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I C A O 9357 PA RT * 3 t* = 4843416 0039364 477 m


DOC 9157-ARf901
Part 3
Amendment Bo . 2
31/8/89
AMENDMENT NO. 2
TO TBE
AERODROME DESIGN MANUAL
PART 3
PAVEMENTS
SECOND EDITION - 1983
Amendmen No, 2 includes guidance material on grooving runway
i ntersecti ons and the constructi m of asphal ti c overl ays. Al so i ncl uded
are updated data. an ACRs f or ai rcraf t.
Repl ace exi sti ng pages Cvii), 3--219 t o 3-224, 3-237 to 3-249 and 3-339 t o
3-346 by t he attached new pages.
Remove exiatfng pages 3-347 and 3-348.
Recora the entry of thi s amendment on page (ii).
1.
2.
3.
5 .
Transmi ttal Note
DOC 9157-Ah/901
Part 3
Amendment No. 1
25/10/85
AMENDMENT No. 1
TO THE
AERODROME DESI GN MANUAL
PART 3
PAVEMENTS
Second Edi ti on - 1983
1. The purpose of thi s amendment i s to update the computer programmes, f or the
determi nati on of ACNs and to i ncorporate data i n respect of several new ai rcraf t types.
2. Pl ease repl ace the exi sti ng pages by the attached correspondi ng new pages.
3. Remove pages 3-291to 3-298 which have been del eted by thi s amendment.
4 . Record entry of Amendment No. 1, dated 25/10/85, on page ( i i ) .
ICAO 9357 PA RTS3 ** W 4843436 0039366 2LJT
DOC 9157-AN/901
AERODROME
DESIGN
MANUAL
PART 3
PAVEMENTS
SECOND EDITION - 1983
Approved by the Secretav General
and published under his authority
IkTERhATIOhAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGAhIZATlObi
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 t* = 4B4L4Lb 0039367 L B b
Published in separate English, French, Russian and Spanish editions by the lnternational
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ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** 484343b 0039368 032
e
Aerodrome
Design
Manual
(DOC 9157-AN/901)
Part 3
Pavements
Second Edition - 1983
d in the monthly
supplements to t he Catabgue of IC40 I44blimtkms, whi ch holden of this
publication should consult. These amendments are available free upon request.
AMENDMENTS
Theissue of amendments is announced in the ICAO Bulktin a n 1
(ii)
ICAO 9157 P ART*3 t* YB4343b 0039370 770
FOREWORD
Thi s revi sed and updated versi on of the Aerodrome Design ManuaZ, Part 3,
i ncl udes gui dance on the desi gn of pavements i ncl udi ng thei r characteri sti cs and on
eval uati on and reporti ng of thei r beari ng strength. The material i ncl uded herei n i s
cl osel y associ ated wi th the speci fi cati ons contai ned in Annex 14 - Aerodromes. The main
purpose of thi s Manual i s to encourage the uni form appl i cati on of those speci fi cati ons
and to provi de i nf ormti on and gui dance to States. The si gni f i cant addi ti ons/revi si ons
to the Manual as a resul t of thi s revi si on are:
a) background information on the ACN-PCN method f or reporti ng pavement
beari ng strength (Chapter 1);
. *
b) material on regul ati ng overl oad operati ons (Chapter 2);
c) updated material on evaluatfon of pavements (Chapter 3) and on runway
surface texture and drai nage characteri sti cs (Chapter 5 ) ;
d) updated material on the desi gn-and eval uati on of pavements provi ded by
Canada, France, the Uni ted Kingdom andsthe Uni ted States (Chapter 4);
e) gui dance on protecti on of asphal t pavements (Chapter 6 ) ; and
f ) material on structural desi gn consi derati ons f or cul verts and bri dges
(Chapter 7).
Chapter 4 of thi s Manual i s based on updated material on pavement desi gn
and eval uati on submi tted by States and i s, therefore, bel i eved to be current. Shoul d a
State, at any time, consi der that the material i ncl uded therei n i s out of date, it
shoul d i nform the Secretary General of thi s and, i f possi bl e, provi de appropri ate
revi sed material.
( i i i )
ICAO 9357 PARTa3 t* 4843436 0039373 607 =
a
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Gl ossary ......................................................................... (i x)
Chapt er 1. - Procedures f or Report i ng Aerodrome Pavement St rengt h ................ 3- 1
1. 1 Procedure f or pavement s meant f or heavy ai rcraf t ( ACN/ PCN met hod) ... 3- 1
1. 2 Procedure f or pavements meant f or l i ght ai rcraf t .................... 3- 16
Chapter 2. - Gui dance on Overl oad Operati ons ..................................... 3- 17
2. 1 Cri teri a suggested i n Annex 14. At t achment B ........................ 3- 17
2. 2 State practi ces ..................................................... 3- 17
2. 2. 1 Canadi an practi ce .......................................... 3- 17
2. 2. 2 French practi ce ............................................ 3- 18
2. 2. 3 Uni ted Ki ngdom practi ce ...................................... 3- 20
Chapt er 3. - Eval uat i on of Pavement s ............................................. 3- 22
3. 1 General ............................................................. 3- 22
3. 2 El ement s of pavement eval uat i on ..................................... 3- 22
3. 3 El ements of t he ACN/PCN met hod ...................................... 3- 23
3. 4 Assessi ng t he magni t ude and composi t i on of t raf f i c .................. 3- 25
3. 5 Techni ques f or "usi ng ai rcraf t" eval uati on ........................... 3- 27
3. 6 Techni ques and equi pment f or "t echni cal " eval uat i on ................. 3- 31
Chapt er 4. - St at e Pract i ces f or Desi gn and Eval uat i on of Pavement s .............. 3- 62
4.1 Canadi an pract i ce ................................................... 3- 62
4. 1. 1 Scope ....................................................... 3- 62
4. 1. 2 Pavement desi gn pract i ces ................................... 3- 64
4. 1. 3 Pavement eval uat i on pract i ces ............................... 3- 69
4. 2 French practi ce ..................................................... 3- 78
4. 2. 1 General ..................................................... 3- 78
4. 2. 2 Choi ce of the desi gn l oad ................................... 3- 80
4. 2. 3 Desi gni ng f l exi bl e pavements ................................ 3- 83
4. 2. 4 Desi gni ng ri gi d pavements ................................... 3- 86
4. 2. 5 General desi gn .............................................. 3- 93
ICAO 7157 PART*K3 ** 4B41456 0057372 543 W
( vi > Aerodrome Desi gn Manual
Chapter 4 ( Cmt .
4. 2. 6 Opti mi zed desi gn ........................................... 3- 109
4. 2. 7 Frost ...................................................... 3- 112
4. 2. 8 Al l owabl e l oads ............................................ 3- 114
4. 2. 9 Eval uati on of pavement s .................................... 3- 120
4. 2. 10 Rei nf orcement of pavement s ................................. 3-12;
4. 2. 11 Li ght pavements ............................................ 3- 127
4. 3 Uni ted Ki ngdom practi ce ............................................ 3- 129
4. 3. 1 Desi gn and eval uat i on of pavement s ......................... 3- 129
4. 3. 2 Reporti ng pavement strength ................................ 3- 129
4. 4 Uni ted States of Ameri ca practi ce .................................. 3- 130
4. 4. 1
4.4.2
4. 4. 3
4.4.4
4. 4. 5
4. 4. 6
4.4.7
4.4.8
4. 4. 9
4. 4. 10
4.4.11
4. 4. 12
4. 4. 13
4. 4. 14
4. 4. 15
4. 4. 16
4. 4. 17
4. 4. 19
4. 4. 20
4. 4. 21
4. 4. 22
4. 4. 23
4. 4. 24
4. 4. 25
4. 4. 26
4. 4. 27
4. 4. 18
I nt roduct i on ...............................................
Basi c i nvest i gat i ons and consi derat i ons ....................
Soi l t est s .................................................
Uni f i ed soi l cl assi f i cat i on syst em .........................
Soi l cl assi f i cat i on exampl es ...............................
Frost and permaf rost .......................................
Soi l st rengt h t est s ........................................
Pavement desi gn phi l osophy .................................
Background .................................................
Ai rcraf t consi derat i ons ....................................
Det ermi nat i on of desi gn ai rcraf t ...........................
Det ermi nat i on of equi val ent annual depart ures by t he
desi gn ai rcraf t ..........................................
Desi gni ng t he f l exi bl e pavement ............................
Cri t i cal and non- cri t i cal areas ............................
Stabi l i zed base and sub- base ...............................
Stabi l i zed sub- base and base equi val ency f actors ...........
Desi gn exampl e .............................................
Desi gni ng t he ri gi d pavement ...............................
Sub- base requi rement s ......................................
Cri ti cal and non- cri ti cal areas ............................
Stabi l i zed sub- base ........................................
Desi gn exampl e .............................................
Opt i onal ri gi d pavement desi gn curves ......................
Hi gh t raf f i c vol umes .......................................
Rei nf orced concrete pavement ...............................
Ai rport pavement overl ays ..................................
Pavement: eval uati on ........................................
3- 130
3- 130
3- 131
3- 133
3- 137
3- 140
3- 141
3- 143
3- 145
3- 146
3- 147
3- 147
3- 149
3- 160
3- 160
3- 160
3- 161
3- 163
3- 164
3- 174
3- 174
3- 175
3- 175
3- 183
3- 18 3
3- 185
3- 199
Chapter 5. - Methods f or I mprovi ng Runway Surf ace Texture ....................... 3- 204
5. 1 Purpose ............................................................ 3-204
5.2 Basi c Consi derati ons ............................................... 3- 204
5. 3 Surf ace treatment of runways ....................................... 3-212
I C A O 9157 PA RT8 3 ** = 484L41b 0019373 48T
Part 3. - Pavements (vi i )
Page
.
Chapt er 6.- Prot ect i on of Asphal t Pavement s ...................................... 3-225
6.1 The probl em.............................................................. 3-225
6.2 Treat ment of t he probl em................................................. 3-226
6.3 Prot ect i ve coat i ngs ...................................................... 3-226
6.4 Mat eri al s f or prot ect i ve coat i ngs ........................................ 3-227
6.5 Appl i cat i on .............................................................. 3-228
6.6 Prot ect i on gai ned .......................................................... 3-228
6.7 Mai nt enance consi derat i on ................................................ 3-229
6.8 Some rel at ed concerns .................................................... 3-229
Chapt er 7.- St ruct ural Concerns for Cul vert s and Bri dges ......................... 3-230
7.1 Probl em descri pt i on ...................................................... 3-230
7.2 Types of subst ruct ures ................................................... 3-230
7.3. Some gui di ng concept s .................................................... 3-231
7.4 Eval uat i on of subsurf ace st ruct ures ...................................... 3-231
7.5 Consi derat i ons i n desi gn of new f aci l i t i es ............................... 3-234
Chapter 8.- Const ruct i on of Asphal t i c Overl ays ................................... 3-237
8.1 I nt roduct i on ............................................................ 3-237
8.2 Ai rport aut hori t y' s rol e ................................................ 3-237
8.3 Desi gn consi derat i ons ................................................... 3-238B
Appendi x 1 . Ai rcraf t Charact eri st i cs Af f ect i ng Pavement Beari ng St rengt h ....... 3-239
Appendi x 2 . Procedures f or Det ermi ni ng t he Ai rcraf t Cl assi f i cat i on Number of
an Ai rcraf t ........................................................ 3-251
Appendi x 3 . Pavement Desi gn and Eval uat i on Graphs Provi ded by France ........... 3-299
Appendi x 4 . Background I nf ormat i on on t he Uni t ed St at es Pract i ce f or
t he Desi gn and- Eval uat i on of Pavement s ............................. 3-311
Appendi x 5 . ACNs f or Several Ai rcraf t Types .................................... 3-339
31/8/89
No . 2
:a
*:
ICAO 9357 PA RT f 3 f t 4843436 0039374 3Lb
GL OSSARY
Terms which are def i ned i n the ICAO Lexicon Volume I1 (Doc 9110) are used
i n accordance wi th the meani ngs and usages gi ven therei n. A wi de vari ety of terms is i n
use throughout the worl d to descri be soi l s, constructi on materials, and components of
ai rport pavements. A s f ar as possi bl e the terms used i n thi s document are those which
have the wi dest i nternati onal use. However, for the conveni ence of the reader a short
list of preferred terms and secondary terms which are consi dered to be thei r equi val ent,
and thei r def i ni ti ons, i s given below.
Preferred Term Secondary Term
Aggregate
Ai rcraft Cl assi fi ca-
t i on Number (ACN)
Asphal ti c concrete Bitumen concrete
Bas e course Base
Beari ng strength
CBR
Compos it e pavement
Beari ng capaci ty
Pavement strength
Cal i forni a Beari ng
Rati o
Defi ni ti on
General term for the mi neral fragments
or parti cl es which, through the agency
of a sui tabl e bi nder, can be combined
i nto a sol i d mass, e.g., to form a
pavement.
A number expressi ng the rel ati ve ef f ect
of an ai rcraf t on a pavement f or a -
speci fi ed standard subgrade strength.
A graded mixture of aggregate, and
f i l l er wi th asphal t or bitumen, placed
hot or col d, and rol l ed.
The l ayer or l ayers of speci f i ed or
sel ected material of designed thickness
placed on a sub-base or subgrade to
support a surface course.
The measure of the abi l i ty of a pave-
ment to sustai n the appl i ed l oad.
The beari ng rati o of soi l determined by
conpari ng the penetrati on l oad of the
soi l to that of a standard material
(see ASTM D1883). The method covers
eval uati on of the rel ati ve qual i ty of
subgrade soi l s but i s appl i cabl e to
sub-base and some base course
materials.
A pavement consi sti ng of both f l exi bl e
and ri gi d l ayers wi th or wi thout
separati ng granul ar l ayers.
ICAO 9357 PART*3 ** W 48l l 5436 0059375 252 W
( 4 Aerodrome Design ~~ Manual
Preferred Term
Fl exi bl e pavement
Overlay
Pavement Cl assi f ica-
ti on Number (PCN)
Pavement structure
Portl and cement
concrete
Rigid pavement
Sub-baae course
Subgrade
Surf ace course
Secondary Term
Pavement
Concrete
Su b+e e
Formation foundation
Wearing course
Defi ni ti on
A pavement structure that mai ntai ns
intimate contact wi th and di stri butes
l oads to the subgrade and depends on
aggregate i nterl ock, parti cl e f ri cti on,
and cohesi on for stabi l i ty.
An addi ti onal surface course pl aced on
exi sti ng pavement ei ther wi th or wi th-
out i ntermedi ate base or sub-baee
coursesl usual l y to strengthen the
pavement or restore the prof i l e of the
surface.
A number expressi ng the beari ng
strength of a pavement f or unrestri cted
operatione.
The combination of sub-baae, baee
course, and surface c~llrse placed on a
subgrade to support the traf f i c l oad
and di stri bute i t to the subgrade.
A dxtur e of graded aggregate wi th
Portl and cement and water.
A pavement structure that di etri butee
l oads to the subgrade havi ng as i ts
surface course a Portl and cement
concrete sl ab of rel atl vel y hi gh
bendi ng resi stance.
The l ayer or l ayers of speci fi ed
sel ected material of designed thickness
pl aced on a subgrade to support a base
courae.
The upper part of the soi l , natural or
conetructed, whi ch supports the l oads
transmftted by the pavement.
The top course of a pavement structure.
J
ICAO 9357 PA RT * 3 ** 484343b 0039376 199
CHAPTER 1.- PROCEDURES FOR REPORTING AERODROME PAVEMENT STRENGTH
1. 1 Procedure for pavements meant f or heavy ai rcraf t (ACN-PCN method)
1. 1. 1 I ntroducti on
1. 1. 1. 1 Annex 14, 2. 5. 2 speci f i es that the beari ng strength of a pavement intended
f or ai rcraf t of mass greater than 5 700 kg shal l be made avai l abl e usi ng the ai rcraft
cl assi f i cati on number - pavement cl assi f i cati on number (ACN-PCN) method. To f aci l i tate
a proper understandi ng and usage of the ACN-PCN method the fol l owi ng material explains:
a) the concept of the method; and
b) how the ACNs of an ai rcraf t are determined.
1. 1. 2 Concept of the ACN-PCN method
1. 1 . 2. 1 Annex 14 defi nes ACN and PCN as follows :
- Am. A number expressi ng the rel ati ve effect of an ai rcraf t on a pavement
f or a speci fi ed standard subgrade strength.
- PCN. A number expressi ng the beari ng strength of a pavement f or
unrestri cted operati ons.
A t the outset, i t needs to be noted that the ACN-PCN method i s meant onl y for publ i ca-
ti on of pavement strength data in the Aeronautical I nformation Publications (AI Ps). It
is not i ntended for desi gn or eval uati on of pavements, nor does i t contemplate the use
of a speci f i c method by the ai rport authori ty ei ther for the desi gn or eval uati on of
pavements. In fact, the ACN-PCN method does permi t States to use any desi gn/eval uati on
method of thei r choi ce. To thi s end, the method shi fts the emphasi s from eval uati on of
pavements to eval uati on of l oad rati ng of ai rcraf t (ACN) and includes a standard proced-
ure for eval uati on of the l oad rati ng of ai rcraf t. The strength of a pavement i s
reported under the method i n terms of the l oad rati ng of the aircraft which the pavement
can accept on an unrestri cted basi s. The ai rport authori ty can use any method of hi s
choi ce to determi ne the l oad rati ng of hi s pavement. If, in the absence of techni cal
eval uati on, he chooses to go on the basi s of the usi ng ai rcraft experi ence, then he
would compute the ACN of the most cri ti cal ai rcraft usi ng one of the procedures
descri bed below, convert thi s f i gure i nto an equi val ent PCN and publish i t in the AI P as
the l oad rati ng of hi s pavement. The PCN so reported would i ndi cate that an ai rcraf t
wi th an ACN equal to or less than that fi gure can operate on the pavement subj ect to any
l i mi tati on on the ti re pressure.
1. 1. 2. 2 The ACN-PCN method contempl ates the reporti ng of pavement strengths on a
continuous scale. The lower end of the scale i s zero and there is no upper end. Addi-
ti onal l y, the same scale i s used t o measure the l oad rati ngs of both ai rcraft and
pavements.
3-1
3-2 Aerodrome Design Manual
1.1.2.3 To f aci l i tate the use of the method, ai rcraft manufacturers will publ i sh, i n t h e m
documents detai l i ng the characteri stf cs of thei r aircraft, ACTS conputed at ~ W O different
masses: maximum apron mass, and a representati ve operati ng mass empty, both on ri gi d
and f l exi bl e pavements and for the four standard subgrade strength categori es. Neverthel ess,
for the sake of convenience Annex 14, Attachment B and Appendix 5 hereto include a tabl e
showing the ACNs of a number of ai rcraf t. It is to be noted that the mass used i n the
ACN cal cul ati on is a "static" mass and that no allowance is made for an i ncrease i n loading
through dynamic effects.
1.1.2.4 TheACN-PCN method al so envi sages the reporti ng of the following information
i n respect: of each pavement:
a) pavement type;
b) subgrade category;
c ) -ximum ti re pressure al l owabl e; and
d) pavement eval uati on method used.
The above data are pri mari l y i ntended to enabl e ai rcraft operators to deterndae the
permi ssi bl e ai rcraft types and operati ng masses, and the aircraft nranufacturers to
ensure compati bi l i ty between ai rport pavements and ai rcraft under development. There
i s , hawever, no need to report the actual subgrade strength or the maxipaurn tire pressure
allowable. Consequently, thesubgrade strengths and ti re preseures normally encountered
have been grouped i nto categori es a8 i ndi cated i n 1.1.3.2 belcw. It would be suffi ci ent
i f the ai rport authori ty i denti fi es the categori es appropri ate t o hi s pavement. (See
al so the examples included under Annex 14, 2.5.6. )
1.1.3 How ACNE are determined
1.1.3.1 The flow chart, below, bri efl y expl ai ns how the ACNs of ai rcraf t are
computed under the AWP CN method.
ACN COMPUTER * ,
PROGRAMME
I
I I
RIGID
DERIVED RIGID
WHEEL CHART
RIGID
PAVEMENT NOMOGRAPH$ SINGLE
m I, RIGID PAVEMENT +
Y
A TABLE SHOWING
ACNs OF AIRCRAFT
I
I I d
ACN COMPUTER *
PROGRAMME
1
I 1 , I
CORPS OF ENGINEERS DERIVED
FLEXIBLE k ~ i
CHART
FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT
PAVEMENT
- *
FLEXIBLE
v NOMOGRAPHS
*SINGLE WHEEL
I t i I
-
Y
A TABLE SHOWING 3
ACNs ,OF AIRCRAFT
I C A O 9157 PARTs3 *Kt m 484141rb 0039379 9 T B m
3-4 Aerodrome Design Manual
1.1.3.2 Standard values used in the method and descri pti on of the vari ous terms
a) Subgrade category. I n the ACN-PCN method ei ght standard subgrade
val ues (i .e., f our ri gi d pavemnt k val ues and four fl exi bl e pavement
CBR val ues) are used, rather than a continuous scale of subgrade
strengths. The grouping of subgrades wi th a standard val ue at the
mi drange of each group i s consi dered to be enti rel y adequate for
reporting. The subgrade strength categories are i denti f i ed as high,
medium, low and ul tra low and assi gned the following numerical
values:
Subgrade strength category
High strength; Characteri zed by k* =150 MN/m3 and representi ng all k
values above 120 ~/ I E? f or ri gi d pavements, and by CBB 15 and
representi ng al l CBR values above 13 f or f l exi bl e pavements.
Mediumstrength; characteri zed by k =80 HH/m3 and representi ng a
range i n k of 60 to 120 MN/ d f or ri gi d pavements, and by CBB 10 and
representi ng a range i n CBR of 8 t o 13 or f l exi bl e pavements.
Low strength; characteri zed by k =40 MWm3 and representi ng a range
i n k of 25 to 60 HN/d f or ri gi d pavements, and by CBB 6 and
representi ng a range i n CBB of 4 to 8 f or f l exi bl e pavements.
Ultra l ow strength; characteri zed by k 20 MN/rn3 and representi ng a l l
k val ues below 25 MN/ d f or ri gi d pavemente, and by CBR =3 and
representi ng al l CBB val ues be l ow 4 or f l exi bl e pavements.
b) Concrete worki ng etres8 for ri gi d pavements. For ri gi d pavements, a
standard stress for reporti ng purposes is sti pul ated (a =2.75 MPa)
onl y as a means of eneuri ng uni form reporti ng. The working stress t o
be used for the desi gn and/or eval uati on of pavements has no
rel ati onshi p to the standard stress f or reporti ng.
c ) Tire pressure. The reevl ta of pavement research and re-eval uati on of
ol d test resul ts reaf f i rm that except f or unusual pavement construc-
ti on (i.e., f l exi bl e pavements with a thi n aephal ti c concrete cover or
weak upper l ayers), ti re preesure effects are secondary to load and
wheel spacing, and may therefore be categori zed i n four groups for
reporti ng purposes as: high, medium, low and very l ow and assigned
the fol l owi ng numeri cal val ues:
High - No pressure lidt
Medium- Pressure l i mi ted to 1.50 MPa
Low - Pressure l i mi ted to 1.00 MPa
Very low - Pressure l i mLted to 0.50 MPa
* Values determined using a 75 cm di ameter pl ate.
nf or tmt i on Hand1 i ng Servi ces, 2000
Part 3. - Pavements 3-5
d) Mathemati cal l y deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad: The concept of a
mathemati cal l y deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad has been employed i n the
ACN-PCN method as a means to defi ne the l andi ng gear/pavement i nter
acti on wi thout speci fyi ng pavement thi ckness as an ACN parameter.
Thi s i s done by equati ng the thi ckness gi ven by the mathemati cal model
f or an ai rcraf t l andi ng gear to the thi ckness f or a si ngl e wheel at a
standard ti re pressure of 1.25 MPa. The si ngl e wheel l oad so obtai ned
i s then used wi thout further reference to thi ckness; thi s i s so
because the essenti al si gni f i cance i s attached to the f act of having
equal thi cknesses, i mpl yi ng "same appl i ed stress to the pavement",
rather than the magni tude of the thi ckness. The foregoi ng i s i n
accord wi th the obj ecti ve of the ACN-PCN method to eval uate the
rel ati ve l oadi ng ef f ect of an ai rcraf t on a pavement.
e) Ai rcraf t cl assi f i cati on number (ACN). "he ACN of an ai rcraf t i s
numeri cal l y defi ned as two times the deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad, where
the deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad i s expressed i n thousands of kilograms.
A s noted previ ousl y, the si ngl e wheel ti re pressure i s standardi zed at
1.25 MPa. Addi ti onal l y, the deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad i s a functi on
of the subgrade strength. The ai rcraf t cl assi f i cati on number (ACN) is
defi ned onl y for the four subgrade categori es (i.e., hi gh, medium,
low, and ul tra l owstrength). The "two" (2) f actor i n the numeri cal
def i ni ti on of the ACN i s used' t o achieve. a sui tabl e ACN vs. gross mass
scale so that whol e number ACNs may be used wi th reasonabl e accuracy.
1.1.3.3
Because an aircraft operates at vari ous mass and centre of gravi ty
condi ti ons the fol l owi ng conventi ons have been used in ACN computa-
ti ons (see Fi gure 1-1).
1) the maximumACN of an ai rcraf t i s cal cul ated at the mass and c.g.
that produces the hi ghest main gear l oadi ng on the pavement,
usual l y the maximumramp mass and correspondi ng aft c.g. The
ai rcraft tires are consi dered as i nf l ated to the manuf acturers
recommendation f or the condi ti on;
2) relative ai rcraft ACN charts and tabl es show the ACN as a functi on
of ai rcraft g r o s s mass wi th the ai rcraf t c.g. at a constant val ue
correspondi ng to the maximumACN val ue (i.e., usual l y, the aft c.g.
f or max ramp mass) and at the max ramp mass ti re pressure; and
3) speci f i c condi ti on ACN val ues are those ACN val ues that are
adj usted f or the ef f ects of tire pressure and/or c.g. l ocati on, at
a speci f i ed gross mass f or the ai rcraf t.
Abbreviations
a) Ai rcraft parameters
MRGM - Maximumramp gross mass i n ki l ograms
3-6 Aerodrome Design Manual
b) Pavement and sstbgredr parePetere
Q - Standard working et r em f or reporting, 2.75 HPa
t - Pavement thickneus i n centimetres
mickueso of s l ab for ri@d pavemente, or
Total thickness of pav-at structural syeter burface t o
subgrade) for f lcxible pave~ent e (see Figure 1-21.
