$servations! traditions! fol/lore and many other influences.
Bhat some generation long ago analyzed and concluded! rightly or wrongly! may $e accepted today as true
without e.amination. Het us cite a few e.amples.
it. :od chose a great flood to deal with the corruption he could not tolerate: human violence! perversion! and
evil $ehavior.
1t the Tower of #a$el (:en. 11:105). The whole tri$e of humans after the flood had a common language and
culture. These post0flood pilgrims settled in hinar (<esopotamia! called today Iraq) and decided to $uild
a great tower! city! and society. They wanted power and prestige. They wanted a name. They wanted to
concentrate their num$ers in one location. They wanted to clim$ up their tower and $e on a level with
:od. In view of their pride and evil intentions! :od confused their tongues ages and scattered them.
Even after the human race had $een scattered! it still attempted to concentrate its num$ers and power!
turning to idolatry! and other evils. 2ut of this situation :od called 1$ram (1$raham) to leave 3r and
settle in a far land! where a more holy! :od0fearing family could develop into a nation (:en. 11:"+0%"G
1":105)..
odom and :omorrah were important trade centers near the >ead ea. They were also very immoral!
practicing widespread homose.uality and treating others! especially the poor! cruelly. #ecause their
society had $ecome so evil! :od destroyed these cities (:en. 19:17015:"").
In order to lead the Israelites out of slavery and form them into a holy culture! ?ahweh sent <oses and
1aron to confront the 4haraoh. Bhat followed was a $attle $etween :od and the gods of Egypt. These
gods had $een created $y humans in response to such phenomena as the annual flooding of the 8ile! life!
fertility! weather! the sun and moon! death! eternity! etc. Each one of the ten plagues was aimed specifically
at one of the gods of Egypt and each one of them fell $efore the Hord
E
s power. The ruler and his oldest son
(and heir to the throne) were considered gods. Bhen the pharaoh
E
s first$orn died! this too/ away the ne.t
J
god
J
from the throne. 'uman culture! even the most advanced one of that age! could not long defy :od.
Israel was called out of Egypt to $ecome a separate people! dedicated to :od in every way! including in its
assumptions! values! and loyalties. It was to $e a /ingdom of priests and a holy nation (E.od. 15:7! >eut.
"7:17015). It was to have a divinely0guided culture! in contrast with the human cultures a$out it. :od
E
s
people were not to intermarry with foreigners! follow their gods or do what they did (8um. "(:10(! >eut. +:%07!
17:"1! 19:501&! "%:1+019! "(:10(). 'owever! Israel refused to remain faithful. Time and again the people fell
into idolatry! worshiping the gods of the nations a$out them ()udg. ":1,0"%G 1 Dings 1":"(0""! 19:",0&,).
1s for the Israelites! they $ecame attracted to the gods of *anaan. To have a good crop! their neigh$ors
argued! it was necessary to appease the gods of the land. ;or their animals and wives to $e fertile! they
needed to sacrifice to the god of fertility. The Israelite :od was of the desert and was invisi$le. 'ow could he
/now the situation in *anaanK 'ow could they /now 'e was even with them in *anaanK The gods of
*anaan had come out of the locals
E
own needs and desires! and were visi$le and sensual. They placed no
moral prohi$itions on them. Hiving in close pro.imity to other nations and watching how they functioned!
Israel chose to copy them. :od
E
s people re@ected him as their ruler and wanted a human /ing to rule over
them (1 am.9:105). Their /ing! aul! led them wrongly and died in $attle. >avid and olomon ruled well!
despite ordering high ta.es and lapsing into sin. olomon
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s son! =eho$oam! haughtily scorned the people
and lost most of his /ingdom (1 Dings 1":101+). 'e also led the people of )udah astray into idolatry (1 Dings
1&:""0"&). <eanwhile! the /ings of the northern country! Israel! uniformly led their people into a terri$le level
of idolatry (1 Dings 1":"(0%%). The result was the end of that nation (" Dings 1+:+0"%). Even e.ile in 1ssyria
and #a$ylon did not totally cure :od
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s people of their all0too0human tendencies. <any who returned from
e.ile and intermarried with women of other nations were severely punished (8eh. 1%:"%0"9).
Those called $y :od cannot isolate themselves totally from the world! $ut they are not to $ecome li/e the
world. They cannot accept the world
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s assumptions! values! and loyalties.
c. Christ and cu&ture. *hristianity has always struggled over how to respond to the culture or cultures
a$out it. The response has run the gamut $etween a$solute separation from the culture $y way of the
monastic life and total a$sorption into the prevailing culture. The monastic orders of *atholicism and other
groups! along with the 1mish of 1merican culture! are illustrations of this first mentality. The opposite
e.treme is to $ecome so involved with the culture that the church $ecomes an arm of it. Hi$eral political!
social groups! and some churches follow this path.
;or *hristians the question is how much or how little to $end to the culture a$out us. <ost agree that there
is something unique a$out *hristianity that places it a$ove the agendas of the world
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s cultures. There are
several distinct approaches to the su$@ect. =ichard 8ie$uhr wrote a landmar/ $oo/ in 15(1 called Christ
and Culture. In it he presented four $asic options on how to deal with it. These were
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*hrist against
culture!
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*hrist of culture!
J

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*hrist a$ove culture!
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*hrist and culture in parado.!
J
and
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*hrist the transformer
of culture.
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In 1557 )ames <ontgomery #oice wrote a $oo/ titled! /oundations of -od
5
s City: Christians in a
Crumblin$ Culture. In this volume he lists four aspects of culture that the *hristian should consider. These
are
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*hrist over culture!
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*hrist a$ove culture!
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*hrist the servant of culture!
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and
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The world
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s wisdom
a$out culture.
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ince *hrist is the head of all things! the cultures of this world are under his dominion.
*hrist is over culture! $ut the church does not enforce rule over culture. *hrist may $e against certain forms
of culture! $ut he is not against those aspects that are positive. ;or instance! 'e applauds good marital and
family relations! @ust laws! o$edience to civil authorities! care for those in need! immediate response to
catastrophes! constructive civic wor/s! ta. funds used wisely for the pu$lic good! honest officials! @ust
@udges! prompt and reasona$le punishment for wrongdoing! municipal services! civic holidays! @ust wor/ing
conditions and wages! dedicated doctors! relia$le hospitals and health services! efficient police and fire
services! honest commercial enterprises! sound schools and teachers! constructive artistic e.pression!
$oo/s with a moral message! and much more. 8or is he against items in the culture that are neutral! such as
where a person lives or the /ind of house in which he or she lives. 'e is not opposed to one
E
s profession!
unless it is ethically or morally questiona$le. :od is not necessarily concerned a$out one
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s means of
transportation! the food he or she eats (unless it is harmful to the $ody)! where he or she goes on a holiday
(unless it is to a morally or physically questiona$le location)! where and what one studies in school! and
other such aspects of the culture.
*hrist opposes any aspect of culture that is openly or even clandestinely opposed to the $etterment of
humanity. 'e is against entertainment that is violent or morally corrupt. 'e is against un@ust laws and
officials. 'e is opposed to dishonesty in government! $usiness or private life. 'e is opposed to e.cessive
ta.es! mistreatment of citizens and the lac/ of proper care for children! the ill! the poor! and the elderly. 'e
is opposed to a culture that does not follow :od! whether it $e idolatrous! polytheistic! atheistic! or
materialistic. )esus said that his followers would $e in the world! $ut not of the world. 'e did not pray for
them to $e ta/en out of the world! $ut rather! to $e protected from the Evil 2ne ()ohn 1+:1%017). The tric/ is
to swim in the world! $ut not to swallow its $ait. The tric/ is to $e salt! light and leaven to the world without
$eing salted down $y the world or to allow its leaven to penetrate our hearts. In terms of cultural
surroundings! *hristians are often li/e a frog in a hot /ettle. The water gets hotter and hotter! $ut the frog
/eeps ad@usting to it until he is par$oiled $y it.
*hrist is the servant of culture. 1lthough the church e.ists to aid the world in its times of distress! its
primary concern must $e turning the world away from the world! so to spea/! and toward *hrist. The tas/!
even in the midst of humanitarian aid! is to show forth *hrist.
Unit 2. Christian Ethics 100&ied
8o one has to tell you a$out unethical conduct. 2ne hardly has to move $eyond the $orders of hisLher
residence to find $ri$ery! dishonesty! thievery! failure to /eep a promise or fulfill a contract. Be /now what it is
li/e to $e short0changed and lied to. Be are aware of favoritism! greed! ta. evasion! and corruption. ?et!
amid the evil! there are people who are honest! pay their fare share! and would give you the shirt off their
own $ac/ to alleviate pain! hunger! and suffering. Bhat is the differenceK
ome people are honest as a matter of principle. They follow their conscience and simply want to do what is
right. ome may $e tempted to do evil! if they thought they could get away with it. 2thers will do what is right.
no matter what the consequence may $e. That is the /ind of person they are.
The *hristian is li/ely to $elong to the class who wants to do right! $ecause it is the right thing to do.
'owever! *hristians have a stronger motivation. They do right $ecause they are redeemed $y the $lood of
*hristG their mandate is to serve him and to $e of the same mind.
The *hristian mandate to live a transformed life carries no compulsion to impose an ethical system on non0
$elievers. 'eLshe is free of a peculiar legal system such as Islamic haria law. The *hristian will! however!
stand up for an ethical standard that reflects a higher order than one ruled $y the passions of an unprincipled
generation. 1nd heLshe will do so in a non0violent way.
The application of *hristian ethics is unconditional. 2ne
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s feelings for another do not depend on the way
another person thin/s or acts. Dindness is always returnedG truth is spo/enG peace is pursued. The attitude
and conduct of the *hristian mirror the person of :od. If the motivation were to $e found in some other
location! it would declare another portrait of :od. Bhere a relationship with :od is entered through his act
of grace in redemption! the redeemed displays similar characteristics.
1pplication does not come in a natural or easy way. It ta/es a lifetime of endeavor and can $e
accomplished only $y the grace of :od and the presence of the 'oly pirit. :od
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s pirit a$ides in
individual *hristians and in *hristians corporately! for they are also collectively a temple of :od.
In this unit! we shall e.plore the application of *hristian ethics. This will $e done under three headings: (a)
*hristians and government! ($) The *hristian and $usiness ethics! and (c) *harting a course through the
ethical swamp. =ecognizing that political policies can $e used to limit the preaching of the gospel!
*hristians sometimes find themselves the o$@ect of persecution or harassment. 3nderstanda$ly! when they
are a minority and hold convictions that the tate perceives as a threat! they will $e limited. 2rdinarily! they
su$mit peacefully and accept their lot with grace. They do not! however! $end to pressure to compromise
their faith. imilarly! in $usiness dealings! *hristians face pressure to do under0the0ta$le dealsG these they
constantly resist $y insisting on fair and honest deals. *hoosing the right course is not easy! $ut their goal is
to $ god0li/e within a world under the influence of atan.
a. Christians and "overnment. The 8ew Testament teaches that human cultures are not all good or all
$ad. There is $oth a positive side and evil side in them. 1ny element of a culture that is clearly contrary to
:od
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s will and teaching is to $e re@ected $y his followers. 2n the contrary! any element that is good can $e
utilized $y *hristians.
The difficulty for *hristians is in determining a consistent course of action in relation to the culture within
which they live. Too little contact with the culture isolates the *hristian to the point where heLshe has no
influence on it at all. Too much contact with the culture can eventually soil the heart and ma/e it
impossi$le to have a positive influence. 2ne of the ma@or dilemmas faced $y *hristians is how to deal
with politics and government. 1re there $i$lical guidelines on this matterK
Bhen )esus was as/ed if it were proper for )ews to pay ta.es to the =omans! their pagan conquerors
(<att. "":1(0"")! what did he answerK 'e called for a =oman coin and as/ed whose inscription was on it.
Bhen his inquisitors answered!
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*aesar
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s!
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he answered!
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Then give unto *aesar what is *aesar
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s and unto
:od what is :od
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s.
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The coin sym$olized civil authority. The =omans provided and /ept up e.cellent roads!
protected the empire from terrorists and the sea from pirates. They guarded the frontiers against invaders.
They /ept the =oman 4eace. =ome owned the Empire! even though in many ways it was evil and some
officials were corrupt. Therefore! said )esus! the )ewish people owed ta.es to =ome! $ut they also owed
:od for food! drin/! shelter! clothing! air! and water. 'e gave salvation and hope through *hrist. 'e gave
inner peace and purpose. 'e gave the church as a holy family of $lessing and mutual comfort. 'e gave
$oth physical and spiritual life. The $eliever therefore owes :od everything. 8othing one owns is really his.
It is merely loaned $y a merciful :od for use and for $lessing others. 1ll humans
are summoned to give their lives to :od. :overnment and civil structures are ordained $y :od (=om.
1%:1). 2ne diso$eys :od when one diso$eys civil authority! no matter how corrupt it may $e. 4aul was
tal/ing a$out =ome! led often $y evil! immoral emperors. The *hristian who re$els against this authority or
$rea/s its laws is re$elling against :od (=om. 1%:"). *hristians are therefore to honor and su$mit to
officials! o$ey them and pay our proper ta.es (=om. 1%:(0+).
The e.ception to this principle is if a government forces the *hristian to violate hisLher primary commitment.
Bhen the apostles were $eing tried $y the )ewish anhedrin and were ordered to cease preaching in the
name of )esus! they answered! JBe must o$ey :od rather than man
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(1cts (:"5). *enturies earlier!
hadrach! <eshach and 1$ednego! in the #oo/ of >aniel! refused to $ow $efore the image of the ruler!
even though their refusal would potentially $ring a$out their death. Then >aniel himself refused to su$mit to a
law requiring that all prayers $e offered only to the ruler. 'e refused and was thrown into a lion
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s den. Hater!
*hristians were ordered to $ow to the =oman emperor
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s image and offer incense to him! @ust as all others
were doing. It was a case of confessing!
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*aesar is Hord.
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This *hristians could not do! $ecause it would
violate their higher allegiance to *hrist. They refused and many were e.ecuted $ecause of it. They were
accused of $eing su$versives $y their refusal to $ow to the image of *aesar.
If a government orders all churches to close or preaching done a$out *hrist to cease on penalty of
imprisonment! how should the *hristian respondK Early *hristians o$eyed the =oman authorities e.cept
when they were forced to $ow to an image of the *aesar. If demanded to ma/e a choice $etween
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*aesar
is Hord
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or
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*hrist is Hord!
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those who chose *hrist were persecuted! even to the point of $eing /illed.
'owever! @ust $ecause we $elieve the government is dictatorial or corrupt is no reason to diso$ey its laws.
)ust $ecause we thin/ ta.es are unfair is no e.cuse for refusing to pay ta.es. cripture orders *hristians to
honor those who have authority over them (1 4et. ":1%01+). 4aul says in =omans 1%:10+ that *hristians are to
$e su$missive to human authorities.
=egardless of the condition of a government! *hristians pray for their civil leaders regularly! rather than
criticizing them and plotting against them. 4aul instructs *hristians to
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ma/e requests! prayers!
intercession and than/sgiving for everyone: for /ings and for all those in authority! that we may live
peaceful and quiet lives
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(1 Tim. ":10").
b. !he Christian and business ethics. *hristians do not value money and wealth! e.cept to use it for
good. They do not cheat others in $usiness. They /eep their promises. They are honest and /ind. They do
not attempt to step on other people in their efforts to succeed. Bhy is thisK They have a higher and
no$ler calling. They follow the way of *hrist. They are to $e the light of the world! reflecting *hrist
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s light to
all of those a$out them. They realize that their citizenship is in heaven and therefore act li/e good
citizens of :od
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s Dingdom.
"i l i cal gui del i nes f or t he use of money. cripture spells out in some detail the attitude *hristians
should have toward finances. =egarding money! nowhere does the #i$le te.t say that money or wealth are
prohi$ited. 'owever! it does say that the love of money is dangerous and even sinful (1 Tim. 7:1,). 4aul
says in the e.tended passage from verses 701, that people who want to $ecome wealthy can easily fall into
a trap of harmful desires that can lead them to ruin.
4art of this affluence! of course! would $e used to care for family. #ut $eyond family! there are many @ust
causes! and especially the cause of *hrist! to which one could apply his wealth. The rich young ruler in
Hu/e 19 did not lose out on the Dingdom of *hrist $ecause he was wealthy. =ather! he lost the higher
wealth $ecause he loved his earthly wealth too much. )esus saw that the young man had allowed his riches
to $ecome his god. Bhen *hrist told him to sell his goods! give the proceeds to the poor and follow him! the
young man went away sorrowful. 'e concluded that the cost was @ust too high for him (Hu/e 1":1%0" 1).
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Batch outO #e on your guard against all /inds of greedG a man
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s life does not consist in the a$undance of his
possessions.
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These words were a prelude to the story )esus told a$out a rich man whose crops were so
a$undant that he tore down his $arns and $uilt $igger ones. Then he sat $ac/ and decided to eat! drin/!
and $e merry. 'e $elieved he was supplied for many years. #ut )esus had the last word: This foolish
man
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s soul was required of him that very night. Then whose would $e all he had hoardedK
<oney and possessions are not really ours. =ather! they are on loan from :od. If we have a home! it is
his. If we have a family! it is his. If we have clothing! food and other necessities! they are his. If we have a
car! it is his. Be are merely careta/ers of these $lessings. 'ow we use them is of critical.
In all of this! *hristians must $e diligent to return $ountifully to :od! $ecause he gives $ountifully. )esus
says!
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;reely you have receivedG freely give
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(<att. 1,:9). The e.ample of the <acedonian churches should
encourage all to return $lessings sacrificially to the Hord. Those congregations first gave themselves to the
Hord and then gave $eyond their financial a$ility (" *orinthians 9). This is the /ey. ;irst they gave
themselves. Bhile money is in the *hristian
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s hands! he decides what to do with it (1cts (:&).
"usiness attitudes and practices in the !criptures. Early in the history of the Israelite people! ?ahweh
gave them instructions a$out $usiness dealings. In Hev. 15:%7 he was so concerned for commercial
integrity that he commanded them to use accurate weights and measures. Their weighing and measuring
devices were to $e e.act! not shaved here and there (>eut. "(:1%01(). That means today that a scale
weighs accurately and that a gallon of gas is really a gallon. 3n@ust weights and measurements are an
a$omination in :od
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s sight (4rov. ",:"%).
Bhat a$out lending and $orrowing moneyK *an a *hristian charge interest on a loan to another
*hristianK *an he or she require a deposit on something $orrowed or rentedK 1lthough the 8ew
Testament says nothing specific a$out charging interest! the Haw of <oses denounced ta/ing unfair
advantage of persons in need. In 8ehemiah ( :od
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s governor! 8ehemiah! severely criticized )ews for
e.acting usury from their fellow countrymen. 1ny item necessary to survival! such as a cloa/ ta/en in
pledge! was to $e returned to its owner that night (>eut. "&:1%01(). :od
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s people were to see that the
poor! downtrodden! widows and orphans were cared for and guaranteed @ustice.
4aul wrote to Timothy to instruct masters to treat their slaves in a /ind manner. laves were to respect
their masters. If their masters were $elievers! they were to $e treated with even more respect (1 Tim. 7:10").
In today
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s somewhat parallel situation managers must treat their employees fairly. Employees! in turn! are to
respect their employers! doing an honest day
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s wor/ and not spending their time criticizing and
complaining. 1$ove all! those in any /ind of $usiness should $e scrupulously honest and trustworthy: in
their hours! e.pense accounts! use of company supplies and in every other way.
c. Chartin" a course throu"h the ethica& s$am0. Be live in what is called the 4ostmodern Era! in which
everyone is said to have a right to $elieve or do anything he or she wants and no one has a right to question
it. The #i$le says there is nothing new under the sun. Twice in )udges it is said that
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every man did that
which was right in his own eyes
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()udg. 1+:7! "1:"(). This is a air description of the present generation.
8ow! what does the Bord say a$out moral and social valuesK =emem$er! values are at the heart of
one
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s worldview and especially important! at the heart of a *hristian worldview.
#ustice and social relations. :od e.pects his followers to $e socially responsi$le. In E.od. ",:1"01+G
"":170%, and Hev. 15:15 he outlines $asic social responsi$ilities
1. 'onor parents.
2. =espect human life.
3. =especrt another person
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s spouse.
4. =espect another
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s property and reputation.
5. :ive honest testimony.
6. =efrain from coveting what $elongs to another person.
7. >o not mistreat a foreigner or refugee.
8. 8ever ta/e advantage of a widow or orphan.
9. >o not $ecome a party to the spread of gossip or false reports.
10. Bithstand the crowd
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s pull to do wrong.
11. 'elp others with their pro$lems and emergencies.
12. hun false charges and lawsuits.
13. =e@ect the offer of a $ri$eG do not pervert @ustice.
14. >o not defraud othersG pay people what you owe them
15. =efrain from endangering the life of another.
16. 1$stain from hate.
17. >o not $ear a grudge or see/ revenge.
18. =espect the elderly.
$hristians cannot ecome like those aout them. Israel was warned not to $ecome li/e the nations
(Hev. ",:"%). :od
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s people were not to a$sor$ their evil $eliefs and practices. The *anaanites and
surrounding peoples sacrificed to various gods that demanded of them child sacrifice! se.ual immorality!
and other perverted practices.
Israel was not to intermarry with men or women of the nations a$out them! $ecause this would lead to
idolatry (>eut. +:%0&). Ezra ordered those who had married foreign wives to separate from them. (Ezra 1,).
8ehemiah was angry with the )ews who had intermarried with foreigners. Their children no longer spo/e
their national language or /new the laws $y which :od governed them.
>espite every warning! Israel did $ecome li/e other nations. :od
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s covenant people had not even entered the
4romised Hand yet when they were seduced into idolatry and immorality $y the <oa$ites (8um$ers "().
8ot long after )oshua
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s death Israel turned to the worship of #aal and 1sherah! god and goddess of the
*anaanites. This happened repeatedly until :od disciplined them. Israel reached its pea/ of godlessness
at the time of 1ha$! who married the vicious daughter of the /ing of idon! )eze$el! who $rought the
4hoenician version of #aal into Israel (1 Dings 17:"50%%). 8eigh$oring )udah fell to the depths under
<anasseh! who covered the country with idolatrous worship. 'e even sacrificed his own son to an idol ("
Dings "1:1011). 'osea charged Ephraim (Israel) of mi.ing with the nations ('osea +:9). 1mos thundered
against Israel for its complacency and moral indulgence (1mos 7). <icah accused Israel of plotting to do evil
(<icah ":10").
The "ile
%
s description of the world
%
s nature. The world without *hrist is hopelessly perverted! as =om.
1:190%" declares. 1lthough the passage emphasizes se.ual perversion as a sign of this perversion! which we
will get to later! 4aul lists other signs as well. These are:
1. ;illed with every /ind of wic/edness! evil and depravity.
2. :reed.
3. Envy.
4. <urder.
5. trife! deceit! and malice.
6. :ossips and slander.
7. :od0haters.
8. 1rrogance and $oasting.
9. Inventors of new ways to do evil.
10. >iso$edience to parents.
11. enselessness.
12. ;aithlessness.
13. 'eartlessness.
14. 1pproving others who practice these things.
4aul declares :al. (:150"1 that the wor/s of the sinful nature include! in addition to se.ual immortality:
1. Impurity and de$auchery.
2. Idolatry.
3. Bitchcraft.
4. 'atred.
5. >iscord! dissensions and factions.
6. )ealousy.
7. ;its of rage.
8. elfish am$ition.
9. >run/enness.
10. 2rgies.
uch $ehavior as discord and selfish am$ition are sins! along with rage! orgies! and witchcraft.
Then 4aul adds in 1 Tim. 7:%0( and " Tim. %:10( these characteristics of people who $uy into the
assumptions! values and! attitudes of the world:
1. *onceited.
2. 'aving an unhealthy interest in controversy! arguments and malicious tal/.
3. ;ull of evil suspicions.
4. #eing involved in constant friction.
5. Hoving moneyG concerned primarily for financial gain.
6. Egotistical! lover of self (narcissistic)! proud and $oastful.
7. 1$usive.
8. >iso$edient to parents.
9. 3ngrateful.
10. 3nholy.
11. 3nloving.
12. 3nforgiving.
13. landerous.
14. Bithout self0control.
15. #rutal.
16. 'ater of the good.
17. Treacherous.
18. =ash.
19. *onceited.
20. Hover of pleasure.
In " 4eter ":1,015 4eter adds these descriptions of improper attitudes:
1. 'eretical.
2. ;ilthy.
3. #old and arrogant.
4. landerer.
5. *arousing.
6. 4leasure see/ers
7. 1dulterous seducers! appealing to lustful desires.
8. laves of depravity.
)ude warns a$out :
1. >reamers (in the sense of dreaming up strange doctrines or practices)
2. 4olluters of their own $odies.
3. =e@ecters of authority! especially divine.
4. :rum$lers.
5. ;aultfinders.
6. Those who are $oastful and flattering.
7. Those concerned only a$out themselves and their am$itions.
;inally! in =evelation "":17 )esus says that those e.cluded from heaven are
1. >ogs (acting more li/e animals than humans).
2. Those who practice witchcraft and magical arts.
3. e.ually immoral.
4. murderers.
5. idolaters.
6. Hiars.
&od
%
s cour se mar ker s f or an et hi cal l i f e. 8ow what are some ethical course mar/ers for living the
*hristian lifeK ;rom <atthew ( through the end of the 8ew Testament we find many mar/ers of ethics
and morally.
;rom the ermon on the <ount:
1. how mercy.
2. #e pure in heart.
3. #e a peacema/er.
4. #e salt and light of e.ample.
5. #e sincerely righteous.
6. 1void hatred toward others.
7. #e =econciled with others.
8. <aintain se.ual purity.
9. #e faithful to your spouse.
10. #e a person of your word.
11. 1void see/ing revenge.
12. Hove your enemies.
13. *are for the needy.
14. 4ray sincerely.
15. ee/ eternal riches.
16. Trust :od rather than worrying.
17. #ear true *hristian fruit.
18. #e wise in how we $uild our lives.
The essence of *hrist
E
s ethical teaching is found in this sermon: The thought $ehind the deed is critical
and sinful. To thin/ adultery is to practice it. To thin/ murder is to /ill within the heart. Even to hate others is to
/ill them in our hearts.
)esus also teaches a $rotherly relationship to others! even to enemies! is essential to living the godly life. 'e
teaches the genuineness of the life that should $e evident to the world.
;rom =omans:
1. #e a living sacrifice for our Hord.
2. #e loving toward others.
3. <aintain spiritual fervor.
4. Hive in harmony with others.
5. 1void pride and conceit.
6. >o not repay evil for evil! $ut overcome evil with good.
7. Hove your neigh$or as yourself.
8. *lothe yourself with *hrist.
9. >o not even thin/ a$out gratifying the desires of the flesh.
10. #e considerate of those wea/er in the faith.
11. ee/ peace.
;rom the *orinthian letters:
1. #e than/ful to :od for all things.
2. ee/ unity in the faith.
3. 'ave nothing to do with immorality in the church.
4. #e faithful in marriage.
5. 1void even the appearance of idolatry.
6. >o not use your freedom in such a way as to harm others. ee/ the good of others.
7. Borship in a sincere and proper way.
8. <aintain an attitude of sincere a$ ap e love in all relationships.
9. #e on your guard at all times. #e courageous! standing firm in the faith.
10. #e ready to forgive others.
11. #e generous.
12. E.amine your own faith and attitude regularly! aiming for perfection.
;rom 4aul
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s other letters:
1. Hive $y the pirit! producing spiritual fruit.
2. >o good unto all others.
3. Hive as true children of light.
4. #e truthful.
5. *ontrol your anger.
6. pea/ only what is helpful to others.
7. #e imitators of *hrist.
6. 1void even the hint of se.ual immorality.
7. u$mit to one another out of reverence for *hrist.
8. #e faithful to your mate.
9. 'onor your parents.
10. 2$ey those over you and treat with respect those under you.
11. 4ut no confidence in the flesh.
12. =e@oice in the Hord always.
13. Thin/ a$out no$le and spiritual things.
14. 4ut your earthly nature to death.
15. *lothe yourself with compassion! /indness! humility and patience.
16. Het the peace and Bord of *hrist dwell in you.
17. >evote yourself to prayer.
18. #e wise in your dealings with outsiders.
19. >o not pay $ac/ wrong for wrong! $ut live in patience and forgiveness.
20. #e diligent in your wor/.
21. 1void controversies and idle words.
22. 4ursue righteousness! faith! love! endurance and gentleness.
23. 1void slander! $ut encourage and re$u/e others as the situation demands.
;rom the :eneral Epistles:
1. Entertain strangers.
2. >o not $e carried away $y all /inds of strange teachings.
3. 2$ey those in authority.
4. 4ersevere under trials.
5. =efuse to show favoritism.
6. Deep your tongue under control.
7. u$mit to :od in all things.
8. >o not $oast a$out wealth or the future.
9. #e eager to do good.
10. <a/e every effort to $e found $lameless.
11. :row in the grace and /nowledge of )esus.
12. Bal/ in the Hight! as )esus is in the Hight.
13. >o not $e led astray from the ;aith.
14. Test the spirits! to determine which are true.
15. 4ray for others.
16. Imitate what is good! not evil.
17. #uild yourself up in the ;aith.
18. #e merciful toward others.
Unit (. ,0ecia& !o0ics
)udging matters from the standard of the #i$le! the world is filled with immorality and a thirst for ungodly
delights. The gospel calls people to holiness! a holiness defined $y the nature of :od (1 4et. ":501").
*ircumstances ma/e *hristians strangers in this world. 8ot only are *hristians called to a$stain from
unholy things! they are summoned to $ehave in such a way that the world may see the good and
ac/nowledge *hrist as the revealer of :od (cf. <att. (:1&017G )ohn 1G 1 4et. ":1101").
The world offers many tantalizing enticements to parta/e of its pleasures. 8ot all of these are evil within
themselves. #ut without discernment! many of the evil inclinations can ruin the *hristian
A
s life. 2ne can
easily $e pressured or $linded to the end result and $ecome a captive to sin. The instruments are
numerous: television! newspapers! radio! magazines! $oo/s! the Internet! personal associates! social
gatherings! and even family mem$ers. Be should not $e surprised to find that the world resists any
attempt at re$u/eG it ridicules those who refuse to @oin in its mischievous deeds.
*hristians live in the world! $ut they are not of the world. They operate within a culture! although they do
not parta/e of all its features. ;or e.ample! the culture may $e captivated $y sports. ports impact one
E
s life
in a positive way $y adding diversion from a stress0filled wor/ life! offering an opportunity for socialization!
and providing physical e.ercise. #ut when various sporting activities interfere with family affairs! $ecome an
o$session! or attract one to gam$ling! the *hristian is o$liged to pursue a higher set of values. These
distractions are of one natureG many other allurements reach out to tempt the *hristian.
The confrontation $etween culture and *hristianity can $e a matter of @udgment or principle. <atters of
@udgment come in those areas that call for moderation! as with consumption of alcoholic $everages!
sports enthusiasm! spending money on self! self0defense! or when a$ortion and euthanasia are
permitted. Even here! there will $e disagreement! $ut at least the notion of @udgment enters the picture.
1s for principle! *hristians are called upon to $e honest in $usiness! morally pure! faithful in marriage!
responsi$le in child rearing! and a pu$lic e.ample of their faith. They will face opposition from those who
insist on a la. moral code! underhanded $usiness practices! and suppression of testimony to their faith.
There is hardly any reason for a government or local society to $e concerned a$out *hristians! unless there
is some fear of loss of position attained and maintained $y corrupt actions. *hristians pray for those in
political positionsG they pay ta.esG they are honest in $usiness dealingsG they commit no social crimesG they
are morally pureG they do not engage in drug trade. They are! in some respects! the conscience of the
community.
In this unit! we shall consider three topics in three conte.ts: (a) se.ual conduct! ($) personal conduct! and (c)
social conduct. Be shall $e concerned as to the nature of the divergences! why they are considered
unethical! and the way they see/ to undermine *hristian faith. Bhen those who control culture insist upon
conformity to practices that run counter to revealed righteousness! the *hristian is o$liged to desist.
a. ,e+ua& conduct
&od
%
s i nst i t ut i on of mar r i age. <arriage came from the mind of :od and was ordained for the good of his
human creation (:en. ":",0"%.) This was the first covenant! or $inding pledge! :od made with his
creatures. The man was to leave father and mother and esta$lish a new home with his wife. The two were
intended to live together as
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one!
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where neither was complete without the other. 1nd notice here the
emphasis on a nuclear family00hus$and and wife forming a new unit of society.
:od
E
s initial $lueprint for humanity was that society $e constructed of $asic $uilding $loc/s. These
structural $loc/s were to $e nuclear families.
They were to $uild a fortress of security for themselves and their children! a fortress that would $e a safe
haven for creating and $ringing up children. 8o matter what might happen in the outside world! the home
was $e provide sta$ility and continuity. The children were to have $oth a father role model and a mother
role model to follow.
In a marriage! the hus$and must $e the head of the household! guiding his wife and children in the ways of
his own Hord. :od says of 1$raham!
J
;or I have chosen him! so that he will direct his children and his
household after him to /eep the way of the Hord . . .J (:en. 19:1+). This principle is e.panded in >eut. &:5 and
11:150",! and also in Eph. 7:&. In every case the father is to lead his family in moral and spiritual
understanding.
4arents are to $ring up their children in the nurture and admonition of the Hord (Eph. 7:&). The children are
to see their godly e.ample and imitate it in loving care for each other.
<arriage is a permanent union! dissolved only $y the death of one of the marital partners (:en. ":"&). The
Israelites $ecame very la. regarding the marriage covenant! permitting divorce for many reasons! $ut )esus
told us clearly that this was not true from the $eginning. The only reason for $rea/ing the marriage
covenant! apart from death! is adultery on the part of one of the mates (<att. 15:105). )esus teaches plainly
that the person who divorces! e.cept for a mate
E
s marital unfaithfulness! causes the mate to commit
adultery and anyone who marries a person so divorced commits adultery. In fact! 'e adds that even a
lustful desire for a person not one
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s mate is equal in the sight of :od to adultery (<att. (:"+0%").
4aul teaches in 1 *or. (:107! 1%0",! 7:1%G " *or. 1":"1G :al. (:150"1: and Eph. &:15 that se.ual immorality
has no place in the *hristian life. It is a wor/ of the flesh! denounced as sin. *hristians are required to flee
se.ual impurity of all /inds. 8o one is to approach any close relative for se.ual purposes.
4aul warns *hristians not to fellowship with se.ually0immoral people! or one who is greedy! idolatrous!
slanderous! a drun/ard or a swindler. In " *or. 1":"1 he grieves over the lac/ of repentance of those who
commit impurity! se.ual sin! and de$auchery. e.ual immorality! de$auchery! drun/enness and orgies are
listed as acts of the sinful nature in :al. (:150"1. ensuality and se.ual impurity are hallmar/s of the pagan
life! which 4aul contrasts with the *hristian life! in which a new self is created $y the Hord (Eph. &:1+0%"). In
*ol. %:(01, 4aul again condemns se.ual immorality! impurity! lust and evil desires as wor/s that must $e
put $ehind as one puts on a new self in *hrist.
Homose'ual i t y. 'omose.uality has $een around since earliest history. 1mong the ancient Egyptians!
<esopotamians! 'ittites! *anaanites! :ree/s and =omans it was practiced! especially among the no$ility!
military and leaders of society. #oth 2ld and 8ew Testaments condemn homose.uality! as noted in the
following references.
J>o not lie with a man as one lies with a woman. This is detesta$le
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(Hev. 19:"").
JIf a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman! $oth of them have done what is detesta$le. They
must $e put to deathG their $lood will $e on their own heads (Hev. ",:1%).
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:od gave the sinful world over to its sinful desires and se.ual impurity for the degrading of their $odies
with each other
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(=om. 1:"&! "7). This passage goes on to further descri$e this degrading of the human
$ody.
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Even their women e.changed natural relations with men for unnatural ones. <en a$andoned
natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for each other. <en committed indecent se.ual
acts with other men and received the punishment :od decreed for such $ehavior
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(=om. 1:"70"+). This
/ind of practice is called depravity. Those who give their approval are li/ewise said to $e of a depraved
mind.
e.ual immorality! impurity and de$auchery are classified $y :od as wor/s of the flesh. Those who do
such things cannot inherit the Dingdom of :od (:al. (:150"1). 1ll se.ual immorality and depravity are
su$@ect to :od
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s @udgment (*ol. %:(07G 'e$. 1%:&G =ev. "1:9! "":1().
b. ersona& conduct. 1ny activity that is harmful to the physical $ody (the mind or spirit) is wrong!
according to cripture. The *hristian
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s $ody is a temple of the 'oly pirit (1 *or. %:1701+G 7:150",). The
*hristian honors :od with his $ody! rather than indulging in vice. 'e is to $e self0controlled. 3nderstanding
this principle of the sanctity of the human $ody! made in the image of :od! what can we say a$out our
present societyK Bhat can we say a$out the many addictions that destroy $ody! mind! and spiritK
*hristians are to $ring their appetites under control! with :od
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s help. They are to set an e.ample in
speech! in life! in love! in faith! and in purity (1 Tim. &:1"). They are not to yield to anything that enslaves life
and harms the $ody.
>rug a$use and recreational drugs can $e addictive and dangerous. #ut the larger question for the
*hristian is a$use of the $ody! which is the temple of the 'oly pirit and the artificially distorted self. The
redeemed person is not the possessor of selfG hisLher $ody $elongs to :od. 'eLshe is not
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free
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to do as
heLshe pleases $ut to live to the glory of :od. The *hristian models the new life in *hrist and gives self to
others.
cripture addresses misuse or a$use of the $ody (=om. 1:"&). in is not to reign in the $ody (=om. 7:1").
*hristians must not conform to the world! $ut $e transformed! with $odies presented as a living sacrifice to
:od (=om. 1":10"). The *hristian glorifies :od in his $odies! which $elong to :od (=om. 7:",).
The #i$le does not totally prohi$it drin/ing wine! $ut does severely limit its use.
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Bine is a moc/er and
$eer a $rawlerG whoever is led astray $y them is not wise
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(4rov. ",:1). 1nd again! J>o not gaze at wine
when it is red! when it spar/les in the cup! when it goes down smoothlyO In the end it $ites li/e a sna/e
and poisons li/e an adder
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(4rov. "%:"50%(). #eing drun/ on wine leads to de$auchery (Eph. (:19).
!e'ual ause. 1s with many other physicalLemotional drives! se. is :od0given and is pure within the
$ounds of marriage ('e$. 1%:&). e. $ecomes impure and sinful when it crosses these $oundaries! if it
$ecomes an o$session or causes one to $ecome demanding and a$usive. The hus$and who considers
only his own needs and wishes! requiring se. on demand! is a$using his spouse. *ouples are to give
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due
$enevolence
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to each other in the realm of se.ual activity. 4aul teaches us that
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the hus$and should fulfill his
marital duty to his wife! an li/ewise the wife to her hus$and. The wife
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s $ody does $elong to her alone $ut
also to her hus$and. In the same way! the hus$and
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s $ody does not $elong to him alone $ut also to his
wife
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(1 *or. +:%0().
(ood. 'ow can food $e an addictionK 1ny over0indulgence in eating or eating one item compulsively is
called gluttony and that falls within the realm of sinful $ehavior. The *hristian is self0controlled. This
includes the realm of physical appetite and eating ha$its. It also includes greed and attachment to things!
especially if it includes turning a deaf ear to the needs of others.
Application. Husts of the flesh are only too real. <any of these $ecome addictive. 1ll such indulgences are
sinful and must $e managed! if we are to $ecome mature in :od
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s sight.
'ow much land does a man needK 4aul says that if we have food and clothing! we should $e content (1
Tim. 7:9). 'e$rews 1%:( tells us that we should /eep our lives free from the love of money and $e content with
what we have. BhyK #ecause contentment with godliness is great gain. #ecause true riches are spiritual
and eternal! not material.
c. ,ocia& conduct. Bhen *hristians apply $i$lical ethics to modern social issues! they often find
themselves in opposition to cultural standards. Het us consider a few instances as illustrations.
Aortion. 1$ortion is one of the most sensitive issues in many cultures today. It revolves around whether or
not a$ortion is murder and whether or not a woman has the right to control her own $ody. The first question
as/s if it is morally right to a$ort a fetus. The second as/s if it is legal to deny a woman the right to do so. In
the 3nited tates! than/s to =oe vs. Bade! a woman! even a @uvenile woman! cannot $e denied an
a$ortion. 'ow should we as *hristians respond to this issueK The issue is framed as
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the right to life
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vs. Ja
woman
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s rights.
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It should $e o$vious that there are two issue here! not @ust one. ecular law approaches the
matter in the conte.t of
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rights
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from a human point of view and normally favors the adult over the un$orn.
The *hristian must wrestle with the question within a sacred conte.t! which may or may not $e in line with
modern secular thought.
$hild rearing. 1nother matter pertains to rearing children. *hristians may withhold $enefits to children or
apply reasona$le discipline in an attempt to create responsi$ility and self0control. In a permissive society! this
may $e considered unreasona$le and cruel. #ut the *hristian ta/es hisLher own responsi$ility seriously
and see/s to fulfill the $i$lical in@unction to
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$ring them up in the training and instruction of the Hord!
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not the
world (Eph. 7: &). This is not an easy chore! even in a moral environment.
)uthanasia. The matter of allowing a person to die or to assist in a suicide is also a difficult ethical issue.
1n individual who has lost all power to function without life support! and especially if $rain dead! would $e
$etter off if the machine were disconnected. uch calls are very difficult to ma/e! $ut must $e approached
from a $asis of respect for life and permitting it to end when there is no more hope for life.
Personal dealings. If *hristians are to $e ethical in $ehavior! this must e.tend to personal respect for
and dealings with other people. They must respect the rights of others! their property and needs. They
must respect others to the point of $eing truthful and avoiding gossip. They must respect our promises and
covenants! especially to mates and families.
)ames ( admonishes *hristians to $e truthful. There is no place in *hristian ethics for vacillating or
appeasing others! at the e.pense of truth and integrity. If something is right! it is right and should $e
defended. If it is wrong! then it is wrong and should $e defeated.
!e+tboo2 Readin"
1t this point! you are encouraged to read the $oo/ $y :udorf! Comparati"e #eli$ious Ethics.
3oo2 Revie$
<odule " will $e completed with a $oo/ review. elect one of the three recommended te.ts for your
review. To this point you should have read two of these. If you select the third! you may read it now.
2therwise! write your review at a later point in the course. The review is in lieu of an e.amination.
?our review shall $e a critique of the author
E
s presentation. >o not simply summarize the wor/. Tell what you
see $eneficial and state where you may challenge the author
E
s conclusions and tell why.
3pload your review from the *ourse <enu under <odule ".
%O-ULE( 3uddhist Ethics
#uddhism is an old $elief system that currently claims over +,,!,,,!,,, adherents. Bhen it comes to
ethical systems! it is certainly one to $e noted! especially in the ;ar East! where its adherents are
concentrated. 1s to $e e.pected! culture itself reflects #uddhist ideals! especially where all life is highly
regarded. 8on0adherents are @udged $y its values as well.
*omprehending any system depends upon understanding the foundation upon which it rests and the
assumptions under girding it. In the case at hand! #uddhism is a philosophical system dedicated to the
search for an understanding of the nature of reality. It holds that its founder reached enlightenment on this
su$@ect and gave himself to helping others discover enlightenment for themselves.
This is not a course in #uddhism per se and does not deal with #uddhist history or divisions! e.cept in a
general way. #ut we do need to recognize that three ma@or #uddhist groups may $e found: (1)
Theravada! which adheres to #uddha
E
s original teaching! (") <ahayana! which offers a variety of paths
represented $y Pen and 4ure Hand! and (%) Ia@rayana. >ifferences lie in their understanding of the
historical #uddha and emphases! not in the philosophy itself. 2ur concern will $e with generally held
ideals found in the #uddhist value system and the foundation on which those ideals rest.
The ethical system is the $ehavioral outcome of a philosophy that advances the idea that suffering can $e
overcome through an enlightened consciousness. That consciousness ta/es specific shape in #uddhist
thought and places certain requirements on the $eliever. 1t the center is not :od! $ut a respect for all forms
of life. Bhile recognizing the predatoral nature of animate organisms! #uddhism ma/es allowance for
ta/ing life! $ut imposes a strict code for social attitudes and conduct.
The system is generally recognized as a
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religion!
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yet in reality! it is more of a self0help program for
escaping an undesired e.istence. Its code of conduct claims many values apparent as innate to humans! $ut
it does carry some principles to an e.treme! reasons that true understanding is salvic! and ends in
speculation a$out life $eyond the present form /nown $y humans. #uddhism
E
s teachings are driven $y
human aspirations and only coincidentally affect the common good.
Bhen evaluating #uddhist ethics! one is o$liged to choose a standard $y which to ma/e @udgment. If
#uddhism postulates that the desired goal of living matter is nothingness! then the evaluation will $egin $y
as/ing a$out the truthfulness of the proposition. There are tangi$le issues as well. Bill all things
eventually $ecome nothingK If so! is there evidence for thisK Bhy may some lives never reach nirvanaK
'ow did the imperfections come in the first placeK If the goal is reasona$le and li/ely! then another
question is! Bill the elements of #uddhist ethics lead one to a state of non0consciousnessK
If the goal and means to its end can $e esta$lished as true! then we will /now that the ethical principles are
valid. 2therwise! we may accept the principles on other grounds. The principles can still $e valid! $ut not $y
the same rationale or for the purpose laid out in #uddhism. ;or e.ample! it may $e
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good
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to $e free from
cravings! $ut freeing oneself from cravings may not lead to nirvana. It could $e part of the path to eternal
life with f u l l consciousness. The point is that one would generally choose a set of ethical principles on the
$asis of its a$ility to lead to a @ustifia$le conclusion. The choice in #uddhism is to help an individual reach
enlightenment. The choice in Islam is to $e su$@ect to 1llah. In *hristianity! the choice reflects one
E
s new life
in *hrist and leads to :od
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s glorification. =edemption is part of the process of $ringing glorification! which is
totally a$sent in #uddhism. The ultimate goal is nothingnessG the means to that end is human effortG
assurance rests with the thought of one ancient man (#uddha)! who died and whose ultimate fate is
un/nown.
The module follows a pattern of $rea/ing the discussion into three units. These are The #uddhist Ethical
ystem (3nit 1)! E.ploring the Ethical ystem of #uddhism (3nit ")! and pecial Topics (3nit %).
Unit '. !he 3uddhist Ethica& ,ystem
#uddhism is /nown as an
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ethical
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religion. It is a system of compassion! harmony! /indness! and non0
violence. 1iming at perfection of human consciousness! #uddhism assumes that moral character leads to a
happy and peaceful society. ?et! the ultimate o$@ective is not a peaceful e.istence on earth $ut the end of
all earthly e.istence. 'ence! the ethical components of #uddhism are! in reality! not an end in themselves!
$ut a means to an end00enlightenment. 2r! to put it another way! #uddhist ethics is a $eginning point in
one
E
s pursuit of enlightenment. The o$@ect of enlightenment is the elimination of ignorance and the
attainment of a$solute happiness! the ending of reincarnation.
It is important to remem$er that in #uddhism /nowledge and understanding are not equivalent to ethical
conductG neither is enlightenment guaranteed through ethical practice. #uddhism plots a moderate or
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middle
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path $etween self0indulgence and self0denial! where the answer to man
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s quest lies in meditation!
morality! and wisdom. These are all human pursuits.
3nli/e *ommunism! 'umanism! and =ationalism! #uddhism has a
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religious
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flavor. It differs from the
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secular
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ethical codes in three respects. ;irst! it contains ethical rules, which rest upon an assumption
that all e.istence is sacred. The quality of ethical actions rests with the mental disposition attached to their
ethical contemplation! and on the impact these have on others
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welfare. ;urthermore! the degree of
reprehensi$ility and enduring consequence depends on many factors.
econd! the moti"ation for ethical $ehavior in #uddhism is self0control! self0development! and self0
understanding. These elements do not pertain to union with :od or paradise. *onsequently! there is no
requisite $elief in a higher power! no need for reverence for! or worship of! :od! and no concept of sin or a
spiritual /ingdom.
Third! the results of
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good
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and
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$ad
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$ehavior often ta/e on important consequences. This may ta/e one of
two forms: (1) legal or societal0type laws that deal with punishment and reward or (") impersonal law00
/arma. In #uddhism! there is no need for legal legislation! for the system deals with /arma. The results of
one
E
s actions may $e immediate or delayed (I. 1. :unasc/ara!
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The Ethics of #uddhism!
J
Internet).
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Enlightenment
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translates several words and concepts used in #uddhism. The central meaning is
e.pressed in nir"ana, where passion is e.tinguished and suffering ends. The idea points toward the
understanding of the cause and means to resolve one
E
s imprisonment to craving. In enlightenment! one
E
s
mind returns to its original condition of non0attachment. #uddha attained enlightenment when he
successfully set aside those elements that distur$ed his mind and gained through concentration insight into
his past lives! the wor/ings of /arma (actions that cause the cycle of cause and effect)! and reincarnation.
'e left his followers with four no$le truths that would help them attain enlightenment as well. Thus #uddha
was
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awa/ened
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(the ans/rit word is bodhi). This state is understood fully only to those who attain it.
Enlightenment has nothing to do with the /nowledge or intellect that we usually attach to the term.
The unit consists of three topics. These are (a) origins! ($) the starting point! and (c) the essence of
#uddhism. The #uddhist ethical system rests upon $asic concepts of reality and the cosmos that contains us.
It is imperative that we perceive the source of these ideas and learn what they lac/ as well as what they
possess.
a. Ori"ins. #uddhists trace their faith and practice to a prince named iddhartha! who is otherwise /nown as
:autama. #orn to Indian 'indu parents in (7% #.*.E.! iddhartha was reared in an environment of lu.ury!
free from suffering and hardship. 1s an adult! he o$served the suffering and lac/ of happiness within the
larger society. 'e decided to leave his cocoon and responsi$ilities and e.plore the harsher world in search
for the meaning of life.