Figure 1-1. Landing gear loading on pavement
Model DC-10 Series 30, 30CF, 40 and 40CF
Part 3.- Pavements
a
3-7
THEORETICAL ASPHALT PAVEMENT THEORETICAL CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
e
7
THICKNESS
1
Figure 1-2
k - Westergaards modulus of subgrade reaction in MN/m3
R - Westergaards radius of relative stiffness in centimetres.
This is computed using the following equation (see Figure 1-3).
E is modulus of elasticity
p is Poissons ratio (+ = 0.15)
12 (1 - p2)k
PHYSI CAL MEANING OF WESTERGAARDS
RADIUS OF RELATIVE STIFFNESS ,L
SI NGL E WHEEL L OADI NG ON A SL A B
, p A P P R O X l M A T E L Y
\ IN SLAB
1
I
1
CONTRAFLEXURE
+ t L-----
I DEFLECTION
. . - -. .-
-
PLOT OF BENDING MOMENT
BOTTOM OF SLAB AS A
(AND/OR TENSION STRESS ON
FUNCTION OF RADIAL
DISTANCE FROM CENTER
L W OF LOAD)
Figure 1-3
3-8 Aerodrome Design Manual
CBR - California Bearing Ratio i n per cent
Tire Pressures
P, - Tire pressure for deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad - 1.25 MPa
Pq - Tire pressure f or ai rcraf t at maximre ramp mass condi ti on
1.1.3.4 Mathematical models. Two mathematical models are used i n the ACN-PCN
method: the Westergaard sol uti on for a loaded el asti c pl ate on a Uinkler foundation
(i nteri or l oad case) for ri gi d pavements, and the Boussi nesq sol uti on for stresses and
di spl acements i n a homogeneous i sotropi c el asti c hal f-space under surface l oadi ng for
f l exi bl e pavements. The use of these two, widely used, models permits the maximum
correl ati on to worl dwi de pavement design methodologies, with a minimra need f or pave-
ment paraueter val ues (i.e., only approximate subgrade k, or CBR val ues are requi red).
1.1.3.5 Computer programmes. The two computer programmes devel oped usi ng these
mathematical models are reproduced i n Appendix 2. The program f or eval uattng ai rcraf t
on ri gi d pavements i s based on the program devel oped by Mr. R.G. Packard* of Portl and
Cement Associ ati on, I l l i noi s, USA and that for eval uati ng ai rcraft on f l exi bl e pavements
i s based on the US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Stati o3 I nstructi on Report S-77-1,
enti tl ed "Procedures for Development of CBR Design Curves". It may, however, be noted
that the ai rcraf t cl assi f i cati on tabl es i ncl uded i n Annex 14, Attachment B and i n
Appendix 5 of thi s Manual compl etel y el i mi nate the need to use these programmes i n
respect of most of the ai rcraf t currentl y in use.
1.1.3.6 Graphical procedures. Aircraft for which pavement thickness requirement
charts have been published by the manufacturers can al so be eval uated usi ng the graphi -
cal procedures descri bed below.
1.1.3.7 Rigid pavements. This procedure uses the conversion chart shown i n
Fi gure 1-4 and the pavement thi ckness requi rement charts publ i shed by the ai rcraf t
manufacturers. The Portland Cement Association computer programme ref erred to i n
1.1.3.5 was used i n developing Figure 1-4. This f i gure relates the deri ved si ngl e wheel
l oad at a constant ti re pressure of 1.25 MPa to a reference pavement thi ckness. It
takes i nto account the four standard subgrade k val ues detai l ed in 1.1.3.2 a) above, and
a standard concrete stress of 2.75 HPa. The fi gure al so i ncl udes an ACN scale which
permi ts the ACN to be read di rectl y. The fol l owi ng steps are used to determi ne the ACN
of an ai rcraft:
a) using the pavement requi rement chart publ i shed by the manufacturer
obtai n the reference thi ckness for the gi ven ai rcraft mass, k val ue of
the subgrade, and the standard concrete stress for reporti ng, i.e.
2.75 MPa;
b) usi ng the above reference thi ckness and Fi gure 1-4, obtai n a deri ved
si ngl e wheel l oad for the sel ected subgrade; and
* Refer to document enti tl ed "Design of Concrete Airport Pavement" by R.G. Packard,
Portland Cement Associ ati on, Skoki e, I l l i noi s, 60076, dated 1973.
D SW L (1 000 kg)
120
t
40
t
20'
t
0 I
70
6c)
5c
4c
3c
20
10
0
HIGH STRENGTH
150 MN/m
/.I//
/
/
MEDIUM STRENGTH
LOW STRENGTH
80 MN/m3
//J
-
40 MN/m?
ULTRA-LOW STRENGTH-
--
20 MN/m3
TIRE PRESSURE 1.25 MPa
STANDARD STRESS 2.75 MPa
PCA COMPUTER PROGRAMME PDILB
S io 1 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
REFERENCE THICKNESS
Figure 1-4. ACN Rigid Pavement Conversion Chart
3-10 Aerodrome Design Manual
c) the ai rcraf t cl assi f i cati on number, at the sel ected mass and
subgrade k val ue, i s two tirnes the deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad i n
1 000 kg. Note that the ACN can al so be read di rectl y from the
chart. Note f urther that ti re pressure correcti ons are not needed
when the above procedure is used.
1.1.3.8 Fl exi bl e pavements. This procedure uses the conversi on chart shown i n
Fi gure 1-5 and the pavement thi ckness requi rement charts publ i shed by the ai rcraf t
manufacturers based on the ~i t e d States Army Ehgineers CBR procedure. The former
chart has been devel oped usi ng the fol l owi ng expressi on:
Where t =reference thi ckness i n cm.
DSWL =a si ngl e wheel l oad wi th 1.25 HPa tire pressure
ps =1.25 MPa
CBR =standard subgrade (Note that the chart uses f our
standard val ues 3, 6, 10 and 15)
C1 0.5695 C2 =32.035
The reason f or usi ng the l atter charts i s to obtai n the equi val ency between the "group
of l andi ng gear wheel s effect" to a deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad by means of Boussinesq
Deflection Factors. The fol l owi ng step8 are used to determi ne the ACN of an aircraft:
a) usi ng the pavement requirement chart publ i shed by the manufacturer
deterdne the ref erence thi ckness f or the gi ven ai rcraf t mass,
subgrade category, and 10 000 coverages;
b) enter Fi gure 1-5 wi th the reference thi ckness determi ned i n step a)
and the CBR corresponding t o the subgrade category and read the
deri ved si ngl e wheel load; and
c) the ACN at the sel ected me8 and subgrade category i e two times the
deri ved si ngl e wheel l oad i n 1 000 kg. Note that the ACN can al so be
read di rectl y from the chart. Note f urther that ti re pressure
correcti ons are not needed when the above procedure Le used.
1.1.3-9 Tire pressure adj ustment to ACN. Mrcraft normal l y have thei r tires
i nf l ated to the pressure correspondi ng to the ma x i u u m gross mass and mai ntai n thi s
pressure regardl ess of the vari ati ons i n take-of f masses. There are times, however,
when operati ons at reduced masses and reduced tire pressures are productive and reduced
ACNE need to be cal cul ated. To do thi s f or ri gi d pavements, a chart has been prepared
by the use of the PCA computer programme PDLLB and is gi ven i n Fi gure 1-6. The example
i ncl uded in the chart i tsel f expl ai ns how the chart is used.
I C A O 9357 PA RT* 3 ** m 4 8 4 3 4 3 6 0019386 038 m
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-11
ACN
100
90
ul
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
REFERENCE THICKNESS CM
Figure 1-5. ACN Flexible Pavement Conversion Chart
3-12 Aerodrome Design Manual
1 . 1.3.10 For f l exi bl e pavements, the CBR equati on t =
\ L F Z
was used to equate thi ckness and sol ve for the reduced pressure ACN i n terms of the
maximm ti re pressure ACN at the reduced mass gi vi ng the fol l owi ng expressi on:
1.1.3.11
ACN =ACN
Reduced Maximm
pressure pressure
(For values of C1 and C2 see 1.1.3.8.)
Worked examples
Solution: The ACN of the ai rcraf t f rom the tabl e i n Appendix 5 of thi s Manual i s
48.
It i s al so possi bl e to determi ne the ACN of the ai rcraft usi ng Fi gure 1-4
and the pavement requi rement chart for the ai rcraf t i n Fi gure 1-7. This
method i nvol ves the fol l owi ng operati ons:
a) from Figure 1-7 read the thi ckness of concrete needed for the ai rcraft
mass of 78 500 kg, the subgrade k val ue of 80 MN/m3, and the standard
concrete stress of 2.75 MPa as 31.75 cm; and
b) enter Fi gure 1-4 wi th thi s thi ckness and read the ACN of the ai rcraf t
f or the medium strength subgrade as 2.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** m h84L43b 0039388 900 m
Par t 3.- Pavements 3-13
1.2
1.1
1 .o
CORRECTION
FACTOR
ACN
ACNSTD
.9
.a
.7
.E
7
An aircraft with a tire pressure of 1.25 MPa has
would be its ACN if tire pressure is increased
an ACN of 50 on a medium subgrade. What
to 1.50 MPa?
To obtain the correction factor proceed verti-
medium subgrade curve is intercepted. Then
proceed horizontally and read 1.06.
ACN for TP 1.50 MPa =
1.06 x 50 =53
Pavement thickness =40 cm
- cally from a tire pressure of 1-50 MPa until
.5 .75 1 .o 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.35 2.50
TIRE PRESSURE
MPa
Fi gure 1-6. ACN tire pressure adj ustment - ri gi d pavements onl y
+.
- _
I C A O 9L57 PART*K3 ** E 48YLYLb 0059389 847 H
3-14 Aerodrome Design Manual
Example 2: An AI P contai ns the fol l owi ng i nformati on related to a runway pavement:
PCN of the pavement =80
Pavement type ri gi d
Subgrade category medium strength
Tire pressure l i mi tati on =none
Determine whether the pavement can accept the f ol l owi ng ai rcraf t at the
i ndi cated operati ng masses and ti re pressures:
MaSS Tire pressure
-
Airbus A 300 Model B2 at 142 000 kg 1.23 MPa
B747-100 at 334 751 kg 1.55 MPa
Concorde at 185 066 kg 1.26 MPa
DC- 10-40 at 253 105 kg 1.17 HPa
Solution: ACNs of these ai rcraf t f rom Appendix 5 of thi s Manual are 44, 51, 71 and
53, respecti vel y. Si nce the pavement i n questf on has a PCN of 80 i t can
accept al l of these aircraft.
Example 3: Fi nd the ACN of DC-10-10 at 157 400 kg on a f l exi bl e pavement resti ng on a
medium strength subgrade (CBR 10). The ti re pressure of the mai n wheel s
is 1.28 MPa.
Solution: The ACN of the ai rcraf t f rom Appendix 5 of thi s Manual is
(196 406 - 157 400)
(196 406 - 108 940)
57 - x (57-27)
39 006
87 466
I 5 7 -- x 30
=57 - 13.4 = 43.6 or 5
It i s al so possl bl e to determtne the ACN of the ai rcraf t usi ng Fi gure 1-5
and the pavement requi renent chart i n Fi gure 1-8. This method i nvol ves
the fol l owi ng operati ons:
a) from Figure 1-8 read the thi ckness of pavement needed for the ai rcraft
mass of 157 400 kg and the subgrade CBR of 10 as 57 cm; and
b) enter Fi gure 1-5 with this thi ckness and read the ACN of ai rcraf t or
the subgrade CBR of 10 as 44.
m
e
I C A O 7357 PART* 3 f * H 4B414Lb 0037390 569
Part 3. - Pavements
124.5 x 43.2 cm TIRES - TIRE PRESSURE CONSTANT AT 11.7 kglcm
127 x 53.3 cm TIRES (NEW DESIGN) - TIRE PRESSURE CONSTANT AT 11.7 kg/cm*
THE MAXIMUM LOAD REFERENCE LINE AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE AIRPORT
ANY VALUE OF k ARE EXACT. FOR LOADS PAVEMENT AND COMPUTER PROGRAMME
NOTE: THE VALUES OBTAINED BY USING REFERENCES:
LESS THAN MAXIMUM. THE CURVES ARE u<- FOR AIRPORT PAVEMENT DESIGN -
ACT FOR k =80 BUT DEVIATE SLIGHTLY FOR PROGAMME PDILB.
OTHER VALUES OF k. PORTLAND CEMENT ASSN.
RIGID PAVEMENT REQUIREMENTS-
PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION DESIGN METHOD
MODELS 727-100, -1OOC AT 77 200 kg; 727-200 STANDARD AT 78 500 kg,
ADVANCED 727-200 AT 89 800 kg AND 95 300 kg MAXIMUM RAMP MASS.
Fi gure 1-7
3-15
I C A O 9357 PART*3 ** 444lr4bb 0019391 4T5
3-16 Aerodrome Design Manual
FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT
THICKNESS
cm
0 ,
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
108 862 kg OPERATING MASS EMPTY
157 396 kg
MAXIMUM
LANDING MASS
195 579 kg MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF MASS
I / / I I I I I I I I I I I I I t
3 5 7 9 20 40 6080
2 4 6 8 1Q 30 50 70
SUBGRADE CBR (PERCENTAGE)
Fi gure 1-8. DClO-10 Fl exi bl e Pavement Requirements
10 000 Coverages aft c.g.
1.2 Procedure for pavements meant f or l i ght aircraft:
1.2.1 The ACN-PCN method descri bed i n 1.1 is not i ntended for reporti ng
strength of pavements meant f or l i ght aircraft, i.e., those wi th mass less than 5 700 kg.
Annex 14 speci f i es a si mpl e procedure for euch pavements. This procedure envisages the
reporti ng of only two elements: maxi rmm al l owabl e ai rcraf t mass and maximot allowable
ti re pressure. It is important to note that the tire pressure categori es of the ACN-PCN
method (1.1.3.2, c ) ) are not used f or reporti ng maxiaum al l owabl e ti re pressure.
I nstead, actual tire pressure limits are reported as i ndi cated in the fol l owi ng
example:
ExafQle: 4 000 kg/0.50 MPa
CHAPTER 2. - GUIDANCE ON OVERLOAD OPERATIONS
2.1 Criteria suggested i n Annex 14, Attachment B
2.1.1 Overl oadi ng of pavements can resul t ei ther from l oads too l arge or from a
substanti al l y i ncreased appl i cati on rate or both. Loads l arger than the defi ned (desi gn
or eval uati on) l oad shorten the desi gn l i f e whi l st smaller l oads extend it. With the
exception of massive overloading, pavements i n thei r structural behavi our are not
subj ect to a parti cul ar l i mi ti ng l oad above whi ch they suddenl y or catastrophi cal l y
fai l . Behaviour i s such that a pavement can sustai n a defi nabl e l oad for an expected
number of repeti ti ons duri ng i ts desi gn l i f e. As a resul t, occasi onal mi nor overl oadi ng
i s acceptabl e, when expedi ent, wi th only l i mi ted loss i n pavement l i f e expectancy and
rel ati vel y small accel erati on of pavement deteri orati on. For those operati ons i n whi ch
magnitude of overl oad and/or the frequency of use do not j usti f y a detai l ed anal ysi s the
fol l owi ng criteria are suggested:
a) f or f l exi bl e pavements occasional movements by aircraft wi th ACN not
exceeding 10 per cent above the reported PCN shoul d not adversel y
af f ect the pavement;
b) for ri gi d or composi te pavemepts, i n whi ch a ri gi d pavement l ayer
provi des a pri mary el ement of the structure, occasi onal movements by
ai rcraf t wi th ACN not exceeding 5 per cent above the reported PCN
shoul d not adversel y affect the pavement;
c) i f the pavement structure is unknown the 5 per cent l i mi tati on shoul d
apply; and
d) the annual. number of overload movements shoul d not exceed
approximately 5 per cent of the total annual ai rcraf t movements.
2.1.2 Such overl oad movements shoul d not normal l y be permi tted on pavements
exhi bi ti ng si gns of di stress or fai l ure. Furthermore, overl oadi ng shoul d be avoi ded
duri ng any peri ods of thaw fol l owi ng frost penetrati on or when the strength of the
pavement or i ts subgrade could be weakened by water. Where overl oad operati ons are
conducted, the appropri ate authori ty shoul d revi ew the rel evant pavement condi ti on
regul arl y and shoul d al so revi ew the criteria for overl oad operati ons peri odi cal l y si nce
excessi ve repeti ti on of overl oads can cause severe shorteni ng of pavement l i f e or
requi re maj or rehabi l i tati on of pavement.
2.2 State practices
2.2.1 Canadi an practi ce
2.2.1.1 The techni cal assessment of a proposed overl oad operati on is based on the
"overl oad rati o" concept. The overl oad rati o i s a measure of the l oad imposed by the
ai rcraft rel ati ve to the nomi nal desi gn strength of the pavement. For f l exi bl e
pavements, the overl oad rati o i uposed by an ai rcraf t is determined by cal cul ati ng the
subgrade beari ng strength requi red for the exi stl ng thi ckness of pavement, usi ng the
desi gn equati on gi ven i n 4.1,2.2. This cal cul ated subgrade beari ng strength i s then
di vi ded by the actual subgrade beari ng strength to form the overl oad rati o. For ri gi d
3-17
SCAO 9157 PART*3 ** W 4BL1/4Lb 00119393 278 -
3-18 Aerodrome Design Manual
pavements, the overload ratio is defined as the flexural stress imposed in the slab by
the aircraft divided by the design flexural stress of 2.75 HPa.
2.2.1.2 Cn the basis of these overload ratios, aircraft operations are classified
as follows:
Overload Ratio Operational Classification
less than 1.25 unrestricted
1.25 to 1.50 limited
1.50 to 2.00 marginal
greater than 2.00 emergency use only
2.2.1.3 The approval of operations classified as limited or marginal involves the
risk of an accelerated rate of pavement deterioration and shortened service life. This
risk increases with increasing value of overload ratio and frequency of operations.
The decision to approve such operations therefore depends on the willingness of the
airport authority to fund pavement rehabilitation measures earlier than may otherwise be
necessary. Normal practice at airports operated by Transport Canada is to permit
aircraft operations falling into the limited and marginal classifications, unless
otherwise dictated by age and condition of the pavement, or funding constraints.
2.2.1.4 Similar considerations apply to permitting operations by aircraft with
tire pressures higher than restrictions reported. Provided the overload ratio is less
than 1.50, aircraft are normally permitted to operate with tire pressures one range
higher than the tire pressure range for which the pavement was designed. These ranges
are indicated in 4.1.2.6.
2.2.2 French practice
l
2.2.2.1 The information publiehed on the basis of one or the other method
described in 4.2.8 does not permit a complete reflection of the operating condition
of the pavement. The following procedure should therefore be used to assess the euita-
bility of the pavement for the intended aircraft. Reference is made to the flexible
pavement or rigid pavement requirement graph for the subject aircraft in Appendix 3.
These graphs and the pavement data enable the exact authorized load for the particular
undercarriage to be determined. In the event that the aircraft is not shown in Appendix
3, characteristics that are closest to the subject aircraft will be selected. If the
resulting load is higher than the expected aircraft load , the allowable stresses of the
pavement will not be exceeded, and the aircraft can use the pavement without adverse
effects. Should the load established by means of the graph be less than the expected
aircraft load, there will be an effective overload and acceptance of the aircraft will
require special permission.
2.2.2.2 Concessions. It should be noted that the risk to the aircraft itself when
landing on a runway without adequate bearing strength is minimal, unless the load it
imposes is considerably more than the bearing strength of the runway. Generally
speaking, the acceptance of an exceseively heavy aircraft will undoubtedly cause damage
to the pavement, without detriment to the aircraft itself. The user will in no case be
held responsible for deteriorations of this type. however, in no case should an
aircraft load exceed by more than 50 per cent the allowable load for the subject
aircraft, in other words an actual overload co-efficient P/PO higher than 1.5 for all
pavements, except aprons for which these values are limited to 20 per cent and 1.2,
ICAO 7157 PA RT* 3 ** = 484141b 0019374 104
Part 3. - Pavements 3-19
e respectively. (For runways, thi s rul e does not apply to emergency landings.) The
deci si on to grant or wi thhol d the concessi on to operate on weak runways can be arri ved
at as follaws:
a) the total equi val ent traffi c supported by the pavement is cal cul ated
i n accordance with the samepri nci pl e expressed i n the opti mi zed
design method described i n 4.2.6; however, thi s is reduced to a dai l y
traf f i c expressed i n terms of movements per day; and
b) i f the total equi val ent traf f i c exceeds ten movements dai l y, refusal
of the concessi on would normally be j usti fi ed, unl ess more rapi d wear
of the runway is acceptable. Such a deci si on might be acceptable on
economic grounds wi th the i ntenti on of i ncreasi ng ai r traffi c wi thout
having to rei nf orce pavements, at least f or the time being.
2.2.2.3 On the oQher hand, i t i s recommended to l i mi t the number of movements
i nvol vi ng an ai rcraft for which a concession has been granted and to undertake fol l ow-up
acti on wi th regard to the pavement i n accordance with the information provided i n the
tabl e beluw:
l P/Po values I movements . respect of pavement I I
Maxi uum number of Follaw-up action i n
1.1 2 per day Follow-up
recommended
1.1 - 1.2 1 every day
1.2 - 1.3 1 per week Regular and frequent
follaw-up mandatory
1.4 - 1.5 1 per month
- Remark: Enstead of consi deri ng dai l y traffi c, i t would-be more stri ngent to consider
cumdati ve traffic to take i nto account the actual magnitude of past traffi c. This
could be done where it is j usti f i ed for the sake of preci si on of the study.
E ~ s mp l e . A f l exi bl e runway has the fol l owi ng characteri sti cs:
Total equi val ent thi ckness e =70 cm
CBR of the subgrade CBR =8
PCN 57/P/C/W/T
It recei ves four dai l y movements of Airbus A-300 B2 with a l oad of 142 t
(ACN =55) and four moveaents dai l y of B-727 with a l oad of 78 t (ACN =49) . Under what
conditions can it be used by the B-747-200 with a load of 365 t?
_.
ICAO 9157 PA RT* 3 t t 48414kb 0019395 040 W
3-20 Aerodrome Design Manual
Sol uti on
Step 1. Cal cul ati on of the ACH of the B-747-200
(365 000 - 168 872)
(373 306 - 168 872)
ACN =23 +(71 - 23) x =69
The ACN exceeds the publ i shed PGN: a concession is therefore requi red for
the ai rcraf t.
Step 2. Cal cul ati on of equi val ent traf f i c:
Actual Allowable Actual
l oad l oad movements Equivalent
P Po P/Po C (mvt/d) movements
A-300 B2 142 t 142 t 1 1 4 4
B-7 2 7 78 t 84 t 0.93 0.44 4 1.8
B-747 365 t 329 t 1.11 3.52 X 3.5x
TOTAL (5.8 +3.5 x) mt/ d
For x =1 mvt/d, the equi val ent traffi c i s 9.3 mvt/d and l ese than
10 mvt/d: the B-747-200 may requi re a concession.
For x greater than 1 mt/d, the equi val ent traf f i c would exceed 10 nvt/d
and the B-747-200 could not be accepted.
2.2.3 United Kingdom practi ce
2.2.3.1 I ndi vi dual aerodrome authori ti es i n the Uni ted mugdola are f ree to deci de
on thei r own criteria for permi tti ng overl oad operati ons as l ong as pavements remain
saf e for use by ai rcraf t. However, the fol l owi ng gui dance i e provided:
a) a 10 per cent di fference i n ACN over PCN i nvol ves an I ncrease i n
pavement working stresses which are general l y consi dered acceptabl e
provi ded the fol l owi ng condi ti ons are sati ef i ed:
1) the pavement i s mre than twelve months ol d;
2) the pavement i e not al ready showing signs of l oadi ng di stress;
and
3) overl oad operati ons do not exceed 5 per cent of the annual
departures and are spread throughout the year.
i
I
Part 3.- Pavements 3-21
b) overl oad operati ons representi ng a di f f erence i n ACN over PCN of from
10 per'cent to 25 per cent j usti fy regul ar i nspecti ons of the pavement
by a competent person in addi ti on to sati sf yi ng the above criteria.
There should be an immediate curtailment of such overl oad operati ons
as soon as di stress becomes evi dent and the hi gher l oadi ng shoul d not
be reimposed unti l appropri ate pavement strengtheni ng work has been
completed;
C ) ovei l oad operati ons representi ng a di f f erence i n ACN over PCN of from
25 per cent to 50 per cent may be undertaken under speci al circum-
stances. They cal l f or scruti ny of avai l abl e pavement constructi on
records as test data by a qual i f i ed pavement engineer and a thorough
i nspecti on by a pavement engi neer before and on completion of the
movement to assess any signs of pavement di stress; and
d) overl oad operati ons i n excess of an ACN over PCN of 50 per cent shoul d
only be undertaken i n an emergency.
CHAPTER 3. - EVALUATION OF PAVEMENTS
3.1 General
3.1*1 The purpose of thi s chapter i s to present gui dance on the eval uati on of
pavements to those responsi bl e for eval uati ng and reporti ng pavement beari ng strength.
Recogni zi ng that responsi bl e i ndi vi dual s may range from experienced pavement engi neers
to ai rf i el d managers not enj oyi ng the di rect staf f support of pavement behaviour
experts, i nformati on will be included which attempts t o serve the vari ous l evel s of
need.
3.2 Elements of pavement eval uati on
3.2.1 The behaviour of any pavement depends upon the nati ve materials of the
si te, which after 1evel Li ng and preparati on i s cal l ed the aubgrade, i ts structure
i ncl udi ng al l l ayers up through the surfaci ng, and the BL~SS and frequency of usi ng
aircraft. Each of these three el ements must be consi dered when eval uati ng a pavement.
3.2.2 The subgrade. The subgrade is the l ayer of material immediately below the
pavement structure whi ch is prepared duri ng constructi on to support the l oads
transmi tted by the pavement. It is prepared by stri ppi ng vegetati on, l evel l i ng or
bri ngi ng to pl anned grade by cut and f i l l operations, and compacting to the needed
densi ty. Strength of the subgrade i s a si gni fi cant el ement and thiLs mst be
characteri zed for eval uati on or desi gn of a pavement f aci l i ty or f or each secti on of a
f aci l i ty eval uated or designe'd separatel y. Soil strength and therefore subgrade
strength i e very dependent on soil moisture and mat be eval uated for the condi ti on i t
i s expected to attai n in sieu beneath the pavement structure. Except i n cases wi th hi gh
water tabl es, unusual drai nage, or extremely porous or cracked pavement condi ti ons soi l
moisture wi l l tend to stabi l i ze under wi de pavements to something above 90 per cent of
ful l saturati on. Seasonal vari ati on (excepti ng f rost penetrati on of suscepti bl e
materials) is normally small to none and higher soi l moi sture condi ti ons are possi bl e
even i n qui te ari d areas. Because materials can vary widely i n type the subgrade
strength establ i shed f or a parti cul ar pavement may f al l anywhere wi thi n the range
i ndi cated by the four subgrade strength categori es used i n the ACN-PCN method. See
Chapter 1 of thi s Manual and Annex 14, Chapter 2.
3.2.3 Thepavement stmcture. The terms "ri gi d" and "fl exi bl e" have come i nto
use f or i denti f i cati on of the two pri nci pal types of pavements. The terms attempt to
characteri ze the response of each type to l oadi ng. The primary elereeat of a ri gi d
pavement i s a l ayer or sl ab of Portl and cement concrete (PCC), pl ai n or rei nforced i n
any of several ways. It i s often underl ai n by a granul ar l ayer which contri butes to the
structure both di rectl y and by f aci l i tati ng the drai nage of water. A ri gi d pavement
responds "sti ffl y" to surface l oads and di stri butes the l oads by bendi ng or beam acti on
t o wide areas of the subgrade. The strength of the pavement depends on the thi ckness
and strength of the FCC and any underlying layers above the subgrade. The pavemnt rmst
be adequate to di stri bute surf ace l oads so that: the pressure on the subgrade does not
exceed i ts eval uated strength. A f l exi bl e pavement consi sts of a series of l ayers
i ncreasi ng i n strength f rom the subgrade to the surface l ayer. A aeri es such as sel ect:
material, lower sub-base, sub-base, base and wearing couree is commonly used. However,
the lower l ayers m y not be present i n a parti cul ar pavement. The pavements meant f or
heavy ai rcraft usual l y have a bituminoue bound wearing course. A f l exi bl e pavement
3-22
I C A O 9357 PA RT* 3 %* m 484L43b 0039378 85T m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-23
yi el ds more under surface l oadi ng merel y accongl i shi ng a widening of the loaded area and
subgrade, the l ayers must have strength suf f i ci ent to tol erate the pressures at thei r
l evel . The pavement thus depends on i ts thi ckness over the subgrade for reducti on of
the surf ace pressure to a val ue whi ch the subgrade can accept. A f l exi bl e pavement must
al so have thi ckness of structure above each l ayer to reduce the pressure to a l evel
acceptabl e by the l ayer. In addi ti on, the weari ng course must be suf f i ci ent i n strength
to accept wi thout di stress ti re pressures of usi ng ai rcraft.
@ consequent reducti on of pressure l ayer by l ayer. A t each l evel f rom the surf ace to
3. 2. 4 Ai rcraft l oadi ng. The ai rcraf t mass i s transmi tted to the pavement
through the undercarri age of the ai rcraft. The number of wheel s, thei r spaci ng, tire
pressure and si ze determi ne the di stri buti on of ai rcraf t l oad to the pavement. In
general , the pavement must be strong enough to support the l oads appl i ed by the
i ndi vi dual wheel s, not onl y at the surface and the subgrade but al so at i ntermedi ate
l evel s. For the cl osel y spaced wheel s of dual and dual -tandem l egs and even f or
adj acent l egs of ai rcraft wi th complex undercarri ages the effects of di stri buted l oads
from adj acent wheel s overl ap at the subgrade (and i ntermedi ate) l evel . In such cases,
the effecti ve pressures are those combined from two or more wheels and nust be
attenuated suf f i ci entl y by the pavement structure. Si nce the di stri buti on of l oad by a
pavement structure i s over a much narrower area on a hi gh strength subgrade than on a
l owstrength subgrade, the combi ni ng effects of adj acent wheel s i s much less f or
pavements on hi gh strength than on low strength subgrades. Thi s i s the reason why the
rel ati ve ef f ects of two ai rcraf t types are not. the same f or pavements of equi val ent
desi gn strength, and thi s i s the basi s f or reporti ng paveknt beari ng strength by sub-
grade strength category. Wi thi n a subgrade strength category the rel ati ve ef f ects of
two ai rcraf t types on pavements can be uni quel y stated wi th good accuracy.
3. 2. 5 Load repeti ti ons and composi ti on of traf f i c. It i s not suf f i ci ent to
a consi der the magni tude of l oadi ng al one. There i s a fatigue or repeti ti ons of l oad
V
f actor whi ch shoul d al so be considered. Thus magni tude and repeti ti ons must be treated
together, and a pavement which i s desi gned to support one magni tude of l oad at a defi ned
number of repeti ti ons can support a l arger l oad at fewer repeti ti ons and a smaller l oad
f or a greater number of repeti ti ons. It i s thus possi bl e to establ i sh the ef f ect of one
ai rcraf t mass i n terms of equi val ent repeti ti ons of another ai rcraft mass (and type).
Appl i cati on of thi s concept permi ts the determi nati on o f a si ngl e (sel ected) magni tude
of l oad and repeti ti ons l evel to represent the effect of the mi xture of ai rcraf t usi ng a
pavement.
3. 2. 6 Pavement condi ti on survey. A parti cul arl y i mportant adj unct to or part of
eval uati on i s a careful condi ti on survey. The pavement shoul d be cl osel y examined f or
evidences of deteri orati on, movement, or change of any kind. Any observabl e pavement
change provi des i nformati on on effects of traffi c or the envi ronment on the pavement.
Observabl e effects of traffi c al ong wi th an assessment of the magnitude and composition
of that traf f i c can provi de an excel l ent basi s f or def i ni ng the beari ng capaci ty of a
pavement.
3. 3 Elements of the ACN-PCN method
3. 3. 1 Pavement cl assi f i cati on number. The pavement cl assi f i cati on number (PCN)
i s an i ndex rati ng (1/500th) of the mass whi ch an eval uati on shows can be borne by the
pavement when appl i ed by a standard (1. 25 MPa ti re pressure) si ngl ewheel . The PCN
rati ng establ i shed f or a pavement i ndi cates that the pavement i s capable of supporti ng
ai rcraf t havi ng an ACN (ai rcraf t cl assi f i cati on number) of equal or lower magnitude.
The ACN f or coqari son to the PCN mst be the ai rcraf t ACN establ i shed f or the
3-24 ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~ Aerodrome Design Manual
parti cul ar pavement type and subgrade category of the rated pavement as wel l . as f or the
parti cul ar ai rcraf t mass and characteri sti cs.
3. 3. 2 Pavement type. For purposes of reporting pavement strength, pavements
must be cl assi xi ed as ei ther ri gi d or f l exi bl e. A ri gi d pavement is that enpl oyi ng a
Portl and cement concrete ( K C) sl ab whether pl ai n, rei nforced, Qr prestressed and wi th
or wi thout i ntermedi ate l ayers between the sl ab and subgrade. A f l exi bl e pavement i s
that consi sti ng of a series of l ayers i ncreasi ng i n strength f rom the subgrade to the
weari ng surface. Conposi te pavements resul ti ng from a PCC overl ay on a f l exi bl e
pavement or an asphal ti c concrete overl ay on a ri gi d pavement or those i ncorporati ng
chemi cal l y (cement) stabi l i zed l ayers of parti cul arl y good i ntegri ty requi re care i n
cl assi f i cati on. I f the "ri gi d" el emnt remai ns the predomi nant structural el ement of
the pavement and i s not severel y di stressed by cl osel y spaced cracki ng the pavement
shoul d be cl assi fi ed as ri gi d. Otherwi se the fl exi bl e cl assi fi cati on shoul d appl y-
Where cl assi fi cati on remai ns doubtful , desi gnati on as f l exi bl e pavement w i l l general l y
be conservative. Unpaved surfaces (compacted earth, gravel , l ateri te, coral , etc.)
shoul d be cl assi fi ed as fl exi bl e for reporti ng. Si mi l arl y, pavements bui l t wi th bri cks,
or bl ocks shoul d be cl assi fi ed as fl exi bl e. Large pre-cast sl abs whi ch requi re crane
handl i ng for pl acement can be cl assi fi ed as ri gi d when used i n pavements. Pavements
covered wi th l andi ng mat and membrane surfaced pavements should be classified as
f l exi bl e.
3. 3. 3 Subgrade category. Si nce the effecti veness of ai rcraft undercarri ages
usi ng ml ti pl e-wheel s i s greater on pavements founded on strong subgrades cornpared to
those on weak subgrades, the probl em of reporti ng beari ng strength is complicated. TO
si mpl i fy the reporti ng and permi t the use of i ndex val ues for pavernent and ai rcraf t
cl assi f i cati on numbers (PCN and ACN) the ACN-PCN method uses four subgrade strength
categori es. These are termed: high, medium, l ow and ul tra low wi th prescri bed ranges
f or the categori es. It f ol l ows that f or a reportd eval uati on ( E N ) to be usef ul the
subgrade category to whi ch the subgrade of the reported pavement belongs mst be
establ i shed and reported. Normally subgrade strength w i l l have been eval uated i n
connexi on wi th ori gi nal desi gn of a pavement or l ater rehabi l i tati on or strengtheni ng.
Where thi s i nformati on i s not avai l abl e the subgrade strength shoul d be determined as
part of pavement eval uati on. Subgrade strength eval uati on shoul d be based on testi ng
wherever possible. Where eval uati on based on testi ng i s not f easi bl e a representati ve
subgrade strength category must be sel ected based on soi l characteri sti cs, s o i l
cl assi fi cati on, l ocal experi ence, or j udgement. Commonly one subgrade category may be
appropri ate f or an aerodrome. However, where pavement f aci l i ti es are scattered over a
l arge area and soi l condi ti ons di f f er f roml ocati on to l ocati on several categori es may
appl y and shoul d be assessed and s o reported. The subgrade strength eval uated rmst be
that -i.n : Z . h beneath the pavement. The subgrade beneath an aerodrome pavement w i l l
normal l y reach and retai n a fai rl y constant moi sture and strength despi te seasonal
vari ati ons. However, Ln the case of severel y cracked surfaci ng, porous pavi ng, hi gh
ground water, or poor l ocal drai nage, the subgrade strength can reduce substanti al l y
duri ng wet periods. Gravel and compact soi l surf aces w i l l be especi al l y subj ect to
moisture change. And i n areas of seasonal frost, a lower reduced subgrade strength can
be expected duri ng the thaw peri od where frost suscepti bl e materials are involved.
3. 3. 4 Tire pressure category. Di rectl y at the surf ace the ti re contact pressure
i s the most cri ti cal el ement of l oadi ng wi th l i ttl e rel ati on to other aspects of
pavement strength. Thi s i s the reason-for reporti ng permi ssi bl e ti re pressure i n terms
of tire pressure categori es. Except or rare cases of spal l -l ng j oi nts and unusual
surf ace def i ci enci es, ri gi d pavements do not requi re ti re pressure restri cti ons.
However, pavements categorized as ri gi d whi ch have overl ays of fl exi bl e or bi tumtnous
ICAO 9357 P A RT t 3 t t 48434Lb 0019400 238
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-25
constructi on must be treated as f l exi bl e pavements for reporti ng permi ssi bl e ti re
pressure. Flexible pavements which are cl assi f i ed i n the hi ghest ti re pressure category
must be of very good qual i ty and i ntegri ty, whi l e those cl assi f i ed i n the l owest
category need only be capable of accepti ng casual highway traf f i c. While tests of
bi tumi nous mi xes and extracted cores for qual i ty of the bi tumi nous surfaci ng w i l l be
most hel pf ul i n sel ecti ng the ti re pressure category, no speci fi c rel ati ons have been
developed between test behaviour and acceptable ti re pressure. It w i l l usual l y be
adequate, except where l i mi tati ons are obvi ous, to establ i sh category limits onl y when
experi ence wi th hi gh ti re pressures i ndi cates pavement di stress.
3.3.5 Eval uati on method. Wherever possi bl e reported pavement strength shoul d be
based on a "techni cal eval uati on". Commonly, eval uati on i s an i nversi on of a desi gn
method. Design begi ns wi th the ai rcraft l oadi ng to be sustai ned and the subgrade
strength resul ti ng from preparati on of the l ocal soi l , then provi des the necessary
thi cknesses and qual i ty of materials f or the needed pavement structure. Eval uati on
i nverts thi s process. It begi ns wi th the exi sti ng subgrade strength, fi nds thi ckness
and qual i ty of each component of the pavement structure, and uses a design procedure
pattern to determi ne the ai rcraft l oadi ng whi ch the pavement can support. Where
avai l abl e the desi gn, testi ng, and constructi on record data for the subgrade and
components of the pavement structure can often be used to make the eval uati on. Or , test
pi ts can be opened to determi ne the thi cknesses of l ayers, thei r strengths, and subgrade
strength for the purpose of eval uati on. A techni cal eval uati on al so can be made based
on measurement of the response of pavement to l oad. I kf l exi on of a pavement under
stati c pl ate or ti re l oad can be used to predi ct i ts behati our. Also there are vari ous
devi ces for appl yi ng dynamic l oads to a pavement, observi ng i ts response, and usi ng thi s
to predi ct i ts behaviour. When f or economic or other reasons a techni cal eval uati on i s
not feasi bl e, eval uati on can be based on experi ence wi th "usi ng ai rcraft". A pavement
sati sf actori l y supporti ng ai rcraf t usi ng i t can accept other ai rcraf t i f they are no
@ more demanding than the usi ng ai rcraft. Thi s can be the basi s f or an eval uati on.
3.3.6 Pavements f or l i ght ai rcraf t. L i ght ai rcraf t are those havi ng a mass of
5 700 kg or less. These ai rcraft have pavement requirements less than that of many
highway trucks. Techni cal eval uati ons of those pavements can, of course, be made, but
an eval uati on based on usi ng ai rcraf t i s sati sf actory. It i s worth noti ng that at some
ai rports servi ce vehi cl es such as f i re trucks, f uel trucks, or snow ploughs may be more
cri ti cal than ai rcraft. Si nce nearl y al l l i ght ai rcraf t have si ngl e-wheel undercarri age
l egs there i s no need for reporti ng subgrade categori es. However, si nce some hel i -
copters and mi l i tary trai ner aeropl anes wi thi n thi s mass range have qui te hi gh ti re
pressures l i mi ted qual i ty pavements may need to have ti re pressure limits establ i shed.
3. 4 Assessing the magnitude and composition of traf f i c
3. 4. 1 General. Pavement beari ng strength eval uati ons shoul d address not merel y
an al l owabl e l oad but a repeti ti ons use l evel f or that l oad. A pavement which can
sustai n many repeti ti ons of one l oad can sustai n a l arger l oad but for fewer
repeti ti ons. Observabl e effects of traffi c, even those i nvol vi ng careful measurements
in Situ or on samples i n control l ed l aboratory tests, unfortunatel y do not (unl ess
physi cal damage is apparent%) permit a determi nati on of the porti on of pavement's
* In the case of evi dent physi cal damage a pavement w i l l al ready be i n the l ast stages
of i ts usef ul l i f e.
I C A O 9557 PA RT t 3 t t W 4B414Zb 0019401 574
3-26 ~~
~ ~~ Aerodrome Design Hanual ~~ ~
repeti ti ons l i f e that has been used or, conversely, i s remaining. Thus an eval uati on
l eadi ng to beari ng capaci ty determi nati on i s an assessment of pavement's total expected
repeti ti ons (traf f i dl oad) l i f e. Any proj ecti on of remai ni ng useful l i f e of the
pavement w i l l depend on a determi nati on of all. traf f i c sustai ned si nce constructi on or
reconstructi on.
3. 4. 2 Mixed loadings. Normally, it wi l l . be necessary to consi der a mixture of
loadings at thei r respecti ve repeti ti ons use l evel s. There i s a strong tendency to rate
pavement beari ng strength i n term of some sel ected l oadi ng for the al l owabl e repeti -
ti ons use l evel , and to rate each l oadi ng appl i ed to a pavement i n term of i ts equiva-
l ent number of thi s basi c l oadi ng. To do thi s, a rel ati on is f i rst establ i shed between
l oadi ng and repeti ti ons to produce fai l ure. Such rel ati ons are vari ousl y establ tshed
usi ng combi nati ons of theory or desi gn methods and experi ence behavi our patterns or
l aboratory fati gue curves for the pri nci pal structural el ement of the pavement.
Obviously, not al l rel ati ons are the same,* but the repeti ti ons parameter is not subtl y
effecti ve. It needs only to be establ i shed i n general magnitude and not Ln speci f i c
value. Thus f ai rl y l arge vari ati ons can exi st in the l oadi ng- repeti ti ons rel ati on
wi thout seri ous di fferences i n eval uati on resul ti ng.
3. 4. 3 Using the curve for l oadi ng versus repeti ti ons t o f ai l ure, the f ai l ure
repeti ti ons for each l oadi ng can be determi ned and compared eo that f or the basi c
sel ected l oadi ng. From these compari sons, the equi val ent number of the basi c selected
l oadi ng for si ngl e appl i cati ons of any l oadi ng are determi ned, i .e.,factors greater than
1 for l arger l oadi ngs and less than 1 f or smaller loadings. An expl anatory example of
thi s process f ollaws:
a) relate l oadi ng to f ai l ure repeti ti ons, a6 i l l ustrated in Figure 3-1;
Log load
Figure 3-1
See Chapter 4, Figure 4- 29 (French practi ce) and 4.4.12.1 (Uni ted States practi ce).
ICAO 7357 PA RT* 3 ** = 4843436 0019402 000
Part 3. - Pavements 3-27
b) f or sel ected l oads L, read repeti ti ons r from curve
L1 - r1
L2 - ' 2
L3 - r3
L 4 - r4
c) choose L3 as the basi c l oad; and
d) compute equi val ent repeti ti ons f actor f for each l oad
Load
-
Equi val ent Repeti ti ons Factor
f l =- (a val ue less than 1)
' 3
I 1
r3
r 2'
f , =- (a val ue less than 1)
' 3
f 3 =- = 1
r3
r3
r 4
f 4 =- (a val ue greater than 1)
By use of these factors, the accumul ated effect of any combination of l oads
experi enced or contempl ated can be cowared to the beari ng strength eval uati on i n terms
of a sel ected l oadi ng at i ts eval uated al l owabl e repeti ti ons use l evel ,
3.5 Techniques f or "usi ng ai rcraf t" eval uati on
3.5.1 While techni cal eval uati on shoul d be accomplished wherever possible, i t i s
recogni zed that fi nanci al and ci rcumstanti al constrai nts w i l l occasi onal l y prevent it.
Since i t is most i mportant to have compl etel y reported beari ng strength i nformati on and
si nce the usi ng ai rcraf t eval uati on i s reasonabl y di rect and readi l y comprehensi bl e i t
is bei ng presented First.
3.5.2 Heavi est usi ng ai rcraft. A pavement sati sf actori l y sustai ni ng i ts usi ng
traffi c can be consi dered capabl e of supporti ng the heavi est ai rcraf t regul arl y usi ng
i t, and any ocher ai rcraft whi ch has no greater pavement strength requi rements. Thus to
begi n an eval uati on based on usi ng ai rcraft, the types and masses of ai rcraf t and number
of times each operates i n a gi ven peri od must be examined. Emphasis here shoul d be on
the heavi est ai rcraf t regul arl y usi ng the pavement. Support of a parti cul arl y heavy
l oad, but onl y rarel y, does not necessari l y establ i sh a capabi l i ty to support equi val ent
loads on a regul ar repeti ti ve basi s (see 3 . 4 ) .
I C A O 9157 PART* 3 ** 4S4545b 0059403 T47
3-28 Aerodrome Design Manual
3. 5. 3 Pavement condi ti on and behavi our. There wst next be a careful examina-
ti on of what ef f ect the traf f i c of usi ng ai rcraf t is havi ng on the pavement. The
condi ti on of the pavement in rel ati on to any cracki ng, di storti on or wear, and the
experi ence wi th needed mai ntenance are of First i mportance. Age nust be consi dered
si nce overl oad ef f ects on a new pavement may nut yet be evi dent whi l e SORE accumulated
i ndi cati ons of di stress may normal l y be evi dent i n a very old pavement. I n general ,
however, a pavement i n good condi ti on can be consi dered to be sati sf actori l y carryi ng
the usi ng traf f i c, whi l e i ndi cati ons of advanci ng di stress show the pavement is bei ng
overl oaded. The condi ti on exami nati on shoul d take note of rel ati ve pavement behaviour
i n areas of i ntense versus l ow usage such as i n and out of wheel paths or most and least
used taxi ways, zones subj ect to maxirmm braki ng, e.g., taxi way turn-off, etc. Note
shoul d al so be taken of behavi our of any known or observabl e weak or crl ti cal areas such
as low poi nts of pavement grade, ol d stream crossi ngs, pi pe crossi ngs where i ni ti al
compaction was poor, structural l y weak secti ons, etc. These w i l l hel p to predi ct the
rate of deteri orati on under extant traf f i c and thereby i ndi cate the degree of
overl oadi ng or of underl oadi ng. The condi ti on exami nati ons shoul d al so focus on any
damage resul ti ng f rom ti re pressures of usi ng ai rcraft and the need for ti re pressure
l i mi tati ons.
3.5.4 Reference ai rcraft. Study of the types and masses of ai rcraf t w i l l
i ndi cate those whi ch mst be of concern i n establ i shi ng a ref erence ai rcraf t and the
condi ti on survey fi ndi ngs wi l l i ndi cate whether the l oad o f the ref erence ai rcraf t
shoul d be less than that bei ng appl i ed or might be somewhat greater. Si nce l oad
di stri buti on to the subgrade depends somewhat on pavement type and subgrade strength,
the parti cul ar ref erence ai rcraf t and i ts mass cannot be sel ected unti l those elements
of the ACN-PCN method which are reported i n addi ti on to the PCN have been establ i shed
(see 3. 3. 2 and 3. 3. 3) .
3. 5. 5 Determi nati on of the pavement type, subgrade strength and ti re pressure
categori es. The pavement type rmst be establ i shed as ri gi d or f l exi bl e. If the
pavement i ncl udes a Portl and cement concrete sl ab as the pri mary structural el ement i t
shoul d be cl assi f i ed as ri gi d even though i t may have a bi tumi nous overl ay resurfaci ng
(see 3. 3. 2) . I f the pavement i ncl udes no such l oaddi stri buti ng slab i t shoul d be
cl assi f i ed as f l exi bl e.
3. 5. 5 The subgrade category must be determi ned as hi gh, medium, low, or ul tr a
l ow strength. I f CBR or pl ate beari ng test data are avai l abl e f or the subgrade these
can be used di rectl y to select the subgrade category. Such data, however, must
represent in si t u subgrade condi ti ons. Si mi l ar data f ron any surroundi ng structures on
the same type of soi l and i n similar topography can al s o be used. S o i l strength data i n
al most any other form can be used to proj ect an equi val ent CBR or modules of subgrade
reacti on k f or use i n sel ecti ng the subgrade category. I nf ormati on on subgrade soi l
strength may be obtai nabl e from l ncal road or hi ghways agenci es or l ocal agri cul tural
agenci es. A di rect, though somewhat crude or approxi mate, determi nati on of subgrade
strength can be made f rom cl assi f i cati on* of the subgrade materi al and reference to any
of many publ i shed correl ati ons such as that shown i n Fi gure 3- 2. (Also see 3. 3. 3 and
3. 2. 2. )
8 ASTEf D2487, D3282, and D2488.
ICAO 9357 PARTa3 X* 484141b 0017L104 783 =
Part 3.- Pavements 3-29
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATI O
_ _ _
ml-r
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 D I5 'Lo 25 3 3 40 50 60708090
----
GENERAL SOl L RATING AS SUBGRADE,SUBBASE OR BASE
I U.S.E.D. CCASAGRANDEI SOI L CLASSI FI CATI ON
0 - Organi c
W - Wal l Oladad
P - poorly e&
I CI VI L AERONAUTI CS ADMI N. - SOI L CLASSI FI CATI ON
BUREAU OF PUBLI C ROADS SOIL CLASSIFICATION
MODULUS OF SOIL REACTION K Ib/i n?/i n.
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 6 0 ' I50 260 250
, 6 3 0
. . . . . . , . . .
MODULUS OF SOIL REACTI ON K kg./cm?/cm.
I I I I I I I
6
I I I I
4 4 5 7 IO 14 2b
CHART TAKEN FROM " Derign of Concret e Ai rport Pavement " PORTLAND
CEMENT ASSOCIATION.
N. B. Al l i nt er r el at i onshi ps ar e very approxi mat e. Act ual t est s ar e r equi r ed
to determine CB R, K , et c .
Figure 3-2. Interrelationships of soil classification, California
Bearing Ratio and k values
3-30 ~~ ~~ Aerodrome Design Manual
3.5.7 The ti re pressure category mst be determined as high, medium, l ow or very
low. Portl and cement concrete eurfaci ng and good to excel l ent qual i ty bi tumi nous
surfaci ng can sustai n the ti re pressures commonly encountered and should be cl assi f i ed
as hi gh pressure category wi th no limit on pressure. Bituminous surfacings of i nf ector
qual i ty and aggregate or earth surf aci ngs w i l l requi re the l i rni tatl on of lower
categori es (see 3 . 3 . 4 ) . The appl i cabl e pressure category shoul d normal l y be sel ected
based on experi ence wi th usi ng ai rcraft. The hi ghest ti re pressure bei ng appl i ed, other
than rarel y, by usi ng ai rcraft, wi thout produci ng observabl e di stress shoul d be the
basi s for determi ni ng the ti re pressure category.
3.5.8 Themost si gni fi cant el ement of the usi ng ai rcraft eval uati on i s
determi nati on of the cri ti cal ai rcraf t and the equi val ent pavement cl assi fi cati on number
(PCN) for reporti ng purposes. Havi ng determi ned the paverpent type and the subgrade
category the next step would be the deterndnati on of the ACNs of ai rcraf t usi ng the
pavement. For thi s purpose, the ai rcraf t cl assi f i cati on tabl e presented i n
Appendix 5 or the rel evant ai rcraf t characteri sti cs document published by the
manufacturer shoul d be used. Compari son of ai rcraft regul arl y usi ng the pavements - at
thei r operati ng masses - wi th the abovementi oned tabl e or the rel evant ai rcraf t
characteri sti cs documents w i l l permi t determi nati on of the most cri ttcal ai rcraf t usi ng
the pavement. If the usi ng aircraft are sati sf actori l y bei ng sustai ned by the pavement
and there are no known f actors whi ch i ndi cate that substanti al l y heavi er ai rcraf t coul d
be supported, the ACN of the most cri ti cal ai rcraft shoul d be reported as the PCN of the
pavement. Thus any ai rcraf t havi ng an ACiJ no hi gher than thi s PCN can use the pavement
f aci l i ty at a use rate (as repeti tl ons per month) no greater than that nf presentl y
supported ai rcraft wi thout shorteni ng the use-l i fe oE the pavement.