=enouncing the life of a prince and a$andoning his wife and child! iddhartha set out to find true
happiness. In the outside world! he had four e.periences or signs that changed his life. 2ne involved an old
man! a second a sic/ man! a third a corpse! and a fourth a wandering ascetic. In addition to the four
e.periences! various ascetics and meditation teachers influenced his thin/ing as well. Through his
e.periences! :autama is credited with finding the /eys to the universe. Essentially! one man
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s @ourney
$ecame every man
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s @ourney. 2ne man
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s thoughts a$out the universe at this point in time $ecame
normative for all time.
iddhartha
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s path led him into fasting and meditation. In his meditation! he supposedly reached
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enlightenment
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or a true understanding of the nature of the world. This wisdom which $rought clarity to his
mind! held that true freedom comes with a loss of a sense of self. ;rom this point forward! iddhartha is
/nown as the #uddha! the enlightened one. In attaining this enlightenment! he reached the goal of $eing
freed from suffering (attachment) and consequently $ro/e the cycle of re$irth. 'e left for others ;our 8o$le
Truths and an Enlightened 4ath. 'ence! a #uddhist is one who professes to ta/e his refuge in the #uddha! in
the dharma (the truth or law of #uddha
E
s teaching)! and in the sangha (the community of mon/s and nuns).
1n order of mon/s constitute a special community (sangha) for modeling the #uddhist ideals $efore the
laity who reside with their families. The community of mon/s is important! for the doctrine (dharma) of
#uddhism flows through them. The sangha is an inner society $elonging to a higher order and having a
disciplined life of ethical and moral values. The system recognizes an enlightened elite upon whom others
depend to open the treasures of /nowledge.
1s for ethics! we should note that the #uddha a$andoned his wife and child! thin/ing that true happiness
allowed for self0see/ing interests at the e.pense of responsi$ility. This principle plays out in #uddhism as
the system is shaped around the goal of
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enlightenment.
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Enlightenment is qualified $y its emphasis on
individual contemplation. Even though #uddhist ethics cele$rates community! it $egins with the story of one
man! whose life achievement leaves much to $e desired with reference to the realities of the present world
and one
E
s role in it. The #uddhist ethical system has its grounding in one manG a$sent is any role for :od. It
ac/nowledges man
E
s a$ility to find release through compassion! courage! vitality! and wisdom. #ut these
elements operate in a closed universe and are inferior to the ultimate value of nothingness.
If the universe is closed to :od and spiritual $eings! $oth the goal for human life and the means of
attaining it are left to su$@ective speculation and tracea$le to one man who lived in the 7th century #.*.E. The
ideal is imagined $y the human mind which! for all practical purposes! is separate and inferior to the sense
of nothingness which #uddhism presupposes. Even if the sense of nothingness could $e demonstrated! a
dilemma still e.ists in the idea that nothingness is of higher value than compassion and wisdom. If human
feelings and /nowledge are human qualities and not the quality for which man is striving! how could the
inferior lead to the superiorK Escaping the world $ecomes desired over $earing responsi$ility. 1s for
origins! we can only say that
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enlightenment
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supposedly came to humanity in the 7th century #.*.E. after
an un/nown num$er of re$irth cycles.
.nternet ,ources
J
=eview: The 2rigin of #uddhist <editation
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$y 1le.ander Bayne! ",,+. =eviewed $y
Iishvapani
J
The 2rigins of
E
/ilful <eans
E
in Early #uddhism
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$y 4eter 8elson! #uddha8et
E
s #uddhist
<agazine 1rticles
You!ube
b. !he startin" 0oint. #uddhists have a cyclical view of time. They $elieve they continue to $e re$orn until
a final end state is reached. The person continues to $e reincarnated when heLshe fails to achieve
li$eration in nirvana. 8irvana (Ja $lowing out
J
) is a state of mind reached when one
E
s personal and selfish
desires are eliminated and the ;our 8o$le Truths are realized. 8irvana pertains to the elimination of greed!
hate! and delusion and the realization of peace! @oy! and reality. It is only a state of mind within a
soulless! mortal person! who presently lives in a constantly changing universe.
The idea that everything is in a constant state of change and that nothing is permanent $ecomes the
$eginning place for #uddhist ethics. Bhat is noticea$ly a$sent from #uddhism is the concept of :od! ideas
pertaining to the origin of the universe! a description of life after death! and the concept of an end to the
physical universe. #uddhism ta/es an agnostic view of such matters. Ironically! it is concerned more with
present life than with future life. Be hasten to add! however! that in some forms of #uddhism we do meet
gods! ghosts! and demons and the idea of a place $eyond death.
#uddhism is focused on the human condition. #eginning with
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suffering!
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considera$le attention is given to
its cause and remedy. *onsequently! a strong focus falls on how the human should conduct his affairs on
earth. 1s for the human condition! #uddha saw the present as transitory and unsatisfactory. The
consequences of one
E
s actions result from one
E
s intentions or desires.
=elease from the cycle into a permanent state ta/es time! concentration! and persistence. Each individual
wor/s out hisLher future through personal effort. >espite repeated failures! one is led to $elieve that if one will
/eep trying the same failed attempts! nirvana will someday $e achieved. The $lessing to $e achieved is
release from life cycles and the a$sence of sensation. This supposedly is realityO
1ccording to #uddhist thought! the true life arises from ethical sensi$ility. This sensi$ility is cultivated $y
human effort through personal reflection and communication with others. 'ence! an ethical life does not
result from o$eying rules or laws! $ut from learning how to $ehave positively so that no harm is caused to
others.
o! we are faced with a system that ac/nowledges no god figure as the standard or originator of ethics.
The reality of cyclical time and reincarnation lac/s proof. If re$irth could $e esta$lished! we would still $e
lac/ing evidence as to reason for re$irth. 1nd if one
E
s advancement is conditioned on sensi$ility rather than
rules! ethical principles then $ecome su$@ective. In the a$sence of a god0@udge! who or what can say one has
or has not $ecome sufficiently
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sensitive
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to the care of others to $e re$orn in another classK The starting
point is assumed $y ancients and accepted $y tradition.
#uddhist ethics $egins with ;ive 4recepts: refrain from into.ication! /illing! lying! se.ual misconduct! and
stealing. This is the
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training mode
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for $eginners. Ethics is rooted in human consciousness that comes
from self0awareness and self0understanding. It carries with it a certain pragmatism00doing if it does not
hurt someone else and if it gives satisfaction. It also em$races a measure of relativity.
o! $riefly! the starting point for #uddhist ethics is a set of assumptions a$out the nature of life and its
goal. These assumptions are supported $y a worldview that attempts to address man
E
s perceived plight. In
this worldview! :od is not unnecessary! for the idea of creation has $een set aside. The concept of sin is
removed from the equation! and thus any form of redemptive act does not fit. <an is left with a set of moral
principles! with no e.planation as to their source or assurance as to their a$ility to deliver the desired
result.
.nternet ,ources
J
The ;ive 4recepts!
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Buddhi st t udi es, #uddha >harma Education 1ssociation Q #uddha8et
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The ;ive 4recepts: The #uddhist :olden =ule
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$y 4rince Ia@irananavarorasa
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The ;ive
4recepts
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$y untorn 4lamintr! 3r$an>harma.org
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Heading a #uddhist Hife and the ;ive 4recepts!
J
ing8et
c. !he essence of 3uddhism. #uddhism is a way of life! with the goal of full contentment. #eginning with a
single pro$lem00human suffering! #uddhism poses a single o$@ective00the a$sence of suffering! and offers a
means to solve the pro$lem00the Eightfold 4ath.
#uddha pointed to a path intended to lead to higher /nowledge and wisdom and! finally! to enlightenment.
The path leads to the truth a$out suffering! the cause of suffering! and release from suffering.
#uddha taught that one should avoid unethical $ehavior! do good deeds! and discipline one
E
s mind.
#uddhism does not spea/ specifically of one
E
s diet! dress! or general conduct! e.cept through its
principles.
The (our *ole Truths. #uddhism holds to these ;our 8o$le Truths:
1. uffering e.ists
2. The cause of suffering is craving (attachment)
3. There is a way out of this suffering
4. This way is the Eightfold 4ath
The *ole )ightfold Path. The way to nirvana is outlined in the 8o$le Eightfold 4ath! which consists of
humanistic values that emphasize
1. =ight view
2. =ight thought
3. =ight speech
4. =ight action
5. =ight livelihood
6. =ight effort
7. =ight consciousness
8. =ight concentration
The 8o$le Eightfold 4ath concentrates on moral conduct. The cultivation of right conduct! right speech! and
right livelihood (/nown collectiveley as siila) accompanies progress in mental training and wisdom.
Bisdom stands at the culmination of the process! $eing achieved $y means of siila and mental training.
The core ethical code+ five precepts. The precepts or disciplines are practical guidelines that point in
the direction one should go. They contain $oth positive and negative attri$utes and are complete only in
these contrasting e.pressions. The precepts may $e reduced to three ideas: avoid evil! do good! and
purify the mind.
The precepts that define the ethical core of #uddhism can $e summed up in a negative and a positive
standard: (a) negatively00not harming self and other living $eings and ($) positively00love! generosity!
contentment! truthfulness! and awareness.
The idea of one /eeping precepts reveals an emphasis on human activity. ?et! the /eeping of ethical rules
is not a matter for praise. Ethical rules fall into three categories. The first category pertains to $asic
precepts and the other two pertain to lesser important su$@ects or are directed to mon/s. The rules worthy of
praise are those that are difficult to achieve. These! in turn! are concerned with the right view and spawn
divergent schools of thought that range from materialism to theism.
#uddhist moral precepts are $ased on the teaching of #uddha. They include values such as compassion!
honesty! respect! self0restrain! and wisdom. *onforming to the precepts ensures a proper form of life! with the
potential of producing a healthy and peaceful social climate.
The five precepts or moral principles are
1. 1$stinence from /illing and in@ury to others
2. =efraining from ta/ing what is not given.
3. 1$stinence from e.cessive indulgence in sense pleasures
4. =efraining from falsehood
5. 1$stinence from into.icants
(our vi r t ues. #uddha emphasized four virtues:
1. 3niversal love and friendliness! which dispel hatred
2. *ompassion! which leads to concern for people in need
3. ympathetic @oy and happiness over the triumphs of others
4. Impartiality that maintains $alance of mind
The four virtues pertain to all living $eings. They generate personal happiness! social harmony! and
universal peace. #y cultivating the virtues! anger and ill0will are replaced $y loving0/indness! cruelty is
replaced $y compassion! and @ealousy is replaced $y re@oicing.
Act i vi t y ,. 1nalyze the following questions.
1. Bhy! according to #uddhist teaching! should one cause no harm to other living $eingsK
2. Bhy! from a #uddhist perspective! should one ta/e what is not given to himK
3. Bhy! according to #uddhist doctrine! should one avoid se.ual misconductK
4. Bhy should one avoid false speech! according to #uddhist teachingK
5. ;or what reason should one avoid mind0altering drin/ and drugs! according to #uddhismK
Act i vi t y -. 3sing the following precepts! write out the implications of the items listed $elow.
1. *ause no harm to other living $eings
2. Ta/e nothing that is not given to you
3. 1void se.ual misconduct
4. 1void false speech
5. 1$stain from drugs and drin/s that cloud the mind
Unit 2. E+0&orin" the Ethica& ,ystem of 3uddhism
#uddhism is not a religion $ased on revelation $ut on a man
E
s self0discoveries. 1ccording to the #uddha!
ethical values $ecome a means to ultimate satisfaction without ac/nowledging :od. Be may call it a
godless religion or a human perspective on reality. Either way! the #uddhist ethical system is of human
derivation and reflects foundationally the speculation of one Eastern sage.
In #uddhism! one
E
s initial responsi$ility is to cleanse oneself from the mental defilement of greed! hate!
and ignorance. The reason for such cleansing is $ased on the conviction that one
E
s actions should $e
rooted in understanding and wisdom. 1gain! the understanding and wisdom is that of the #uddha.
#uddhism
E
s ultimate o$@ective is the loss of a sense of self. The means to this end lie with conduct that
helps other living things. =ather than see/ renewal of the individual in holiness and righteousness or
fulfilling divine intention! the goal is a$sorption into selflessness. The idea presupposes that self0
awareness developed accidentally without purpose or intelligence. Through a cycle of $irths and re$irths into
a real world! selflessness will again $e realized without the aid of cosmic forces. <an
E
s plight developed for
no defensi$le e.planation $ut can $e regained through human intelligence and effort to rid himself of selfish
motivations. 'e does this while selfishly see/ing release from the $irth0re$irth cycle!
1s an ethical system! #uddhism aims to restrain one from harmful acts! cur$ appetites! and discourage
pride and greed. 4ositively! it encourages discipline for the mind and encourages good and contentment. 1
person who pursues the law of /arma will replace $ad actions with good actions and prepare the way for
$enefits in the many lives that he e.pects to come after this one. >espite the interest shown toward
others! the #uddhist loo/s to lose self0consciousness! which is! after all! a self0centered act. #ut the
reason is not for the praise of :od $ut personal satisfaction. Therefore! his ethical pursuits are self0
motivated.
#uddhism is Ja message of opportunity.
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The escape from ignorance and attainment of enlightenment
ta/es human effort. It comes only through a series of thoughts and changes that one develops character.
:ood action! speech! and thought must $e chosen for enlightenment to $e realized00and that comes only
after a long process of re$irths. #ut if one has indeed achieved enlightenment! how can he inform earth0
$ound see/ers that he has $een fully informed since no enlightened one has returned to inform us.
Enlightenment remains the speculation of one (#uddha) who supposedly achieved it.
#uddhist ethics has the present life as a primary concern! for actions in the present have a huge effect
upon one
E
s future lives and the opportunity for enlightenment. *orrect understanding of reality underlies
proper action on earth. If the path to enlightenment is now /nown! why does it ta/e multiple re$irths to
achieve itK The #uddha had to discover it. 8ow that it has $een discovered! why should every other
human not discover it in the initial life spanK
1ny ethical system must $e evaluated at the level of its $asic assumptions. The assumptions will $e valid
only if they are true. It is hardly enough to presume a truthG one should $e a$le to offer evidence. 2f
course! not every truth can $e demonstrated satisfactorily to man
E
s comprehension. #ut this does not
mean assumptions a$out reality should $e merely the product of someone
E
s imagination. Be should
e.pect more than a sage
E
s teaching. Hi/ewise! ethical principles should have a foundation. Bhy is it wrong
to /illK Bhy is se.ual a$stinence desiredK #e alert to matters deserving answers to deep questions.
2ur unit has three topics. These are (a) The $asis of #uddhist ethics! ($) The ;ive 4recepts! and (c)
;amily and se.ual ethics. *onveniently! moral precepts can $e summarized in five practical statements.
#ehavior and responsi$ility in regard to family $ecome important $ecause of decency and the discipline
such actions produce.
.nternet ,ource
J
#uddhist <orality and 4ractice
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$y D. ri >hammananda <a/a Thera
a. !he basis of 3uddhist ethics. The #uddhist ethical system is $ased on the universal law of cause
and effect. *onsequently!
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good
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and
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$ad
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actions are determined $y the effect these actions have on the
individual and on others.
ince man is not perfect $y nature! he must train himself to $e
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good.
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<orality thus plays an important role
in the process. The ethical system offered $y #uddhism does not claim to $e of human inventionG neither
are its rules imposed from outside oneself. They are not the product of human legislation! nor are they
customs imposed $y society. These values are derived from nature and are due to the laws of cause and
effect. They are the values that are thought to lead to ultimate happiness.
The pr esent l i f e. 1ccording to #uddhism! man is left with finding his position in nature and
comprehending the meaning of life. 3nderstanding the purpose of life comes from e.perience and self0
discovery! achieved through following guidance provided $y #uddha. In $rief! the o$@ect of life in the
present is to live in harmony with other humans.
The /ey to discovering the purpose of life is an understanding of the human $eing and the natural life that
surrounds him. This tas/ mandates a clear mind. *onsequently! only when one learns to develop his mind
can one discover true nature and human potential. 3ntil then! one is ignorant. Ignorance leads to self0
see/ing and a false identity.
<an can $lame no one for his personal plight. 'e creates unpleasant circumstances and misfortunes.
3nli/e the animals! man can train his mind and overcome the various pro$lems that he faces in life00
pro$lems of a social! linguistic! political! and ethical nature. <an
E
s pro$lems stem from his wea/nesses and
his unwillingness to $ear his responsi$ilities. #y $ecoming responsi$le! he can alleviate his pro$lems! en@oy
peace! and $e happy.
1ccording to #uddhism! humans are superior to animals in their a$ility to reason and in their potential of
spiritual development. 1nimals were not created for men! so they are to $e loved as are humans. They
have a right to life as do humans. <an
E
s cruelty to animals is a form of greed and self0centeredness.
3nderstanding the nature of life requires one to realize that all things lac/ permanence. The o$stacles one
faces in this life can provide insight into understanding. Hu.ury! sensual pleasures! wealth! and status are
illusionary. They do not $ring enduring happiness.
3nderstanding the nature of man means one realizes he is a human with potential to grow in virtue!
compassion! and wisdom. #uddhism offers techniques for purifying one
E
s thoughts. 2ne learns to
meditate and! consequently! achieve wisdom that will produce compassion! love! and @oy. 2ne can thus
comprehend his feelings! thoughts! and motives.
.i ght and wr ong act i ons. #uddhist ethics is not a$solute! $ut relative to circumstances. *onsequently!
the overriding rule is to $e s/illful. This replaces the concepts of
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right
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and
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wrong.
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2ne is either s/illful or
uns/illful in the conduct of human affairs. ince
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good
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action leads to the $est outcome possi$le!
#uddhist ethics is! in essence! situational.
:ood and $ad are not defined in theological terms $ut in practical terms. 1ctions e.pressed in thought!
word! or deed that result in greed! hate! and delusion arise from self0centeredness. 1ctions e.pressed in
thought! word! or deed that result in generosity! love! and wisdom carry merit toward one
E
s final goal. The
intention or thought is the condition on which an action is @udged. Immoral acts are committed $y those
whose minds are impure. The pure mind cannot will or perform immoral actions. #uddhist ethics can
involve ill consequences of acts not intended $ecause of the natural law of cause and effect. ;or
e.ample! drun/enness can $ecome evil $ecause of its harm to the drin/er and others.
#uddhism admits to ten meritorious and ten evil actions. Bhether one
E
s life is fortunate or unfortunate
depends upon his actions. :ood actions purify the mind and create meritG $ad actions delude the mind.
uch leads to increased suffering and $loc/s the path to enlightenment. The ten meritorious deeds are
charity! morality! mental culture! reverence or respect! service in helping others! sharing merits with
others! re@oicing in the merits of others! preaching and teaching the truth! listening to the truth! and
correcting one
E
s views.
>eeds of merit $enefit the person performing them and $lesses the recipients of these deedsG they also
encourage others to pursue enlightenment. They $ring harmony $etween individuals and! consequently!
happiness. The $enefit of merit follows a person through su$sequent lives. This merit cannot $e lost! $ut it
may $e e.hausted if not replenished $y additional merit.
The ten $ad deeds which produce demerits are founded upon a self0centered mind that is greedy! hateful!
and delusional. Three $odily actions are $ad: /illing of living $eings! stealing! and se.ual misconduct00all
related to the first three of the ;ive 4recepts. *onsequences of /illing are shortness of life! $ad health!
grief! and fear. *onsequences of stealing are disappointment! misery! and poverty. *onsequences of
unlawful se. are enemies and unhappy marriages. ;our $ad ver$al actions include lying! slander! harsh
speech! and frivolous speech. 2ne who lies may e.pect to receive in return a$usive speech! the lac/ of
trust! and unpleasant e.periences. 2ne who slanders may e.pect the loss of friends. 2ne who utters harsh
speech may $e detested. 2ne who uses frivolous speech may e.pect defective $ody organs and have his
speech ignored.
In addition to four evil deeds related to speech! three $ad deeds may $e performed $y the mind:
covetousness! $ad will! and a wrong view. They are rooted in greed! hate! and delusion. The result of
covetousness is failure to realize one
E
s wishes. The result of $ad will is disease! a detesta$le nature! and
ugliness. The result of a false view is outrageous desires! a lac/ of wisdom! $ad ideas! and chronic
disease. #ad actions should not $e repeated once one realizes he has done them. This is the idea of
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repentance
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in #uddhism. 2nly this person can cleanse himself through realization and refrain from
repeating the actions. =ealization and right effort will correct all wrongs.
Motivation and intention. 1n action
E
s quality cannot $e divorced from one
E
s intention or motivation.
:ood actions cannot $e motivated $y any of three evil roots: delusion (or ignorance)! greed! and hate.
They must arise out of one of the three good roots: love! charity! and wisdom. 8o good action can $ring
mental or physical harm to others.
The motivation for good deeds arises out of the realization that they assist in developing moral strength
that leads to personal growth and! ultimately! nirvana. 1s mental defilements diminish! the greater society
$enefits. The motivation for refraining from evil is to minimize pro$lems that cause suffering.
!in. #uddhism does not /now the concept of
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sin!
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only ignorance. <atters may $e uns/illful or
unwholesome! $ut there is no stigma attached. <an is not $y nature sinfulG he is not in re$ellion against
:od. Every person is of great worth! though he possesses a reservoir of good and evil ha$its. The evil
person is the ignorant person. 'is need is not punishment or condemnation $ut instruction that leads to
enlightenment. 'is need is for someone to guide him and help him realize he is the victim of
circumstances of his own thin/ing and doing. #uddha supposedly helps people understand the foolishness
of committing evil. Bhether a person pursues the instruction is his choice. Ialue does not accrue from
o$eying commandments apart from understanding and convictionG neither is there merit from o$eying out of
fear.
#uddhism offers no set of rules to o$ey. 2ne does what he @udges is right in each situation! using the
precepts as a guide. #uddhists may regret an action! $ut they feel no guilt. They realize their limitations and
try to $e more s/illful in the future. (*lar/ and Thompson! Buddhism: A ,ew Approach, p. +%.
J
$harity. *harity is defined as giving without the e.pectation of a return. To give in e.pectation of a return
or to do so for the purpose of controlling another is self0centered and not charity at all. In #uddhism!
charity reduces greed and a desire for wealth! $oth of which are o$stacles to spiritual progress. In the
process of charity! one should act with heart and mind. 'e may give compassionately to relieve a person
E
s
need! or he may give in order to relieve his own self0centeredness. :ifts can include material things!
information! a s/ill! personal energy! a sympathetic ear! $ody parts! or his own life in the service of others.
The greatest gift one can receive is the #uddha
E
s teaching.
!elf/dependence. #uddhism teaches that each individual is responsi$le for his own lot in life. Each must $e
concerned with his own deliverance through developing his own person. To do otherwise is to surrender
one
E
s intelligence! effort! and self0confidence.
<an
E
s improvement accrues from his own /nowledge and effort. 'e must escape the confinement of
nature and $ecome controller of his environment. Truth implies faith in man rather than in :od or super0
human forces.
Each person is responsi$le for his own deeds! $oth good or $adG each is master of his own destiny. The
physical world is not so much a place of trial! for it can $e made perfect. 4erfection equates with
happiness! and man
E
s unhappiness is of his own ma/ing.
8either faith in :od nor the ritual of worship has any value for man
E
s salvation. 2ne gains confidence in
himself through self0reliance. This confidence aids one in the present and all future lives. The instructions of
#uddha alone can deliver one from greed! hate! and ignorance.
)valuation. >espite the divisions with #uddhism! a fundamental principle is that the guidelines set down $y
the #uddha are unchangea$le. 8evertheless! de$ate continues within #uddhism as to whether certain
applications are changea$le with time and circumstances. The whole discussion seems ironic $ecause
#uddhism is founded on the concept of a constantly changing universe. If the foundation is true! how can
#uddha
E
s never changing principles $y trueK
b. !he 5ive rece0ts. #uddhist morality is characterized $y the ;ive 4recepts. The precepts provide the
minimum rules for moral $ehavior. ;ollowing the precepts leads to moral strength and $enefit for others.
The precepts $ecome the $eginning point for the @ourney toward nirvana and create an atmosphere for
people to live in harmony in the present society. 3nli/e imposed commandments! #uddhist precepts are
voluntary! $eing attractive for ena$ling disciplining of life and mind.
The goal of the precepts is the elimination of those passions which generate $ad thoughts! speech! and
actions. The precepts are followed $ecause one understands their value in the attainment of the release
from suffering. 2$serving them is necessary for those intent on developing their minds. The moral code
also assists in meditation.
The accumulation of fortunes and pursuit of unrestrained pleasures adds suffering. 4eace comes within
one
E
s own mind! through the practice of non0violence and the elimination of self0centeredness. 1
cleansed mind ena$les loving /indness and is! in turn! purified $y it. #eing neither selfish nor emotional!
loving /indness defeats animosity! cruelty! hate! and @ealousy. 2$serving a precept with the right motive
yields merit $oth for this life and for future lives.