3.5.9 In arri vi ng at the cri ti cal ai rcraf t onl y ai rcraf t usi ng the pavement on a
conti nui ng basis wi thout unacceptabl e pavement di stress shoul d be considered. The
occasi onal use of the pavement by a more demanding ai rcraf t i s not 6uFf I ci ent to ensure
i t s continued support even i f no pavement di stress i s apparent.
3.5.10 As i ndi cated, a PCN di rectl j j sel ected based on the eval uated cri ti cal
ai rcraft l oadi ng contempl ates an ai rcraft use i ntensi ty i n the f uture si mi l ar to that at
the time of eval uati on. I f a substanti al i ncrease i n use (wheel l oad repeti ti ons) i s
expected, the PCN shoul d be adj usted downward t o accommodate the i ncrease. A basis f or
the adj ustment, whi ch relates load magnitude to l oad repeti ti ons, is presented i n 3. 4.
3.5.11 Pavements f or l i ght ai rcraf t. In eval uati ng pavements meant f or l i ght
ai rcraf t - 5 700 kn mass and less - i t i s unnecessary to consi der the geometry of the
undercarri age of ai rcraf t or how the ai rcraf t l oad is di stri buted among the wheels.
Thus subgrade class and pavement type need not be reported, and onl y the maximm allow-
abl e ai rcraf t mass and maximum al l owabl e ti re pressure need be determined and reported.
For these the foregoi ng gui dance on techni ques for "usi ng ai rcraft" eval uati on shoul d be
f ollowed.
-
3.5.12 Because the 5 700 kg limtt f or l i ght aircraft represents pavement l oads
only two-thirds or less of common hi ghway l oads, the assessment of trafEic usi ng pave-
ments should extend to consi derati on of heavy ground vehicles such as f uel trucks, fi re
trucks, snow pl oughs, servi ce vehi cl es and the l i ke. These must al so be control l ed i n
rel ati on t o load limited pavements.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 t* 4 8 4 3 4 3 6 0039406 756
Part 3.- Pavements 3-31
@ 3.6
Techniques and equipment for "techni cal " eval uati on
3.6.1 Techni cal eval uati on i s the process of defi ni ng or quanti fyi ng the beari ng
capaci ty of a pavement through measurement and study of the characteri sti cs of the pave-
ment and i ts behavi our under l oad. Thi s can be done ei ther by an i nversi on of the
desi gn process, usi ng desi,Pn parameters and methods, but reversi ng the process to deter
mine al l owabl e l oad from exi sti ng pavement characteri sti cs, or by a di rect determi nati on
of response of the pavement to l oad by one of several means.
3.6.2 Pavement behaviour concepts for design and evaluation. Concepts of
behavi our devel oped i nto anal yti cal means by which pavements can be designed to
accommodate speci f i c si te and^ai rcraf t traf f i c condi ti ons are commonly ref erred to as
desi gn methods. There are a vari ety of concepts and many speci f i c desi gn methods, For
exampl e, several desi gn and eval uati on methods are expl ai ned i n some detai l i n Chapter 4
of thi s Manual.
3.6.2-1 The early methods. The earl y methods for desi gn and eval uati on of f l ex-
i bl e pavements were experience based and theory extended. They made use of i ndex type
tests to assess the strength of the subgrade and commonly to al so assess the strength or
contrtbuti ng strength of base and sub-base layers. These were tests such as the CBR,
pl ate beari ng, and many others, especi al l y i n highway design. These early methods,
extensively developed, are sti l l the methods i n pri mary use for aerodrome pavement
design. The CBR method adopted for ACN determi nati ons as mentioned i n Chapter 1 and
Appendix 2 of t hi s Manual i s an excel l ent exawl e, and the French and Canadi an methods
descri bed i n Chapter 4 are f urther examples of CBR and pl ate l oadi ng methods,
respecti vel y.
3.6.2.2 Earl y methods or desi gn and eval uati on of ri gi d pavements vi rtual l y al l
made use of the Westergaard model (el asti c pl ate on a Winkler foundation) but included
vari ous extensi ons to treat f ati gue, rati o of desi gn stress to ul ti mate stress,
strengtheni ng effects of subbase (or base) l ayers, etc. Westergaard developed methods
f or two cases: l oadi ng at the centre of a pavement sl ab (wi dth unl i mi ted) and l oadi ng
at the edge of a sl ab (otherwi se unl i mi ted). Whi l e most ri gi d pavement methods use the
centre sl ab l oad condi ti on, some use the edge condi ti on. These consi der l oad transfer
to the adj acent sl ab but means of treati ng the transf er vary. Pl ate beari ng tests are
used to characteri ze subgrade (or subgrade and sub-base) support which is an essenti al
el ement of these desi gn methods. Here agai n the earl y methods, further devel oped,
remai n the pri mary basi s for aerodrome pavement desi gn. The method adopted for ACN
determi nati on (see Chapter 1 and Appendix 2) i s an excel l ent exanpl e of these methods,
and several other exampl es are presented i n Chapter 4 .
3.6.2.3 The newer - more fundamental - methods. Continuing ef f orts to base
pavement desi gn on more fundamental pri nci pl es has l ed to the devel opment of methods
usi ng the stressstrai n response of materials and rati onal theoreti cal models. The
advances i n computer technology have made these previ ousl y i ntractabl e methods practi cal
and l ed to computerari ented devel opments not otherwi se possi bl e.
3.6.2.4 The most popul ar theoreti cal model f or the newer desi gn methods is the
el asti c layered system. Layers are of f i ni te thi ckness and i nf i ni te extent l ateral l y
except that the l owest l ayer (subgrade) i s al so of i nf i ni te extent downward. Response
of each l ayer is characteri zed by i ts modulus of el asti ci ty and Poi sson's rati o. Val ues
for these parameters are vari ousl y determi ned by l aboratory tests of several types, by
Ei el d tests of several types wi th correl ati ons or cal cul ated deri vati ons, or merel y by
esti mati ng val ues where magni tudes are not cri ti cal . These methods permit the stresses,
3-32 Aerodrome Design Manual
strai ns, and defl exi ons from i uposed l oads to be comguted. Mul ti pl e loads can be
treated by superimposition of si ngl e l oads. Commonly, the magnitude of strai n at
cri ti cal poi nts (top of subgrade beneath l oad, bottom of surface l ayer, etc) i s
correl ated wi th i ntended pavement performance for use i n desi gn or eval uati on. Whi l e
these methods have been applied mostly to f l exi bl e pavements there have al so been
appl i cati ons to desi gn of ri gi d pavements.
3.6.2.5 While the el asti c l ayered models are currentl y popul ar i t is recognized
that the stress-strai n response of pavement materials i s non-linear. The l ayeri ng
permi ts vari ati on of el asti c modulus magnitude from layer to l ayer, but not l ateral l y
wi thi n each l ayer. There are developments which establish a stress dependence of the
modulus of el asti ci ty and use thi s dependence i n f i ni te element models of the pavement,
through i terati ve conputati onal means, to establ i sh the ef f ecti ve modulus - element by
element i n the gri d - and thereby produce a more sati sf actory model. Here al so strai ns
are cal cul ated for cri ti cal l ocati ons and conpared wi th correl ati ons to expected
behaviour. Finite element models are a160 bei ng used to better model speci fi c geometri c
aspects of ri gi d pavements but these remai n l argel y research appl i cati ons.
3.6.2.6 Direct load response methods. Theori es appl i ed earlier t o pavement
behavi our i ndi cated a proporti onal i ty between l oad and defl exi on, thus i npl yi ng that
defl exi on shoul d be an i ndi cator of capaci ty of a pavement to support l oad. Thi s al so
i mpl i ed that pavement defl exi on determi ned for a parti cul ar appl i ed l oad coul d be
adj usted proporti onatel y to predi ct the defl exi on which would resul t from other l oads.
These were a basi s f or pavement eval uati on. Fi el d veri fi cati on both from experi ence and
research soon showed strong trends rel ati ng pavement behaviour to load magnitude and
defl exi on and l ed to the establ i shment of l i mi ti ng defl exfons for eval uati on. There
have si nce been many control l ed teats and rmch careful l y anal yzed fi el d experi ence whi ch
confirm a strong rel ati on between pavement defl exi on and the expected l oad repeti ti ons
(to f ai l ure) l i f e of the pavement subj ect to the l oad whi ch caused that defl exi on.
However, thi s rel ati on, though strong, i s not well represented by a si ngl e l i ne or
curve. It is a somewhat broad band wi thi n whi ch many secondary factors appear to be
impacting.
3.6.2.7 Thi s establ i shed strong rel ati on has been and i s being used as the basi s
f or pavement evaluation, but predominantly - unti l recentl y - appl i cati ons have been t o
f l exi bl e pavements. Methods based on pl ate tests have been most common and the standard
762 nun di ameter pl ate preferred. The LCN method and long used Canadian method are
examples (see Chapter 4 ) . &?flexions under actual wheel loads (or between the duals of
two and four wheel gear) are the basts of some expedient methods whi ch cl osel y paral l el
the pl ate methods. The Benkleman Beam methods, as well as other highway methods, are
appl i cabl e to eval uati on of l i ght ai rcraft pavements (see the Canadi an practice i n
Chapter 4 ) .
3.6.2.8 There are a number of reasons why dynamic pavement loading equipment
became popul ar. Stati c pl ate l oads of wheel load magnitude are nei ther transportabl e
nor easi l y reposi ti oned. Dynamic l oadi ng appl i es a pul se l oad rmch more l i ke the pul se
induced by a passing wheel. Repeated dynamic loading better represents the repeated
l oadi ng of wheel traffi c. But most important was the development of sensors which could
merely be posi ti oned on the pavement or l oad pl ate and would measure deflexion (vertical
displacement). As a resul t, a vari ety of dynamlc load equipment has been developed.
I ni ti al l y there were devi ces for highway appl i cati ons and l ater heavi er devi ces for
aerodrome pavements. These range frora l i ght devi ces i nduci ng l oads of less than
1 000 kg to the heavy devi ce descri bed l ater i n thi s chapter in connexi on wi th the
Uni ted States FAA nondestructi ve eval uati on methods (see 3.6.5). All of these earlier
ICAO 9357 P ART*3 ** 484L43b 0039408 529
Par t 3.- Pavements 3-33
devi ces i nvol ved reci procati ng masses capabl e of produci ng peak-to-peak pul se l oads of
up to nearl y twice the stati c l oad. The pul se l oads are essenti al l y si nusoi dal and
steady state. Some devi ces can vary frequency and l oad (but not stati c l oad except f or
surchargi ng). Some l ater dynamic devices - apparentl y qui ckl y becomi ng popul ar -
i nvol ve a f al l i ng mass. These can appl y l oads i n excess of twice the stati c mass and
can vary force magni tude by control l i ng the hei ght of f al l . Pul ses i nduced are
repeti ti ve but not steady, and the f requency i s that which is normal for the devi ce and
pavement combination. The dynamic devices are appl i ed i n much the same manner as the
stati c methods di scussed i n 3.6.2.7. So& can al so be used to generate data on the
stress- strai n response of the pavement materials, as w i l l be di scussed l ater.
3.6.2.9 Essential i nputs to pavement design methods. The parameters whi ch defi ne
behavi our of el ements (l ayers) of a parti cul ar pavement within the model upon which i ts
desi gn i s based vary from the CBR and other i ndex type tests of the earl i er f l exi bl e
pavement methods and pl ate l oad tests of Westergaard ri gi d pavement and some f l exi bl e
pavement methods to the stress- strai n, modulus values employed i n the newer more
fundamental methods.
3.6.2.10 CBR tests for determi ni ng the strengths of subgrades and of other unbound
pavement l ayers f or use i n desi gn or eval uati on shoul d be as descri bed i n the parti cul ar
method empl oyed (French, Uni ted States/FAA, other), but general l y w i l l be as covered i n
ASTM D1883, "Beari ng Rati o of Laboratory Compacted Soi l s for Laboratory T est Determin-
ati ons". Commonly, f i el d i n- pl ace CBR tests aye pref erabl e to l aboratory tests
whenever possi bl e, and such tests should be conducted i n accordance wi th the f ol l owi ng
gui dance (from Uni ted States Mi l i tary Standard 621A) .
3.6.2.11 Fi el d i n-pl ace CBR tests
a) These tests are used for desi gn under any one of the f ol l owi ng
condi ti ons:
(1) when the i n- pl ace densi ty and water content are such that the
degree of saturati on (percentage of voi ds f i l l ed wi th water) is
80 per cent or greater;
(2) when the material i s coarse-grai ned and cohesi onl ess so that i t i s
not af f ected by changes i n water content; or
(3) when constructi on was compl eted several years before. In the
last-named case, the water content does not actual l y become
constant but appears to f l uctuate wi thi n rather narrow ranges, and
the f i el d i n- pl ace test i s consi dered a sati sf actory i ndi cator of
the l oad-carryi ng capaci ty. The time requi red f or the water
content to become stabi l i zed cannot be stated def i ni tel y, but the
minimum time i s approxi matel y three years.
b) Penetrati on. L evel the surf ace to be tested, and remove al l l oose
material. Then fol l ow the procedure descri bed i n ASTM D-1883.
c) Number of tests. Three i n-pl ace CBR tests shoul d be performed at each
el evati on tested i n the base course and at the surf ace of the
subgrade. However, i f the resul ts of the three tests i n any group do
not show reasonabl e agreement, addi ti onal tests shoul d be made at the
same l ocati on. A reasonabl e agreement between three tests where the
ICAO 9157 PARTs3 b* W 484141b 0019409 465 W
3-34 Aerodrome Design Manual
CBR is less than 10 perml ts a tol erance of 3 ; where the CBR i s from
10 to 30, a tol erance of 5 ; and where the CBR i s from 30 to 60, a
tol erance of 10. For CBRs above GO, vari ati ons i n the i ndi vi dual
readi ngs are not of parti cul ar i nportance. For exampl e, actual test
resul ts of 6 , 8 and 9 are reasonabl e and can be averaged as 8;
resul ts of 2 3 , 18, and 20 are reasonabl e and can be averaged as 20.
I f the f i rst three tests do not f al l wi thi n the speci f i ed tol erance,
three addi ti onal tests are made at the same l ocati on, and the
numeri cal average of the six tests i s used as the CBR at that
l ocati on.
d) Moi sture content and densi ty. After compl eti on o the CBR test, a
sampl e shal l be obtai ned at the poi nt of penetrati on for moi sture-
content determi nati on, and 10 to 15 cm away from the poi nt of
penetrati on f or densi ty determi nati on.
3.6.2.12 Pl ate l oad tests f or determi nati on of the mndul us of subgrade reacti on (k)
or Westergaard anal ysi s in eval uati on or desi gn shoul d be made i n accordance wi th
procedures of the method employed, or can be as presented in ASTX D1196, "Non-Repetitive
Stati c Pl ate Load Tests of Soi l s and Fl exi bl e Pavement Components, f or use I n Eval uati on
and Design of Ai rport and Highway Pavements" or i n ASTM D1195, "Repeti ti ve Stati c Pl ate
Load Tests of Soi l s and Fl exi bl e Pavement Couponents, f or Use i n Eval uati on and Desi gn
of Ai rport and Highway Pavements". The procedures also relate to f l exi bl e pavement
desi gn, as i ndi cated by ASTM standards' ti tl es. The Canadi an practi ce, as descri bed i n
Chapter 4, makes use of the ASTM method. The Canadi an practi ce also covers use of other
pl ate si zes and the gui dance for Canadi an methods descri bed i n Chapter 6 can be used for
stati c or dynamic tests wi th non-standard pl ate sizes f or ei ther determi nati on of sub-
grade coef f i ci ent val ues or f or di rect use in pavement eval uati ons.
3.6.2.13 Conventi onal methods and val ues pertai ni ng to determi nati on of modul us of
el asti ci ty, E, and Poi sson's rati o, F, are used i n depi cti ng structural behavi our of the
concrete l ayer I n Westergaard anal yses c)f ri gi d pavement. Commonly, I s taken to be
0.15. The modulus, E, shoul d be determi ned by test of the concrete and w i l l normal l y be
in the range of 25 000 to 30 000 MPa.
3.6.2.14 Modulus of el asti ci ty and Poi sson's rati o val ues are needed f or each l ayer
of an el asti c l ayered system, and these can be determi ned i n a vari ety of Mays.
Poi sson's rati o i s not a sensti ve parameter and i s cnmmonly taken t n be 0. 3 to 0.33 f or
aggregate materials and 0.4 t o 0.5 f or f i ne grai ned or pl asti c materials. Since means
of determining modulus of el asti ci ty vary and si nce the stress- strai n response of soi l
and aggregate materials I s non-l i near (not proporti onal ) the val uer; found or a
parti cul ar material, by the vari ous means, are not the same si ngul ar quanti ty whi ch
i deal theoreti cal consi derati ons woul d l ead one to expect. Fol l owi ng are some of the
ways i n which modulus of el asti ci ty val uee can be determi ned f or use i n theoreti cal
models (such as elastic l ayered) of pavement behaviour.
a> 1-bdulus of el asti ci ty val ues f or subgrade materi al s parti cul arl y, but
f or other pavement l ayers as well. - excepti ng bi ttmi nous or cemented
materi al s - can be determi ned from eurrel ati ol l s wi th i ndex type
strength tests. Most cowon has been correl ati on wi th CBl? where:
E = 10 CBR HPa.
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-35
Stress-strai n response (modul us) can be determi ned by di rect test of
prepared or fi el d sampl ed speci mens, but these are nearl y al ways
unsati sfactory. Response is too greatl y af f ected by ei ther preparati on
or sampl i ng di sturbance t o be representati ve.
It has been found that prepared speci mens, and i n some cases specimens
f rom f i el d samples, can be subj ected to repeated l oadi ng to provi de -
af ter several to many l oad cycl es - a reasonabl y representati ve modulus
or stress-strai n response curve. Modulus of el asti ci ty so determined
is ref erred to as resi l i ent modulus and i s currentl y strongl y favoured
- i n some form - f or l ayered el asti c anal yses. Tests can be conducted
as i rri axi al tests, i ndi rect tensi l e tests, even unconfined compression
tests, and there may be others. Loadi ngs can be regul ar wave forms
(si nusoi dal , etc) but are commonly of a sel ected l oad pul se shape wi th
del ays between pul ses to better represent passi ng wheel s. Resi l i ent
modulus can be determi ned for bi tumi nous materials by some of these
tests and other similar tests, but temperature i s most si gni f i cant both
f or testi ng and appl i cati on o E the modulus for bi tumi nous l ayers.
Modul i or the vari ous pavement l ayers are taken from these type tests
and used di rectl y i n l ayered system anal yses, but there are frequentl y
probl em or questi ons of val i di ty.
When dynamic pl ate l oad testf ng is carri ed out on exi sti ng pavements i t
i s possi bl e to i nstrument to measure the vel oci ty of propagati on of
stress waves wi thi n the pavements. Means have been devel oped for
deduci ng the modul us of el asti ci ty of each l ayer - general l y excepti ng
the top l ayer or l ayers - of the pavement from these velocity measure-
ments. While moduli so determined zre someti mes used di rectl y i n
l ayered anal yses the determi nati ons are f or such small strai ns that
val ues represent tangent modul i for curved stress-strai n rel ati ons
whi-le the modul i for hi gher (worki ng strai n) stress l evel s shoul d be
lower. Determinations by thi s means adj usted by judgement or some
establ i shed anal yti cal means are used.
The subgrade modulus is the most si gni fi cant parameter and some
anal yses use one of the above methods to determi ne a modulus f or the
subgrade and choose the modul i of other l ayers ei ther di rectl y on a
j udgemnt basi s or by some simple numerical process (such as twi ce the
underl yi ng l ayer modulus or one-hal f the overl yi ng l ayer modul us)
si nce preci se val ues are not cri ti cal .
By usi ng sel ected or si mpl i sti cal l y deri ved modul i for al l l ayers
except the subgrade, it i s possi bl e to compute a val ue for subgrade
moduhs usi ng el asti c l ayered anal ysi s and pl ate or wheel l oad
def lexions. This is done f or some anal yses.
There is great tnterest currentl y i n usi ng el asti c l ayered theory and
usi ng f i el d determi ned def l exi ons from dynami c l oad pavement tests f or
poi nts beneath the centre of l oad and at several of f -set posi ti ons
f r o m the l oad centre. By i terati ve computer means the modul i of the
subgrade and several overl yi ng l ayers can be computed. Such computed
moduli are then used i n the l ayered model t o compute strai ns at
cri ti cal l ocati ons as predi ctors of pavement performance.
3.6.2.15 Fi ni te el ement methods perdt f ornul ati on of pavemnt models which not
onl y can provi de for l ayeri ng but can treat non-l i near (curved) stress-strai n response
found f or most pavement materials. Here agai n there is a requirement f or Poisson's
rati os and modul i of el asti ci ty but these rmst now be determined for each pavement l ayer
as a functi on of the l oad or stress condi ti on exi sti ng at any poi nt i n the model (on any
f i ni te element). Moduli rel ati ons are establ i shed from l aboratory tests and most
commonly by repeated tri axi al l oad tests. General l y, these are of the Eollowing form
but there are vari ants.
a) For granul ar materials:
Mr = E = K1 $2
or
Mr = E = K3 03k4
b) For fi ne-grai ned soi l s:
Where:
Mr - resi l i ent modulus
E - modulus of el asti ci ty
0
- bul k stress =u1 +u2 +u3 or
ux + +aZ (sum of 3
rmtual y perpendi cul ar normal
stresses at a point)
01, 0 2 , a3 - pri nci pal stresses
03 - conEining stress on the tri axi al
specimen
- devi ator stress =al- a3
k,, k2, k3, k,, kg, k6 - constants found by test
3.6.3 Eval uati on by i nversi on of design. To desi gn a pavement one rmst select a
desi gn method. Then determi ne the thi cknesses and acceptabl e characteri sti cs of
materials for each l ayer and the weari ng surface taki ng i nto account the subgrade upon
whi ch the pavement w i l l rest and the magnitude and i ntensi ty of traf f i c l oadi ng which
must be supported. For eval uati on, the procegs r ms t be i nverted si nce the pavement i s
al ready i n exi stence. Character of the subgrade and thi ckness and character of each
structural l ayer i ncl udi ng the surf aci ng rmst be establ i shed, from whi ch the maximum
allowable magnitude and frequency of al l owabl e ai rcraft l oadi ng can be determined by
I C A O 7357 PA RT* 3 ** 484L43b OOL94L2 T 5 T
Part 3 . - Pavements
3-37
usi ng a chosen design method i n reverse. It i s not necessary that the desi gn method
esenti al parameters, whi ch characteri ze behavi our of the vari ous materials (l ayers) must
be those which the chosen desi gn method employed.
sel ected for eval uati on be the method by which the pavement was desi gned, but the
3. 6. 3. 1 The method and elements of design. The desi gn method to be i nverted f or
eval uatfon must Eirst be chosen. Next the el ements of desi gn i nherent i n the exi sti ng
pavement must be eval uated i n accordance wi th the sel ected desi gn method.
Thickness of each l ayer ml st be determined. This may be possi bl e from
constructi on records or may requi re the dri l l i ng of core hol es or
opening of test pi t s to permi t measuring thickness.
Subgrade strength and character must be determined. Here al so
constructi on records may suppl y the needed i nformati on ei ther di rectl y
or by a transl ati on of the i nformati on to the form needed for the
sel ected desi gn method. Otherwise i t w i l l be necessary to obtai n the
needed i nformati on from fi el d studi es. Reference to 3.6.2.9 to
3.6.2.14 wi l l show the wi de vari ety of ways in which subgrade
behaviour i s treated i n the vari ous desi gn methods. Test pi ts may be
necessary to permi t penetrati on or pl ate testi ng or sampling of
subgrade material for l aboratory testi ng. Sampling or penetrati on
testi ng i n core hol es may be possi bl e. Dynamic or stati c surface
l oad-defl exi on or wave propagati on testi ng may be requi red. Speci fi c
guidance mst be gai ned from detai l s of the desi gn method chosen f or
use i n eval uati on.
The strength and character of l ayers between the subgrade and surface
must al so be determined. Problems are much the same as f or the sub-
grade (see b) above) and guidance mst come from the chosen desi gn
method.
Most procedures for the desi gn of ri gi d pavements requi re a modulus of
el asti ci ty and l i mi ti ng f l exural stress for the concrete. I f these
are not avai l abl e from constructi on records they shoul d be determined
by test on speci mens extracted from the pavement (see ASTM C 469 -
modulus of el asti ci ty and ASTM C683 - fl exural strength). For rei n-
forced or prestressed concrete l ayers dependence must be pl aced on
detai l s of the i ndi vi .dua1 sel ected desi gn method.
Bi tumi nous surfaci ng (or overl ay) l ayers must be characteri zed to sui t
the sel ected desi gn method and to permi t determination of any ti re
pressure l i mi tati on which might apply. Construction records may
provi de the needed i nformati on otherwi se testi ng w i l l be required.
Pavement temperature data may be requi red to hel p assess the stress-
straicl response or ti re pressure effects on the biturnincus layer.
Any special consi derati on of f rost ef f ects by the sel ected desi gn
method or f or the climate of the area need to be treated and the
tmpact upon the eval uati on determi ned.
The cumul ati ve l oad repeti ti ons to rJhCch the pavement s subj ect i s an
important element of design and both past traf f i c sustai ned and f uture
traf f l c expected may be f actors i n eval uati on. See 3 . 4 i n
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 ** m 4A4L43rb 003r9453 99b W
rel ati on to assessi ng traf f i c. For some design methods i t i 6 suf f i -
ci ent to consi der that the traffi c bei ng sustai ned adequatel y repre-
sents f uture traf f i c and the l i mi ttng l oad establ i shed by eval uati on
is f or thi s i ntensi ty of traf f i c. This assumption i s i nherent in the
transl ati ons between ai rcraf t mass and ACN (or the reverse) of the
ACN-PCN method. Many methods, however, requi re a l oad or stress
repeti ti ons magni tnde as a basi s f or sel ectton of a l i mi ti ng defl exi or?
or strai n which i s needed f or l oad limit eval uati on.
From the chosen desi gn method and establ i shed quanti ti es for the desi g:I el ements,
l i mi ti ng l oad or mass can be establ i shed for any ai rcraft expected to use the pavement.
3. 6. 4 Direct or non-destructi ve eval uati on. Mrect eval uati on i nvol ves l oadi ng
a pavement, measuring i ts response, (usual l y i n term6 of defl exi on under the load and
sometimes al so at poi nts of f set f rom the l oad to show defl exi on basi n shape), and
i nferri ng expected l oad support capaci ty from the measurements. Concepts were di scussed
i n 3. 6. 2. 6, 3. 6. 2. 7, and 3. 6. 2. 8.
3. 6. 4. 1 Stati c methods. Stati c methods i nvol ve posi ti oni ng pl ates 9r wheels,
appl yi ng l oad, and measuri ng defl exi ons. Pl ate l oads requi re a reacti on agai nst whi ch
t o work i n appl yi ng l oad whi l e wheel s can be rol l ed i l l to posi ti on and then away. The
ori gi nal LCN f or f l exi bl e pavements, developed by the Uni ted Kingdom but used by many,
i s an excel l ent example of the di rect stati c methods. The Canadian method f or f l exi bl e
or ri gi d pavements uses pl ate l oad and defl exi on but less di rectl y ( s ee Chapter 4).
These di rect methods depend on a correl ati on between pavement performance and defl exi on
resul ti ng from l oadi ng of the type i ndi cated i n Fi gure 3-3. A warning commnt may be
needed here, si nce such correl ati ons can be mi si nterpreted. They do not indicate the
defl exi on whi ch wi l l be measured under the l oad after i t has been appI i ed for some
number of repeti ti ons RY dght be i nterpreted. &fl exi ons of a pavement are essenti al l y
the samewhen measured earl y or l ate (f ol l awi ng i ni ti al adj ustwnt and bef ore termi nal
deteri orati on) in i ts l i f e. These correl ati ons i ndi cate the number of repeti ti ons that
can be appl i ed to the pavement by the l oad whi ch caused the defl exi on before fai l ure of
the pavement. Correl ati ons are establ i shed by measuri ng the defl exi ons oF sati sf actory
pavements and establ i shi ng thei r traf f i c hi story. The expedi ti ous defl exi on methods for
eval wti on descri bed below are a good example of stati c methods.
3. 6. 4. 2 Expeditious deflexion methods. St:IdCcs and observati ons by many
researchers have shown a strong general correl ati on between the defl exi on of a pavement
under a wheel l oad and the number of traf f i c appl i cati ons (repeti ti ons) of that wheel
load which w i l l resul t i n severe deteri orati on (f ai l ure) of the pavement (see
Figure 3-31. These provi de the basi s for a si mpl e expedi ti ous means of eval uati ng
pavement Strengths References to several of these curves are l i sted below:
Transport and Road Research Laboratory Report LR 375 (Bri tsh);
Cal i forni a Mghway Research Report 633128;
Paper presented by Gschwendt and Poliacek a t the Third I nternati onal
Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements; and
Paper presented by Joseph and Hall al so at the Thi rd I nternati onal
Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements.
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-39
- Log repetitions to fai l ure
Figure 3-3
3. 6. 4. 3 While the pattern of these rel ati ons i s qui te strong, the scatter of
speci f i c poi nts is consi derabl e. Thus ei ther the conservati sm of a l i mi ti ng curve or
the low confidence engendered by the broad scatter of poi nts or some combination mst be
accepted i n usi ng these rel ati ons f or expedi ti ous pavement eval uati ons. They do provide
a simple rel ati vel y i nexpensi ve means of eval uati on. The procedure or such eval uati on
measure defl exi on under a subhtanti al wheel l oad i n a sel ected
cri ti cal pavemnt l ocati on. Si ngl e or mul ti pl e wheel confi gurati ons
can be used.
1) posi ti on a-i rcraft wheel i n cri ti cal area;
2) mark poi nts al ong pavement f or measurement as i ndi cated in
Fi gure 3-4 a);
3 ) usi ng "l i ne of si ght" method, take rod readi ngs at each poi nt;
4 ) move ai rcraf t away and repeat rod readi ngs;
5) pl ot di f f erence i n rod readi ngs as defl exi ons. See Fi gure 3-4 b);
and
6 ) connect poi nts to gai n an esti mate of maximumdefl exi on beneath
tire.
pl ot l oad versus maximumdefl exi on as i l l ustrated i n Fi gure 3-4 c).
combine the defl exi on versus fai l ure repeti ti ons curve wi th the above
curve to provi de an eval uati on of pavement beari ng strength for the
gear used to determi ne defl exi on.
1) determi ne the repeti ti ons of l oad (or equi val ent repeti ti ons as
expl ai ned i n 3 . 4 ) which it i s intended must use the pavement
bef ore f ai l ure;
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** 4843456 0039455 769 M
3-40 Aerodrome Design Manual
2) from a correl ati on of the type shwn i n Fi gure 3-3 determi ne the
def l exi on f or the repeti tons to f ai l ure; and
3) from the establ i shed rel ati on of l oad t o defl exi on of the type
shown i n Fi gure 3-4 determi ne the pavement beari ng strength Ln
terms of the magnitude of l oad al l owabl e on the wheel used f or the
defl exi on measurements.
d) use the procedure descri bed i n Chapter 1 to f i nd how the eval uated
pavement beari ng strength relates to the PCN. Ai rcraf t wi th ACN no
greater than thi s PCN can use the pavement wthout overloading I t.
See Appendix 5 f or ACN versus mass information.
bl
Extend straight l i ne from origin
through pl ot t ed poi nt
---------
LC0d
Maximum &fl exi on determined
0
0 Defl exi on
C)
Fi gure 3-4
3. 6. 4. 4 A similar procedure can be followed using a j ack and l oadi ng pl ate worki ng
beneath a j acki ng poi nt of an ai rcraf t wi ng or some equal l y sui tabl e reacti on l oad. The
compl ete pattern of l oad versus defl exi on can be determi ned and d i a l gauges mounted on a
l ong reference beam can be used i nstead of opti cal survey metlmds. With provi si on of a
sui tabl e access aperture the def l exi on di rectl y beneath the centre of the l oad can be
measured. Resul ts can be treated on the same l i nes as those f or a si ngl e wheel l oad.
3. 6. 4. 5 Methods used for highway load deflex-ton measurements, such as the
Benkleman Beammethods, can be used to devel op defl exi on versus l oad patterns. Resul ts
are treated as i ndi cated i n Fi gure 3-4 to extrapol ate l oads to those of ai rcraf t si ngl e-
wheel loads, which with a rel ati on as i n Fi gure 3-3, permi ts eval uati on of pavement
beari ng strength for si ngl e-wheel l oads. From thi s the l i mi ti ng ai rcraf t -8s
pavements Eor l i ght ai rcraf t can be determi ned di rectl y and reported irl accordance wi th
Chapter 1, 1.2. I f unusual l y l arge l oadi ng plate or ti re pressures are i nvol ved
i t may be necessary to adj ust between the s t ngl e l oad characteri sti cs used i n the
determi nati on of the type i ndi cated i n Fi gurs 3-4 ( 3 . 6 . 4 . 3 a ) ) and the reported l i mi ti ng
ai rcraf t mass al l owabl e or cri ti cal vehi cl e l oads bei ng compared to the l l mi tl ng mass.
Such adj ustments can fol l ow the procedures i n Appendi x 2 or a sel ected pavement desi gn
ICAO 9357 PA RTx 3 ** = 484L4Lb 00394Lh bT5
Part 3.- Pavements 3-41
method. L i mi ts on pavements f or heavi er ai rcraf t can be determi ned as i ndi cated i n
3.6.4.3d). It shoul d be noted that recent f i ndi ngs i ndi cate extrapol ati on of l oad
def l exi on rel ati ons (as i n Fi gure 3-4 c)) from small l oad data taken on hi gh strength
pavements do not gi ve good resul ts. Unfortunatel y, the limits of extrapol ati on f or good
resul ts are not establ i shed.
3.6.4.6 Dynamic methods. These methods involve a dynami c l oadi ng devi ce whi ch i s
mounted f or travel on a vehi cl e or trailer and whi ch i s l owered, i n posi ti on, onto the
pavement. Devices make use of counter rotati ng masses, hydraul i cal l y actuated reci pro-
cati ng masses, or f al l i ng wei ghts (masses) to appl y a seri es of pul ses ei ther i n steady
state by the reci procati ng or rotati ng masses or attenuati ng by the f al l i ng mass. Most
appl y the l oad through a l oadi ng pl ate but some smaller devi ces use ri gi d wheel s or
pads. All methods make use of i nerti al i nstruments (sensors) whi ch when pl aced on the
pavement surf ace or on the l oadi ng pl ate can measure verti cal di spl acement (def l exi on).
The dynami c l oadi ng i s determi ned, usual l y by a l oad cel l through whi ch the l oad i s
passed on to the l oad pl ate. Compari son of the l oad appl i ed and di spl acements measured
provi des l oaddef l exi on rel ati ons f or the pavement tested. Di spl acements are al ways
measured di rectl y under the l oad but are al so measured at several addi ti onal poi nts at
speci f i c di stances f rom the centre of the l oad. Thus l oad- def l exi on rel ati ons are
determi ned not onl y f or the l oad axi s (poi nt of maxi mm def l exi on) but al so at of f set
poi nts whi ch i ndi cate the curvature or shape (sl ope) of the def l exi on basi n. The
devi ces vary i n si ze f rom some hi ghl y devel oped, hi ghway ori ented, uni ts whi ch appl y
l oadi ngs of less than 1 000 kg to the l arge uni t descri bed i n the Uni ted States FAA non-
destructi ve test method presented i n 3.6.5. Some of the counter-rotati ng and
reci procati ng mass systems can vary the frequency of dynami c l oadi ng and some of these
and the f al l i ng wei ght uni ts can vary the appl i ed l oad.
3.6.4.7 It i s possi bl e to measure the time f or stress waves induced by the dynamic
l oadi ng to travel f rom one sensor to the next, and to compute the vel oci ty f rom thi s
time and di stance between sensors. Some dynamic methods make use of these vel oci ty
measurements to eval uate the strength or stress- strai n response of the subgrade and
overl yi ng pavement l ayers f or use i n vari ous desi gn methods. Shear wave vel oci ty, v, i s
rel ated to Modulus of El asti ci ty, E, by the rel ati on:
- -
E (See Barkan's "Dynamics
of Bases and Foundati ons")
Where Poi sson's Rati o, p, can sati sf actori l y be esti mated (see 3.6.2.13 and 3.6.2.141,
and densi ty, p, of the subgrade or pavement l ayer (sub-base-base) can be determi ned by
measurement or sati sf actori l y esti mated. Modulus val ues thus determi ned are used,
ei ther di rectl y or- wi th modi f i cati on, i n theoreti cal desi gn model s, or they are used
wi th correl ati ons to proj ect subgrade and other l ayer strengths i n terms of CBR,
subgrade coef f i ci ent k, and similar strength i ndex quanti ti es. Sensors used i n the
vel oci ty measurements may need to be l ocated at greater di stances f rom the l oad than
when used to determi ne defl ecti on basi n shape. Al so, the dynamic devi ce must be capabl e
of f requency vari ati on si nce the vari ous pavement l ayers respond at pref erred f requen-
cies and these must be found and dynami c l oad energy i nduced at the pref erred f requency
f or determi nati on of each l ayer's vel oci ty of wave energy propagati on.
r
3- 42 Aerodrome Pesi gn Manual
3. 6. 4. 8 Application of dynamic methods measurements. The centrdl and of f set
posi ti ons defl exi ons and stress-wave vel oci ti es vari ousl y determi ned by the vari ety of
dynamic equipment and methods in use are bei ng appLl ed f or pavement svaluatio.1 i n a
number of ways.
a) Direct correl ati ons are made between the l oad-defl exi on in response of
pavement to dynamic loading and pavement behaviour. The correl ati ons
are developed from dynamic l oad testi ng of pavements or which
behaviour can be established. The United States FAA non-deetructi ve
eval uati on methodology presented i n 3 . 5 . 5 Ls an excel l ent example.
b) Measurements from dynamic methods, ei ther di rectl y or wi th extrapol a-
ti on, can provi de pl ate l oad i nformati on. Thi s can serve as i nput -
wi th sui tabl e pl ate si ze or other conversi ons - to methods such as the
LCN or Canadian procedures. Used di rectl y on Gubgrades or on other
l ayers wi th establ i shed correl ati ons subgrade coeffi ci ents can be
determtned for Westergaard analyses.
c) Shape oE the def l ecti on basin establ i shed from sensors placed at of f -
sets from the l oad axFs are used in some methods - especi al l y for
highways - t o refl ect over-al l sti ffness, and thereby l oad
di stri buti ng character, of the pavement structure. But di rect use i n
establ i shi ng eval uati on of l oad capaci ty has not found success.
d) Measured defl ecti on under dynamic l oad is used to establish the effec-
ti ve modulus of el asti ci ty of the subgrade in theoreti cal pavement
models. The el asti c constants (modul us and Poi sson's rati o) for other
l ayers are establ i shed by assumption or test and the subgrade modulus
cal cul ated usi ng the l oad, the defl ecti on meamred, and the pavement
model, commonly the el asti c l ayered theory.
e) More recent devel opments i nvol ve the use of the el ssttc l ayered
coroputer programmes. With an appropri ate l oad appl i ed, defl ecti ons are
measured i n the centre and at several oEfset l ocattons. Then
l terati ve computati on means are used t o establ i sh el asti c moduli f or
al l l ayers of the pavement modeLled.
Theoreti cal models wi th el asti c constants as i n d) and e) above are
used to calculate strai n in fl exure of the top l ayer beneath the l oad
or vertttcal strai n at the t op of subgrade beneath the load; which
l ocati ons are considered crLLLca1 or f l exi bl e pavements. Stress or
strai n i n f l exure of a ri gi d pavement sl ab can be si mi l arl y cal cu-
l ated. These are corapared to val ues of strai n (or stress) from
establ i shed correl ati ons wi th pavement perEormnce. The l tterature
provides many exarnples of these correl ati ons.
1) 1977 I nternati onal Air Transportation Conference, A X E Proceedings
- paper by Monfsmith.
Part 3.- Pavements 3-43
2) The Design and Performance of Road Pavements by D. Croney -
Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Uni ted Kingdom - Chapters
13 and 15.
3) Fati gue of Compacted Bituminous Apgregate Mixtures, ASTM - STP508.
4 ) Symposium on Nondestructi ve Test and Eval uati on of Ai rport
Pavement - Nov 1975, Vicksburg, Miss., publ i shed Play 1976 by U.S.
Army Engineer - WES - paper by Ni cl sen and Bai rd.
5) Other exampl es shoul d be easi l y found i n the pavement l i terature
from the l ast 10 years.
g) Stressaave vel oci ty measurements are used to establ i sh pavement l ayer
characteri sti cs wi thout sampl i ng. Modul i of el asti ci ty of pavement
l ayers are deri ved from these measurements and used di rectl y in
theoreti cal models or adj usted to better represent modul i at l arger
strai ns and used i n the model s. CBR val ues are deri ved from correl a-
ti ons between CBR and deri ved el asti c moduli, commonly from E=10 CBR
i n MPa. Modulus of subgrade reaction, k, and other such strength
val ues coul d be si mi l arl y deri ved.
3. 6. 4. 9 Pavement strength reporti ng. FOP reporti ng i nformati on on pavement bear-
i ng strength the f our el ements speci f i ed i n Annex 14 and the PCN must be establ i shed.
a) Pavement type. The pavement w i l l be consi dered ri gi d (code-R) i f i ts
pri mary l oad di stri buti on capabi l i ty is provided by a pl ai n,
rei nf orced, or prestressed Portl and cement concrete (PCC) l ayer, and
thi s l ayer i s not so shattered that i t can no l onger perform as a l oad
di stri buti ng sl ab. A pavement which makes primary use of a thi ck and
strongl y stabi l i zed l ayer and whi ch, as a resul t, i s substanti al l y
thi nner than an equi val ent f l exi bl e pavement usi ng no stabi l i zed l ayer
(such as the LCF structures at Newark) mi ght al so be consi dered ri gi d.
All other pavements shoul d be reported as f l exi bl e (code-F). This
i ncl udes aggregate or earth-surfaced stri ps and expedi ent surfaci ngs
of mi l i tary l andi ng mat.
b) Subgrade strength. The subgrade strength category must be eval uated
as hi gh strength ( A) , medium strength (B), l ow strength (C), or ul tra
low strength ( D) . If CBR or coef f i ci ent of subgrade reacti on are
di rectl y i nvol ved, sel ecti on of category can be made di rectl y f rom the
prescri bed limits i n Annex 14. Otherwi se the category must be deter-
mined from a correl ati on between the subgrade strength parameter used
f or eval uati on and CBR or subgrade coef f i ci ent, or i t must be deter-
mined di rectl y by j udgement. For subgrade strengths on the borderl i ne
between categori es, sel ecti on of the l ower (weaker) strength category
w i l l general l y be more conservati ve i n rel ati on to protecti on of the
pavement from overload.
ICAO 9557 PART* 3 ** g8434l t b 00594919 304
3-44 Aerodrome ~~ Design ~ Manual
Tire pressure. The ti re pressure category mst bc eval uated as hi gh
(W), medium (X), low (Y) or very low (Z). Where a surfaci ng is PCC
the hi gh category i s vi rtual l y al ways perti nent. High qual i ty bi tu-
minous surfaci ngs or overl ays shoul d readi l y accept hi gh category ti re
pressures whi l e the very low category need only be abl e to sustai n
normal truck ti re pressures. The medium and ;nw categori es EalL below
and above these two Limits respecti vel y. Some desi gn methods set
minirmm bi tuni nous l ayer thi cknesses i n rel ati on to ti re pressures
(see the Canadian method i n Chapter 4 ) and these may hel p in sel ecti ng
the ti re pressure category. Some methods prescri be ti re pressure
di rectl y i n rel ati on to surf aci ng characteri sti cs and these can be
di rectl y appl i ed for category sel ecti on. Othervi se sel ecti on must
depend on experience and judgement i n rel ati on to surfaci ng character-
i sti cs, ti re pressures of usi ng ai rcraf t, and condi ti on surveys of
pavements.
Evaluation method. This wi l l be a techni cal eval uati on reported as
code T.
Reported PCN. The PCN to be reported can be determi ned from the
ai rcraf t l oads (masses) whi ch the eval uati on has establ i shed as
maximumal l owabl e f or the pavement. By usi ng the eval uati on l oad f or
one of the heavi est type ai rcraf t usi ng the pavement and i nformati on
shown i n Appendix 5, and i nterpol ati ng as necessary, the
PCN can be found. This can be done f or a sel ected representati ve
ai rcraf t or f or several ai rcraf t f or whi ch eval uati on of al l owabl e
l oad has been made. All such determi nati ons shoul d yi el d the same PCN
val ue, or very nearl y so. I f there are l arge di f f erences it would be
well t o recheck both the transl ati on from the eval uati on l oad and the
eval uati on. I f di fferences are sml l an average or lower range value
shoul d be sel ected for reporti ng. I f needed i nformati on is not
provided in Appendix 5 they can be obtai ned f rnm the ai rcraft
manufacturer, ICAO, or by anal ysi s using the prescri bed ACN-PCN methods
(see Appendix 2) .
3.6.4.10 Reporti ng strength of pavements meant f or l i ght ai rcraf t. The pavement
type, subgrade strength category, and type of eval uati on are not requi red or l i ght
ai rcraf t pavements, so onl y the l i ml ti ng ai rcraf t WSS and ti re pressure need be
reported. The foregoing methods f or l oad and ti re pressure l i mi tati on determi nati ons
appl y t o pavements meant f or l i ght ai rcraf t as wel l . Highway eval uati on or desi gn
methods might al so be used. All the precauti onary measures di scussed in 3.5.7 are
equal l y appl i cabl e here.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 X * 484143b 0019420 026
Par t 3 . - Pavement s 3- 45
3. 6. 5 Uni t ed St at es Feder al Ayi at f on Admi ni st r at i on non- dest r uct i ve eval uat i on met hod"
3. 6. 5. 1 I nt r oduct i on. Thi s r epor t descr i bes a procedure f or t he det ermi nat i on of
t he l oad- car r yi ng capaci t y of ai r por t pavement syst ems usi ng non- dest r uct i ve t est i ng
( NDT) t echni ques. The equi pment and procedures have been devel oped by t he Uni t ed St at es
Corps of Engi neers i n response t o a need of t he Federal Avi at i on Admi ni st rat i on ( FAA)
and Uni t ed St at es Army f or maki ng rapi d eval uat i ons of pavement syst ems wi t h a mi ni mum
of i nt erf erence t o normal ai rport operat i ons.
3. 6. 5. 2 Li t t l e research was conduct ed i n t he f i el d of NDT unt i l about t he mi d- 1950s
when Royal Dut ch Shel l Labor at or y r esear cher s began a st udy of vi brat ory l oadi ng devi ces
to eval uat e f l exi bl e pavement s. Many ot her agenci es have si nce i nvest i gat ed t he use of
NDT t echni ques t o eval uat e pavement s. The Uni t ed St at es Ar my Engi neer Wat er ways Exper i ment
St at i on (WES) conduct ed mi ni mal research usi ng vari ous t ypes of vi brat ory equi pment duri ng
t he 1950s and 1960s. Much of t he earl y IJES work emphasi zed at t empt s to measur e t he el as-
t i c propert i es of t he vari ous l ayers of pavement mat eri al s usi ng wave propagat i on
measur ement s. The basi c appr oach i nvol ved use of t hese el ast i c const ant s al ong wi t h
mul t i l ayered t heory f or comput at i on of al l owabl e ai rcraf t l oadi ngs. I n 1970, an i mproved
vi br at or y l oadi ng devi ce was devel oped by t he Ar my, and, i n 1972, WES began a st udy f or
t he FAA t o devel op an NDT eval uat i on procedure. To meet t he FAA t i me f r ame, t he pr i mar y
ef f ort has been di rect ed t oward devel opi ng a pr ocedur e based upon measur i ng t he dynami c
st i f f ness modul us ( DSM) of t he pavement syst em and rel at i ng t hi s val ue t o pavement
per f or mance dat a. Wor k i s cont i nui ng on t he devel opment of ' a met hodol ogy f or measur i ng
t he el ast i c const ant s of t he var i ous l ayer s usi ng NDT t echni ques; however , t hi s met hod
has not yet been devel oped t o an accept abl e l evel of conf i dence.
3. 6. 5. 3 Appl i cat i ons. The NDT eval uat i on procedure report ed herei n i s appl i cabl e
onl y t o convent i onal ri gi d and f l exi bl e pavement syst ems. A convent i onal r i gi d pavement
consi st s of a non- r ei nf or ced concr et e sur f aci ng l ayer on non- st abi l i zed base and/ or
subgr ade mat er i al s. A convent i onal f l exi bl e pavement consi st s of a thi n (15 cm(6 i n)
or less) bi t umi nous sur f aci ng l ayer on non- st abi l i zed l ayer s of base, sub- base, and subgr ade
mat er i al s. Wor k is cur r ent l y under way t o ext end t he NDT pr ocedur e t o ot her t ypes of
pavement syst ems whi ch i ncor por at e such ot her var i abl es as t hi ck bi t umi nous sur f aci ngs
and st abi l i zed l ayers.
3. 6. 5. 4 Equi pment . The eval uat i on procedure cont ai ned herei n requi res t he det ermi -
nat i on of t he response of t he pavement syst emto a speci f i c st eady st at e vi br at or y
l oadi ng. I nasmuch as t he response of mat eri al s maki ng up t he pavement syst em t o l oadi ng
i s general l y non- l i near, t he det ermi nat i on of t he pavement response of use i n t he eval uat i on
pr ocedur e cont ai ned her ei n r equi r es a speci f i c l oadi ng syst em. The l oadi ng devi ce must
exer t a st at i c l oad of 16 ki ps**on t he pavement and be capabl e of produci ng 0 t o 15- ki p
peak vi br at or y l oads at a f r equency of 15 Hz. The l oad i s appl i ed t o t he pavement surf ace
t hrough a 45 cm(18 i n) di amet er st eel l oad pl at e. The vi brat ory l oad i s moni t ored by
means of t hree l oad cel l s mount ed bet ween t he act uat or and t he l oad pl at e, and t he pavement
r esponse i s measur ed by means of vel oci t y t r ansducer s mount ed on t he l oad pl at e. Aut omat i c
dat a recordi ng and processi ng equi pment i s a necessi t y. The l oadi ng devi ce must be r eadi l y
t ransport abl e t o accompl i sh a l ar ge number of t est s i n a mi ni mum amount of t i me, t hus
avoi di ng i nt er f er ence wi t h nor mal ai r por t oper at i ons. The WES NDT equi pment is mount ed
i n a t ract or- t rai l er uni t as shown i n Fi gure 3- 5.
* The mat er i al i ncl uded i n t hi s sect i on was t aken f r om t he Feder al Avi at i on Admi ni st r at i on
Uni t ed St at es, Ai r por t Pavement Bul l et i n No. FAA- 74- 1 of Sept ember 1974.
** 1 ki p = 454 kg (1 000 l b).
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ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 48434Lb 0037422 9T7
Par t 3.- Pavement s 3-47
3. 6. 5. 5 Dat a col l ect i on. I n t he eval uat i on pr ocedur e, t he r esponse of t he pavement
syst em t o vi br at or y l oadi ng i s expr essed i n t er ms of t he DSM. Si nce t he t i me r equi r ed t o
measur e a DSM at each t est i ng poi nt i s shor t (2 to 4 mi n), a l ar ge number of DSM
measur ement s can be made dur i ng t he nor mal eval uat i on per i od. On r unways and pr i mar y and
hi gh- speed t axi ways, DSM t est s shoul d be made at l east ever y 75 m ( 250 f t ) on al t er nat e
si des of t he f aci l i t y cent r e l i ne al ong t he mai n gear wheel pat hs. For secondar y t axi way
syst ems or l esser used r unways, DSM t est s shoul d be made about ever y 150 m ( 500 f t ) on
al t er nat e si des of t he cent r e l i ne. For apr on ar eas, DSM t est s shoul d be conduct ed i n a
gr i d pat t er n wi t h spaci ngs bet ween 75 m and 150 m (250 f t and 500 ft). Addi t i onal t est s
shoul d be made wher e wi de var i at i ons i n DSM val ues ar e f ound, dependi ng upon t he desi r ed
t hor oughness of t he eval uat i on. DSM measur ement s f or r i gi d pavement s must be made i n t he
i nt er i or ( near t he cent r e) of t he sl ab. The l ayout of DSM t est si t es and sel ect i on of DSM
val ues f or eval uat i on must consi der t he var i ous pavement t ypes, pavement sect i ons, and
const r uct i on dat es. Thus, a t hor ough st udy of as- bui l t pavement dr awi ngs i s par t i cul ar l y
hel pf ul i n desi gni ng t he t est i ng pr ogr amme. Af t er t he DSM t est s have been per f or med and
gr ouped accor di ng to pavement t ype and const r uct i on, a r epr esent at i ve DSM val ue shoul d
be sel ect ed (as descr i bed bel ow) f or comput at i on of t he al l owabl e l oadi ng.