The ;ive 4recepts are as follows:
1. 1$stinence from /illing and in@ury to other living $eings. The precept affirms the right to life and leads to
compassion! friendliness! /indness! and love. In the a$solute sense! the /illing of animals and insects is
for$idden. 1lthough the application is not followed strictly! #uddhists do tend to $e vegetarian and are
pained with the prospect of destroying any animate creature. The precept underscores the need for
compassion toward all living things and supports the idea of caring for sic/ animals. #ehind the precept is the
conviction that life is sacred and all living things are interdependence. 1ssisted suicide is prohi$ited! $ut!
there are circumstances when the ta/ing of life is a preferred course. #uddhists do not press for the
continuation of human life at all e.pense and effort.
2. =efraining from stealing or ta/ing what is not given. The precept teaches respect for the possessions
and the rights of others and leads to @oy. #ut one is a$solved when he mista/enly ta/es something that
$elongs to another. The positive side of the precept against stealing is generosity. :iving $ecomes an act of
merit. 3nderstanda$ly! ta/ing what is not rightfully yours is a $ad move for self! $ut should not the loss of
something $e to the advantage of the one who is aspiring to $ecome unattached to thingsK
3. 1$stinence from se.ual misconduct. The precept promotes social and moral sta$ility. This implies
contentment in se.ual a$stinence and in marital fidelity. *eli$ate monasticism is an ideal lifestyle $ut is
practiced only $y mon/s and nuns. The precept aims at moderation and respect for a marital partner.
4. =efraining from falsehood. The precept encourages mutual trust and understanding. It condemns
gossip! lying! and hurtful speech. 4ositively! the precept calls one to $e truthful and e.press clarity in
speech so as not to $e misleading.
5. 1$stinence from into.icants. The precept leads to social harmony. Into.icating drin/s and addictive
drugs $rings a$out rec/less situations that can $e harmful to self and others. The positive result of the
aspect is a clear mind and a disciplined life.
Bhile ;ive 4recepts inform one of proper action! ;ive Enno$lers (the positive side of each precept) inform
one of the qualities which one should cultivate00/indness! renunciation! contentment! truthfulness! and a
clear mind.
Bhether on a routine $asis or on special occasions! #uddhism recognizes the value of retreating from the
everyday demands of life. It holds that rela.ation! training the mind! and developing a greater sensitivity
toward life ena$les personal growth. 1ctivities for this purpose include reading religious $oo/s! hearing the
teachings of #uddha! meditating! and performing services.
#uddhism does not prohi$it cosmetics! dancing! lu.ury! movies! music! or ornaments. ?et! some choose
a$stinence in the interest of self0discipline. 2ccasional restraint is viewed as a means to progress against
one
E
s wea/nesses.
#uddhism recognizes several levels of love. 2ne is selfish love! which is distinguished from unselfish
love. 3nselfish love defines the attitude one has when see/ing self0satisfaction from an action. 1nother
type of love is $rotherly love00that feeling that one finds in friendships. till another is se.ual love that
$rings two people together through attraction of the physical. Then! a$ove all! there is universal love.
3niversal love is defined in #uddhism as an all0em$racing love shown $y #uddha himself! when he
renounced his /ingdom! family! and lu.uries so he could find a way to release man/ind from an e.istence of
suffering. This assessment assumes this was #uddha
E
s original motive! which is unclear from his history. In
order to gain enlightenment! #uddha had to struggle through countless lives and! $y so doing! earned the
title
J
The *ompassionate 2ne.
J
In #uddhism! iddhartha is presented as a conscious redeemer of humanity
and its savior. 'is love for man and $east is considered to $e unselfish and unemotional. #y definition!
universal love does not e.pect a reward! creates happiness and! ultimately! leads to nirvana.
c. 5ami&y and se+ua& ethics. Even though there is a certain idealism attached to celi$acy in #uddhism!
most #uddhists marry and have families.
1ctions leading to $lessing and happiness include supporting one
E
s parents! loving one
E
s spouse! and
assisting one
E
s relatives. These actions will help one toward enlightenment $ecause they lead a person to $e
less concerned a$out one
E
s own needs and more concerned a$out other living creatures. #y applying The
;ive 4recepts to family life! the following results accrue.
1. =efraining from harming others means ma/ing certain one
E
s actions cause neither emotional nor
physical suffering. #oth partners in a marriage affirm the other
E
s value and find ways to e.press
appreciation.
2. Bith reference to refraining from ta/ing what is not given! household duties are shared.
3. =efraining from se.ual misconduct implies fidelity among marriage partners and satisfaction in se.ual
relations. >ysfunctional relationships $ring emotional suffering.
4. =efraining from false and wrong speech means marriages are $ased on truth. *ommunication should
$e open and honest! with nothing hidden unless it serves the partner
E
s welfare.
5. =emaining clear minded ena$les one to control emotions and feelings.
1 person must develop si. qualities in order to achieve enlightenment. These are giving! morality! effort!
patience! meditation! and wisdom. 'ere is how these qualities function in a marriage:
1. -i "i n$ implies spending time together and giving gifts to each other to demonstrate appreciation.
2. 'or al i t y implies refraining from se.ual misconduct.
3. Ef f or t pertains to /eeping selfish desires under control.
4. *at i ence is needed to avoid arguments and in the rearing of children.
5. <editation helps one overcome the natural inclinations toward self0centeredness.
6. 1s for wisdom! #uddhist parents are e.pected to em$races #uddhist teachings. (
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#uddhism! <arriage
and >ivorce!
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Internet)
Marriage. <arriage in #uddhism is a civil or social matter. It is simply a social contract and is not essential.
'ence! monogamy and polygamy are neither right nor wrong $ut merely ways to arrange one
A
s life. Bhile a
relationship that is allowed $y civil law is promoted! se. prior to marriage is accepta$le providing the
parties are aware of the responsi$ility which accrues from it. 2therwise! if the act causes suffering! it
should not $e done.
ome #uddhists see the a$sence of se.ual activity as the ideal for! ultimately! nirvana descri$es a place
where se.ual desires are overcome. 1ttachment to the physical world and the pursuit of one
E
s desires are
often viewed as a hindrance to enlightenment (
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#uddhism and e.ual Ethics!
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Internet). Ironically! se. is
necessary for re$irth.
<on/s neither officiate nor attend weddings! for marriage $elong to worldly life. 8evertheless! they may
$less a marriage. The quality of family life can affect the relationship $etween the laity and the monastic
community! for the sangha relies on the laity for food in e.change for teaching. *ommon elements at
#uddhist weddings include homage to #uddha! reciting the Three =efuges! and saying The ;ive
4recepts.
#uddhism recognizes hus$ands and wives as $eing equal with different roles. <arriage vows define these
roles and offer guidelines to correct conduct in the marriage. The #uddhist hus$and ma/es this vow:
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Towards my wife I underta/e to love and respect her! $e /ind and considerate! $e faithful! delegate domestic
management! provide gifts to please her.
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The #uddhist wife responds:
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Towards my hus$and I underta/e
to perform my household duties efficiently! $e hospita$le to my in0laws and friends of my hus$and! $e
faithful! protect and invest our earnings! discharge my responsi$ilities lovingly and conscientiously.
AJ
Adultery and divorce. 1dultery is an uns/illed action and a form of se.ual misconduct. It also amounts to
stealing another
E
s spouse and is falsehood when it covers up the act.
#uddhists e.pect marriages to last! $ut they accept occasional divorce. The right to divorce is $ased on the
first precept and pertains to the quality of a person
E
s life. 1n unhappy marriage $rings sufferingG to leave a
difficult marriage may lead to happiness. (
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#uddhism! <arriage and >ivorce!
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Internet)
"uddhism and se'ual ethics. In principle #uddhists may $e heterose.ual! homose.ual! monogamous!
polygamous! or promiscuous. e.ual misconduct is determined $y personal opinion. Individuals may differ
as to whether se. outside marriage is se.ual misconduct. ome may side with the laws of society! which
condemn rape! incest! and pedophilia as se.ual misconduct. The third precept and its positive aspects are
often cited for deciding such matters.
e.ual desire may $e either healthy or neurotic: 'ealthy se.ual desire results from viewing se. as a
natural part of life and will engage in it to please the partner. 8eurotic se.ual desire results from an
o$session with se. and treats the partner as a se.ual o$@ect! which $rings suffering. e.ual relationships
should $e contemplated! should $e honest! and should not result in a guilty conscience. The activity should
$e en@oya$le to $oth partners. #uddhists are not apologetic a$out se.ual desires. They see/ to cultivate
the right attitude towards these desires and pursue them in a manner that is free from distress and pain
(
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#uddhism and e.ual Ethics!
J
Internet).
)valuation. The situational nature of #uddhism leaves open many possi$ilities for irresponsi$le $ehavior.
#uddha! for e.ample! is praised for discovering the path to enlightenment. ?et! he forsoo/ his family in the
effort. 'e! in turn! left unchangea$le instructions to others regarding family life that supposedly wor/ toward
enlightenment. The positions are contradictory.
'aving reviewed the distinguishing concepts of #uddhism and the general ethical system that derives from
that worldview! we shall now isolate three topics for further review. These topics are organized under
three heading: (a) ocial ethics! ($) <edical ethics! and (c) Economic ethics. The investigation will allow
us to see how the #uddhist worldview affects the lives of those who su$scri$e to it.
ocial ethics touches on interpersonal relationships! especially with reference to suffering and death.
uffering is a central issue for #uddhists and has a direct relationship to the ne.t lives. 3nless one is a$le to
overcome the source of suffering! it will continue in each reincarnation. =emoving the cause of suffering
$rings a dou$le $lessing: pleasure and readiness for the ne.t stage.
<edical ethics is informed $y the worldview! nota$ly in the area related to the cycles of life. 4roper action has
a pragmatic reason. This is $ecause the system is tied to the #uddhist philosophy of reality. Therefore! a
person finds application to a$ortion and euthanasia. In a #uddhist conte.t! life is sacred and should $e
honored.
Economic ethics is understanda$le in light of how #uddhists view attachment to possessions. If release
from life is a goal! it stands to reason that one should disengage from worldly gain. 'owever! the wrong of the
matter does not lie in money itself! $ut in greed. The goal is not poverty $ut release of attachment.
2$serve that the topics discussed $elong to a system of thought. They do not e.ist in isolation. The
Bestern mind is inclined to understand the topics as independent views formed through human feelings!
desires! and suita$ility to one
E
s own independent spirit. 2ne is li/ely to miss the connection $etween these
topics and the #uddhist view of life! if a Bestern orientation is adopted.
The #uddhist ethical system aims toward release from physical attachment. It lac/s a pure altruistic
purpose. It protects self and $rings harmony $etween individuals! $ut the real intent is self0driven and
other0worldly focused. 3nli/e *hristian ethics! which intend to demonstrate the holiness of :od within the
conte.t of a generally evil world! #uddhist ethics performs a primary service to the individual see/ing an
end to suffering. ome *hristians may feel the same way! $ut this attitude is not a true e.pression of the
*hristian faith. ;or our purposes! it is important to o$serve the contents of the #uddhist ethical system and
the rationale $ehind it.
1t face value! #uddhist ethical principles are commenda$le. They demonstrate a high regard for human
lifeG they contri$ute toward a @ust and peaceful societyG they advocate restraint in $usiness dealings when a
self0love for things can easily destroy society and family. #ut do these principles produce the desired endK
=elease from life cycles cannot $e proved! so
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enlightenment
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cannot $e verified. 1nd if it could $e verified!
achievement is $ased on human endeavor. Bhat separates men is the will to achieve. Bhy do some have
that will and other do notK ;urthermore! these ethical rules are man0generated! $eing discovered $y one
man00the #uddha. Bhat ma/es his findings completeK If refinements should have $een made $y others
(as some claim)! then one has reason to wonder if #uddha
E
s
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enlightenment
J
was incomplete. If his was
incomplete! might the discoveries of others also $e incomplete as wellK 1nd if incomplete! how can one
say he has truly $een enlightenedK
a. ,ocia& ethics. In #uddhism! social harmony is the result of personal perfection. Hegal action is
necessary for that part of society that chooses not to su$scri$e to #uddhist ethical principles. These laws
protect #uddhists from hostile forces and they protect those who are not $ound to #uddhist ideals.
The main pro$lem facing humanity is postulated to $e ignorance! for ignorance leads to disunity!
suffering! and unhappiness. 3nless and until wise thin/ing in regard to this life is achieved! a $ro/en
society will remain. The only remedy is for human $eings to understand the nature of life on this planet and
especially the nature of the human frame. 1nd then! unity and happiness can only come if this wisdom is
applied through action driven $y disengagement or attachment to the physical world.
1s to human personality! #uddhism con@ectures that human personality is constituted $y five attri$utes:
$ody! consciousness! disposition! feeling! and perception. The comple.ity and interrelationship of these
attri$utes are to $e understood if human nature itself is comprehended. Hi/ewise! human
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suffering
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applies in a $road way to any condition that results in sic/ness! unhappiness! or other unpleasant
e.perience.
'ence! we can $egin to see that the way out of this world
E
s imperfections is to reach a sense of
nothingness. This implies withdrawal from all attachment to things around us! as suffering is lin/ed with the
physical world and the physical world is temporary. Bhen applied to the social realm! we /now that the
loss of friends and relatives $rings grief. #ut grief is connected with attachment. This suggests the ideal
disposition toward close relatives is indifference. 'uman pleasures are also momentary. The preferred
attitude is retreat to all that $rings pleasure! i.e.! if one is
J
attached
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to pleasura$le moments. The
pleasure itself is not a stigmaG attachment to the moments that a pleasura$le act $rings is a $light. The
line $etween en@oyment of life and giving too much attention to that pleasure is hazy. The same would
hold for the possession of
J
things.
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#uddhism does not call for complete dispossession of things $ut for
moderation and freedom from $eing attached to things. ?et! holding on to things is the primary cause of
suffering. 2r! to put it another way! one
E
s ina$ility to control or comprehend this circumstance $rings
suffering. #oth individuals and society find themselves impoverished! in conflict! or oppressed $ecause
they do not understand or cannot control themselves due to craving for things of this life.
The larger society is influenced $y individuals who understand and act in /eeping that higher /nowledge. If
the society at large can $ecome changed! then there will $e a more perfect world here in the physical
realm. The #uddhist copes with suffering through a four0point plan. ;irst! he is taught to recognize the
pro$lem. econd! he will identify the cause of a particular /ind of suffering. Third! he will devise a plan for
detachment. ;ourth! he accomplishes his o$@ective. 'uman actions are @udged on $oth motive and
consequence.
&ender . The #uddhist emphasis on the non0self dictates that males and females are equal in terms of
person and worth! $ut they have different roles! especially within the family. >iscrimination produces
emotional suffering. *ompassion and respect wor/ toward alleviation of suffering.
.ace. #uddhism recognizes no distinction $etween people $ased on race. Their station in society depends
on their actions. Bhen they discriminate! they cause suffering $oth to the person they discriminate against
and to themselves. o! the pro$lem comes to rest on the individual. If he can $ehave toward others in a
$ecoming manner! he can eliminate suffering and improve his /arma. This in turn can affect his own
happiness.
The answer to the pro$lem is to $ring one
E
s attitude toward others into line. This includes correcting any
desire to harm another physically and imposing some emotional stress on another person. 1nything one
does to limit one
E
s quality of life is withdrawn. The attitude leads to toleration as well. 4ositive actions are
those that create the offer of /indness and encouragement toward those of other races! gender! or
religion.
b. %edica& ethics. The #uddha o$served that the possession of things could not lead to lasting happiness!
$ut the a$sence of suffering could $ring satisfaction in life. 'e con@ectured that through o$serving the
human e.perience! wisdom could $e gained. This wisdom could lead to an understanding of the true nature
of the world. 'e further con@ectured that through meditation! one could gain a change of attitude that would
affect the way a person lived and therefore achieve the goal of this life! which is to decrease suffering.
?et! #uddhism recognizes that sic/ness and death are inevita$le. o! it would appear the goal in life is not
to decrease and! eventually! to end suffering $ut to handle it. ;urther! it is through the #uddhist ethical system
that the su$scri$er feels o$liged to help relieve suffering that afflicts others who inha$it a $ody on earth.
1lthough the motive should $e altruistic! it still manifests a primary interest in self.
There are two aspects to suffering. 2ne is physical and the other is mental. 4hysical illness and disease are
dealt with through medications! $ut then are tempered $y #uddhist thought. =egarding the mental!
#uddhism identifies three ethereal poisons that inha$it one
E
s person: greed! anger! and ignorance. The
remedy to this type of suffering must include the
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spiritual
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side of man. 'ealing can $egin when the
poisons are addressed. ;or e.ample! greed can $e cured through contemplation! anger through the
practice of /indness! and ignorance $y contemplating the nature of things.
1nother way of descri$ing suffering is to say there e.ists $oth physical suffering and mental anguish.
4hysical is what happens in accidents and disease. <ental is internal in@ury resulting from un/ind words
and lac/ of respect for a person. The latter comes from multiple sources. 2ne! it results for that other
person when I inflict pain on that person. Two! it may $e the consequence of the way I feel a$out inflicting
pain on another. Third! it can come from another person who $rings mental pain to me. Even though
#uddhism spea/s of the
J
spiritual
J
side! it is not what the *hristian means when spea/ing of the spiritual.
#uddhism offers a do0it0yourself remedy and $ases the solution on one
E
s mental a$ility to meditate and
correct mental thoughts toward other people.
#uddhism holds that all living things should $e treated with compassion! that is with respect and equality. The
moral code ta/es into account s/illful actions00those which lead toward enlightenment and uns/illful
actions00those that arise from ignorance and lead to an.iety and suffering (*lar/ and Thompson!
Buddhi sm: A ,ew Appr oach, p.+%).
The ;ive 4recepts are intended as a guide when dealing with medical issues. Bith issues li/e a$ortion and
euthanasia! the first precept implies no /illing or hurting a person on the negative side and performing deeds
of /indness on the positive. To force one to do something against one
E
s wishes or one
E
s $est interests would
deprive that person of the en@oyment of life and thus causes suffering.
#uddhism teaches life $egins at conception! even though the soul0free $eing has already $een through
countless life cycles. 2ne is re$orn according to the /arma from the preceding life. 1$ortion is /illing and
carries emotional consequences for the living. 'owever! if a woman has $een raped or is carrying a
deformed or even unwanted child! this $rings suffering as well. *onsequently! there are circumstances
where a$ortion may $e a s/illful action. #uddhism does not address the issue of harm that might $e done to
the un$orn fetus at the point of a$ortion.
Euthanasia! li/e a$ortion! is /illing. 8evertheless! when it ends suffering! it may $e a s/illful action.
1$ortion and euthanasia are evaluated in view of /arma. 2ne needs also to ta/e into account that
suffering may $e the result of actions in a past life. =elieving suffering $y acting compassionately might
$ring good /arma and lead to a $etter re$irth. 1cting uns/illfully leads to $ad /arma. (
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#uddhism and
<edical Ethics!
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Internet)
.nternet ,ources
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#uddhism and <edical Ethics: 1 #i$liographic Introduction
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$y )ames ). 'ughes and >amien Deown!
)ournal of #uddhist Ethics! vol. " (155()
#uddhism and <edical Ethics: 4rinciples and 4ractice $y >amien Deown
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#uddhism! <edicine! and 'ealth
J
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<edical Ethics in #uddhism
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$y Hama :onsar =inpoche
c. Economic ethics. The economic principles permitted $y #uddhism are defined $y the general $elief
system of #uddhism. The concept of /arma shapes #uddhist economic ethics! yet a variety of
interpretations prevails. The outloo/ $egins with the ideal principle of nonattachment to wealth. #ut rules
and attitudes regarding wealth and la$or differ. #uddhist economic ethics tends toward an attitude
characterized $y interdependence $etween the sangha and the tate. 'istorically! the implication of this
relationship has $een that the sangha usually has not challenged e.isting economic policies regarding
wealth. =ather! it has emphasized giving financial support to the sangha! while relying upon the tate to
define the specifics for lay #uddhists. Issues of economic policy have $een dealt with primarily through
the ideas of /arma! religious giving! and compassion.
In early Theravada #uddhist ethics! wealth was not an inherent evil! $ut was the result of past merits. It is
unclear how this
J
merit
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is passed on! whether $y $eing re$orn into a wealthy family! $y chance! or $y
endowment of special
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$usiness
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genes. It was pro$a$ly more of an o$servation: a man is rich! therefore! he
must have $een rewarded in this life for what he did in a former life. 'owever! having an a$undance in the
new life would seem to $e a disadvantage. Bhen viewed in the light of the need to travel through
successive reincarnations $efore reaching nothingness! wealth provides a higher hurdle.
:iving avoids attachment. 2ne could earn a fortune! then gain merit $y giving it away. It would appear that
wealth attri$uted to past merits may create a temptation! not a $lessing. ?et! it $ecomes a means to an
end00that end $eing total detachment to the things of earthly life. If wealth is a sign of the achievement of
merit in a former life! one wonders if this holds for all wealthy people. If so! it would appear that wealthy
people who attach themselves to their wealth will digress in the ne.t cycle of life. If gaining0ande.hausting
merit $ecomes a repeated cycle! then how can one ever $rea/ the cycle and $ecome completely
detachedK Bhat is there in the new $irth that convinces a person to live differently than in the former life!
especially if one has no recollection of a former lifeK 2n the other hand! if the rich do detach themselves
from their wealth! how close to poverty must they $ecome to $e detachedK ;rom a #uddhist perspective! a
wealthy man would have to divest himself of all his riches $efore death if he is to $ecome totally detached.
1nd what is the poor man to thin/ of his former life when now he has nothing in the world to which to clingK
These questions may seem to have little to do with #uddhist ethical theory until one inquires as to how it
wor/s.
#uddhist economic ethics shows continuity and changed over the years. *ontinuities are more noticea$le
among lay #uddhists. They tend to accept wealth and economic inequalities. 1s long as wealth is
accumulated $y honest means and without attachment! wealth is no pro$lem. #uddhist economic ethics
has not $een inherently antagonistic toward capitalism.
The #uddhist demonstrates unattachment $y giving money to support the sangha. This represents a
change in attitude toward wealth has come within the sangha itself. 2riginal rules prohi$ited most
economic activity. #ut in time! the accumulation of individual wealth $y individual mon/s and $y the
monasteries $ecame accepta$le. This raises a potential pro$lem for the sangha! which could $ecome
attached to a growing treasury.
These changes reflect the influence of surrounding cultures! especially upon the development of #uddhist
ethics in terms of giving to the sangha as merit0ma/ing. Individual giving done for religious or economic
reasons contri$utes to the development of communal investment and usury. This pragmatic view has /ept
#uddhist thought from austere policies and unnecessary involvement in politics. #ut it lays emphasis on
human merit as the motivation for giving. 1t the same time! it contri$utes potentially to corrupt of the
sangha. ;ree0will giving and compassion are overshadowed $y selfish desire.
#uddhism has $een less inclined to change the current distri$ution of wealth than to develop a proper
attitude toward wealth! a position $ased on /armic interpretation of social and economic inequalities. The
tendency to @ustify wealth in the hands of the worthy has done little for social @ustice as a whole. The
general attitude has /ept #uddhism from $ecoming an activist group in the pu$lic social arena.
.nternet ,ources
:regory D. 2rnatows/i!
J
*ontinuity and *hange in the Economic Ethics of #uddhism: Evidence ;rom the
'istory of #uddhism in India! *hina and )apan!
J
0our nal of Buddhi st Et hi cs, vol. % (eptem$er "%! 1557):
1550%&,.
E. ;. chumacher!
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#uddhist Economics!
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8ew Economics Institute! ",1%
!e+tboo2 Readin"
8ow is a good time to read the te.t$oo/ $y 'eidt! 'or al (radi t i ons.
E+amination
%O-ULE ) Hindu Ethics
There are appro.imately 5,, million 'indus in the world. <ost of these live in India! $ut significant
num$ers have migrated elsewhere. *onsequently! the 'indu value system is honored $y a fair share of
the world population. 1dditionally! concepts that arise out of 'induism have $een adopted $y Besterners
who do not su$scri$e to the full 'indu worldview.
2ur interest lies with the ethical system that developed out of core 'indu $elief. To satisfy that interest! we
will need to introduce 'induism! descri$e the ethical system that grew out of it! give the rationale $ehind
'indu ethics! and offer details on how the system wor/s in real life. Initially! we recognize that 'induism is
/nowledge0$ased! ma/es room for :od (gods)! and assumes an all0consuming universe. 1n Eastern
religion! 'induism has similarities with #uddhism and traditional forms. In spite of advocacy for a supreme
deity! it resem$les polytheism more than monotheism. It allows considera$le latitude in $elief.
1s with other ethical systems! underlying presuppositions determine 'indu ethics. Therefore! we must first
understand the $asic structure on which the ethical system rests. The theoretical structure of 'induism
esta$lishes the character of the system and sets the limitations $eyond which a good 'indu may not go.
The ethical code derives from ancient writings! yet these do not fit the category of divine revelation. Terms
li/e
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righteousness
J
are used! $ut they come short of a revealed divine righteousness! grace! and
atonement central to the *hristian system. The voca$ulary employed to descri$e 'indu ethics will of
necessity $e understood within conte.t and not $e confused with the voca$ulary of other systems.