3. 6. 5. 6 At each t est si t e, t he l oadi ng equi pment i s posi t i oned, and t he dynami c
f or ce i s var i ed f r om 0 t o 15 ki ps at 2- ki p i nt er val s at a const ant f r equency of 15 Hz.
The def l exi on of t he pavement sur f ace, measur ed by t he vel oci t y t r ansducer s, i s pl ot t ed
ver sus t he appl i ed l oad as shown i n Fi gur e 3- 6, The DSM ( cor r ect ed as descr i bed bel ow)
i s t he i nver se of t he sl ope of t he def l exi on ver sus l oad pl ot ( see Fi gur e 3- 6) .
3. 6. 5. 7 I n addi t i on t o t he DSM measur ement , i t i s necessar y t o know t he pavement
t ype ( r i gi d or f l exi bl e) and t he t hi cknesses and mat er i al cl assi f i cat i ons of each l ayer
maki ng up t he pavement sect i on. These par amet er s can be det er mi ned f r om t he const r uct i on
( as- bui l t ) dr awi ngs or by dr i l l i ng smal l - di amet er hol es t hr ough t he pavement .
3. 6. 5. 8 When t he eval uat i on i s f or f l exi bl e pavement , t he t emper at ur e of t he
bi t umi nous mat er i al must be det er mi ned at t he t i me of t est . Thi s can be det er mi ned by
di r ect l y measur i ng t he t emper at ur es wi t h t her momet er s i nst al l ed 2. 5 cm (1 i n) bel ow t he
t op, 2. 5 cm(1i n) above t he bot t om, and at t he mi d- dept h of t he bi t umi nous l ayer and
aver agi ng t he val ues t o obt ai n t he mean pavement t emper at ur e or by measur i ng t he pavement
sur f ace and ai r t emper at ur es and usi ng Fi gur e 3-7 t o est i mat e t he mean pavement t emper at ur e.
3. 6. 5. 9 Dat a cor r ect i on. The l oad- def l exi on r esponse of many pavement s, par t i -
cul ar l y f l exi bl e pavement s, i s non- l i near at t he l ower f or ce l evel s but becomes mor e l i near
at t he hi gher f or ce l evel s ( 12 t o 15 ki ps). In such cases, a cor r ect i on i s appl i ed t o t he
l oad- def l exi on cur ve so t hat t he DSM i s obt ai ned f r om t he l i near por t i on of t he cur ve
( see Fi gur e 3- 6) .
3. 6. 5. 10 The modul us of bi t umi nous mat er i al s i s hi ghl y dependent upon t emper at ur e,
so an adj ust ment i n t he measur ed DSM must be made i f t he t emper at ur e of t he bi t umi nous
mat er i al at t he t i me of t est i s ot her t han 21C (7O0F). The cor r ect i on i s made by ent er i ng
Fi gur e 3-8 wi t h t he measur ed or cal cul at ed mean pavement t emper at ur e and det er mi ni ng t he
DSM t emper at ur e adj ust ment f act or by whi ch t he measur ed DSM shoul d be mul t i pl i ed.
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ICAO 9357 PA RTS3 St = 4843436 0039426 544 m
Par t 3. - Pavement s 3- 51
3. 6. 5. 11 The DSM and l oad- carryi ng capaci t y of a pavement syst em can be si gni f i cant l y
0 changed by t he f reezi ng and t hawi ng of t he mat eri al s, especi al l y when f rost penet rat es a
f r ost - suscept i bl e l ayer of mat er i al . Cor r ect i on f act or s t o account f or t hese condi t i ons
have not been devel oped. Ther ef or e, t he eval uat i on shoul d be based on t he nor mal t emper a-
t ur e r ange, and, i f a f r ost eval uat i on i s desi r ed, t he DSM shoul d be det er mi ned dur i ng t he
f r ost mel t i ng per i od.
3. 6. 5. 12 A represent at i ve DSMval ue must be sel ect ed f or each pavement gr oup t o be
eval uat ed. Al t hough a sect i on of pavement may supposedl y be of t he same t ype and
const r uct i on, i t shoul d be t r eat ed as mor e t han one pavement gr oup when t he DSM val ues
measur ed i n one sect i on of t he pavement ar e gr eat l y di f f er ent f r om t hose i n anot her sect i on.
The DSM val ue t o be assi gned t o a pavement gr oup f or eval uat i on pur poses wi l l be det er mi ned
by subt r act i ng one st andar d devi at i on f r om t he st at i st i cal mean.
3. 6. 5. 13 Det ermi nat i on of al l owabl e ai rcraf t l oad. Af t er det ermi nat i on and correct i on
of t he measurement of t he DSM, t he eval uat i on pr ocedur e depends upon t he t ype of pavement ,
ri gi d or f l exi bl e.
3. 6. 5. 14 Ri gi d pavement eval uat i on.
St ep 1
The cor r ect ed DSMi s used t o ent gr Fi gure 3- 9 and det ermi ne t he al l owabl e
si ngl e- wheel l oad.
St ep 2
The r adi us of r el at i ve st i f f ness R i s comput ed as
Wher e
h =t hi ckness of t he concret e sl ab, i n.
FF = f oundat i on st r engt h f act or det er mi ned f r om Fi gur e
FAA subgr ade soi l gr oup cl assi f i cat i on.
St ep 3
3- 10 usi ng t he
Usi ng R, det er mi ne t he l oad f act or F f r om Fi gur e 3- 11, 3- 12, 3- 13 or 3- 14,
dependi ng upon t he gear conf i gur at i on of t he ai r cr at t f or whi ch t he eval uat i on i s bei ng
made.
St ep 4
Mul t i pl y t he al l owabl e si ngl e- wheel l oad f r om St ep 1 by t he FL val ue
det er mi ned f r om St ep 3 t o obt ai n t he gr oss ai r cr af t l oadi ng.
3-52
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 ** m 481114Lb 0019427 480 m
Aerodrome Design Manual
5009
4090
3000
I OCO
0
--I
i
I I
6G 70 00 93
A L L OWA ~ L E SI' JCLF-' hl -EL LOAD, %IF5
Figure 3-9. Evaluation curve for ri gi d pavement
600
500
400
L.. PC
v. 100
a eo
8 70
d
u r n
-50
0 IO 15 20 ZL
THICKNESS Z)F SJB 34SE. IN
b. BANK-RUN SAND AND GRAVEL SUB-BASE
30
Figure 7-10. F VETSUS sub-base thickness
I-'
ICAO 9357 PA RT t 3 t f W q B q L 4 3 b 0019428 317 =
Part 3.- Pavements 3-53
RADI US OF RELATI VE STI FFNESS h , IN.
Figure 3-11. FL versus II for single-wheel aircraft on rigid pavement
> LEGFND
CURVE CONTACT AREA SPACI NG
TI RE TI RE
SO 11.1 I N.
150
*-c
b JJ
1 70
220
21)
21
23
26
30
PO 30 40 55 60 70 80 90 I O0 0
RADI US OF RELATI VE STI FFNESS E, I N.
Figure 3-12. F versus R for dual wheel aircraft on rigid pavement
L
3-54 Aerodrome Design ?fanual
RADI US OF RI L A TI VE Sl IFFCIES5 L, 1%
Figure 3-13. F versus 9. f or dual tandem ai rcraf t on ri gi d pavement
L
Figure 3-14. F versus 9. for various jet aircraft on r i;; id pavement
L
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 484LYLb 0019430 T75
Par t 3.- Pavement s 3-55
St eD 5
Mul t i pl y t he gr oss ai r cr af t l oadi ng f r om St ep 4 by t he appr opr i at e t r af f i c
f act or f r om Tabl e 3-1 t o obt ai n t he al l owabl e ai r cr af t gr oss l oadi ng f or cr i t i cal ar eas
f or t he pavement bei ng eval uat ed. For t he case of hi gh- speed exi t t axi ways, t he comput ed
al l owabl e gr oss l oad shoul d be i ncr eased by mul t i pl yi ng by a f act or of 1.18.
St ep 6
The al l owabl e l oadi ng obt ai ned f r om St ep 5 assumes t hat t he r i gi d pavement
bei ng eval uat ed i s st r uct ur al l y sound and f unct i onal l y saf e. The comput ed al l owabl e
l oadi ng shoul d be r educed i f one or mor e of t he f ol l owi ng condi t i ons exi st at t he t i me
of t he eval uat i on:
1) t he al l owabl e l oad shoul d be r educed by 10 per cent i f 25 per cent or
mor e of t he sl abs show evi dence of pumpi ng;
2) t he al l owabl e l oad shoul d be r educed by 25 per cent i f 30 t o 50 per cent
of t he sl abs have st r uct ur al cr acki ng associ at ed wi t h l oad ( as opposed
t o shr i nkage cr acki ng, uncont r ol l ed cont r act i on cr acki ng, f r ost heave,
swel l i ng soi l , etc.). If mor e t han 50 per cent of t he sl abs show
l oad- i nduced cr acki ng, t he pavement shoul d be consi der ed f ai l ed;
3 ) t he al l owabl e l oadi ng shoul d be r educed by 25 per cent i f t her e i s
evi dence of excessi ve j oi nt di st r ess such as cont i nuous spal l i ng al ong
l ongi t udi nal j oi nt s, whi ch woul d denot e loss of t he l oad- t r ansf er
mechani sm.
3. 6. 5. 15 Fl exi bl e pavement eval uat i on
v
St ep 1
Usi ng t he DSX cor r ect ed f or non- l i near ef f ect s and adj ust ed t o t he st andar d
t emper at ur e, det er mi ne t he pavement syst em st r engt h i ndex S f r om Fi gur e 3-15.
P
St ep 2
Usi ng t he t ot al t hi ckness t of f l exi bl e pavement above t he subgr ade, comput e
t he f act or F f or cr i t i cal pavement s as
t
Ft =0. 067t
or f or hi gh- speed t axi ways as
Ft =0. 074t
St ep 3
Usi ng Ft det er mi ned i n St ep 2 , ent er Fi gur e 3-16 and det er mi ne t he r at i o of
t he subgr ade st r engt h f act or SSF t o t he pavement syst em st r engt h i ndex %.
St ep 4
Comput e t he subgr ade st r engt h f act or SSF by mul t i pl yi ng SSF/ Sp by t he
val ue of Sp det ermi ned i n St ep 1.
3-5 6
~~~ ~
Aerodrome Design Hanual
4030
3 000
zi
2
x 2000
$
\
v)
D
I O 0 0
0
0
I
5
I
c;
7
I O0
~~
2 GO 3 00 4 00 500 650
PAVEMENT STRENGTH IGDEX f p
031 9 I O
T
I
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i
Figure 3-16. Ft versus
S SF
S
P
?03
t o
ICAO 9357 PARTa3 * X 484143b 0039432 848
Part 3. - Pavement s 3- 57
St ep 5
Eval uat e t he pavement f or any ai r cr af t desi r ed as f ol l ows:
1) sel ect t he ai r cr af t or ai r cr af t mai n gear conf i gur at i on f or whi ch
t he eval uat i on i s bei ng made and det er mi ne t he t i r e cont act ar ea A
of one wheel of t he mai n l andi ng gear ( see Tabl e 3-2);
2) sel ect t he annual depar t ur e l evel f or each ai r cr af t f or whi ch t he
eval uat i on i s bei ng mdde and det er mi ne t he t r af f i c f act or a f or
each ai r cr af t f r om Tabl e 3-1;
3) ccrmput e t he f act or Ft f or each ai r cr af t f or whi ch t he eval uat i on i s
bei ng made f or cr i t i cal pavement s as
t
Ft =aJ A
or f or hi gh speed t axi ways as
4 ) ent er Fi gur e 3- 16 wi t h F dnd. det er mi qe SSF/Sp;
t
5) comput e t he pavement syst em st r engt h i ndex Sp f or t he ai r cr af t
bei ng eval uat ed by di vi di ng SSF det er mi ned i n St ep 4 by t he
r at i o SSF/Sp det er mi ned i n Subst ep 4 ) above;
6) mul t i pl y Sp by t he t i re cont act area A f r om Tabl e 3- 2 t o obt ai n t he
equi val ent si ngl e- wheel l oad (ESWL) of each ai r cr af t f or whi ch t he
eval uat i on is bei ng made;
7) ent er Fi gure 3- 17, 3- 18, or 3- 19 wi t h t he t ot al pavement t hi ckness t
and det er mi ne t he per cent age of ESWL f or t he cont r ol l i ng number of
wheel s of t he ai rcraf t f or whi ch t he eval uat i on i s bei ng made, i . e. 9
i f t he ai r cr af t has a dual - wheel assembl y wi t h a dual spaci ng of
26 i n, use Cur ve 4 i n Fi gur e 3- 17 or , i f t he eval uat i on i s f or t he
Boei ng 747 STR ai r cr af t , use t he Boei ng 747 STR cur ve i n Fi gur e 3- 19;
8 ) t he al l owabl e gr oss ai r cr af t l oad f or t he pavement bei ng eval uat ed
and f or t he t r af f i c vol ume sel ect ed i s t hen obt ai ned f r om
ESWL 1 wM
Al l owabl e gr oss ai r cr af t l oad =
Per cent ESWL
x- x-
wc 0. 95
wher e
ESWL =det ermi ned by Subst ep 6)
Per cent ESWL =det ermi ned by Subst ep 7)
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.

c
f
c
o
o

O
G
C
G

.
.
.
.

4
+
.
r
l
F
i

.
.
.
.

0
0
0
0

0

1

m

r
l

Q
)

a
i

.
G

3

r
l

Q
i

0

c

3

l
-
l

Q

c

0

3

?
I

3

3

3

G
.

3

i

G

r
7

4

;

3

r
l

0

o

4

a

5

7
i

a

-
4

h

Par t 3.- Pavement s 3-59
wC
=number of cont r ol l i ng wheel s used t o det er mi ne t he per cent
ESWL f r om Fi gur e 3-17, 3-18, or 3-19
wM
= t ot al number of wheel s on al l mai n gear s of t he ai r cr af t
( see Tabl e 3-2) f or whi ch t he eval uat i on i s bei ng made
( does not i ncl ude wheel s on nose gear).
3.6.5.16 Summar y. The eval uat i on pr ocedur e pr esent ed her ei n is what must be r ef er r ed
t o as a f i r st gener at i on pr ocedur e. That i s, f ur t her wor k i s under way t o ext end t he
appl i cabi l i t y of t hi s pr ocedur e, and i t wi l i be updat ed as appr opr i at e. In addi t i on,
r esear ch is under way whi ch wi l l est abl i sh t he NDT eval uat i on pr ocedur e on a mor e
t heor et i cal basi s and t hus f ur t her enhance i t s appl i cabi l i t y. The al l owabl e l oadi ngs
det er mi ned usi ng t he pr ocedur e pr esent ed her ei n ar e wi t hi n accept abl e l i mi t s of accur acy
as compar ed wi t h t hose det er mi ned usi ng ot her r ecogni zed eval uat i on pr ocedur es. Thi s
pr ocedur e has t he added advant ages of bei ng l ess cost l y, pr esent i ng l ess i nt er f er ence t o
nor mal ai r por t oper at i ons, and pr ovi di ng t he eval uat i ng engi neer wi t h much mor e dat a on
whi ch t o base hi s deci si ons. Al so, i n addi t i on t o t hei r ut i l i t y f or ar r i vi ng at al l owabl e
ai r cr af t l oadi ng, t he DSM val ues ar e usef ul f or qual i t at i ve compar i sons bet ween one
pavement ar ea and anot her (DSM val ues on f l exi bl e pavement s shoul d not be compar ed wi t h
t hose on r i gi d pavement s) and f or l ocat i ng ar eas whi ch may show ear l y di st r ess and whi ch
may war r ant f ur t her i nvest i gat i on. As mor e exper i ence i s gai ned wi t h t he NDT t echni ques
and i nt er pr et at i on of dat a, i t i s envi si oned t hat many ot her uses of t he concept wi l l
emer ge.
Tabl e 3-2. Ai r cr af t t i r e cont act ar eas and t ot al number of mai n gear wheel s
Ai rcraf t
30 ki p si ngl e wheel
45 ki p si ngl e wheel
60 ki p si ngl e wheel
75 ki p si ngl e wheel
50 ki p dual wheel
75 kip dual wheel
100 ki p dual wheel
150 kip dual wheel
200 ki p dual wheel
TTre
Contact
Area
02 in2
1 226 190
1 548 240
1 741 270
1 935 300
968 150
1 032 160
1 097 170
1 419 220
1 677 260
~~
Total
Number of
Main Gear
Wheels
Ai rcraf t
100 ki p dual tandem
150 ki p dual tandem
200 ki p dual tandem
300 ki p dual tandem
400 ki p dual tandem
Boeing 727
DC-8-63F
Boeing 747
Boeing 747 STR
Dc-10-10
DC-10-3
L-1011
Concorde
T i r e
Contact
2Area
cm in2
645 100
839 130
968 150
1 290 200
1 548 240
1 355 210
1 419 220
1 316 204
1 580 245
1 897 294
2 135 331
1 819 282
1 593 247
Total
Number of
Main Gear
Wheels
8
8
8
8
8
4
8
16
16
8
10
8
8
3-60
I
I C A O 7357 PA RT t 3 t f = 4BLJL43b 0039436 493
Part 3. - Pavements 3-61
0
20
30
z
W 40
u
K
3
Y,
I-
z
s
!i 50
P
e
W
>
x
0
I-
S 60
w
a
n
7 0
80
90
I00
NUKBEROF CONTACT AREA
A I RCRA FT
-. -
TIRES SQ I N.
. BOEING 747/STR 16 2041245
I--101 1 4 292
DC-10-10 4 294
DC-10-30 4 33 I
CONCCSDE 4 247 I
20 40 60 8C
ESWL , PERCf NT OF LOAD ON COI 4TROLLI NG NUMBER O F WHEELS
Fi gure 3-19. ESWL curves or vari ous jet ai rcraf t on f l exi bl e pavement
ICAO 9157 PART*3 t t 4841rllrb 0019437 3i?T m
CHAPTER 4.- STAT PRACTI CES FGR DESIGN At4D
EVALUATI ON OF PAVEMENTS
4.1 Canadian practice
4.1.1 Scope
4.1.1.1 Thi s secti on bri efl y outl i nes Transpurt Canada practi ses f or the desi gn
and eval uati on of ai rport pavemsnts. Further detai l s are avai l abl e i n Transport Canada's
techni cal manual seri es. Tine practices described have evolved from Transport Canada's
experi ence as the operator of al l major ci vi l ai rports i n Canada. Host ai rport sites
i n Canada are subj ect to seasonal frost penetrati on and the des i gn and eval uati on
practi ces descri bed are ori ented to thi s type of envi ronment. The practi ces descri bed
do not appl y to pavements constructed i n permafrost regi ons where speci al desi gn
consi derati ons are requi red. The practi ces outl i ned do not cnver several topi cs whi sh
are associ ated wi th and essenti al to the desi gn of paverent structures. I ncluded i n
thi s category are pre-engi neeri ng studi es such as soi l s, materials and topographic
surveys, and desi gn consi derati ons such as pavement enbankment stabi l i ty and drainage.
It shoul d al so be noted that the desi gn of paverent structures Is often greatl y i nfl uenced
by consi derati ons rel ated to cost, constructi on f easi bl l i ty and ai rport operati ons.
4.1.2 Pavement desi gn practi ces
Parti al f rost protecti on
4.1.2.1 Unl ess otherwi se j usti fi ed by a Li fe cycl e cost anal ysi s, the thi ckness of
pavements constructed on frost suscepti bl e subgrades must not be less than the parti al
frost protecti on requi rement gi ven i n Fi gure 4-1. The f rost suscepti bi l i ty of subgrades
is assessed on the basi s of subgrade soi l gradati on as sham i n Fi gure 4-2. The parti aL
frost protecti on requi rement gi ven i n Fi gure 4-1 is a functi on of si te freezi ng i ndex.
For a gi ven wi nter peri od, thi s i ndex i n oC-days is cal cul ated as the SUQ of average
dai l y temperatures i n OC, f or each day over the freezi ng seasm, wi th bel ow OuC
temperatures taken as posi ti ve and above OC temperatures taken as negati ve. The si te
freezi ng i ndex used i n Fi gure 4-1 is a ten-year average. The thi ckness requi rements of
Fi gure 4-1 are not suffi ci ent to prevent excessi ve di fferenti al frost heavi ng when
hi ghl y f rost suscepti bl e soi l s exi st i n pockets i n an otherwi se nnn-f rost suscepti bl e
subgrade. Thi s si tuati on requi res addi ti onal desi gn measures, such as excavati on of the
f rost suscepti bl e soi l to a sui tabl e depth and repl acement wi th material si mi l ar to the
surrounding subgrade.
Fl exi bl e pavement desi gn curves
4.1.2.2 A f l exi bl e pavement desi gn curve for a gi ven ai rcraf t is a pl ot of pavement
thi ckness requi red to support the ai rcraft l oadi ng as a functi on of subgrade beari ng
strength. The equati on uti l i zed to generate thi s desi gn curve is:
S = (ESWL) ( ~l l O' ~2~)
Where : S =subgrade beari ng strength (LV) as di scussed i n 4.1.3.3
ESWL =equi val ent si ngl e wheel l oad of the desi gn ai rcraft l oadi ng (kN)
t =pavement equi val ent granul ar thi ckness (cm) as di scussed i n 4.1.3.1
c1, c2 =factors dependi ng on contact area of ESWL, gi ven i n Fi gure 4- 3.
3-62
e
ICAO 9357 PA RT M3 ** m 48q3416 0019438 266 m
Part 3 . - Pavements 3- 63
10 YEAR AVERAGE FREEZINQ INDEX (Ctntignd. -1
Fi gure 4-1. Parti al f rost protecti on requi rements
u.w1 0.01
PARTICLE DIAMETER I m l
0.1 1 .o
Fi gure 4-2. Subgrade f rost suscepti bi l i ty
and spri ng reducti on f actor (S.R.F.)
10.0
3-64 Aerodrome Design Manual
Fi gure 4- 3. Desi gn equati on factors C1 and C2
Rigid pavement desi gn curves
4. 1. 2. 3 A ri gi d pavement desi gn curve for a gi ven ai rcraf t i s a pl ot of concrete
sl ab thi ckness requi red to support the ai rcraft l oadi ng as a functi nn of beari ng modulus
of the surface on which the sl ab rests. Sl ab thi ckness requi red to support an ai rcraft
l oadi ng is based on l i mi ti ng to 2.75 MPa the f l exural stress occurri ng at the bottom
of the sl ab di rectl y under the centre of one tire of the ai rcraf t gear. The stress
cal cul ati ons are carri ed out accordi ng to the Westergaard analysis f or i nteri or sl ab
l oadi ng condi ti ons usi ng a conputer programme similar to the one i n Appendix 2.
Desi gn curves for standard gear l oadi ngs
4. 1. 2. 4 Airport pavements are usual l y desi gned for a group of ai rcraft havi ng
si mi l ar l oadi ng characteri sti cs rather than for a parti cul ar ai rcraf t. For thi s purpose,
a series of 12 standard gear l oadi ngs wer e defi ned to span the range of current ai rcraft
l oadi ngs. Fl exi bl e and ri gi d pavement desi gn curves for these standard gear l oadi ngs
are given i n Fi gures 4-5 and 4- 6. To compare the Loading of a parti cul ar ai rcraf t to
the standard gear l oadi ngs, the fl exi bl e and ri gi d pavement desi gn curves for the
ai rcraf t are superinposed over those for the standard gear loadings. Based on thi s
method of comparison, Table 4-1 lists vari ous ai rcraf t and the standard gear l oadi ngs
to which they are equi val ent. The standard gear l oadi ng whi ch is equi val ent to a gi ven
ai rcraf t l oadi ng is ref erred to as the "l oad rati ng;" for that ai rcraft (ALR).
Part 3.- Pavements 3-65
o 20 40 60 ao 100 120 140 180 180 m
SURFACE BEARING MOOULUS k !MFa/ml
I
0
I I
I
100 Ma 300 4cy) . m am 700
SURFACE aEARl NG STRENGTH P IkN. 762n;m OC. 125rnrn a w n . 10 rep1
Fi gure 4- 4. Surface beari ng strength and beari ng modul us as a functi on of
subgrade beari ng strength and pavement equi val ent granul ar thi ckness
Fi gure 4- 5. Fl exi bl e pavement desi gn curves for standard gear l oadi ngs
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 t t E h84LY1b 0019Y43 850
Fi gure 4-6. Ri gi d pavement desi gn curves for standard gear l oadi ngs
Fl exi bl e pavement thi ckness requi rements
4.1.2.5 The steps fol l owed to determi ne asphal t pavement thi ckness requi rements are:
a) determine design loadirrg (ALR) f or the pavement m the basi s o f
traf f i c studi es and proj ecti ons;
b) determine subgrack beari ng strength 3s di scussed i n 4 . 2 . 3 . 3 ;
e ) determine fro= Fi gure G-5 the pavewnt equi val ent granul ar thi ckness
requi rement for the i rsi gn l oad rotha;
d) decermine the pavement thirkness requi red for parri al f rnst protecti on
i n accordance with 4.1.2.1; and
e ) the pavement thi ckness provi ded wi l l be as detern ined i n c j , ar as
determined i n d j , whichever is grrater. I n mki ng the cnmparison,
the equi val ent granul ar thi ckness determi ned i n c > must be converted
to actual pavement thi ckness as di s cus s ed in 4 . 1 . 7 . 1 .
ICAO 9157 P A R T t 3 t t m 4 B 4 L 4 L b 0039442 797 m
Pa r t 3 . - Pavements 3-6 7
Tabl e 4- 1. Aircraft load rati ngs
WEIGHT
AIRCRAFT LOAD RATINGS (ALR)
TIRE (mu)
PRESSURE (MAXI
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT
AIRCRAFT ( Mk ) (MINI NOMINAL
AT S VALUE OF (kN) AT K VALUE OF (MPdrn)
8707-320 1.24
1500
800
10.7 10.7 10.7 10.5 10.4 10.5 10.3 10.2 10.1
7.6 . 7.3 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.6 7.6 7.2 7.1
8727-100-200 1.35
930
500
11.1 10.3 10.7 10.9 11.1 10.5 10.8 11.1 11.3
8.7 7.0 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.7
I I I I I I I I I I I
8747-100-200
3600
1.40 2000
11.1 11.1 10.9 10.9 10.5 11.0 10.9 10.8 10.8
8.4 8.0 7.9 8.0 8.0 8.4 8.3 8.0 8.0
8767-200
1400
1.20 800
9.8
7.8
9.8 9.4 92 9.2 9.7 9.5 9.3 9.0
6.9 7.0 6.9 6.9 7.3 7.1 6.9 6.5
470 7.9
0.72
7.9 7.6 7.2 - 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9
300 6.1 5.6 5.6 58 - 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.1 DC 68
485 8.7 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.6 8.7
DC-9-21-32 1 .w 300 6.8 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.8
1970 11.0 11.0 10.9 10.8 10.7 11.0 11.0 10.8 10.8
7.8 7.0 6.6 6.3 6.0 7.8 7.7 7.5 7.2 DC-10-20-3040 1.2 1 1200
L1011-100-200 1.25
2080
1400
71.1 11.1 11.0 10.9 10.5 10.8 10.5 10.5 10.5
9.2 9.2 8.7 8.3 8.3 9.2 9.1 8.9 8.5
CONCORD 1.27
1750
loo0
11.8 11.4 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.3 11.3 11.4 11.4
9.0 9.0 89 8.7 8.5 9.0 9.0 8.7 8.4
I I I I
1
I HERCULES 12-130 I 0.69 400 6.7
I 689 I 8.7
390
BAC-1-11400 0.97 250 6.2 5.5 5.9 5.8 - 6.0 6.2 6.2 6.2
CONVAIR 640 0.52
280
200
6.0
5 .O
5.8 5.0 -
4.3 4.0 -
- 5.9 6.0 5.8 5.6
- 5.2 5.0 5.0 4.9
T O determine aircraft load ratings at intermediate weights, interpolate linearly between the ALR values listed for mi ni mum and
maxi mum weights.
To determine aircraft load ratings a t subgrade bearing strength ( S) or bearing modulus (k) other than those listed, interpolate
between the ALR lues shown.
8.5 7.4 7.5 7.4 - 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.5
3-68 Aerodrome Design Manual
~
4.1.2.6 The thi ckness of pavement rornponent l ayers wi 1 1 depend t m ti re pressures
to be provi ded for, as outl i ned i n the following t abl e.
Pavement Layer desi gn thi ckness ~~ [IT-,)
Pavement
l ayer
Design t i re prrssltr- [ Ws)
0.4 1.0
less than- 0.4 to 0.7 0.7 to k. ( 3 greater than
Asphal ti c
concrete 5.0 6.5
C r Gravel or
Cr Stone Base 15 23 23 '30
Selected Granular
Sub-base As necessary to provi de total pavmn-nt thi ckness requi red
Rigid pavement thi ckness requi rements
4.1.2.7 The steps fol l owed to determi ne rigid pavement thickness requirements are:
f>
4.1.2.8 The
f rost protecti on.
determi ne desi gn l oadi ng (ALR) for the pavement on the basi s of
traf f i c studi es and proj ecti ons;
determi ne total pavement thi ckness requi rtrd f or parti al f rost
protecti on i n accordance with 4.1.2.1;
estimate concrete sl ab thi ckness that w i l L be requi red;
determi ne requi red base thi ckness by subtracti ng slab thi ckness
from total pavement thi ckness determi ned i n b);
determine bearing nodulus at tap of base course as di scussed
I n 4.1.3.4;
determine concrete pavement sl ab thi ckness requi red for thi s
beari ng modulus from Fi gure 4-6; and
usi ng the sl ab thi ckness determi ned i n f) as a new estimate of
requi rements, repeat steps c) to f) untl l the sl ab thi ckness
determined i n f ) equal s that assumed i n c).
minimum base course l ayer provi ded is 15 cm, even i f not requi red f or
With pavements designed for a l nsd rat l ng of 12, the minimumbase
course normally provided i s 20 cmof cement stabi l i zed nateri al . These minimum
thi cknesses are pl aced over sel ected granul ar sub-base materi al when thi cker base
l ayers are requi red f or f rost protecti on purposes.
ICAO 9357 PA RTS3 ** 444143b 0039444 56T
Part 3. - Pavements 3-69
Constructi on materi al s and speci fi cati ons
4. 1. 2. 9 The pavement desi gn practi ces outl i ned above, and the eval uati on practi ces
outl i ned bel ow, assume that the pavement i s constructed to standard speci fi cati ons
governi ng the qual i ty of pavement construction materials and workmanship. I f standard
speci fi cati on requi rements are not met , some adjustments based on engineering judgement
may be requi red to the desi gn and eval uati on practi ces outl i ned. Tabl es 4- 2, 4-3 and
4- 4 provi de some constructi on requi rements consi dered essenti al to normal desi gn and
eval uati on practi ces.
4. 1. 3 Pavement eval uati on practi ces
Pavement thi ckness and equi val ent granul ar thi ckness
4. 1. 3. 1 The eval uati on of pavement structures f or ai rcraf t l oadi ngs requi res
accurate i nformati on on the thi ckness of l ayers wi thi n the structure, and the physi cal
properti es of the materials i n these l ayers. A bore hol e survey is conducted to determi ne
thi s i nformati on when i t is not avai l abl e from exi sti ng constructi on records. Equi val ent
granul ar thi ckness i s a term appl i ed to f l exi bl e pavement structures, and is the basi s
for compari ng pavements constructed wi th di fferent thi cknesses of materials having
di f f erent l oad di stri buti on characteri sti cs. The equi val ent granul ar thi ckness i s
computed through the use of the granul ar equi val ency factors for pavement constructi on
materials l i sted i n Tabl e 4-5. The granul ar ePui val ency factor of a material i s the
depth of granul ar base i n centi metres consi dered equi val ent to one centi metre of the
material on the basi s of l oad di stri buti on characteri sti cs. The val ues gi ven i n Tabl e 4-5
are conservati ve and actual granul ar equi val ency factors are normal l y hi gher than the
val ues l i sted. To determi ne the equi val ent granul ar thi ckness of fl exi bl e pavement
structure, the depth of each l ayer i n the structure i s mul ti pl i ed by the granul ar
equi val ency factor for the material i n the l ayer. The pavement equi val ent granul ar
thi ckness is the sumof these converted l ayer thi cknesses.
Tabl e 4- 2. Compaction requirements
Compaction Requi red
Layer Reference % of Reference
Densi ty Density
Embankment Fill:
cohesive soil ASTM D 1557 90
non-cohesive soil ASTM D 1557 95
Subgrade Surface: (1 1
cohesive s o i l ASTM D 1557 93
noncohesi ve soil ASTM D 1557 98
Sub-Base ASTM D 1557 98
Base Course ASTM D 1557 1 0 0
Asphaltic Concrete ASTM D 1559 98
Note: (1 J Compacti on of subgrade surface is specified 15mm deep in
cohesive soil and 30mm deep i n noncohesi ve soil.
Table 4-3. Asphaltic and Portland cement
concrete mix requirements
Pr OP4W
ASPHALTIC CONCRETE
Marshall Stability !kNl
Manball Fl ow l ndrx !mm)
Air Voidr IS1
Voidr in MinaraI A s r e t r : (XI
12Bmm m x . s i z d aggrrgstr
25mm m x . si zad
Immmi an Lou (951
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
CMlmt Content l k q / d l
WnrrlClrnrm Rnio
A q . 28 Cbv Fl axunl Saength (MPal
Slump !mm)
En wi n d Air Cannnt 1%)
Min. Max.
15
:3
25
-I
280 310
0.45
4.0
10 40
4 6
Table 4- 4. Aggregate requirements
I
0.180 I c136 I
0.075 I C117 1 0 8 I 38 I 3a ! 343
Liquid Limit
. (%maxi
M23 25 25 - -
Plasticity Index
(% max) I W 2 4 I 6 1 6 I - I - I
I I I I I
Sand Equimlent
1% rninl
02419 - - 50 50
I I I
NOTES:
I
(1 1 Crushed aggragate not n-ry far baw under P.C.C. slab.
I
(2) Text method C131 - u u gradation 'A' for bu c w ma and grsdarlon '8' for I
asphaltic concrete aggrsgne.
(31 TSS method c38 - UIC rnagnalum SUlDhalC.
c
I C A O 7357 PA RT* 3 ** = 4B4343b 0039446 332
Table 4- 5. Granul ar equi val ency factors
Part 3.- Pavements 3-71
0
-
-
k
Granular
Equivalency
Factor Pavement Material
Selected granular sub-base 1
Crushed gravel or stone base 1
Waterbound Macadam base 1-1 12
Bituminous stabilized base 1-112
Cement stabitized base 2
Asphaltic concrete (good condition) 2
Asphaltic concrete (poor condition) 1-112
Portland cement concrete (good condition) 3
Portland cement concrete (fair condition) 2-1 12
Portland cement concrete (poor condition) 2
t
Tabl e 4-6. Typi cal subgrade beari ng strengths
Subgrade SoilType
Subgrade Bearing Strength
Reduction
Design Value
GW - well graded gravel
GP - poorly graded gr avel
GM - gravel with silty fines
GC - gravel with clay fines
SW - wellgraded sand
SP - poorly graded sand
SM - sand with si l ty fines
SC - sand with clay fines
ML - siltwith low liquid limit
CL clay with low liquid limit
MH - silt with high liquid limit
CH - clay with high liquid limit
I Range
~ ~~
0 290400
10 180-335
25 135-335
25 1 10-245
10 135-335
20 1 10-200
45 95-190
25 65-1 55
50 90-180
25 65-1 35
50 25-90
45 25-90
~~ ~~~
Fall
290
220
180
145
180
135
120
85
110
85
40
55
110
65
20
30
ICAO 9557 PARTt K3 t t W 484545b OOlr9lt47 279 W
3-72 Aerodrome Design Manual
~~~ ~~
Pavement beari ng strength measurement-s
4 . 1 . 3 . 2 Transport Canada practi ce is tu conduct mnrasureaents n f Seari ng strength
on the surface of fl exi bl e pavements. Testing is not condur:ted unti l at l east two years
af ter constructi on to permi t subgrade no i sture cnnd it icms t.0 reach an equi l i bri um state.
The beari ng strength of ri gi d pavements Is not normally rnzasurcd, as strengths cal cul ated
on the basi s of sl ab thi ckness and esti mated beari ng nodul us are consi dered suf f i ci entl y
accurate. The standard measure of beari ng strength Is the Inad in kilonewtons which
w i l l produce a defl exi on of 12.5 nun af ter I O repeti ti ons of luadino,, %hen the l oad is
appl i ed through a ri gi d ci rcul ar pl ate 762 m i n diameter. This def i ni ti on appl i es for
subgrade beari ng strength as wel l as f or measurements conducted at the surface of a
f l exi bl e pavement. I n actual prati ce, a vari ety of test methods are employed to measure
beari ng strength. These methods i ncl ude both repeti ti ve and nnn-repeti ti ve pl ate l oad
test procedures i n whi ch a vari ety of beari ng pl ate si zes my be used. Benkelnan beam
testi ng procedures may be employed i n pl ace of pl ate l oad testi ng at smaL 1 ai rports
i ntended to serve l i ght ai rcraft onl y. Transport Canada document &-h8-31 "Pavement
Eval uati on - Beari ng Strength" detai l s the test nethuds which m y be used, and provi des
correl ati ons for converti ng the resul ts of these test nethads t c : the standard measure
of beari ng strength defi ned above.
Subgrade beari ng strength
4 . 1 . 3 . 3 When a bearing strength measurement has been Fade on the surface of
f l exi bl e pavement, and the equi val ent granul ar thi ckness of the pavement structure is
known, the subgrade beari ng strength at that Locati nn m y be estimated from Figure 4- 4.
Subgrade beari ng strength vari es from l ncati on to l acati on throughout a pavement area.
I n pavements subj ect to seasonal frost penetrati on, vari ati on al s o nr c ur s si th time of
year, wi th the l owest val ues reached duri ng the spri ng thaw peri od. The subgrade bearing
strength used to characteri ze a pavemnt area is the lmrr qusrtl i l e, spri ng reduced value.
The l ower quarti l e val ue of several beari ng strength measurements made throtughout a
pavemnt area is that val ue f or which 75 per cent of the measurements are greater i n
magnitude. It i s cal cul ated as x - 0. 675s , where :-: is the average af measurements made
and s i s thei r standard devi ati on. For pavements subj ect to seasonal frost penetrati on,
spri ng thaw condi ti ons are esti mated by appl yi ng a reducti on f actor to Lower quarti l e
subgrade bearing strengths derived from surmer and fall measurements. The reducti on
factor appl i ed depends on gradati on of the subgrade soi l as shown i n Fi kxre 4-2, and
typi cal spri ng reducti on factors based on soi l cl assi f i cati on are l i sted i n Tabl e 4- 6.
When the ground water tabl e is wi thi n 1 metre of the pavement surface, the spri ng reducti on
f actors l i sted i n Tabl e 4-6 are i ncreased by 10 f or each soi l type. Subgrade bearing
strengths are normal l y establ i shed at exi sti ng ai rports through beari ng strength measure-
ment programmes. Subgrade beari ng strength val ues deri ved from measurements are used
when desi gni ng new pavement f aci l i ti es at the ai rport prnvi ded subgrade s o i l condi ti ons
are similar throughout the site. When designing or eval uati ng pavements at an ai rport
where strength measurements have not been nude, a val ue of subgrade beari ng strength
i s selected from Table 4-6 on the basi s of subgrade soi l cl assi f i cati on.
ICAO 7357 PART* 3 ** 4843436 003Sg48 305
0
Part 3. - Pavements 3-73
Rigid pavement bearing modulus
4. 1. 3. 4 Bearing modulus is based on the l oad i n meganewtons which w i l l produce a
def l ecti on of 1.25 nnn when the l oad is appl i ed through a ri gi d ci rcul ar pl ate 762 mm i n
di ameter. Thi s l oad i s then di vi ded by the vol umetri c di spl acement of the pl ate at thi s
defl ecti on (0.57 x m3) to compute bearing modulus i n uni ts of megapascals per metre.
Rigid pavement bearing modulus is the beari ng modulus at the surf ace of the base course
on which the concrete sl ab rests. It is rarel y measured di rectl y f or pavement desi gn
or eval uati on purposes. I nstead, beari ng modulus at the top of the base course i s
esti mated from Fi gure 4-4 on the basi s of a subgrade beari ng strength determi ned as
di scussed i n 4. 1. 3. 3, and the equi val ent granul ar thi ckness of sub-base and base course
provided between subgrade and concrete slab.
Pavement strength reporti ng
4. 1. 3. 5 The two parameters governi ng strength of a f l exi bl e pavement are pavement
equi val ent granul ar thi ckness (t) as di scussed i n 4. 1. 3. 1 and subgrade beari ng strength (S)
as di scussed i n 4. 1. 3. 3. Pavement strength i s reported i n terms of the Pavement Load
Rating (PLR) which is determined by pl otti ng the poi nt on Fi gure 4-5 usi ng the pavement
t and S val ues as co-ordi nates. The l oad rati ng reported f or the pavement is the
numeri cal val ue of the standard gear l oadi ng whose desi gn curve fal l s i mmedi atel y above
thi s poi nt. The two parameters governi ng the strength of a ri gi d pavement are beari ng
modulus (k) as di scussed i n 4. 1. 3. 4 , and concrete sl ab thi ckness (h) . These values are
pl otted on Figure 4-6 to determi ne the l oad rati ng of ri gi d pavements i n a manner si mi l ar
to that f or f l exi bl e pavements. A ti re pressure restri cti on may be appl i ed to fl exi bl e
pavements. The restri cti on appl i ed is the ti re pressure f or which the pavement asphal t
and base course thi cknesses sati sfy desi gn requi rements, as gi ven i n 4. 1. 2. 6. No ti re
pressure restri cti ons are appl i ed for concrete pavements. Ai rcraft havi ng a l oad
rati ng (ALR) and ti re pressure equal to or less than the val ues reported for a pavement
structure are authori zed to operate on the pavement wi thout restri cti on. Proposed
operati ons by an ai rcraf t wi th a l oad rati ng or tire pressure exceedi ng reported val ues
must be ref erred to the ai rport operati ng authori ty f or an engi neeri ng and management
assessment.
-_ Composite - pavement structures
4. 1. 3. 6 A composite pavement structure is created when an exi sti ng pavement
structure is overl ai d for strengtheni ng or resurfaci ng purposes. Composi te pavement
structures are eval uated as f l exi bl e or ri gi d pavements i n accordance wi th the
procedures below.
a) Asphal t overl ay on fl exi bl e pavement
A f l exi bl e pavement overl ai d wi th addi ti onal asphal t pavement
l ayers is eval uated as a f l exi bl e pavement having an equivalent
granul ar thi ckness determi ned as outl i ned i n 4. 1. 3. 1.
b) Asphal t overl ay on ri gi d pavement
A ri gi d pavement recei vi ng an asphal t overl ay less than 25 cm i n
thi ckness i s eval uated as a ri gi d pavement, wi th the concrete sl ab
and asphal t overl ay thi ckness converted to an equi val ent si ngl e
sl ab thi ckness as gi ven in Fi gure 4- 7. A ri gi d pavement recei vi ng
an asphal t overl ay greater than 25 cm i n thi ckness i s eval uated
as a f l exi bl e pavement wi th an equi val ent granul ar thi ckness
determined as outl i ned i n 4. 1. 3. 1.
3-74 ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ Aerodrome Design Hanual
~~ ~ ~~~~~
c) Concrete overlay on f l exi bl e pavement
A f l exi bl e pavement overl ai d wi th a concrete s Lab i s i--vaLuatt?d as
a ri gi d pavement wi th the flezxible pavement structure f orni ng the
base f or the concrete sl ab.
I
d) Concrete overlay on ri gi d pavement
A ri gi d pavement overl ai d by a concrete slab is eval uated as a
ri gi d pavement wi th the two sl abs converted t u an equi val ent
sl ab thi ckness as gi ven i n Fi gure 4-7, eX Cq3t whrn a separati un
course greater than 15 cm is placed between the twd sl abs. When a
separati on course greater than 15 cm i n thi ckness is used, the upper
sl ab is consi dered to act independently as a si ngl e sl ab wi th the
l ower sl ab formi ng part of the base.
I
Surface condi ti on eval uati on
4.1.3.7 I n addi ti on to pavement beari ng strength rval uat ion and reporti ng, ai rport
pavements are subj ect to an eval uati on of surface condi ti ons yearl y at i nternati onal
ai rports and bi enni al l y at uther ai rports. The surface condi ti orr eval uati on programs
consi sts of a vi sual l y based structural condi ti ons survey, and quanti tati ve masurements
of roughness and fri cti on l evel s on runway surfaces.
4.1.3.8 Structural condi ti on surveys are conducted bjr an eeperienced pavements
engi neer or techni ci an who vi sual l y i nspects tlte pavements and rrpnrts on the e:-:tent
and severi ty of observed pavement defects and di stress featl 1rt.s. On the basis of
traf f i c l evel s and observed defects and di stress features, an estimate is al so provided
f ar the year i n which pavement rehabi l i tati on shoul d be prt$gramnlrd. 4 typi cal structural
condi ti on survey report is shown i n Fi gure 5- 8. *
4.1.3.9 Runway roughness measurements are conducted with a Roadmeter, a devi ce
which records verti cal inavements i n an automubi l e as the vehi cl e is dri ven al ong the
runway at 80 km/h. Roadme.ter readi ngs are converted to a Riding Cnmfnrt Index on a
scal e of 0 to 10 and pl otted as shown i n Fi gure 4-9 t n prnvi de a recnrd of runway
roughness development with time. The runway roughness performance chart i l l ustrated
i n Fi gure 4-9 is used to assess when excessi ve roughness l evel s requi ri ng rehabi l i tati on
wi l l be reached.
4.1.3.10 Runway surface fri cti on measurements (norm1 wet state) are currentl y
conducted with a SAAB Surface Fri cti on Tester. Measurements are conducted at a vehi cl e
speed of 65 km/h usi ng a treaded measuring tire i nf l ated to 0.21 MPa pressure. The
runway surf ace f ri cti on prof i l es obtai ned from these measurements, as i l l ustred i n
Fi gure 4-10, are used to determi ne the need for surface texturi ng or rubber removal
programmes.
ICAO 9357 P AR T *3 ** 48L(3416 0019450 863
Part 3. - Pavements 3-75
EXI STI NG SLAB THICKNESS h (cm)
EQUIVALENT SINGLE SLAB THICKNESS hd (cm)
Figure 4- 7. Equivalent single slab thi ckness
of overlaid concrete slab
ICAO 9357 P ARTa3 f t = 4B4343b 0039452 636 m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-77
41RPORT: MONTREAL (Dorwll I RUNWAY: 06L-24R I
YEAR
I
Fi gure 4- 9. Runway roughness performance chart
I AIRPORT MONTREAL IDwrrll I RUNWAY: 06L-24R I
I
RUNWAY CHAINAGE
Fi gure 4-10. Runway coef f i ci ent of f ri cti on prof i l e
4.2 French practi ce
4.2.1 General
4.2.1.1 Defi ni ti ons
a) Structure of Pavement. A pavement normal l y coraprhes the fol l owi ng
from top to bottom:
- a "surface l ayer" consi sti ng of a "wearing course" and possibly a
"binder course";
- a "base";
- a "sub-base"; and
- possi bl y a lower sub-base or an improved subgrade.
b) Types of structures.
- A "fl exi bl e structure" consi sts onl y of courses of materials that have
not been bound or treated wi th hydrocarbon bi nders.
- a "ri gi d structure" of f ers a wearing course made up of a portl and
cement sl ab;
- a "semi -ri gi d structure" compri ses a base treated wi th hydrocarbon
bi nders; and
- a "composi te (or mi xed) structure" resul ts from rei nforci ng a ri gi d
structure wi th a f l exi bl e or semi -ri gi d structure.
c) Pavement types. For the sake of si mpl i fi cati on a di sti ncti on is made
herei nafter onl y between the two major pavereent types, ref erred to i n
general terms as fol l ows:
- "f l exi bl e pavements" i ncl ude f l exi bl e and semi - ri gi d ~tructures, as
wel l as certai n types of composi te structures (e.g., a forraerl y ri gi d,
badly cracked pavement rei nf orced ul th material treated wi th hydro-
carbon binders); and
- "ri gi d pavements" i ncl ude ri gi d structures and certai n types of
colaposite structures (e.g., a ri gi d pavement renewed by appl yi ng a
weari ng course treated wi th hydrocarbon bi nders).
d) Beari ng strength. The "beari ng strength" or "beari ng capaci ty" is the
abi l i ty of a pavement to accept the loads imposed by ai rcraf t whi l e
mai ntai ni ng i ts structural i ntegri ty.
e ) Pavement life. Thi s i e the peri od st the end of which the beari ng
strength of the pavewnt becones i nadequate tr, bear, wi thout risk, the
sametraf f i c i n the course of the fol l owi ng year, thus necessi tati ng a
general rei nforcement or a reducti on i n traf f i c. The "norm1 l i fe" of
ICAO 9157 PARTa3 t* m 484343b 0037454 407
Part 3. - Pavements 3-79
a pavement i s ten years and pavements are general l y desi gned for that
period. However, i n the ci rcumtances descri bed later on i n these
gui del i nes, another val ue may be establ i shed f or the l i f e of a
pavement.
f ) Traf f i c
- One "movement (actual )" is the appl i cati on to the pavement of a l oad
by an actual undercarri age l eg duri ng one manoeuvre (take-off,
l andi ng, taxi i ng). The number of actual movements is general l y
hi gher than the number of movements accounted for by the operator
( takeaf f s and landings).
- An "actual l oad P" i s the l oad actual l y appl i ed by an ai rcraf t
undercarri age l eg.
- "Actual traffi c" consi sts of di f f erent movements of varyi ng actual
l oads appl i ed by actual undercarri age l egs of di fferent categori es.
- The "normal design load P" is the l oad taken i nto account i n
forml as or graphs for the purpose of desi gni ng the pavement. It
may be "weighted" or not, dependi ng on the functi on of the pavement
involved.
- "Normal traf f i c" i s traf f i c consi sti ng of ten movements per day by
the ai rcraft produci ng the desi gn l oad over an expected pavement
l i f e of at least ten years.
- The "al l owabl e l oad Po" of a pavement i s the l oad on an under-
carri age l eg (actual or f i cti ti ous) cal cul ated accordi ng to the
desi gn concept as bei ng al l owabl e at the rate of ten movements per
day over ten years.
- An "equi val ent movement" i s the appl i cati on of a reference l oad by
an undercarri age l eg (actual or f i cti ti ous).
- "Equi val ent traf f i ctt corresponds to actual traffi c reduced to a
number of equi val ent movements.
- The "potenti al " of a pavement on a gi ven date i s represented by the
number of equi val ent movements which i t can accept duri ng i ts
resi dual l i f e.
g) Types of desi gn
- "optimized design" (or optimized design method): design which takes
i nto account al l ai rcraft types havi ng a si gni f i cant ef f ect on the
pavement. This method i s pref erabl e i f suf f i ci entl y rel i abl e and
accurate traf f i c f orecasts are avai l abl e throughout the expected
l i f e of the pavement.
3-80 Aerodromt Design Manual
~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~
- "general desi gn" (or general design method): design i n term of a
reference l oad whi ch the pavement mst support. I n practi ce, thi s
method is mainly used at the l evel of prel i mi nary studi es or i n the
absence of accurate data. The reference l oad i s eval uated i n terms
of the anti ci pated uti l i zati on of the aerodrome, the characteri sti cs
of ai rcraf t i n servi ce or at the pl anni ng stage, and the speci fi c
rol e of the pavement in questi on.