1n analysis of 'indu ethics $egins with its cosmology00the nature of the universe. The cosmology seems
rather comple.! $ut actually is very simple. It denies specific creation. In place of a purposed act! 'induism
pro@ects successive creations and dissolutions that have occurred in a circular time structure. The cosmos
e.ists in two states: manifested and unmanifested. 'ence! the system does not $egin with a *reator who
ma/es man in his own image and redeems man out of love. It can never admit an ethical standard that
reflects the personal attri$utes of a *reatorG it ma/es no provisions for calling man into a meaningful
relationship with the *reator.
The module is divided into three units. 3nit 1 provides an overview of the 'indu ethical system. 'ere! we will
see how a view of :od is tied to the goal of human life. 3nit " is an orientation to 'indu ethics. Implication
for attitude and $ehavior are lin/ed with the human condition and quest. 3nit % is given to practical issues.
Be shall isolate /ey topics to illustrate how the ethical code is e.pressed.
1n evaluation of 'indu ethics must $egin with the structure of 'induism itself. 'ow trustworthy is itK Bhat
evidence is there that its cosmology is correctK If the ethical system is designed to lead one to :od! how
did it come to e.ist in its present formK 'ow can :od $e found through many pathsK If :od can $e found
through many paths! assisted $y many gods! why is it essential to $e $orn multiple timesK If good is
performed for the sa/e of personal advancement! what does this say a$out the motivation of doing goodK
Bhat /ind of moral system does 'induism representK
Unit '. !he Hindu Ethica& ,ystem
The names of the Indian sages who advanced the ideas found in 'induism and who developed the 'indu
scriptures are un/nown. The scriptures they produced are called the Iedas! a term that means
M
/nowledge.
N
The Iedas provide the $asis for modern 'indu philosophy! as well as the notions of life that 'indus
su$scri$e.
'induism as practiced today is manifest in si. ma@or systems of philosophy: <imamsa! 8yaya! an/hya!
Iaisheshi/a! Iedanta! and ?oga. Each of these is drawn from the Iedas! $ut they differ $ecause 'indus
encourage human reason in interpreting their scriptures. 8onetheless! core teachings are held in common.
'induism puts a premium on /nowledge drawn from e.perience. Immortality! which is the ultimate goal of
'induism! can $e achieved through study of the Iedas! coupled with e.periential spiritual /nowledge.
piritual /nowledge is considered more important than academic /nowledge. 'ence! 'indu ethics $elongs
to the realm of
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spiritual
J
understanding.
The unit is divided into three parts. These are (a) 'indu theology! ($) 'umanity! and (c) The source of
'indu ethics. Be are attempting to discover the content of 'indu ethics and what determines the values
'indus pursue.
1 first priority is to discover the theological concepts that shape the ethical system. If there were no
connectivity $etween the two! there would $e no reason to spea/ of
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'indu
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ethics. If there is a connection!
we shall $e $etter informed as to motivation $ehind the action ta/en $y 'indus. #ut we must /eep in mind
that there are three parts to the equation: theology! scripture! and e.perience. The final product of
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'indu
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ethics will $e a merger of the three components.
The tas/ of studying a new ethical system is never complete until it is understood! analyzed! and evaluated.
:iven the ma/eup of 'induism! this will require loo/ing at the three parts noted in the paragraph a$ove and
e.amining the interaction that creates the whole system. 2ne will as/! 'ow relia$le is the theology when
there are many gods and 'indus are left to select those that suit himLher $estK Then! the relia$ility of the
source material $ecomes an issue when it represents only human wisdom. :oing a step farther! individual
interpretation is encouraged! which leaves open any possi$ility of definitive meaning. E.perience is always
su$@ective and unique to the individual. Ta/ing all three together! 'indu ethics can $ecome comple. and
su$@ective at the same time. In the end! the system depends on human wisdom and tradition. Its application
is relative.
Hi/e #uddhism! 'induism is driven $y a motivation to escape a less desira$le e.istence in pursuit of a
perfected one. 'owever! unli/e the #uddhist who aims at nothingness! the 'indu aims at $eing one with
:od. To achieve oneness with :od! there are disciplines and duties to $e performed. pecific $eliefs are
outlined! $ut they are not essential. <an may reflect godly personal qualities! $ut these remain a$stract.
:od
E
s incarnations aim at provo/ing spirituality! $ut there is no act that would cause one to respond out of love
and appreciation. Emphasis on awa/ening the inner $eing seems proper enough! $ut the o$@ective still
points toward a self0made person.
a. Hindu theo&o"y. :enerally /nown as a polytheistic religion! 'induism ac/nowledges ultimately a single
:od at the top of various manifestations. :od is seen as $oth personal (aguna #rahman) and impersonal
(8irguna #rahman). aguna #rahman is the creator! sustainer! and destroyer of the world. 1s creator! he is
called #rahmaG as sustainer! he is /nown as IishnuG as destroyer! he is hiva. The three00#rahma! Iishnu!
and hiva00constitute the 'indu Trinity.
1ccording to 'induism! :od is ever present! all /nowing! and all powerful. 1lso se.less! :od may $e
addressed as ;ather or <other (wami #has/arananda!
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'induism in a 8utshell!
N
Internet). :od is pure! the
1lmighty! the all0merciful! parent! and friend! the source of life and strength. 'e is to $e worshipped as the
$eloved (wami Iive/ananda!
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'induism00a #rief /etch!
J
Internet). 'indus hold that :od
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s powers or glories
are personified through human imagination. These deities are not regarded as separate gods! $ut
manifestations of the one :od.
:od is $elieved to actually incarnate himself on earth at different @unctures of history. 'e does so in order to
upgrade virtue and instill religious fervor in the interest of saving the righteous (wami #has/arananda!
M
N
Internet). This nature of :od is seen in Drishna! :od incarnate on earth.
'induism treats all religions as part of its system. It assumes that whatever is real is eternal and
changeless. 1s to whether the universe had a $eginning and will have an end! one finds conflicting
statements. 2n one hand! you may hear that since the universe had a $eginning! it must have an end.
#eing su$@ect to change means it cannot $e real. :od alone is reality (wami #has/arananda!
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'induism
in a 8utshell!
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Internet). ?et! 'indus may also claim the universe has no $eginning and no end. They may
claim the various systems are in constant reformation cycle after cycle. 'ence! the accumulated treasury
of spiritual laws! which the Iedas reveal! had no $eginning and will have no end (wami!
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'induism00a
#rief /etch!
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Internet).
Images are a ma@or part of 'indu worship. :od is thus made tangi$le. The images $ecome! for the 'indu! an
aid to realizing :od. The 'indu $elieves images help him connect truth and purity and @oin him with the
various attri$utes of :od. 2ne can $ecome divine only $y realizing the divine. Images are a means to this
end.
trangely! $elief in :od is not essential to $e a 'indu. #oth theists and atheists are see/ers. ince every
soul is divine! none are lostG all will eventually $e li$erated. >ivinity is manifest when the mind is purified
and impurity is eliminated (wami #has/arananda!
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N
Internet).
A summar y of el i ef s. 'indus are e.pected to $elieve (1) in the divinity of Iedas! (") a upreme #eing
who is $oth immanent and transcendent! (%) a universe that is in an endless cycle of creation!
preservation! and dissolution! (&) that one creates his own destiny $y his thoughts! deeds! and words! (()
that every soul evolves through a series of $irths and deaths until all /armas have $een resolved! (7) in the
e.istence of divine $eings in unseen worlds! (+) that a master or a guru is essential to follow the right path to
/now the Transcendent 1$solute! (9) that all forms of life are sacred and are to $e loved and revered! and
(5) that no one particular religion teaches the only pathway to salvation (;rom
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>ancing with iva
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$y atguru
ivaya u$ramuniyaswamiG article $y 8eria 'arish 'e$$ar).
Di sci pl i nes and dut i es. 'induism sets forth four ma@or spiritual disciplines. =ecognizing that people are
different in temperament! 'induism offers different paths to suit their needs. These are the paths of (1)
#ha/ti0?oga (devotion)! (") )nana0?oga (/nowledge)! (%) =a@a0?oga (concentration)! and (&) Darma0?oga
(right action). Each of these paths leads to
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:od realization.
N
1dditionally! 'induism recognizes two sets of religious duties. 2ne is designed for the lay person and the
other for mon/s. The first of theseC4ravritti <argaCperm its sensual desiresG the secondC8ivritti <arga
Ccalls for renunciation of sensual desires (wami #has/arananda!
M
N
Internet).
.nternet ,ource
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'induism
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$y <ichael Ilach! Theological tudies
b. Humanity. 1ccording to 'induism! man is more than a material $ody. The $ody diesG the spirit living in the
$ody lives on. The soul was not created! for it has a past. Even the natural ha$its of a $a$y are drawn from
past lives. 'eredity plays a role in physical configurationG the soul that occupies that $ody fits its
tendencies. Through effort! one can recall former lives. This means that consciousness is a surface matter!
and that underneath are stored all of one
A
s e.periences. The center of one
A
s soul resides in a $odyG after
death! that center moves to another $ody. The soul itself is conditioned $y matter $ut is! in itself! pure and
perfect. 'owever! it finds itself tied to matter and considers itself matter.
1ccording to the Iedas! the soul is divine. It is held presently in $ondage to matter! $ut perfection and
freedom will $e reached ultimately. :od
A
s mercy is conditioned on purity. :od reveals himself to the pure
heart. The system is $uilt around the idea that one struggles to $ecome perfect! to attain divinity! and to see
:od.
'indu ritual and ceremonies are designed to cultivate spirituality. 1s one progresses! ritual and
ceremonies are not needed (wami Iive/ananda!
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'induismCa #rief /etch!
N
Internet).
'induism is a$out inner transformation. The ultimate goal for humans is to /now reality. The path to that
reality is right actions in the performance of duties in this world. This helps purify the mind and prepare for
reality. (wami #has/arananda!
J
J
Internet). Drishna taught a man should live with
his heart to :od and his hands to wor/. It is $est to love :od for love
A
s sa/e.
In 'induism!
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the awa/ening of :od in the human soul!
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is $rought a$out when one rouses himself to act in
/eeping with his will. In this
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world of :od!
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one rests on the consequence of his own wor/s. 'ere! one does
not feel hardship $ut forgets difficulties (>. . arma!
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'indu Ethics!
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Internet). 1 good person acts on the
awa/ening and does goodG a $ad person mutes it and harms himself there$y. (wami
Iive/ananda!
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'induism00a #rief /etch!
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Internet).
1n important part of 'induism is the doctrine of Darma. Darma is $ased on the law of cause and effect.
:ood deeds will $ring good results in the ne.t lifeG $ad deeds will produce $ad effects in the ne.t life.
In order to see :od as impartial! the 'indu puts the $lame for man
A
s plight on himself. 'e is the cause for his
lot in lifeG his multiple lives are not the result of fate. 2ne
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s suffering or en@oyment on earth results from good
or $ad deeds done in past lives. 2ne can $lame only himself for his suffering. *onsequently! one must
create his own future through right actions in this life (wami #has/arananda!
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Internet). 2ne
A
s gender and race are more a matter of circumstance! $ut character can $e reformed $y
moral effort and education. Each soul finds an environment fitted to his tendencies as determined $y a
former life. :od is there to help each soul overcome sin and ignorance (>. . arma!
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'indu Ethics!
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Internet).
The other world consists of various planes of e.istence. >eparted souls enter one of these planes and
e.perience a graduation of en@oyment or pain $ased on their past actions on earth. In these planes! their
souls leave their $odies and remain for an indefinite period.
2ne
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s goal is li$eration from the cycle of reincarnation and en@oyment in the presence of :od. 'e $elieves
he will merge with :od and $e one with him. This is perfection! which is defined as mental purity and :od0
vision. 2ne can $e li$erated directly from earth or one can find li$eration in the plane of e.istence where
his soul goes when he dies. Those who attain perfection are li$erated and escape reincarnation. If one
does not achieve spiritual perfection in this state! he is re$orn to try again. Those who have impure minds
and unfulfilled desires are re$orn (wami #has/arananda!
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Internet).
c. !he source of Hindu ethics. The 'indu ethical system is rooted in the 3panishads and other
scriptures that loo/ to the Iedas for authority. The guide to right conduct is determined $y (1) the 'indu
scriptures! (") tradition! (%) the e.ample of saints! and (&) one
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s own conscience.
'indu ethics are derived primarily from three documents: the 3panishads! the #hagavad0:ita! and the
#rahma utra. The 3panishads declare
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salvation
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comes through /nowledge and realization. Truth is
availa$le to the see/er. <an
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s tas/ is to restore that truth to its former place prior to creation. 1sceticism!
$enevolence! sacrifice! and study are the means to that end. 4hysical senses separate one from True
elf. #y transcending physical senses only consciousness of anything other than elf remains. This is
immortality.
The 0pani shads. i. sayings from the 3panishads summarize its philosophy: (1) MI am #rahman!
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meaning one
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s own self is true divinity! that is! the truth is within each person
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s heart! (")
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The elf is
#rahman!
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which indicates that all $eings are identified with a$solute truth! (%)
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That you are!
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meaning
we are what we thin/ a$out and we are ultimate $eing! (&)
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Dnowledge is #rahman!
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which indicates
supreme intelligence is inherent within each person! (()
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The whole universe is #rahman!
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indicating the
individual is part of a divine universe! and (7)
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'ere am I!N pointing to the presence of divinity within
oneself. These si. statements aim toward the conclusion that man
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s worship! however it is done! comes
from the truth within and will lead to ultimate self0realization.
The "hagavad/&ita. The #hagavad0:ita advocates that the performance of duties without a motive of
merit cannot affect the action. It also teaches the cause and effect of /arma and how to deal with it.
'umans have free will that ena$les intelligent choices and that alter the manifestations of /arma. The
goal is to reduce $ad /arma carried into re$irth.
:od is $elieved to $e in all thingsG all things are $elieved to $e in :od. #ut the physical cosmos reflects
only a small portion of Iishnu
E
s glory. 1 larger invisi$le part of :od e.ists as well. In a word! 'induism is
pantheistic $ut mostly closed to view $y human eyes. In this pantheistic arrangement! a single :od sits at the
pinnacle.
'uman life aims at en@oyment! spiritual li$eration! righteousness! and wealth. ;our stages are pro@ected:
student! householder! forest dweller! and wandering ascetic. ;our castes are recognized: wor/er! trader!
warrior! and priest0teacher. 1ccording to the #hagavad0:ita doing one
E
s duty the $est one can and without
selfish motivation leads to salvation.
"rahma !utra. The third set of te.ts is also called the Iedanta utras. 'ere one finds a systematic
presentation of 'indu teachings. #rahma utra contains an e.planation of the philosophy set forth in the
3panishads.
1ther te'ts. 1 1"th century composition called 'anasollasa advances 'indu moral teaching. It specifies
charity! honesty! hospitality as moral virtues and specifies piety! pilgrimage! and worship as a means to
that end. :autama
E
s law $oo/ lists eight virtues: activity! compassion! contentment! eliminating envy!
patience! purity! pure thoughts! and releases from greed.
The life of a 'indu is mar/ed $y /indness! non0violence! tolerance! well0wishing and almsgiving. 1ll this is
done without the e.pectation of rewards in this life. pecific duties may differ depending on age and class.
The ascetic! for e.ample! is e.pected to removed worldly matters from his mind! while others are e.pected
to manage their lives in a $alanced way $etween wor/! family! and religious o$servance. 1ncient traditions
and ta$oos prevail among the more orthodo.. They may $e found to refrain from certain foods and contact
with lower classes of people.
The control of emotions that have $ad consequences is an order of 'indu ethics. 1nger! @ealousy! lust! and
pride are such emotions. These lead to disharmony within the larger society.
'indu ethical concepts have $een handed down from generation to generation $y way of myths and
stories. This does not remove these principles from having a philosophical $ase or $eing devoid of
theology. #ut the myths and stories do give character to 'induism and ma/e it a living religion. Its moral
concepts continue to $e conveyed in modern times through dance! electronic transmission! music!
theater! and written composition.
1 good e.ample of how 'indu ethical principles are conveyed through story is in hero figures. These
figures $ecome the personification of a given value. There may $e confusion over particular details and the
a$sence of historical conte.ts. They function more li/e a para$le than a true event.
.nternet ,ource
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Ethics of 'induism
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$y 8eria '. 'e$$ar! #olo@i
Unit 2. E+0&orin" the Ethica& ,ystem of Hinduism
'indu ethics forms a code for good conduct for all those who su$scri$e to the religion. Through proper
conduct! the 'indu is a$le to reach the ultimate goal of every human life00
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:od consciousness.
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#ut lest
one should thin/ 'induism is fully metaphysical! one should o$serve how natural law plays an important role
in the process. 'induism has a this0world interest as well as a future world interest.
The system supports the goals of the $eliever as he moves from the material to the spiritual! yet all activity
that affects one
E
s movement into :od0consciousness is performed in the physical world. 4hysical death is
not a stage toward :od0consciousnessG it is the $eginning point of another cycle of striving! for the @ourney
to :od0consciousness requires certain actions in the physical world. If these actions are insufficient! one
returns to endure another cycle of life. This cycle could $e $etter or worse than the former life. Bho ma/es
the @udgment or how @udgment is determined regarding a former life is not e.plained. There simply seems
to $e something in the metaphysical realm that! alongside the physical! controls one
E
s destiny. In this
arrangement! one wonders from whence the ethical rules have come and who or what enforces themK.
Ethical $ehavior therefore arises from the $osom of the individual. =ight actions are associated with the
person
E
s desire to reach a higher state of consciousness. 'opefully! one will $e motivated $y love! $ut then
there is no grounding of this love as there is in *hristianity. Hoo/ing at it from a Bestern perspective! the
$enefit is primarily personal. *hristian $ehavior is directed toward the glorification of the *reator! while the
'indu hopes for unification with :od in a spiritual state.
#ecause attention is centered on the individual! ethical $ehavior $ecomes su$@ective. 2nly the individual
can tell if the $ehavior is right. 8onetheless! the individual is o$liged to $lend into corporate society. 1s one
engages the larger society! the realm of social ethics $ecomes an offshoot of personal $ehavior. 'ence!
the principles one lives $y impinge on a person
E
s status and healthG they also inform the way one relates to
society at large. 'owever! the community is part of the whole! ma/ing it difficult to separate the individual
from the community. That is why it is impractical to attempt to isolate one from the other. 1t the same time!
the consequences of personal ethics can $e @udged $y the impact on society. In this situation! $enefit can $e
more imagined than real.
Be shall now e.plore and $egin to analyze 'indu ethics. To accomplish the tas/! the unit is $ro/en into
three topics: (a) the essence of 'indu ethics! including the rituals that accompany $elief! ($) spiritual
concepts that are primarily for personal $enefit! and (c) caste and stages of life! which are a consequence of
the system.
Bhen analyzing 'indu ethics! one will want to as/ a$out the source of the ethical system! evidence of its
relia$ility! how @udgment is made and the evidence for reincarnation! especially the evidence for individual
reincarnation $ased on lac/ of ethical $ehavior in a past life. 2ne may also as/ if one may attain perfection
$efore gaining :od0consciousness and how one /nows it has $een achieved.
1s the e.ploration $egins! notice that 'indu ethics ma/es no claim for having $een revealed $y any god or
$y all of the gods. The system derives from a particular orientation toward the goal of human
e.istence00
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:od consciousness.
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If the ethical principles did not originate with :od (or the gods)! and one
cannot $e sure of when :od consciousness is achieved! how can one $e certain of the pathK
a. !he essence of Hindu ethics. 'induism is a way of life that stresses ethics and moral conduct. Every
aspect of life is influenced $y the religionCfrom $irth to death. The code of conduct covers civic!
educational! marital! and spiritual00the totality of an enlightened society.
'indu ethics derive from the $elief that all differences are reconciled in a spiritual universe under the rule
of love. In this spiritual universal! there ceases to $e a difference $etween good and evil! and sins vanish.
The physical universe is run $y cause and effect. The moral world runs $y the law of /arma (deeds). The
earthling struggles with attachment. #ut in the spiritual! one acts out of love. 8ot only are motives different
$ut the consequences of actions as well. 2n earth! there is $ondage! for man
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s actions are acted out in
selfishness. ;reedom comes when man can act with a desire to participate with :od in the process of
setting man free.
Mor al i t y. The 'indu sages taught that moral living is part of the purpose of life. <orality returns the
universe to wholeness.
<oral purity pertains to $oth $ody and mind and involves ceremonial and moral purity. 'indus perform
ceremonies and cultivate virtues! moving from the outer to the inner self. >iet is not mandated! $ut it is
important from the spiritual viewpoint. 4roper food and drin/ and cleanliness $ring purity to the $ody.
*leanliness in $ody and mind are part of godliness.
ins of the $ody include drun/enness! gluttony! and sensuality. ins of the mind em$race $igotry!
hypocrisy! and pride. elf0control! on the other hand! produces for$earance! humility! modesty! patience!
and self0sacrifice.
*onquest of self must not $ecome an end in itself. ;or the 'indu! the flesh is not some evil to $e
e.tinguished $ut understood as to its place. elf0conquest aims at detachment. 'e pursues the divine
qualities of affection! friendship! and love. The 'indu $elieves the more one cherishes these divine
qualities in his heart! the nearer he will $e to :od. Earthly ties should $e a$andoned in the interest of
heavenly ties. Earthly ties are the source of unhappinessG heavenly ties are the guarantee of happiness.
>etachment implies starving one
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s affections. It $ecomes the e.tension of purification! for it removes one
from selfish desires. The eternal $eing is one who is true in /nowledge! right in conduct! and fair in social
relations. Truth in 'induism is an openness to investigation! appreciation! and refinement of morals and
manners.
1ccording to 'induism! cardinal virtues (fortitude! @ustice! prudence! temperance) constitute virtuous
character. Their significance is found in relation to the goal of divine perfection. The initial aim is!
therefore! the formation of a virtuous character! not the cultivation of virtues! which are perceived to $e
commandments that come from some e.ternal source.
The validity of virtues is conditioned $y surrounding circumstances. Iirtues attach themselves to the
understanding of the goal of life. 2ne $egins with o$edience to moral commands and rituals laid out $y the
rules of >harma (the underlying order in life and nature)! $ut once one acquires a virtuous disposition! one
moves to ma/e hisLher own decisions a$out truth! @ustice! and virtue.
2ne
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s tas/ is to control his own reactions to the evil that surrounds him. uch reactions pertain to self!
others! and divine providence. *ourage and calmness are required! as are love and helpfulness for
others! and a sense of humility in the face of the lac/ and misfortune facing others.
'induism recognizes three deadly sins: lust! hate! and greed. To this may $e added delusion! pride! and
malice. ome 'indus spea/ of sins of thought! sins of speech! and sins of action. They understand a harsh
word is much li/e an evil deed. #ut in 'induism! there is really only one sin with many manifestations:
selfish desire.
in is li/e a disease. It places one out of harmony with society and the universe. in is a delusion of a finite
self. alvation $ecomes in this conte.t a spiritual process. <orality is evolutionary and teaches one what
he has yet to acquire. <orality is not an end in itself and does not remove sin $ut points to refuge in :od.
Immoral deeds cause defect in one
A
s characterG good deeds ma/e his character $etter. The character
improves with frequency of good deed and impacts one
A
s future life.
'induism teaches physical austerity will strengthen the mind. #ecoming a$le to $ear adversities in
weather and pain $ring mental strength. These serve as disciplines for tac/ling the pro$lems of life. 1n
over identification with the $ody produces wea/ness of mind. This does not mean neglecting the $odyG it
means caring for it! $ecause it is the
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temple of :od.
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The soul is divine and :od is present in each
person. (wami #has/arananda!
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N
Internet).
!pirit and matter. The universe is comprised of spirit and matter! which contend with each other. The
higher one travels! the greater the mastery of spirit over matter. The evolution process carries one
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from
matter to life! from life to consciousness! from consciousness to self0consciousness! and from self0
consciousness to universal or cosmic consciousness.
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2r! another way of putting it is this:
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The progress is
from minerals to plants! from plants to animals! from animals to man and from man to :od.
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<atter e.ists
at one end of the spectrum! spirit at the other (>. . arma!
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'indu Ethics!
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Internet).
1s one progresses! matter decreases and spirit increases. In the present life! righteousness consists of
directing
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possessions and passions to a spiritual end.
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The more this is done! the greater one
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s progress
towards divine perfection. ince :od is eternal perfection! one must conduct his affairs in a manner that
will lead to spiritual development and produce pure and virtuous character.
*ature and ethics. ;or the 'indu! :od wor/s through laws. 8atural law and moral law are part of his
will. :od is an indwelling spirit! not a @udge. 'is laws are found in animate and inanimate nature.
'indus perceives nature to $e an e.tension of :od
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s energy and mind into the physical cosmos. The
order of the universe is due to a divine pattern called rita00
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the law of $eing! a universal presence that
governs nature! human ethics! conduct and @ustice.
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1nd rita evolved into the concept of dharma that
encompasses every facet of human life (>. . arna!
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'indu Ethics!
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Internet). >harma is transgressed
with the choice of immorality over morality.
'uman conduct is intertwined with nature where virtuous living arises from an awareness of nature
E
s
$eauty. 1 strong relationship e.ists $etween ethical conduct at $oth the personal and societal levels.
<oral la.ity $rings disaster and pestilence! which in turn reflect the state of collective consciousness.
Primary concepts. The primary ethical concept in 'induism is non0violence. <ore specifically! one must not
harm or cheat another.
The most nota$le of 'indu ethical o$ligations are /nown as the yamas and niyamas. In the yamas! five
areas are specified: (1) non0violence! which includes restraint from arrogance! anger! and physical actionG (")
refrain from lying! $ro/en promises! and in@usticeG (%) prohi$ition against coveting and stealingG (&) putting
aside lust! drun/enness! and $ad associationsG and (() control over desire and greed. ;ive areas are also
specified In the niyamas: (1) purity of $ody! mind! and speechG (") contentment and love for othersG (%)
penance! sacrifice! steadfastness! and for$earanceG (&) study of the 'indu scripturesG and (() cultivation of
meditation! worship! and charity.
Hife of all /inds is sacred! yet life is ta/en every time one $reathes and every time one eats. Iiolent action
cannot $e eliminated! $ut it can $e minimized Iiolence cannot $e avoided! for all animals must eat to
survive. Iegetarianism is a higher form of life $ecause to /ill a plant is to $e violent against a lesser form of
life. The $odies of lesser life forms are $elieved to $e
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vehicles for various astral and soul $eings.
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They
$elieve diet can either heighten or lower one
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s consciousness
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(
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'indu Ethics!
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Internet).
.nternet ,ources
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'indu Ethics!
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'indu 2nline
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<oral and Ethical Ideals of 'indus!
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Dashmiri 2verseas 1ssociation
b. ,0iritua& conce0ts. It is well to note the distinguishing features $etween 'indu ethics and other
systems. <odern secular rationale is rooted in evolutionary $iology and the scientific methods. 'ere! the
survival of the fittest rule applies! thus removing any sense of association with
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:od.
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The 'indu system
may $e tied to the well0$eing of society due to its sense of unity of the cosmos! $ut not $ecause it is
limited to human convenience. 'indu ethics focuses on disciplines in association with spiritual life.
'indu ethics is primarily personal and su$@ective. The o$@ective is to eliminate mental impurities in the
interest of achieving the highest good. 2$@ective ethics is a means to an end. 8egatively! that end is to
alleviate vices that destroy unity. ;urther! 'induism spea/s of creating an environment conducive to
alleviating vices that destroy unity. The new environment ena$les the highest good to transcend society.
'ence! 'induism offers universal ethical principles that apply to all humans.
Ethical acts are required of all. 2therwise! disunity and chaos result! ma/ing advancement toward spiritual
virtues impossi$le. The gods charged with /eeping the cosmos hinder the @ourney of those who fail to
$elieve accurately and act responsi$ly. Everyone is endowed with social consciousness and is inde$ted to
their ancestors! sages! and the gods. 4rocreation is man
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s gift to the ancestors for providing physical
$odies. tudy of the 'indu scriptures is the gift offered to the sages for giving spiritual culture. 4rayer and
worship are offered to the gods for their favor in the gifts of nature. In e.change for gifts! the ancestors!
sages! and gods the 'indu is a$le to engage in the disciplines that lead to the highest good.
'uman society is comprised of aristocrats! the general population! and demoniacs. 1ristocrats may
possess more education than most! $ut this does not guarantee the right course will $e ta/en in life. Their
greatest need is for self0control against a$uses and e.cess. The ran/ and file of humanity may $e equally
greedy. >emoniacs a$use and mistreat people and lac/ compassion. 'indu philosophers argue that when
individuals $ecome victorious! the assistance they receive from the spiritual realm helps them $ear the
suffering that continues in the physical world.
'indus are urged to perform their duties through love rather than compulsion. The love of which they
spea/ originates in the perception that :od in alive In all living $eings. To perform out of a sense of duty
merely strengthens a person
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s attachment to the physical world. Hove $rings the $eliever closer to
freedom. 2$@ective ethics creates an environment for cultivating su$@ective ethics.
u$@ective ethics include austerity! concentration! detachment! renunciation! and self0control. 1usterity
aims at cur$ing pleasures so one can ascend to realm of the gods.
)t hi cs and conduct . 'induism recognizes that man possesses the will to good or $ad conduct. Those
$ent on evil will produce evilG those inclined to right will pursue the highest good. The disciplines related to this
good help one su$due evil and perform good acts.
Bhat is called
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unrighteousness
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in 'induism may $e classified as mental! physical! or ver$al. <ental
unrighteousness involve the mind where harm may $e done if the opportunity presented itselfG
covetousness! discriminations are e.amples. 4hysical unrighteousness is actual harm against another!
li/e cruelty! se.ual a$use! and thievery.
=ighteousness is the opposite of unrighteousness. <ental righteousness may $e compassion or
/indness. 4hysical righteousness is e.pressed through giving. Ier$al righteousness is helpful speech
intended to encourage. Bithin these definitions! one finds social well0$eing. Iirtue is thus that which
proves $eneficial to society in general.
Truthfulness is not rooted in the nature of :od. 8either it determined $y some central authority figure. It is
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facts
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as esta$lished $y inference! perception! and testimony free of deceit. 4artial truths are lies. It must
not $e used in a manner that harms others.
4rohi$ition against theft carries with it a$stinence from greed. The o$@ective is indifference to things! with the
assumption that the accumulation of things leads to cruelty! greed! and other unhealthy actions toward
others.
The pursuit of chastity em$races a$stinence from $ad thoughts! speech! and action. The $ody is
rec/oned as the temple of :od. 1n impure heart ma/es for impure speech and actions. The see/er of
spiritual life guards self from unhealthy ha$its.
:reed! lust! and wrath lead to the ruin of the soul. The five cardinal virtues00detachment! non0violence!
purity! self0control! and truth00are universal. They allow no e.ceptions regardless of person! place! or
occasion. They are required for sought0after freedom. They are a notch a$ove the normal standards that
e.ist $etween man and $east.
True freedom cannot $e attained through ethical laws. The reason is that moral life is lin/ed to man
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s
constant struggle against the imperfect. ince a sense of ought lies at the core of morality! it implies
imperfection! $ecause improvement is needed. Therefore! none can $e moral and perfect at the same
time. 8evertheless! spiritual freedom may $e en@oyed while doing an action! if moral laws are accompanied
out of love and non0attachment. 'erein lies a power of the mind that produces inner peace.
c. Caste and sta"es of &ife
The cast e syst em. 2riginally! 'induism recognized a caste or class system $ased on a person
A
s
character. It was later reformed $y the powerful so as to place everyone in a class $ased on heredity.
4resently! that system is $rea/ing down.
The caste system in Indian society is of 'indu origins. It is @oined to social elements of the 'indu ethical
system. The #hagavad :ita enumerates four classes of humans! claiming they have divine recognition
determined $y the actions of the groups themselves.
ociety will have #rahmins! those of great education in literature and science. It will possess the
Dshatriyas! who are /nown for their deeds and valor. There will $e the Iaisyas! people of desire and an
accompanying enterprise. Then! there are the udras00those with little intelligence and capacity for
education and fit only for manual la$or. Each caste is divided $y la$or! sense of perfection! and ran/.
The #rahmin are a$le to e.ercise self0control in terms of the mind and senses. 'e is capa$le of austerity!
cleanliness! faith! for$earance! insight! learning! and uprightness. The possessor of few material assets!
the #rahmin elects a live of poverty and simple living $ut is capa$le of elevated thin/ing. 'e is a priest0
teacher! a leader among men! and useful to the /ing for his counsel or army officer. 'e protects the culture
and is recognized for his spirituality.
The Dshatriya are heroes. They are /nown for their firmness! generosity! and resourcefulness. The
Iaisya raise cattle and engage in trade. The udra are devoted to manual la$or.
1s the distinctions $etween the castes indicate! placement within the hierarchy relates to each person
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s
a$ilities and determination. The #rahmin will have suppressed pulls toward pleasureG the Dshatriya will
have proved a degree of self0sacrifice for othersG The Iaisya will have $enefitted society with his
possessionsG and the udra is pretty much a non0productive mem$er of the society. 1s one ascends the
caste scale! the more is e.pected $y way of protection of the wea/er lin/s. Thus! the system $rings unity to
the social order.
The caste system developed on the o$servation of inequalities within the human race in mind! $ody! and
spirit. 'induism assumes one is $orn into a caste as a result of actions in a former life. It does not e.plain
how it all $egan! $ut it does place individual responsi$ility on each human. Each life cycle offers a person an
opportunity to rise to a new caste in the ne.t earth life.
(our st ages of l i f e. The caste into which one is $orn positions one with society. 1s one passes through life!
there are stages to $e negotiated and duties that $elong to that stage. The life @ourney to the shrine of
truth has four stages. Each stage has given responsi$ilities. ;ailure to fulfill these responsi$ilities leads to
mental or physical illness and deters progress.
The initial stage is a period of study. >uring this time! one develops the mind! living an austere life in a
forest retreat under the direction of a spiritual father. 1ttention is given to clearing his mind of $ad
thoughts! turning aside from $ad deeds! and conserving his energy. 'e learns respect for older people!
appreciates cultural values! and en@oys equality with other students. The community studies the Iedas
and serve the gods.
The second stage $egins with marriage. 1ll normal people are e.pected to marry. Those with
transmitta$le diseases are $arredG those with a desire to withdraw and concentrate on spiritual matters
are e.cused. <arriage disciplines one for participation in the larger society. *hildren $ring social
o$ligations. 'us$ands and wives wor/ together to train their children in unselfish $ehavior. The healthy
family contri$utes to a $etter society and participates in that society. #esides secular duties! the family
provides spiritual training00/nowledge of the Iedas! worship of the gods! respect of the ancestors!
/indness to animals! hospitality! and service to the needy.
tage three is that of old age or when the first grandchild arrives. The time has come for quietness! when the
pleasures of youth have yielded to contentment! and the needs of life have $een reduced. >uring this state!
one can devote more time to spiritual study and meditation.
The fourth and final stage is identified as one in which a man turns from the world order in favor of the
monastic life. ocial laws have no appeal. 'e ascends a$ove physical attachments as he $ecomes the
ideal friend of people! animals! and gods ali/e. Total attention is given to cultivating :od0consciousness.
>iscipline is complete and life has reached its ape.. 'ence! the 'indu gradually progresses from $irth to
death through the aging process and discipline.
1fter surveying the general idea of ethics in 'induism! it may $e well to isolate a few issues that will
demonstrate how $elief influences application. *onceiva$ly! if certain $eliefs did not $elong to the religious
system! some ethical principles would disappear. The presuppositions upon which 'indus $ase their faith
act as restraints upon their conduct and shape their general attitude toward life on earth.
Topics to $e considered in this unit are (a) Iirtue! ($) <arriage and family! and (c) The sanctity of life:
a$ortion! euthanasia! and war. These should $e considered an outcome of the 'indu faith. ;or sure! the
attitudes e.pressed and the actions ta/en $y the su$scri$er reflect the 'indu ideal.
The idea of virtue is hardly divorced from aspirations for a future life! yet it does not appear to $e possi$le for
all to attain. #asic virtue is innate! $ut it does not apply evenly. 1ttaining to virtue is at once destined and a
matter of human striving. Fuestions to $e answered relate to the cause of personal destiny and why some
have a choice of striving or not. These two items are incompati$le. Even if they were compati$le! the
pro$lem is not settled! for it is not apparent that the supreme god of 'induism has willed particular
predestination to the ultimate achievement. 1re the limitations placed on humans ar$itraryK If so! the
prospect of the ultimate goal is futile. Bhat does this say a$out a system that anticipates that all
differences may eventually $e reconciledK If :od wor/s through laws! then why is it not possi$le for
human striving to produce the same result for allK
Bhile marriage and family are held in high regard! everything is conditional. 1 man must discriminate
against and avoid those with $lemishes. 2ne
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s action toward people caught up in some evil must $e
withdrawal. 1 hus$and
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s $ehavior toward his wife is conditioned on her $ehavior. 'ence! virtue is found in
human perfection! self0reliance! and withdrawal! not in giving and loving care. The higher *hristian virtue is
lac/ing! for virtue in 'induism is not attached to the character of :od. 1s for issues related to society!
'indu ethics tends to $e somewhat relative.
1$ortion! euthanasia! and war will $e approached much differently than in the secular Best! where
individualism is strong. In a secular individualistic culture! the community is su$@ected to the individual
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s
feelings. In *hristian teaching! the individual regards life as the property of :od.
The trilogy of topics has a common $ase. Each rests on a particular view of life. That view rises from
speculation a$out :od(s)! the goal of life on earth! and the means to a desired end. The ethical system is
part of the process of achieving oneness with
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:od.
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2ne may assume some relationship $etween ethical
practices and the nature of :od! $ut 'induism is so open to divergent thought and practice that a$solutes
cannot $e esta$lished. Hac/ing is any thought that :od entered the human world for the purpose of
redeeming sinful man.
If we may use the three topics as e.amples of how 'indu ethical principles are derived! we must conclude
they are the product of the same speculative minds that produced the idea of repeated reincarnations
intended to end in :od0consciousness. Bithout divine revelation! non0:od0conscious humans have
o$served human actions and developed a system of actions that reflect the
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ideal
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human. Bhen this ideal
human appears! he will have reached :od0consciousness.
a. 6irtue. ;rom a 'indu perspective! human and animal $ehavior is determined innately. 1
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good
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person is
one whose conduct is pure. 1 sinful person cannot control self and so gives in to all /inds of $ad attitudes
and vices. o! actions are founded on either @ustice or in@ustice. Bhat distinguishes a @ust or virtuous person
is one who pursues life calmly and does not succum$ to anger! envy! or pride. Their virtuous actions $ring
purification! causing sin to e.tinguish itself.
Those who $ecome pure attain
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heaven.
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They will have $elieved in :od! $ecome acquainted with sacred
scripture! and freed themselves of vices. This virtuous conduct is demonstrated through participation in
pilgrimages! for$earance! /indness to all creatures! charity! and truthfulness. They refrain from harming
other creatures $y physical acts or mental in@ury and render assistance to those in need. They are self0
controlled and practice austerity.
4eople who engage in charita$le giving are promised more of this world
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s goods and eternal $liss. 1 good
man will assist another good man even to the point of deprivation of his family! although they are not
o$ligated to deprive their own.
The virtuous will refrain from harming anyone! will gives alms to the needy! and $e truthful. *ontented
good men pass from this life to the perfect way of virtue! as they have achieved freedom from those
practices that $ring harm! /nowledge of the scriptures! the a$ility to discriminate $etween good and $ad
conduct.
#y self0control! man avoids the consequences of $ad thoughts and actions. The $est virtue is leniencyG
for$earance offers the $est powerG understanding our spiritual nature is the $est /nowledgeG truthfulness is
the $est religious duty. The highest truth is that which $rings the greatest good to the animate world. The
wisest among us is the one who acts with no e.pectation of reward and who sacrifices all with a view toward
renunciation. Even the renunciation of hope is a virtue! as it is a means of securing spiritual enlightenment!
@ust as the /nowledge of self is the $est /nowledge one can achieve. #y renouncing worldly desires!
suffering is ended and people fulfill their duty through their intelligence.
Dha r ma . 'indu ethics is closely connected with the idea that a person
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s spiritual development is guided $y
an internal compass set $y actions in previous lives. This compass is called >harma. It is what is approved
for the person in his societal conte.t and in /eeping with his life situation. It is governed $y reason. >harma
determines one
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s attitude toward the physical world and steers $oth mental and physical responses. It is a
conscience formed $y previous e.periences.
'induism does not recognize an a$solute sense of good and evil. <atters are relative! for >harma is
relative. Evil is merely less good. The sense of good varies with the individual and with the culture. 2ne
$ecomes li/e :od when he acts in a way that see/s no personal $enefit.
The four legitimate desires or values are righteousness (>harma)! wealth (1rtha)! sense pleasure (Dama)!
and (freedom) <o/sha. The first three $elong to the physical realm. The fourth (<o/sha) is supreme and is
the fulfillment of the first three. >esire can $ecome a spiritual quality when guidedG otherwise! suppressed
desire leads to an unhealthy mind and $ody. uch a condition o$structs movement toward freedom.
>harma is a value in the sense that it contri$utes to individual progress and social well0$eing. Bealth is
required in the physical realm to support one
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s family and to pay for education and societal services.
2ther than the $egging mon/s! who preserve the highest spiritual values! the lac/ of money for life
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s
necessities is a sign of failure. It leads to greed and cruelty. Bealth also provides for pleasure.
The goal of sense pleasure is to ma/e possi$le procreation! the humanities! and an en@oya$le life on
earth. ense pleasure is not an end in itselfG it is not sensuality. It is a means to achieving spiritual
freedom. 2ne
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s >harma guides one to life
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s o$@ective of service out of a sense of love for all things
created.
<an is essentially spirit. 'e cannot $e satisfied with worldly matters. The more he tries! the greater his
failure. 'e can achieve his divine state through a proper life on earth00a life that includes right thought and
action. Even then! there remains a void! an inner struggle. 'e achieves freedom in giving up all attachment
to the worldly realm and see/ing true /nowledge in the spiritual.
2ar ma. The law of /arma is the law of cause and effect. In the moral realm! this means an act motivated $y
$ad motives will generate a $ad result. :reed will $ring sufferingG love will lead to happiness. Thus 'indu
ethics is /nown as virtue ethics as opposed to rule0$ased ethics. The motive is rooted in a quality or virtue!
not a desire for conformity and not as a sheer act of o$edience. Darma recognizes that the effects of a
current life is the consequence of former lives. 2ne
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s failures may $e attri$uted to a host of $ad thoughts
andLor actions.
b. %arria"e and fami&y. ;amily is the most important institution in 'induism. 1ccording to the Iedas! five
core duties fall to the household. These are (1) daily devotion to the gods! (") honoring the ancestors! (%)
studying the Iedas! (&) treating domestic animals with /indness! and (() offering hospitality and assistance
to the needy.
There are some precautions! however. If one $ecomes overly a$sor$ed in family affairs! one can lose
sight of the ultimate goal. The ascetic uses these warnings for @ustification in separation from family
o$ligations! $ut the normal 'indu understands the family as part of the @ourney. >omestic care is one of
those material requirements that face all earth dwellers. Thus it contri$utes to spiritual merit.
The family unit is an essential element in $uilding a sta$le and unified society. The tie to the larger society is
$est illustrated $y the old world concept of e.tended family units that $ecome a microcosm of the larger social
order. In the e.tended family! relationships are wor/ed out $etween the younger and older! male and
female! strong and wea/! haves and have0nots! trou$led and ad@usted. The smaller nuclear family provides
opportunity to strive toward harmonious relationships. o! marriage $ecomes $oth a religious e.perience
as well as a social setting for the development of spiritual qualities.
The male 'indu is restricted to the wife he marries. 'e should avoid families that neglect the sacred rites!
have no male child! have heavy $ody hair! or sic/ly. 'e should not marry a red0headed girl! a deformed
person! or a hairless person. 'e cannot marry someone named after a constellation! a tree! river!
mountain! $ird! sna/e! slave! one who inspires terror! or one with a low cast name. 'e should not marry
one who father is un/nown. 'e should loo/ for a girl whose is graceful and has appealing features.
The udra male is restricted to a single wife from among other udras. The Iaisya may have two wives!
one from his own caste and one from a lower caste. The Dshatriya is permitted up to three wivesG who
must $e ta/en from the three lower castes. The #rahmana is permitted four wives00one from each caste.
<arriage is intended for life! $ut there are several considerations that regulate marriage. The following
selection of passages is offered to illustrate the specifics of family ethics in 'induism. These are ta/en
from
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The <aha$harata!
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Anusasana *ar "a, ection SHII.
1. The rationale for giving a daughter in marriage only once is to guard against spea/ing falsely
(<anusmriti! 50+1G The Haws of <anu).
2. 1$andonment of a wife who proves to $e $lemished! diseased! impure! or given fraudulently is
permitted (<anusmriti! 50+"! +%).
3. 1 man is permitted to a$sent himself from his wife for an e.tended period of time if it is in the interest of
providing for her (<anusmriti! 50+&).
4. 1 wife is allowed to provide for herself when the hus$and has failed to do so (<anusmriti! 50+().
5. If the hus$and a$sents himself for a sacred duty! the wife must wait for him for eight years! if for
education or fame! she must wait si. years! if for pleasure! three years (<anusmriti! 50+7).
6. 1 hus$and is o$liged to remain with a wife who hates him for one year (<anusmriti! 50++).
7. 1 wife who shows disrespect to a hus$and who is addicted to an evil passion! drin/! of is diseased
shall $e deserted for three months and deprived of her possessions (<anusmriti! &0+9).
8. 1 wife who shows aversion toward a hus$and who is mentally ill! destitute! or afflicted may not $e put
aside or deprived of her property (<anusmriti! 50+5).
9. 1 man may put away a wife guilty of drun/enness or $ad conduct or a wife who is diseased! re$ellious!
quarrelsome! or wasteful (<anusmriti! 509,! 91).
10. 1 $arren wife may $e superseded in the eighth yearG she whose children all die may $e put
away in the tenth yearG she who $ears only daughters in the eleventh year (<anusmriti! 5091).
11. 1 /ind and virtuous wife who is ill may $e divorced only with her own consent (<anusmriti! 509").
12. hould a wife $e superseded and depart in anger! she must $e either confined or
disgraced (<anusmriti! 509%).
13. 1 wife who mis$ehaves pu$licly when for$idden shall $e fined (<anusmriti! 509&).
14. Bhere multiple marriages are permitted! seniority and honor follows the order of the wives
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caste (<anusmriti! 509().
c. !he sanctity of &ife7 abortion8 euthanasia8 and $ar
Aor t i on. The 'indu $elieves in the divinity of the human soul. That soul is reincarnated at conception.
'ence! the soul remains divine in all states. *onsequently! a$ortion is not an option for it interferes with the
normal re$irth process.
'owever! another rule in the 'indu faith ma/es allowances for a$ortion. That rule comes into play when
there is a dilemma. In that event of having to choose $etween two $ad actions! one should select the action
that is least harmful. Bhen the choice is $etween life of the $a$y and life of the mother! then the rule
applies. #ut a$ortion for the sa/e of preventing having children crosses the line on another 'indu rule that
advocates procreation for the sa/e of e.pansion of the family and society.
1 developing fetus is a person! al$eit a developing person. The soul is eternal as well as divine. In new
$irth! that eternal soul is $eing re$orn. 1$ortion afflicts the soul
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s /arma! although it is hard to see how what
one does to another affects the /arma of a defenseless soul. It supposedly interferes with one
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s opportunity
to $e re$orn at this moment in time and interrupts one
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s spiritual @ourney. The 'indu teaching of non0violence
also intervenes! for it prohi$its any ta/ing of life.
)ut hanasi a. Euthanasia is generally prohi$ited in 'induism for several reasons. 2ne! /illing is wrong.
Two! ta/ing the life of an older person may interfere with a person
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s final stage in reaching for the spiritual.
Three! ta/ing the life of an older person is not a /ind action and so damages the /iller
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s /arma. The
younger are o$liged to care for the elderly and the sic/. There are allowances for euthanasia!
nevertheless. Bhen a person is suffering and faced with an incura$le ailment! it may $e in the $est
interest of that person to die. Bhen the ill person is in a coma! is mentally ill! or una$le to function!
euthanasia may $e permitted. In this case! the soul has! for all practical purposes! already departed.
Euthanasia assists the ailing person to pass from this life to the ne.t and continue the @ourney toward
spiritual life. There is a point at which one is
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ready
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to proceed. There is no more good /arma that can $e
earned here in the present life form. #ut the act is never underta/en lightly.
3ar. 'induism teaches against war! $ecause it stands opposed to ta/ing human life. There are
situations! however! when war is approved. The occasion has to $e one where war is preferred to the
perpetration of evil. Bar may even $ecome a duty for those who act against in@ustice.
'induism may recognize the legitimacy of war under certain conditions! $ut the preferred action is restraint.
uffering is honora$le! not a sign of a coward. Even in war! there are ethical rules. ;or e.ample! it is wrong to
stri/e someone down from the rear. It is an un@ust act to ta/e unfair advantage of the foe. Dilling children
and the ill is prohi$ited. #attle may not $e used to e.cuse the e.pansion of war $eyond its @ustifia$le
reason. 1ggression and terrorism are for$idden under the penalty of death. :od may orchestrate conflict
when an im$alance of good and evil appears on earth.
Essay
1t the termination of <odule &! $egin your research pro@ect. This is a "!,,,0word essay that lays out the
cr i t er i a for @udging an ethical system! along with suita$le applications. ?ou may choose any ethical
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system!
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whether covered in this course or not.
The assignment shall $e developed in two evenly0divided parts. 4art 1 shall set forward your cr i t er i a for
evaluating the merits of a system. ;or e.ample! you may descri$e a num$er of essential elements such
as universal application! authority! etc. how the importance of the elements you include in your criteria.
Then! in the second part! select some system (secular or religious) and @udge its principles $y your
criteria.
To give your a $oost! title your essay!
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*riteria and 1pplication for )udging an Ethical ystem.
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In 4art 1!
answer the question!
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Bhat issues should $e addressed in @udging an ethical systemK
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4art " may $e given
to finishing the statement!
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Bhen the a$ove criteria are applied to 00000000000000000(your chosen system)! the
system $odes well with criterion T! T! and T $ut it is wea/ when @udged $y criterion T! T! and T. (;ollow with
specifics.)
3pload your essay from the *ourse <enu! under <odule &.
%O-ULE * .s&amic Ethics
Islamic ethics is an integral part of a comprehensive entity that encompasses all spheres of life00personal!
social! economic! political! and religious. That entity can $e descri$ed as a religion! $ut it is more aptly a
system of @urisprudence $ased on a religious orientation. *onsequently! we cannot spea/ of Islamic ethics
apart from its religious $ase. 8or can we spea/ of a religious code apart from its implication for all who live
under its social! economic! and political @urisdiction. Two /inds of o$ligations are envisioned in Islamic
ethics: one! spiritual and mental! and the other! legal and social.
In 1ra$ic!
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Islam
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means Jto su$mit.
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Bithin the conte.t of Islam! the word implies su$mission to 1llah
through o$serving the way of the 4rophet! <uhammad. The ultimate goal is universal implementation as
part of 1llah
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s will. 1nything short of this accomplishment implies 1llah is unhappy and will hold his
su$@ects responsi$le for failing to /eep the world $alanced ethically. 'ence! e.pectant $ehavior for all
world citizens is defined in haria. 3nli/e 'induism! which is given to $ringing the individual into
community where :od0consciousness is a desired end! Islam aims at $ringing everyone under 1llah
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s
control through su$mission to law.
1llah
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s will is given first and foremost in the Fur
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an. #ut for the application! one must go to the sayings of
<uhammad! which are found in the 'adith (Traditions). #eyond the 'adith are the interpretations derived
from analogies and consensus of the scholars. 1lthough the Fur
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an is deemed the final and complete
revelation of 1llah! the ethical system itself can only $e understood through the totality of Islamic rules00
haria.
The module is $ro/en into three units. 3nit 1 addresses the Islamic ethical system in relation to core $eliefs
of Islam and haria law. 3nit " further e.plores the ethical system within the framewor/ of the core $eliefs
and quotations from the Fur
E
an and their implications. 3nit % attempts to isolate the principles that
distinguish the ethical system found in Islam through special topics.
It is important to note that the system of Islamic ethics ties into the
J
will
J
of 1llah. #ad things may happen
when his will is violated. *oercion and physical punishment may $e used $y his su$@ects to correct
a$users. These corrections are of the order of l e1 t al i oni s (retaliation that matches the offence). 8oticea$ly
a$sent is the concept of unconditional love! either on the part of 1llah or those who su$mit to his ar$itrary
commands.
1 certain amount of fatalism characterizes the application! as all acts to $e performed Jas 1llah wills.
J
Islam
does not view human nature as necessarily corruptG man chooses to do evil. The question as to why one
would want to go against 1llah
E
s will is left open. The fatalistic part removes the $lame for doing evil $ut
assigns the consequences nevertheless.
The Islamic ethical system may $e evaluated $y answering pertinent questions. 1mong these are the
following. ince 1llah
E
s will drives ethics! what /ind of :od is 1llahK 4recisely what is 1llah
E
s willK Bhat
does performing 1llah
E
s will requireK 'ow does 1llah e.pect those who su$mit to his will to relate to
un$elieversK
2n a final note! /eep in mind that <uslims are individuals who ma/e choices for a variety of reasons. ome
su$scri$e to the ideology and act on its demands strictly. 2thers will choose a more moderate response.
)ust $ecause a person professes Islam as a faith does not define his personal character wholly. ome
people are simply /inder! more loving! helpful than others. 2ur concern in this course is the core values that
define a system of $ehavior. The individual is more li/ely to possess a composite of values than to $e a
purist.
Unit '. !he .s&amic Ethica& ,ystem
Every ethical system rests on assumptions a$out :od and man/ind. The more humanistic the ethical
system! the more li/ely it will represent the $est of human wisdom. *onversely! if a system derives from
theism! it will ac/nowledge the role of :od in determining right and wrong. #ut the role of :od will depend
upon the perception of his nature and his will. The means for acquiring specific ethical principles is usually
attached to a set of sacred scriptures and traditions. 1nd so! with Islamic ethics! we must inquire as to the
core $eliefs and their implication for ethical $ehavior.
Islam rests on a unique set of presuppositions a$out 1llah (1ra$ic for :od)! ideals for the cosmos! and
1llah
E
s intentions for humanity. The system itself presupposes Islam is the only true revelation from :od and
hence that revelation defines the standard of life 1llah e.pects. 'e is characterized as
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one
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and so directs
the universe toward a $alanced position. Bhen man fails to fulfill his intentions! 1llah and his servants act
to $ring it into line.
The Islamic ethical system is not $ased on the personal character of :od as in *hristianity! $ut on the
oneness, so"erei$nty, and will of 1llah. Those who follow these prescriptions can e.pect a reward after
death. Those who do not su$mit are enemies of 1llah.
Deeping 1llah
E
s commands is connected with assuring $alance in the universe! which is itself a reflection of
1llah
E
s oneness. There is no definite limit to how far 1llah will allow man to waiver. 1 la. attitude toward sin
leaves open the question! for sin is not a grave matter. #ut it does $ecome a convenient conversation point
when a natural disaster stri/es.
in itself is forgetfulness00forgetfulness to /eep 1llah
E
s commands. It is not viewed as critical in Islam as in
*hristianity. 8either does it carry as severe consequences! e.cept for un$elievers. There is also a certain
amount of determinism in Islam! which is hardly dealt with as far as the $alance of nature is concerned.
To $e sure! the nature of 1llah is a touchstone. 'is
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oneness
J
sets into motion the tone for an ethical system
that demands o$edience without reservation. >enied the a$ility to e.ercise the type of love that would
ena$le him to
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pay the price
J
for man
E
s redemption! 1llah is left with no alternative $ut to command and
@udge. #ecause man is not the o$@ect of affection! Islamic ethics is cold! legal! and calculated with the aim of
su$duing the human creature. 2f course! there are no$le rules! $ut there is no means for securing
forgiveness outside the
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compassion
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of an ar$itrary 1llah. These traits filter through to the
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will
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of 1llah. The
<uslim
J
su$mits
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primarily in response to command! though some claim out of respect. o! the will of 1llah
reflects his perceived person and is conveyed as a code of conduct defined $y commands! intended to $ring
a$out $alance in nature. This also defines the attitude the <uslim has toward un$elievers.
The unit is divided into three sections. These are (a) *ore $eliefs and concepts! ($) The foundation of
Islamic ethics! and (c) Implications.
a. Core be&iefs and conce0ts. *entral to Islam is the $elief in one omnipotent :od who! without a divine
associate! has sent messengers to human/ind for their guidance. Each <uslim is o$ligated to su$scri$e to
the five pillars: the confession of faith! five daily prayers (three for hia)! payment of alms! the fast of
=amadan! and! if possi$le! a pilgrimage to <ecca.
:iven the nature of Islam! it is understanda$le that its goal is domination. :reat effort is made to /eep
<uslims from apostasy! which $ecomes a great sin. Each <uslim is o$liged to su$scri$e to Islamic ethics.
The essence of Islam is captured in a <uslim
A
s words when he says Islam is
M
a$ove all! the religion of truth!
and truth is pitiless in that it cannot $e other than it isN (Eaton! !slam and the Destiny of 'an).
<uslims ac/nowledge the e.cesses and violence of some of the caliphs. ?et these are @ustified $y the
$elief that
M
nothing e.ists without a purpose.
N
The purpose of the evil perpetrated $y the caliphs is Mto
teach us a$out ourselves.
N
Be learn something of our greed and arrogance on the one hand and an
element of no$ility on the other. ;urther!
M
there are lessons to $e learned concerning the encounter $etween
religion and politics! piety and worldly efficacy.
N
In summary!
M
'ad it not $een for formida$le rulers who! from
impure motives and with dirty hands! e.ercised their trade in the only effective way it could $e e.ercised!
there might have $een no space left in this world for the pious! nor any school in which they could learn
piety
N
(Eaton). <uhammad
A
s vision em$raced the supremacy of 1llah in the affairs of men! with the state
A
s
duty $eing to see that its citizens follow the right path.
The world of Islam is uniquely centered on 1llah and <uhammad. The foundation of that world is the
Fur
A
an! which prescri$es
M
@ustice! charity! mercy! self0denial! and tolerance.
N
Islam identifies the purpose of
<uslim life and sets the standards $y which <uslims conduct individual and communal affairs
(Hippman! 6nder st andi n$ ! sl am) .
In Islam! no distinction e.ists $etween religion and politics! for Islam em$races $oth. Islam is the source of
law! the guide to statecraft! and the ar$iter of social $ehavior. 1ll human activity falls within the sphere of
Islam! for the sole purpose of any endeavor is to do 1llah
A
s will. 'ence! religious considerations routinely
determine domestic social policies. ince Islam offers a total agendum for society and specifies o$@ectives
and rules for all followers! its sacred law! the sharia! defines Islam as a political force. Theology! sect
differences! and personal faith receive secondary attention (HippmanG 4ipes! ! n t he *at h of
-od) .
<uslim responses to the contemporary world have ta/en three different routes. 2ne response is o$served
in audi 1ra$ia! where sharia is the code of law and constitution. 1 second response has $een ta/en in
Egypt! where sharia is the basi s for legislation. 1 third response is found in Tur/ey! where sharia has $een
e.cluded from legal and administrative codes. In sum! any form of government is accepta$le as long as it
upholds Islamic law. Islamic law invaria$ly discriminates against non0<uslims in all aspects of life.
b. !he foundation of .s&amic ethics. The Islamic ethical system $egins with a concept of 1llah and
revolves around <uhammad. The $elief that 1llah has revealed to <uhammad his corrected! inerrant! and
final set of instructions as to how man is to $ehave ma/es the ethical system complete! a$solute! and
universal. Bhat remains for man/ind is for all to su$mit. 2ne may $ecome a <uslim $y fate of $irth or
through conversion. There are incentives for the <uslim to remain true to the faith as there are incentives in
a <uslim country for one to convert.
The rationale for Islamic ethics $egins with the doctrine of tawhid! the teaching that :od is one. The
doctrine is e.pressed in the shahadah (witness! confession) that every <uslim repeats:
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There is no god $y
1llah and <uhammad is his prophet.
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The oneness to which the shahadah witnesses is that :od can have
no associate in divinity! specifically a on named )esus *hrist.
The universe is! consequently! one unified cosmos as well. Ideally the cosmos is in order! for there @ustice has
$een esta$lished $y 1llah. Bhen things go wrong! however! the cause can $e traced to man/ind who fails to
su$mit to 1llah
E
s ordered way. The universe is moving in the direction of complete su$mission! and those who
su$mit to 1llah are charged with at least part of the tas/ of ma/ing this happen.
The first plan/ in Islam holds that 1llah has spo/en through <uhammad and that the Fur
E
an contains the
truth a$out 1llah and his will. It offer $oth true theology and practical direction to :od. Islam holds that )ews
and *hristian departed from the true path and that :od
E
s final effort to reach man/ind is through the 1ra$s.
Those under the sway of 'induism have missed the concept of one :od and #uddhists have left :od out of
the picture completely.
If 1llah has spo/en to <uhammad and his words have since $een reduced to the written Fur
E
an! additional
e.planations on how to understand and apply that revelation have $een recorded in the 'adith. ;urther
e.planations are found in the consensus of scholars and analogies. The total Islamic system of ethical
@urisprudence is /nown as the haria! the composite of the a$ove.
The ethical principles thus derived need some means of implementation. 3nli/e *hristianity! Islam
provides for a more deli$erate enactment of its legal demands. The system e.presses 1llah
E
s will. The
individual <uslim holds responsi$ility to im$i$e these personally and respond to violators in a retaliatory
manner. The faithful $elieve they possess the truth! and the truth should $e defended when attac/ed. 1n
attac/ against 1llah
E
s messenger <uhammad or his truth as found in haria is an attac/ against 1llah.
In Islam! focusing attention on 1llah is essential to the concept of spiritual perfection. The understanding of
strict monotheism predisposes that actualization of spirituality is found in the structure of the universe rather
than in spatial dimensions! as with pagans.
.nternet ,ources
J
The #asis of Ethics in Islam!
J
Islam 2nline
J
Islamic Ethic
J
$y 1sghar 1li
Islamic 4hilosophy of 'istory! *hap. "9
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<oral Teachings of Islam: ;oundations of Islamic Ethics
J
$y )amal #adawi
c. .m0&ications. The ethical patterns that $elong to Islam are derived from a $asic worldview. In a system that
pits those who su$mit to 1llah against those who do not su$mit! two general codes of ethics emerge and
these confront one another. The one represents $ehavior that is destined $y 1llah and the other represents
$ehavior that resists what is specified in Islam. 'ence! Islam sees a world divided into a house of peace and
a house of war. The attitude of those who come under 1llah
E
s domain will inevita$ly $e different from that of
those who do not.
In a sense! the same may $e said of *hristianity! for there is the /ingdom of :od and the /ingdom of atan.
These are enemies. *hristians are engaged in a spiritual $attle! where the divine mind is opposed $y the
mind of atan. The difference! however! is found in the attitude of those within the house of peace toward
those of the house of war. In Islam! $elievers may! under some circumstances! e.hi$it a hostile attitude! for
they are 1llah
E
s instruments to $ring a$out su$mission. Even force and oppressive legislation are not ruled
out! when these $enefit the cause. The *hristian gospel teaches otherwise! for su$mission to :od is
voluntary and is in response to the love of :od as demonstrated in the life! death! resurrection! and
e.altation of )esus *hrist. Islam denies the need for this demonstration of :od
E
s love and! indeed! its
possi$ility.
In Islam! su$mission to :od is $ased on o$edience! not :od
E
s grace. 2$edience o$ligates the <uslim to
pursue a course of action that will $enefit 1llah
E
s declared cause. ince the end @ustifies the means! this
casts a new light on how the <uslim is conditioned to react to the mem$ers of the house of war. Hying to
the enemy and denying the faith in the heart are accepta$le tactics. This is in stri/ing contrast to the
teachings of )esus! who taught his disciples to pursue integrity! love an enemy! and $e prepared to suffer for
:od
E
s sa/e. ?ou may wish to note that the Fur
E
an commands <uslims to /eep their oaths ((:95)! $ut not
necessarily to un$elievers.
Islam does teach a$stinence from into.icants! gam$ling! and usury. *onsequently! Islamic ethics promote
higher values than are found in a secular society. The implication is that a dedicated <uslim will refrain
from ha$its that can damage hisLher person. 8evertheless! the motive for hisLher actions is rooted in the
concept of su$mission through o$edience rather than in response to :od
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s love and redemptive act.
The a$ove discussion has purposefully drawn sharp distinctions $etween attitudes derived from the
sources. #oth <uslim and *hristian writers will soften or even deny the antagonistic spirit portrayed. The
following articles found on the Internet attempt to set the record straight. ?ou will $e left to decide for
yourself the correct interpretation. 1s you wor/ through the articles! review the 1&,, years of conflict
$etween *hristians and <uslim as these implications have $een wor/ed out in history and continue to $e
wor/ed out.
.nternet ,ources
J
Islam versus 3n$elievers
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$y Ie.en *ra$tree! ",,7
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The Fur
E
an! the #eliever and the 8on0$eliever
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$y 1hmad hafaat! Islamic 4erspectives
Unit 2. E+0&orin" the Ethica& ,ystem of .s&am
The Islamic ethical system is $uilt on the idea that 1llah has revealed his will for man on numerous
occasions throughout history! $ut over time his will has $een either neglected or misrepresented. The
faithful $elieve the final and correct presentation of 1llah
A
s will came through an angel to <uhammad.
These recitations were later written down (hence! the Fur
A
an! which means! Jto recite
J
) and given
application through the traditions and other aspects of haria law.
=ooted in the wi l l of 1llah rather than in the per son of :od! the ethical system is derived from commands
and functions li/e a political $ody. The system em$races dietary restrictions! the principle of retaliation!
defense of 1llah
A
s cause! economic rules! provisions for the poor! family and social relations! and personal
conduct. 4enalties are specified for violations.
In concept! the Islamic ethical system was put into place with the first human. The intent of 1llah has not
changed! though some laws have $een a$rogated. The system is intended for universal application! $ut! in
reality! its demands are @udged to $e enforced only on the $elievers! those who are at peace with 1llah. 8on0
$elievers are condemned for not su$mitting to 1llahCnot simply for violating his ethical code. Those who
re@ect the code represent the 'ouse of Bar. They may eventually $e $rought under the code! $ut provision
is made for e.ception.
The /ey to understanding Islamic ethics lies with the (1) source! (") character! and (%) application of the
code. 1s for source! ethical principles derive more specifically from 1llah
E
s i nt ent i ons, not his character.
Identifying the source in 1llah
E
s wi l l reflects a certain nature of 1llah! to $e sure. That nature suggests his
intentions override emotional traits such as love and empathy. 'e is set in a command0and0e.ecute mode.
)ustice! not mercy! is his forte. *onsequently! commands with penalties are more the order of Islamic
ethics than propitiation and forgiveness. 'uman reason! culture! and tradition play no part in esta$lishing
e.pectations for human $ehavior. #ut human o$edience is the $asis for diverting 1llah
E
s wrath.
1s for character! the system is legalistic and demands $lind su$mission a$ove attitude of heart.
=esponse to 1llah is out of gratefulness for the opportunity! not out of an act of love for any redeeming
activity.
In application! the way is clear. <an is without e.cuse. It is up to man to o$ey the will of 1llah as restored
through <uhammad. 3n$elievers refuse to follow and are to $e treated as enemies of 1llah.
It cannot $e over0emphasized that the Islamic ethical system is tied to the Islamic view of :od (1llah). The
system rests on assumptions that limit :od in $oth person and acts. 1s to person! he is without equal feeling
for his creation. There is a noticea$le a$sence of love for those who have
J
gone astray
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(i.e.! re@ect haria
law)! regardless of their intentions to praise him. 'is favor is conditioned on human performance! yet he
cannot guarantee deliverance. ;urthermore! 1llah is constrained from performing a redemptive act00partly
$ecause he sees no need to provide anything e.cept commands and partly $ecause he cannot enter human
history. *onsequently! the system is legal and e.acting! without a redemptive element or assurance of
salvation. 1lthough many of the rules are what would $e e.pected of decent human $eings! others reveal
1llah to $e an ar$itrary sovereign who e.pects his followers to su$mit to him and! on appropriate occasions!
to e.ecute @udgment for him.
The unit is $ro/en into three parts. These are (a) haria law: the Fur
E
an and 'adith! ($) Fuotations that
form the $asis for ethics in Islam: Fur
E
an! and (c) The $asis of ethics in Islam: 'adith.
a. ,haria La$7 !he 9ur
:
an and Hadith. In *hristianity! :od communicates with man to $uild a
relationshipG in Islam! he communicates to inform. ;or the *hristian! the Bord of :od is )esus *hristG for
the <uslim! it is the Fur
A
an. It is important to understand that the Fur
A
an correlates to )esus! not to the
#i$le. The prime function of the Fur
A
an is to stress the concept that :od is one! having no equal or partner!
and 1llah alone is worthy of worship (Dhan! !slam).
ince the Fur
A
an does not specify how its dictates are to $e applied! a secondary source! /nown as the
sunna (path or way of <uhammad)! $ecame decisive regarding situations not mentioned in the Fur
A
an. 1
written compilation of the prophet
A
s teaching on religious practices! social affairs! and qur
A
anic
interpretation is called the 'adith.
1s voluminous as the Fur
A
an and 'adith may $e! they still do not cover all contingencies. Therefore! there
developed a corpus of law that could deal with new events and situations not addressed in the Fur
A
an or
'adith. This corpus is /nown as sharia. Three principal methods evolved for dealing with new situations:
consensus! analogy! and intellectual effort.
)urisprudence! rather than theology! is the principal science in Islam. The scholar is primarily a @urist who
delineates correct actions. The <uslim
A
s ma@or concern is with proper action in all situations in order to
conform to the Bord of 1llah.
The 4ur
5
an. The Fur
A
an! which means
M
recitation!
N
is a collection of revelations claimed $y <uhammad! an
1ra$ian $orn ca. (+,. <uhammad portrayed himself as the final prophet! who received revelation from 1llah
that corrected all others that had either $een lost or corrupted $y men! including the #i$le. <uhammad!
who was illiterate! recited his messages to different people on various occasions. In each recitation!
<uhammad made no use of te.ts of earlier revelations. ince the revelations occurred over a period of
twenty0two or twenty0three years! amid changing situations! it is not surprising that inconsistencies and
repetitions appear in the qur
A
anic te.t! which was not compiled until after <uhammad
A
s death. 'is words
were recorded in the memories of men and on $ones and s/ins of animals. Bhen disputes arose over
<uhammad
A
s e.act words! Paid i$n Tha$it! <uhammad
A
s <edinese secretary! led in gathering the te.tual
and memory fragments and produced a te.t. 3thman! the third caliph! proclaimed the te.t official. 1ll
deviant te.ts were destroyed.
The earlier! shorter suras (chapters) are revelations delivered in <ecca to provo/e
M
un$elievers to
ac/nowledge the one :od and the certainty of 'is terri$le @udgment. The longer! didactic! later U<edineseV
suras reveal laws! admonitions! and rules of social $ehavior to a community that has already accepted
Islam
N
(Hippman! 6nderstandin$ !slam).
The Hadith. The 'adith is a collection of traditions traced $ac/ along a line of authorities to <uhammad.
=eflecting the true practice of <uhammad! the 'adith functions as an e.ample for the <uslim community $y
providing moral and social guidance. 1mong the unnis! the 'adith holds semi0canonical status. The
hias have similar! though not identical! collections.
The !haria. The haria is a code of law that regulates the $ehavior of all <uslims. It covers commercial!
criminal! domestic! political! and social affairs and worship practices. haria represents the totality of
Islamic law that reflects human adaptations to modern situations. It is through su$mission to sharia that
the <uslim su$mits to 1llah.
b. 9uotations that form the basis for ethics in .s&am7 9ur
;
an. ;ollowing are a selection of quotations
provided $y 1ntonov from the Fur
E
an. These will assist you in seeing the $asis for Islamic ethics.
":"". >o not set up any one as equal to 1llah.
":1,+. >o you not /now that 1llah
E
s is the power over the 'eaven and the Earth! and that $esides 1llah you
have no protector or helperK
":1&+01&9. The Truth is from your Hord! therefore you should not $e of the dou$tersO Every one has a
direction to which he turns. Therefore strive to outrun each other in good deedsO Bherever you are! 1llah will
$ring you all! surely 1llah has power over all thingsO
":1((01(+. Be try you with something of fear! hunger! lac/ of property and lives and fruitsG and gladden
the patient! who! when a calamity $efalls them! say:
J
Ierily! we $elong to 1llah and to 'im we returnO
J
:
those are they on whom are $lessing from their Hord! and mercy! they go the right path.
":"17. It may $e that you hate a thing while it is good for you! and it may $e that you love a thing while it is
evil for you! C verily! 1llah /nows! and you do not /nowO
":"(7. There is no compulsion in religion. The traight 4ath has $ecome clearly distinct from delusion. 'e
who re@ects worshipping idols and $elieves in 1llah has grasped a firm handhold which will never $rea/ off.
":"7&. 1llah does not lead on the traight 4ath the un$elieving peopleO
%:"0%. 1llah! C there is no god $ut 'e! 0the living! the self0su$sistingO 'e sent down to you the cripture in
truth! confirming the truth of that which was sent down $efore it. 1nd 'e sent down the Torah and the
:ospel $efore this! as a guidance for the people.
%:"9. Het not the $elievers ta/e the un$elievers for friends . . . . 1nd whoever does this! he shall have
nothing of 1llah! unless you $e cautious of their fear. 1llah cautions you a$out 'imself! (for) to 1llah is the
return.
%:7,. The Truth is from your Hord! so $e not a dou$terO
%:+%. ay:
J
Ierily! the direct guidance is the guidance of 1llah.
J
%:11,. 1nd if the people of the cripture had $elieved it would have $een $etter for them. There are
$elievers among them! $ut the most of them are transgressors.
%:175. 1nd never rec/on those who are slain in 1llah
E
s way as dead. 8ay! they are aliveO They are
provided sustenance from their Hord.
&:%70%+. 1nd worship 1llah and do not set up anyone as 'is partner. 1nd do good to the parents and to the
/insfol/ and to orphans and to the needy and to the neigh$or of your /in and to the neigh$or not of your
/in! and to the fellow0neigh$or and to the wayfarer .................Ierily! 1llah does not li/e those who are
proudly $oastful! who are niggardly and en@oin people to $e niggardly and hide what 1llah has given them of
'is graceO
&:+9: If some good $efalls them! they say:
J
This is from 1llah
J
G $ut if evil $efalls! they say:
J
This is from
you
J
. ay:
J
1ll things are from 1llahO
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Bhy these people cannot understand that which they are toldK
&:+5. Bhatever good $efalls you! it is from 1llah! and whatever $ad $efalls you! it is from yourself.
(:1(. 2 people of the criptureO 2ur <essenger has come to you to e.plain much of what you conceal in the
cripture.
(:(5. ay: J2 followers of the criptureO >o you ta/e revenge on us for aught $ut that we $elieve in 1llah and
in what has $een revealed to us and what was revealed $efore! and that most of you are transgressorsK
(:7+. Ierily! 1llah does not lead straightly the un$elieving peopleO
(:+". They dis$elieve who say:
J
1llah is the <essiah! the son of <aryam
J
. #ut the <essiah said: J2
children of IsraelO Borship 1llah! my Hord and your HordO
J
(:+%. They dis$elieve who say:
J
1llah is the third one of the three
J
! whereas there is no god $ut the 2ne
:od.
(:117011+. 1nd 1llah said: J2 Isa! the son of <aryamO >id you say to men:
E
Ta/e <e and <y mother for two
gods $esides 1llah
E
K
J
'e (Isa) said:
J
:lory to ?ouO 'ow could I say what I have no right to sayK If I had said
it! ?ou would have /nown it. ?ou /now what is in my heart! and I do not /now what is in ?ours. Ierily! ?ou
are the /nower of the concealed. I did not say to them aught save what ?ou en@oined <e with:
J
Borship 1llah!
<y Hord and your HordO.
J
7:1+. 1nd if 1llah touch you with affliction! there is none to ta/e it off $ut 'e.
7:%". The life of this world is naught $ut a play and amusementG the a$ode of the hereafter is for those
who are godfearing. >o you not then understandK
7:1,7. ;ollow what is revealed to you from your Hord:
J
There is no god $ut 'e
J
! and turn away from the
polytheists.
+:&". 1s for those who $elieve and do good C Be impose on any soul only that which it can $ear C they are
the dwellers of paradise.
5:(1. ay:
J
8othing happens to us e.cept what 1llah has predestined for us. 'e is our 4rotectorO
J
1nd let the
$elievers rely on 1llahO
5:117. Ierily! 1llah
E
s is the power over the 'eavens and the EarthO 'e $rings to life and ma/es to dieG and
there is not for you any guardian or helper $esides 1llah.
1,:1". 1nd when evil touches man! he calls on 3s! whether lying on his side or sitting or standingG $ut
when Be remove the evil from him! he passes on as though he had never called on 3s for the evil that
touched him.
1,:&&. urely 1llah does not do any in@ustice to men! $ut men are un@ust to themselves.
1,:1,+. 1nd if 1llah should afflict you with harm! then there is none to remove it $ut 'e. 1nd if 'e intends
good to you there is none to repel 'is grace.
11:1(. Bhoever desires this world
E
s life and its finery! Be will help them to finish their deeds therein! and they
will not $e underpaid.
11:17. These are they for whom there is nothing $ut fire (hell) in the ne.t life! and vain is what they did
herein! and nothing is what they wor/ed.
1%:%7. 1nd those to whom Be have given the $oo/ (Furan) re@oice in that which has $een sent down to you
. . . ay: JI am commanded that I should worship 1llah and not set up anyone as 'is partnerG to 'im do I call
and to 'im is my returnO
J
17:115. Ierily! your Hord C to those who did an evil in ignorance! $ut then repented and redressed the
wrong C verily! your Hord after that is forgiving! mercifulO
1+:"%. 1nd your Hord has decreed that you shall worship none $ut 'im! and do good to your parents. If
either or $oth of them reach old age with you! say not to them
J
pishO
J
nor shout at them! $ut spea/ to
them a generous word.
1+:"&. 1nd lower unto them the wing of humility out of mercy and say: J2 HordO 'ave mercy on them! as
they care for me when I was little.
J
1+:"70"+. 1nd give to the near of /in his due and to the needy and to the wayfarer! and do not squander
wastefully! for the squanderers are the $rothers of devils.
1+:%,. Ierily! your Hord provides a$undant sustenance for whom 'e pleases and whom 'e gives. Ierily! 'e
is ever seeing! aware of 'is slaves.
1+:%+. 1nd do not wal/ on land haughtily.
19:11,. ay: JI am a man li/e youG the =evelation has $een sent down to me that your :od is 2ne :od.
Therefore! whoever hopes to meet his Hord! he should do good deeds! and in worshipping the Hord he
should not @oin any one to 'im.
"9:(,. Bho is more astray than he who followed his passion without any guidance from 1llahK urely
1llah does not lead on the traight 4ath the un@ust peopleO
%":1". 1nd could you $ut see when the guilty hang down their heads $efore their Hord:
J
2ur HordO Be
have seen and we have heard! therefore send us $ac/! so that we may do goodO Be are (now) sure of the
truth.
%":",0"1. 1nd as for those who are wic/ed! their a$ode is the fire (of hell). Bhenever they desire to go
out from it they are $rought $ac/ into it! and said:
J
Taste the chastisement of the fire (of hell) which you
called a lieO
J
1nd Be will ma/e them taste of the nearer punishment $efore the greater punishment that
perhaps they may returnO
%%:(. There is no sin on you in what you did $y mista/e! $ut (there is sin) in what intended (evil).
%5:((. ;ollow the $est that has $een sent down to you from your Hord.
&1:7. ay: JI am only a man li/e youG it was revealed to me that your :od is one :od! therefore follow the
straight way to 'im and as/ 'is forgiveness
J
&1:9. 1nd those who $elieve and do good! they shall surely have a reward ine.hausti$le.
&1:&7. Bhoever does good! it is for himself! and whoever does evil! it is against himself.
&1:(1. Bhen Be show favor to man! he turns aside and withdrawsG and when evil touches him! a$undant
are his prayers.
&":1%. 1llah chooses for 'imself whom 'e pleases! and guides to 'imself him who turns (to 'im).
&":%,. 1nd whatever affliction $efalls you! it was incurred $y your handsG and 'e forgives much.
&":&9. 1nd surely when Be ma/e man taste mercy from 3s! he re@oices thereatG and if an evil afflicts him on
account of what his hands have already done! then man is ungrateful.
&":(,. 2r 'e @oins them: men and womenG and 'e ma/es whom 'e pleases $arren.
c. !he basis for ethics in .s&am7 Hadith. 1ntonov provides the following summaries from the 'adith.
:ood education is the $est legacy! which can $e handed down to children.
pea/ always the truth! even if it is not profita$le for you.
That! which you /now! share with others and teach them.
'im who pitied no one none will pity.
#e not a $urden for people.
>o not sit down $etween two sitting people without first as/ing their permission.
#e economical and do not $ring yourselves to destitution.
>o not do things! which then ma/e you conscience0stric/en.
The riches consist not in quantity of goods! $ut in the $readth of the soul.
The /nowledge is a treasure the /ey to which is inquiry.
tep aside from a fool.
1void into.icating drin/s.
*almness is a gainG confusion is a loss.
>o not $e hurry in ta/ing decisions and provide for consequences.
>o not @udge anyone from assumptions or if you have dou$ts.
E.hort every one to not do evil.
If you have to punish the guilty never stri/e him in the face.
'e who wa/es up lately closes for oneself the door to prosperity.
1ny $ri$e is a sin and an odious source of income.
'e who has flared up should $rea/ off immediately.
1n inhospita$le person is an inferior person.
=epay to those who made good to you.
It is a virtuous deed C to forgive the one who offended you! to give to the one who refused to give to you! to
stretch a hand of peace to the one who quarrels with you.
2 manO If you are not satisfied with the small! the great can satisfy you neither.
>o good deeds without creating $uzz.
>o not wish death to yourself or to others.
The one who does not than/ people will than/ 1llah neither.
Everything created $y 1llah is fine! though people not always understand it.
1llah created diseases! $ut 'e also created medicines for them.
1llah is generous and li/es generous people.
;or everything there is a way. The way to paradise is opened $y /nowledge.
>o not $e lazy to go for /nowledge even to distant *hina $ecause gaining /nowledge is the main duty of a
<uslim.
4anhandling is an indecent occupation.
#egin a meal remem$ering a$out 1llah and $e not choosy with food.
:ates to well$eing are under loc/. The /ey to it is wor/.
To divine and to $elieve the words of diviners! foretellers! and sorcerers is meanness.
1 $ad person is characterized $y the following features: he lies in conversation! does not /eep his
promises and! feeling impunity! does $ase deeds.
4ay to a wor/er for his wor/ $efore his sweat dried up.
'e who is mild! $ehaves well! does not harm others will never $e touched $y the fires of hell.
1n hour spent for gaining useful /nowledge is more pleasing to 1llah than a whole night spent for praying.
In any time try to $e pure.
,0ecia&&y for men7
#e /ind to women.
1 no$le one is /ind to womenG a low one is guileful to them.
=espect women.
If you are called $y the father and the mother at the same time come first to the mother.
'e who searches for <e C will find <e.
'e who found <e C will cognize <e.
'e who cognized <e C will fall in love with <e.
'e who fell in love with <e C will conceive passion to <e.
To him who conceived passion to <e C I too will conceive passion.
'im who is in love with <e I will /ill!
1nd to him whom I /illed I will pay a ransom for the $lood
I <yself am the ransom for his $lood.
Each ethical system will have unique elements. The uniqueness may $e due to the precise view of reality
that controls the system. In some instances! an act that is approved in one system may $e disapproved in
another. ;or e.ample! eating por/ is not for$idden *hristians! $ut it is in for$idden for )ews and <uslims.
Even when rules appear to have commonality! they may rest on different rationales. 2ne may loo/ at two
societies and conclude that since they $oth have laws against ta/ing human life! they must have similar
ethical systems. #ut on closer e.amination! the respect for life may $e higher in one society than in the
other. 'indus will e.tend reverence for life to animal and plant life $ecause of $elief in reincarnation. In
<uslim societies! the life of the $eliever commands more respect than the life of the un$eliever. Then!
there are the
J
inconsistencies
J
that follow. ;or e.ample! 1lpha society may have a law against a$ortion! $ut
e.ecute criminals! while #eta society allows a$ortions and prohi$its capital punishment.
The motivations for outloo/s and actions may $e circumstantial as well. :amma society may have a
disproportionate percent of its people who are drawn to terrorismG >elta society may have a
disproportionate percent of its people in prison for other crimes. 1rguments are advanced as to the
influence of certain ideologies within those societies! with no real solution in sight. It is useful! however! to set
forth unique features of religious systems that may affect ethical $ehavior without ma/ing comparisons
$etween them. 'ere! we concentrate on Islam. 2ur discussion will $e developed with three topics: (a)
Islam and women! ($) the ethical philosophy of Islam! and (c) tools for evaluating Islamic ethics.
1s a $eginning point! we should realize that ethical principles are derived from assumptions a$out the
source. In the case of Islam! one could reason that the source is pre0<uhammad 1ra$ic culture. <uslims
reason that what was given <uhammad was a restatement of original revelations! which had $ecome
corrupted. It would follow! in their thin/ing! that whatever is good in 1ra$ic culture reflects the consequence
of authentic teaching. Ethical principles would therefore come from 1llah and would of necessity reflect his
will. Be should e.pect! therefore! that since 1llah is e.acting and e.pects o$edience to laws! the Islamic
ethical system is more of the variety of e.act legislation than of principles derived from love and human
engagement. 8o ethical system apart from haria can $e permitted in good conscience! nor was that ever
the case. Interestingly! Islam pic/s up and e.tends the traditional view a$out the cause of suffering. The
$oo/ of )o$ condemns this outloo/. imultaneously! )o$ destroys the $asis for the argument that )esus
could not have suffered death on a cross.
4erhaps in the long run! it is more useful to determine the rationale for given standards than to compare
and contrast the standards in different societies. 2ne may argue the $enefit of comparing ethical
standards in #uddhist! 'indu! *hristian! )ewish! Islamic! Traditional! and secular societies. 1 greater
$enefit will result when it is determined why the differences e.ist. Even then! there are strains within
societies that wor/ against the dominant ideologies. ;or e.ample! within <uslim societies! there may $e
tendencies toward
J
democracy
J
that run counter to pure Islamic ideology! @ust as there are tendencies
toward secularism in societies supposedly $ased on *hristianity. 4ure values should $e identified as to
their ideology! assumptions! and rationale. #ut variations in application should $e recognized as
inevita$le consequences of human contact.
a. .s&am and $omen. Islam promotes a well0defined ideology concerning women! family! and male0female
relations. The place of women in <uslim society is defined within the conte.t of an integrated universe!
which revolves around 1llah. Bith everything created in pairs! the law of nature e.pects full cooperation
from the se.es! who hold equal status and an equal role (Fur
A
an ":19+G %:15(! etc.G =ahman! #ol e of
'usl i m )omen i n oci et y7 Bad W d 0<uhsin!
M
Bomen in the Fur
A
an
N
). =elations $etween men and
b. !he ethica& 0hi&oso0hy of .s&am. The Islamic ethical system emerges from the Islamic worldview.
That view $egins with a sovereign :od who has willed that humans e.ist $y purposed creation. 1llah
endowed man with the /nowledge of good and evil and allowed him to choose $etween the two (cf.
Fur
E
an 51:+01,). #y giving him /nowledge and allowing choice $etween good and evil! man was set up for
testing.
#ut the testing is @ust one aspect of the endowment. #y choosing to do good! man can e.ercise the
wisdom given him. This wisdom is defined in the Fur
E
an as including an understanding of the meaning of
honesty and @ustice. *onsequently! no one will $e e.cused at the @udgment for hisLher unethical $ehavior!
whether a $eliever in 1llah or not. This leaves open the possi$ility that a non0<uslim may find salvation $y
doing what has $een innately placed within him. That is! he may $e saved $y the law of conscience! even
though 1llah has provided revelation as to other responsi$ilities.
The proposition stated a$ove runs into conflict with core qur
E
anic $eliefs at two points. 2ne! while allowing
non0$elievers a chance at salvation along with uno$servant <uslims through a purifying purgatory
e.perience! non0$elievers remain enemies of 1llah and his followers. They represent the 'ouse of Bar
and are treated differently $y <uslims. Two! any diso$edience $y a <uslim is an affront to 1llah! whether
the offense is intentional or not. The Islamic system provides no satisfaction for violation! e.cept renewed
sensitivity and limited o$edience. ;urther! if salvation for $oth <uslim and infidel is $y human deeds! what is
the difference $etween deeds arising innately and those resulting from direct commandsK 4hilosophically!
Islamic ethics derived from a central concept of @urisprudence that t heor et i cal l y demands e.act
punishment for every misdeed $ut pract i cal l y allows multiple diso$ediences to $e satisfied $y fewer! qualified
instances of future o$edience. ;orgiveness! however! is never certain! for it depends on the will of 1llah.
The Fur
E
an offers man a reminder of past revelations! provides correction where these are $elieved to
have $ecome corrupted! and gives more detail as to what is right and wrong. 'ence! we should e.pect
little new information from the Fur
E
an. That is not its purpose. The o$@ect of the Fur
E
an is not so much to
define good and evil or pro@ect a progression in :od
E
s activity. It is to ma/e man aware of what is sinful (cf.
Fur
E
an ":199). There are cases! however! where the Fur
E
an may specify how the moral principle should
$e applied! as in the interaction $etween genders. #ut this is a minor element.
ince man often
J
forgets
J
to do the will of 1llah! 1llah has /ept reminding him. 1ccording to <uslim $elief! the
ultimate and final reminder was dictated to <uhammad $y the angel :a$riel over a twenty0plus0year
period in +th century 1ra$ia. The remedy to man
E
s forgetfulness is repeated revelation. 'ence! man is to
o$ey the laws 1llah has given over and over through different prophets. #ut to ma/e sure he has it right
this time! the Fur
E
an contains a purified version. Even here! one may as/ why the innate /nowledge of
good and $ad $ecomes insufficient. Islam does not address this su$@ect as it assumes man continues to
possess the quality with no sign of diminishing capacity over time. If 1llah
E
s commands are in need of
restatement! why does man
E
s innate capacity to /now good from evil not need renewal as wellK
*lose analysis will show that ethical principles found in the qur
E
anic code fall into two categories: (1)
primarily those that remind man of 1llah
E
s will and the consequences of not attending to his commands and
(") secondarily those that provide the application of principles to specific situations. Ethical principles are set
$y 1llah and are not open to reinterpretation so as to ma/e the Fur
E
an a
J
living
J
constitution. 'owever! it
has $een deemed necessary to provide commentary! interpretation! and application through the 'adith!
consensus! and analogies which followed.
<uslims follow Islamic ethics as a matter of faith. To do otherwise is a sham. ;ailing to perform the
specific actions specified in the Fur
E
an reveals la.ity of religious fervor.
c. !oo&s for eva&uatin" .s&amic ethics. The process of evaluation is difficult enough! given a $asic
standard. #ut what one faces is a lac/ of agreement as to what the ethical system should loo/ li/e.
ecularists argue for the a$sence of
J
religious
J
values. 1dherents to particular religious orientations
clamor for their code. 1nd all of us see/ ad@ustments that fit our own personal convictions or reflect our
world outloo/.
Be run a large ris/ when we even suggest that we will attempt to evaluate Islamic ethics. ;irst! the <uslim
will say they cannot $e evaluated! for they are from 1llah. Bho would dare evaluate 1llah
E
s wordK econd!
<uslims are themselves divided! especially when the su$@ect of martyrdom and the impulse toward it
comes up for discussion. Third! Islamic ethics may $e said to $e derived from the Fur
E
an! $ut it is so
wrapped in 'adith! consensus! and analogies00a vast maze of interpretation00that it is difficult to get to the
a$solutes. ;or e.ample! truthfulness is one of its virtue! $ut this can $e modified when the person standing
$efore the <uslim is an un$eliever. #ut let us ta/e a sta$ at the tas/.
Ethicists recognize that there are often rules that are relative. Bhen it can $e argued that Islamic ethics is a
system of a$solutes! some situations ma/e the application relative to the <uslim. #ut we should not
confuse the
J
e.ceptions
J
to the rule to $e sufficient to classify Islamic ethics as a
J
relative
J
system.
J
=elative ethics
J
are those that have no moral rules. 'owever! Islamic ethics includes a form of relativity in
that it does recognize a different status and different standards for un$elievers. Bithin the <uslim
community itself! some mem$ers see terrorist acts as @ustified and mandatedG others repudiate (at least
openly) acts of violence against un$elievers.
Intuition! which defines some ethical standards! is pro$a$ly $est seen in Islamic ethics at the point of the
de$ate over the use of violence. Bhat some may @udge as
J
good
J
(for 1llah
E
s cause) may $e considered
outside the demands of Islam. #ut Islam does not qualify as an intuitive religion.
ome systems assume pleasure is a worthy goal and that good and $ad should $e defined $y whether
the action is pleasura$le. Islam is unconcerned with pleasure other than that which one receives from
o$eying 1llah. Bhat is done is done $y the will of 1llah.
ecular ethics are li/ely to su$scri$e to the theory of evolution. In this arrangement! what is
J
good
J
or
J
$ad
J
has $ecome that way over time. It is su$@ect to change and has no $asis other than it is what has
come to $e through the struggle of man/ind to ma/e peace with his physical universe. Islam is more
deterministic. Its laws are eternal for 1llah has not changed his mind (e.cept in a few instances).
ome spea/ of a standard of perfection. ;or the standard to wor/! there has to $e some reason why the
standard is there and reason why a particular action will actually produce perfection. The system does not
answer the issue of how to find redemption for imperfect action. Islam holds up a perfect system that
ma/es the universe function properly. ince all is $y 1llah
E
s will! it should follow that perfect action is
attaina$le. #ut it ma/es no provision for human redemption when the human runs contrary to 1llah
E
s will.
The only thing left to him is to redo the action and do it right. :ood deeds can outweigh the $ad.
In cases where ethics offers a standard of value! there remains the pro$lem of defining good and $ad.
Ialues must $e evaluated $y the good done to and for individuals and society at large. Islam pro@ects the
values as set $y 1llah to $e good for the person and society. It does not set out to discover what might
$enefit others in an humanistic setting.
Islam is first and foremost a religion of laws. =egulations protecting divine ideals are said to $e of divine
origin. 1llah
E
s will is primeG his dictates are final. There is no recourse or appeal. Bhat 1llah calls good is
good and what he declares as $ad is $ad. Islam does not go as far as *hristianity with respect to what is
J
sinful.
J
Conc&usion
Be have come to the end of our study on ethics. Be have loo/ed with some detail at four different
religious ethical systems. ?ou will have noticed that each is $uilt on different presuppositions.
Bhy is the ethical question so importantK 1s we have discovered! there are numerous general ethical
systems in the world. The motivation for why one $ehaves in a given fashion will change from time to time in
one
E
s life and $e conditioned $y circumstances. ?et! if one remains steadfast in early convictions! one will
$ecome increasingly aware as to the rationale for one
E
s thoughts and actions apart from what society would
lead us to $elieve. ;or e.ample! relative ethics call upon individual instincts! desires! and protection.
Intuitive ethics draws from a person
E
s ma/e0up! preferences! and a$ilities. Ethics defined $y pleasure
anticipate sensual satisfaction. 1n evolutionary ethical system conforms to a process and accept the end
result. 1n ethical system $uilt on the ideal of perfection encourages persons to complete the race of life with
the hope of having achieved ultimate moral good for having lived. Bhere value is the goal! the motivation
may $e the e.pectation of having contri$uted something of value to human well0$eing. In a legal system!
the motivation may $e fear! e.pectation of reward! and even desire.
It would $e fair to say that there is general agreement that man himself has an innate capacity to
determine right and wrong. This is something all humans can recognize easily! regardless of the ethical
system one may follow. Be have it on good testimony that truth! which :od has made /nown! can $e
suppressed $y wic/edness (=om. 1:190",). :od has revealed himself in numerous ways! including an
innate conscience! natural revelation! and special revelation. The last and most complete revelation of
:od is in his on! )esus *hrist. <an is without e.cuse when he choose not to glorify him or give than/s to
:od. In this instance! his thin/ing $ecomes futile and his foolish hearts $ecome dar/ened (=om. 1:"1G ":1&0
1 (). 1t this point! :od permits man to pursue his sinful desires (=om. 1:"&0%"). In time! the evil reaps the
consequences and meets the @udgment of :od (=om. ":901,).
<an also has a tendency to thin/ of self first and others second. This self0centeredness colors his sense of
right and wrong. Bere it not for the larger social order that adopts rules for determining and punishing
J
$ad
J

conduct! evil would run rampant. :iven this situation! laws and rules $ecome necessary. 1gain! the #i$le
recognizes this fact (cf. :al. %:150"(). #ut law has its limits. It cannot $ring spiritual redemption! which is
possi$le only through )esus *hrist (=om. %:150%1). In the redeemed state! man has a very different attitude
toward right and wrong.
The distinguishing feature of the *hristian ethical system focuses on two points. 2ne! the standard of
ethics derives! not from human nature! $ut from the character of :od himself. ;urthermore! the character of
:od is descri$ed as $eing! among other things! good and caring. Two! the motivation for pursuing
*hristian ethics is not an ar$itrary command of :od or for some eventual merging with :od. It is the
e.pectant response to a :od who has acted in history with the purpose of redeeming man and $ringing
him into an eternal relationship with himself.
J
=eligious
J
systems differ from non0religious systems at the point of admitting some /ind of sacredness.
They normally connect with :od or spiritual $eings. #uddhism ac/nowledges
J
sacred
J
scripture $ut no
personal :od. 'induism wor/s with multiple deities. Islam and *hristianity $elieve in one :od. These
cardinal elements affect their ethical systems $ecause their principles reflect the nature of the :od or
gods they ac/nowledge. ecular systems! on the other hand! appeal to the natural world for their $ase
and effectively deny any influence from the spiritual realm.
1s for an ethical system set on a secularist outloo/! man himself or men! women! and children in
community arrive at their own value system through innate and reasoned interaction. The process see/s a
$alance $etween desires and permissions. The system will represent a middle ground as it see/s to
control e.cesses while allowing e.tended human freedoms. In cases where human systems are imposed
(e.g.! *apitalism! *ommunism! etc.)! the s/eleton of the ethic system will have already $een wor/ed out.
Even in a completely secular society! one will not $e entirely free from impositions $y others.
o! where will you go from hereK 'opefully! you will dedicate yourself to the pursuit of righteousness. ?ou will
never attain it on your own! $ut you can achieve it through )esus *hrist.
E+amination
'aving finished the all e.ams and assignments! we as/ that you complete the Evaluation form found
under the *ourse ummary on the <enu page. This will help us improve the course.
Consu&tin" rofessor
Hee *amp! 4h.>.! 8otre >ame 3niversity
Contributin" rofessors
:lover hipp! >.<iss.! ;uller Theological eminary
Objectives and Eva&uator
Hloyd Boods! Ed..! Hi$erty 3niversity
,y&&abus -eve&o0er
<ac Hynn! T>! an ;rancisco Theological eminary
>.1dm in. (hon.)! The International 3niversity
8ati ons3ni versi tyX
Best <onroe! Houisiana! 3..1.
Y1ugust ",1%

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