4.2.2 Choice of the desi gn l oad
4.2.2.1 Ai rcraf t characteri sti cs af f ecti ng the desi gn
a) Ai rcraf t mass. Tilere i s a need t o list f or each ai rcraf t:
- i n the case of the general desi gn method: takeaf f mass
- i n the case of the opti mi zed desi gn method: take-off mass, l andi ng
mass
Col l ecti on of data on the mass of the vari ous ai rcraf t to be consi dered i n
a desi gn i s a di f f i cul t task beari ng i n mind:
- the vari ati ons i n payl oad
- the uncertai nty of f orecasti ng traf f i c composi ti on (ai rcraf t ,
stages) and development6 i n regard to ai rcraf t f l eets.
For the purpose of studyi ng an opti mi zed desi gn, one useful method
consi sts of establ i shi ng mass hi stograms i n respect of each ai rcraf t. Sel ecti ng a
category wi dth of 1/20th of the maximum mass provi des suffi ci ent acml racy.
b) Undercarriage leg. Wheel assembly mounted on one l eg. The complete
set of undercarri age l egs consti tutes the undercarri age. A "typi cal
undercarri age l eg" whi ch is representati ve of each of the three most
wi del y used categori es of undercarri ages (si ngl e wheel , dual wheel s,
dual tandem wheels) is i ntroduced. The charactertsti cs of the typi cal
undercarri age l egs are as follows:
Typical Track Bas e Tire
undercarri age l eg
(cm) (cm) pressure
Single wheel
-- --
11.6 MPa
Dual wheels 70 -- 0.9 MPa
Dual tandem wheels 75 1 40 1.2 MPa
cl Di stri buti on of the mass over the undercarri age legs
1) Stati c di stri buti on. The over- al l di stri buti on of the ai rcraf t
mass between the nose l eg and the main undercarri age l egs is
dependent upon the l oad di stri buti on of the ai rcraf t (i ,e.,the
Part 3.- Pavements 3-81
posi ti on of the centre of gravi ty) and vari es l i ttl e. I n the
absence of data, one would assume that the di stri buti on i s 10 per
cent on the nose l eg (maxinum f orward l oad di stri buti on) 95 per
cent on the mai n undercarri age l egs (maximum rearward l oad
di stri buti on) f or conventi onal undercarri ages.
2) Braki ng acti on. The ef f ect of braki ng acti on is not taken i nto
account in designing pavements. It pl ays a rol e onl y i n speci f i c
studi es (example: structures underneath the runway).
d) Loads used i n the cal cul ati ons. I n the case of the undercarri ages of
current ai rcraft, the di stance between the l egs i s such as to j usti f y
a separate study of the acti on of each undercarri age l eg. The main
undercarri age l eg general l y causes the greatest stress. I n some
cases, the secondary undercarri age l eg may wel l be the most cri ti cal
f or the pavement (examples: nose l eg of B-747, centre l eg of DC-10-
30). -The l oad i s taken i nto account in the cal cul ati ons i n the f orm
of a l oad per undercarri age l eg. The graphs i n respect of the main
ai rcraf t examined (Appendix 3 ) are produced i n accordance wi th thi s
concept. Those cases where the secondary undercarri age l eg is l i kel y
to be more cri ti cal than the main undercarri age l eg are i denti f i ed and
addi ti onal graphs provi ded.
4.2.2.2 Weighting of l oad accordi ng to the functi on.of the pavement. Each type of
f aci l i ty (runways, taxiway, aprons, maintenance areas, etc.) must be desi gned separatel y
to take i nto account di f f eri ng stress condi ti ons. Al though subj ected to the same l oads,
so= pavements may experi ence di fferent fati gue condi ti ons. For exaupl e:
a) tr af f i c i s sl ow and concentrated on aprons and, conversel y, rare and
di spersed on shoulders and stopways; and
b) consequences of dynamic ef f ect. When an aircraft rol l s at hi gh speed
(such as the mi ddl e part of the runway at take-off and the f i r st
1 000 m beyond the threshol d duri ng l andi ng), the l oadi ng phenomenon
i s transi ent and thus less severe. I n addi ti on, the l oad i s reduced
by the l i f t of the wings. The l oads l i sted i n respect of each type of
area are wei ghted to take i nto account the di f f erent f ati gue condi -
ti ons as shown on Fi gure 4-1 1. When studyi ng a proj ect, i t i s
recommended t o examine the savi ngs that may be achieved by appl yi ng
these concepts as wel l as the possi bl e di f f i cul ti es that may arise
duri ng constructi on or at the timewhen these areas may be used for a
di fferent purpose. Thus reducti ons i n the thi ckness can be made when-
ever these w i l l have real short and l oncterm advantages. Such desi gn
concepts for reduci ng pavement thi ckness are commonly used in some
countri es. In France .they have onl y been appl i ed on a very l i mi ted
scale up to now.
4. 2. 2. 3 Loads other than those produced by ai rcraf t. Some areas (such as those
i n f ront of ai rport bui l di ngs) are not accessi bl e to the undercarri age l egs. On the
other hand, aerodrome pavements do not onl y support ai rcraft, but al so other vehi cl es
and machinery (e.g., ground t cansportati on vehi cl es - buses, trucks, baggage tow-
trol l eys, contai ner carriers, fi re fi ghti ng vehi cl es, aerobri dges, etc.) whi ch someti mes
I C A O 9357 PA RT83 *8 48YI14lIb 0019457 118 W
3-82 Aerodrome Design Manual
produce more cri ti cal l oads (parti cul arl y on aprons). When stati onary, these uni ts have
a consi derabl e punchi ng effect on the pavement produci ng concentrated stress, due t o the
f act that they are moving about i n a l i mi ted space. The exceptional l oads are taken
i nto account i n the fol l owi ng manner:
a) the af f ected areas are desi gned for these l oads;
b) the surface of areas used by strese-produci ng vehi cl es or equi pment
rust be l i mi ted (traffi c rul es, marki ngs on the surface); and
c) speci al pavements may be studi ed (exampl e: epeci al coati ngs).
7
STOPWAY
v//A Rapid Exit Taxiway I I
' I
TAXIWAY
- TAXIWAY
J
TAXI WAY
a) Example of a runway equipped with a parallel taxiway
-15orn
RUNWAY
b) Example of a runway not equipped with a parallel taxiway
Weighting of load P
r)5 P
Fi gure 4-11 - Weighting of l oad P
ICAO 7357 P AR T S 3 t t = 4843436 DOL9458 054 =
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-83
4.2.3 Designing flexible pavements
4.2.3.1 The desi gn of a f l exi bl e pavement i nvol ves two stages:
a) Col l ecti on of data: - traf f i c (l oads, movements)
- characteri sti cs of the natural soi l .
b) Cal cul ati on of the thi ckness, whi ch al so compri ses two stages:
- the determi nati on of an "equivalent pavement thickness" e usi ng
ei ther the general desi gn or opti mi zed desi gn methods.
- the sel ecti on of a pavement structure whi ch provi des an equi val ent
thi ckness correspondi ng to or greater than the thi ckness determi ned
above.
4.2.3.2 Beari ng strength of the subgrade
a) General case: The beari ng strength of the subgrade i s denoted by i ts
Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o (CBR). The CBR val ue adopted is the lowest
one obtai ned duri ng the test-series i n whi ch the total number of
samples i s conpacted t o 95 per cent of Modified Proctor Optimm
Densi ty after havi ng been immersed i n water for four days.
b) Gravel l y soi l s and pure sand: I n the case of gravel l y soi l s and pure
sand, the CBR measurement i s meaningless and general values w i l l be
adopted as shown i n the f ol l owi ng tabl e:
Descri pti on of the soi l
10 Pure badly graded sand
20 Pure well-graded sand
20 Gravel contai ni ng cl ay
>40 (PI <7)> 20 ( P D 7 )
Gravel contai ni ng si l t
30
Pure badly graded gravel
40
Pure well-graded gravel
Measured CBR Si gni fi cant CBR
2 0
20
20 (PIC7) 10 (PI >7)
1 0
10
6 t o 8
P I - Pl asti ci tv I ndex
c) Improved subgrade. Where the pavement comprises an improved subgrade
(consi derabl e thi ckness of added materials of average or non-homogen-
eous qual i ty), thi s w i l l be taken into account i n the cal cul ati ons i n
I C A O 9357 PA RTt 3 t t 484141b 003S459 T90 W
3-84 Aerodrome Design Manual
the fol l owi ng manner. Let i t be assumed that the beari ng strengths of
the untreated and improved subgrades are, respecti vel y, CBRl and CBR2
and that hl and h2, which w i l l be cal cul ated accordi ng to the desi gn
method sel ected (general or opti mi zed) correspond to one of these
CBRs. I f h i s the thi ckness o f the improved subgrade, the required
thi ckness of the pavement above thi s subgrade, imem;e' can be
cal cul ated by appl yi ng the forrml a:
CBR2 - CBRl
CBB2 +- CBBl
e =h l - h
provi di ng e exceeds or is at least equal to $. Should e be less than
h2 then the thi ckness of the pavement i s f i xed at ham Thi s al so
appl i es t o cases where the natural soil comprises a substratum that is
covered by a rel ati vel y thin soi l l ayer of better beari ng strength.
This top l ayer may then be regarded as an improved subgrade so that
the above method can sti l l be used.
4. 2. 3. 3 Cal cul ati ng the equi val ent pavement thickness
- General desi gn - see 4. 2. 5
- Optimized design - see 4.2.6
4.2.3.4 Structure of the pavement. A f l exi bl e pavement i s normally made up of
three di fferent courses of i ncreasi ng qual i ty from bottom to top: the sub-base, the
base and the surface course. The concept of equi val ent thi ckness i s i ntroduced to take
i nto account the di f f erent mechani cal qual i ti es of each course. The equivalent thick-
ness e o f a course i s equal to i t s actual . thi ckness er rml ti pl i ed by a numerical
coef f i ci ent c or equi val ence coeffi ci ent. The equi val ent thi ckness of the pavement i s
equal to the sum of the equi val ent thi cknesses of i ts courses. The val ues shown in the
tabl e below may be used as a ref erence i n the case of new materials:
New materials
Concrete-type dense btuminous mix
Sand-gravel mi x bound with bitumen
Emulsion sand-gravel
Sand-gravel treated wi th hydraul i c
bi nders (cement, sl ag, fl y-ash, lime)
Well-graded crushed gravel
Sand treated wi th hydraul i c bi nders
(cement, sl ag)
Pea gravel
Sand
Equi val ence coeffi ci ent
2
1.5
1.2
1.5
1
1
0.75
0.5
ICAO 9357 P AR T *3 ** 4843436 0017460 702 =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-85
In a properl y consti tuted pavement, the equi val ence coef f i ci ents of necessi ty i ncrease
from bottom t o top.
4.2.3.5 Choice of a structure. The choi ce of a structure must take i nto account
two general concepts:
a) Constructi on concepts whi ch relate to the nature of the materi al s to
be used, the qual i ty and f orml ati on of components, the minimm and
maximumthicknesses involved, sound bonding of courses, etc.; and
b) Mechani cal concepts whi ch defi ne the val ues of equi val ence coeffi -
ci ents, proscri be or advi se agai nst the use of certai n materials i n
the di f f erent courses, i ndi cate the thi cknesses of the treated
materials needed f or the normal mechanical behaviour of the pavement,
etc. These di recti ves have the f ol l owi ng ef f ect on the di f f erent
courses:
- Surface course (weari ng course and possi bl y bi nder course). The
surface course mst consi st of bi tumi nous concrete. (Some
di recti ves, especi al l y as regards formul ati on and compactness to be
achi eved at the work si te, di ffer consi derabl y from those appl i cabl e
to road pavements.)
- Base and sub-base. The choi ce of materials f or the base and sub-
base i s subj ect to the appl i cati ons speci f i ed i n the f ol l owi ng
tabl e:
Types of materials
Sand-gravel mix bound wi th hot
hydrocarbon bi nders
Materials treated wi th
hydraul i c bi nders (coarse
aggregate concrete, sl ag,
f ly-ash gravel, sand-based
concrete)
Untreated gravel (crushed,
well-graded)
Pea gravel
Materials treated wi th col d
hydrocarbon bi nders (eml si on
gravel )
Used i n
base
Y e s
No
Yes
No
Not
advi sabl e
Used i n
sub-base
No
Not
advi sabl e
Yes
Yes
Not
advi sabl e
Remarks
Expensive materials.
Except wi th speci al
di spensati on fol l owi ng
consul tati on of
Admi ni strati on.
The use of these
materials calls f or a
technique which has not
been suf f i ci entl y tested
on aerodrome pavements.
Frequentl y, economi c consi derati ons make i t necessary to envi sage the use of materials
that have been treated wi th hydraul i c bi nders (coarse-aggregate concrete, sl ag based on *
sand-gravel mix, sand-gravel fly-ash mix, etc.) in the base or sub-base. However, the
magnitude of the l oads appl i ed to aerodrome pavements creates mch greater stresses than
those produced on road pavements. The ri sks and consequences, among others, are:
- f or the pavements: rapi d signs of deterl orati on (cracks i n weari ng
course, crumbl i ng, teari ng, pumping up of parti cl es or re-appearance
of f i nes of l ai tance);
- or ai rcraf t: i ngesti on by j et engi nes of aggregate parti cl es,
evenness; and
- f or management: hi gher mai ntenance costs (fi l l i ng cracks 1.
Consequentl y, the use of materials treated wi th hydraul i c bi nders is proscri bed f or the
base and not advi sed or the sub-base. I n the case of the latter, an actual thi ckness
measuring at l east 20 cmof materials treated wi th hydrocarbon bi nders nust cover the
semi-rigid course. Any excepti on to these rul es cal l s f or a speci al study for whi ch
expert advi ce of the Admi ni strati on must be requested. Speci fi cati ons f or materials
that may be used i n the base or sub-base are i denti cal to those appl i ed to road pave-
ments *
4.2.3.6 Thi ckness of treated materials. An adequate thi ckness of treated
materials is necessary to ensure an acceptabl e behavi our of the upper pavement l ayers.
Fi gure 4-12 shows, for gui dance, the optimum equi val ent thi ckness of treated materials
wi th respect to the total equi val ent thi ckness of the pavement and the CBR of the
natural s oi l .
seasonal climatic vari ati ons, possi bl e changes i n the beari ng strength of thesoil shal l 8
be taken i nto account. Despi te the consi derabl e i nfl uence whi ch temperature has on
bituminous mix pavements, no correcti on for thi ckness will be made to account f or thi s
parameter: the val ues i ndi cated for the equi val ence coeffi ci ents f or the coati ng mi xes
suggested previ ousl y represent a weighted average. It I s recomnded that testi ng f or
frost-thaw be performed i n accordance wi th the i nformati on contai ned i n 4.2.7.
4.2.4 Designing rigid pavements
4.2.4.1 The desi gn o f ri gi d pavements i nvol ves the fol l owi ng two stages:
4.2.3.7 I nfl uence of climatic factors. I n regi ons that are subj ect to si gni f i cant
a) Col l ecti on of data:
- traf f i c (l oads, movements)
- characteri sti cs o f the subgrade and oE the hydraul i c cement con-
crete; and
b) Cal cul ati on of the thi ckness of the concrete sl ab (onl y the most
general case of non-reinforced and non-prsstressed pavements is
examined 1.
I C A O 9357 PARTS3 ** M 4841436 0037462 585
Part 3. - Pavements 3-87
Equi val ent thi ckness of treated materi al s
7
8
9
10
I
15
Fi gure 4-12. Fl exi bl e pavements: Optimum thi ckness of treated
materi al s wi th regard to the equi val ent thi ckness of treated materi al s
to the total thi ckness of the pavement and to the CBR
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** 484343b OaL94b3 411
3-88 Aerodrome Des-ign Manual
4.2.4.2 Eval uati on of the sub-baae. A ri gi d pavement normally consists of two
courses on top of the natural soi l , i.e., a subbase and hydraul i c cement concrete sl ab.
The beari ng strength of the natural soi l i s expressed i n the f orm of i ts "modulus of
reacti on" k,. This i s corrected i n accordance wi th the equi val ent thi ckness of the sub-
base. The modulus thus corrected (i.e.,moduLus of sub-base reaction) makes i t possi bl e
to account for the s o i l and sub-base as one si ngl e parameter in the cal cul ati ons.
4.2.4.3 Beari ng strength of natural soi l (subgrade). The modulus of subgrade
reacti on kn of the soil is eval uated by means of a pl ate beari ng test carri ed out i-, ~ i t i 4
on soil conpacted t o 95 per cent of the Modi fi ed Proctor Optinurn densi ty. It i s
desi rabl e or a certai n time to el apse between compacting and testing to al l ow the soi l
to regai n i ts free moi sture content. The number and di stri buti on of test poi nts mst be
such as to make the results meaningful.
4.2.4.4 Beari ng strength of the sub-baaee. The modulus of subgrade reacti on of
natural s o i l i s 6UbSeqUently corrected i n regard to the equi val ent thi ckness of the sub-
base. Figure 4-13 i s used or thi s purpose. The def i ni ti on of equi val ent thi ckness i s
gi ven i n 4.2.3.4.
I mportant Note: The corrected k shoul d be used i n these cal cul ati ons.
Using the k measured at the top of the subbase course would resul t i n
opti mi sti c f i gurea.
Al though the sub-base affects the cal cul ati on onl y sl i ghtl y (as a correcti ve term of
modulus k which i tsel f has onl y a minor inpact), it has an i mportant ml ti pl e rol e:
- i t ensures a conti nuous support for the sl ab, parti cul arl y at i ts
j oi nts and parti ci pates i n the transf er of l oads;
- because of i ts weight i t opposes a possi bl e swel l i ng OF the sub-grade
soi l and protects i t agai nst f rost;
- i t of f ers a stabl e surface for subsequent concreti ng operati ons; and
- i t prevents pumped up parti cl es f rom ri si ng st the j oi nts.
4.2.4.5 Structure of the sub-base. It i s i mportant to have a hi gh qual i ty sub-
base. The fol l owi ng rul es rmst be appl i ed:
- the sub-base course mrst be treated;
- the use of coarse aggregate concrete i s advi sabl e;
- lean Cement cencrete i a not real l y recommended (hi gher ri sk of
cracki ng);
- the actual thi ckness of the sub-base mat be at least 15 crn to ensure
an ef ei ci ent use of the material; and
- the speci f i cati ons f or materi al s that may be used i n a sub-base are
similar to those for road pavements.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 484343b 0039464 358
0
Part 3.- Pavements 3-89
1 50
120
'100
80
70
60
50
4 0
35
30
25
20
15
10 20 30 40
Equi val ent thi ckness of the sub-base
50
Fi gure 4-13. Modulus of reacti on of the sub-base: Correcti on of the modulus
of reacti on of the subgrade on the basi s of the equi val ent thi ckness of the sub-base.
ICAO 9157 PARTS3 t t 4BhL4Lb 0919465 294
3-90 Aerodrome Design Manual
The sub-base can rest on an i nproved subgrade whi ch may or my not consi st of stabi l i zed
materi al s. The total equi val ent thi ckness of the two courses is subsequentl y taken i nto
account to correct the modulus of subgrade reacti on K. It is f easi bl e to place a l ayer
of porous concrete between the concrete sl ab and the treated sub-base i n order to
improve the drainage and to reduce the pumping ef f ect.
always very low; the sl ab ensures the di stri buti on oE stresses due to l oadi ng by mobi l i -
zi ng i ts fl exural strength. Consequentl y, contrary to what happens in the case of a
f l exi bl e pavement, the desi gn cri teri on f or a ri gi d pavement 16 not maximumpressure at
subgrade l evel , but perrQissible f l exural morPent of the sl ab. I n the desi gn, constant
val ues are adopted to descri be the concrete as fol l ows:
- modulus of el asti ci ty: E =30 000 HPa
- Poi sson's rati o - 0.15
4.2.4.7 Stresses of concrete. Account is taken i n the cal cul ati ons of the
permi ssi bl e f l exural stress on the concrete whi ch equal s the fl exural breaki ng strength
di vi ded by a saf ety f actor. The f l exural breaki ng strength i s measured on prismatic
specimens af ter 90 days. The f i nal val ue to be retai ned i s the mean of the measured
values reduced by a standard devi ati on whi ch corresponds to the foreseeabl e scatter over
the si te (varying between a minimm of 10 per cent f or a cl osel y supervi sed constructi on
si te and 20 per cent). I f the resul ts of teste performed after 28 days' curi ng onl y are
avai l abl e, it may be assumed that the f l exural strength of the concrete i ncreases by 10
per cent: between 28 and 90 days.
4.2.4.8 Safety factors. The saf ety f actor depends on the type of j oi nts used
between the sl abs of the pavement. It is establ i shed at 1.8 where j oi nts are equipped
wi th devi ce6 f or the ef f i ci ent transf er of l oads and at 2.6 i n other cases, as shown i n
the tabl e below:
5 p e of devi ce for transf er of l oads Other condi ti ons Safety factor
acro6s pavameat constructi on j oi nts
Without device in al l cases 2.6
Dowe Is
- 1. 8
less than 3 unfavourabl e 1. 8
condi ti one (see below)
Tongue and groove
j oi nts
at least 3 unfavourabl e 2 s 6
condi ti ons (see below)
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-91
Unfavourable conditions
- poor subgrade (k 20 MN/m3 ) or non-homogeneous or f rost suscepti bl e
- thi n sub-base (e < 20 cm) or untreated
- heavy traf f i c consi sti ng of wide-bodied ai rcraf t (B-747, DC-10,
etc. 1
- si gni f i cant dai l y temperature gradi ent
- absence of ti e bars across j oi nts
4.2.4.9 Constructi on rules - see 4.2.4.11
4.2.4.10 Thi ckness of concrete slab
- general desi gn
(see 4.2.5)
- opti mi zed desi gn
(see 4.2.6)
Comment: The general desi gn method i s general l y adequate for studyi ng
rigFd pavements.
4. 2. 4. 11 Constructi on rul es
a) J oi nts. A correctl y desi gned ri gi d pavement must respect the main
constructi on rul es l ai d down i n Fi gure 4-14.
b) Ef f i ci ent transf er of loads. None of the devi ces descri bed provi des
compl ete effi ci ency. The tongue and groove system and the
contracti on-expansi on j oi nts are ef f i ci ent onl y where the j oi nts are
not too open under the combined ef f ect of hydraul i c contracti on
(defi ni ti ve) and thermi c contracti on (peri odi c); al so, wi th time they
l ose some of thi s ef f i ci ency due to the f act that the two surf aces i n
contact show wear from the. effects of traffi c and the thermi c cycl es.
The effi ci ency of dowel l ed j oi nts is not cl osel y l i nked to thei r
openings. liowever, the transf er of l oads i s al so l i kel y to di mi ni sh
wi th time, mainly due to the f act that the cycl i ndri cal cavi ty i n
which the dowel moves i n a l ongi tudi nal di recti on becomes enl arged and
more oval i n shape. As poi nted out, the sub-base may improve the
transf er of l oads, provi ded i t i s suf f i ci entl y ri gi d. However, i ts
benef i ci al acti on al so decreases wi th time, parti cul arl y because of
surf ace erosi on.
3-92 Aerodrome Design Manual
TYPE OF
J OlNT
I C A O 9357 PART* 3 ** W 48434Lb OOlr94b7 Ob7
a
DIAGRAM
Simple Tongue-and-Groove
K
/ I h
Tongue-and-Groove with tie bar
Dowel
1 c
A
L: Location
C: Conditions for utilization
L: Longitudinally: at the end of lanes.
Transveral1y:where concreting is interrupted
along the lane.
C: tongueand-groove only for slab thickness
exceeding 20 cm
dowels advised for pavements with heavy
traffic of wide-bodied aircraft and on
relatively poor soil
width of the link must not exceed 25 em
tie bar only over longitudinal joints; the
L: Longitudinally: where lane width exceeds
5 m
Transversally: systematic installation at
regular intervals
I ' I
i at the junction of old and new work
- between runways and taxiways
- around substructures
- along drains
2 used to avoid undue stresses
Figure 4-14. Joints i n cement concrete pavements
Part 3. - Pavements 3-93
4.2.4.12 I nfl uence of climatic f actors
a) Factors of thermi c or hygrometri c ori gi n. As a general rul e i t i s
accepted that, provi ded appropri ate methods are used f or the j oi nts,
stresses which have a thermi c or hygrothermi c ori gi n need not be taken
i nto account i n the desi gn. Fl exural stresses produced by l oads
duri ng use of the pavement are not the onl y tensi l e stresses to which
the concrete may be subj ected. Stresses may, f i r st of al l , resul t
from di fferenti al expansi ons between the top and bottom surfaces of
the concrete because of ai fferences between these two faces:
- i n the temperature (temperature gradi ent)
- water content
Other stresses may al so be caused by f ri cti on on the sub-base which
resists a vari ati on i n l ength of the sl ab as a whole when a change i n
the temperature or i n the water content occurs. These changes are
assumed to be of a suf f i ci ent durati on t o enabl e the sl ab to achi eve a
state of hygrothermi c equi l i bri um. Consequentl y, they are changes
that may be descri bed as seasonal as opposed to those (dai l y) changes
that are produced by hygrothermi c gradi ents i n the sl ab. I n al l
cases, the exi stence of j oi nts whi ch limit the l engths of the basi c
sl abs, has the ef f ect of reducing the magnitude of the di f f erent types
of stresses. Moreover, the stresses of the f i rst: category l argel y
tend to compensate each other due t o the f act that temperature
gradi ents and water content are normal l y opposi te characteri sti cs.
Fi nal l y, these di f f erent stresses do not appreci abl y i ncrease the
stresses imposed by l oads.
b) Frost. An i nspecti on for frost-thaw i n accordance wi th the expl an-
ti ons contai ned i n 4.2.7 is recommended.
4.2.5 General desi gn
4.2.5.1 Pri nci pl e. The general desi gn method enabl es a pavement to be designed
accordi ng to a reference l oad. For example:
- the maximuml oad of the ai rcraft consi dered to produce the greatest
stress; and
- the desi red l oad f or a typi cal category of undercarri age.
The desi gn is based on normal traf f i c condi ti ons, i .e.,ten movements per day over ten
years at the desi gn l oad. However, where the actual traf f i c cl earl y di f f ers f rom thi s
i
I
3-94 Aerodrome Design Manual
basic assumption, i t is possi bl e to appl y a correcti on factor to take account of the
actual traf f i c i ntensi ty. Bcaapl es of usi ng the general desi gn method are:
- study of an aerodrome used for operati ons wi th an ai rcraf t type that
cl earl y produces greater stress than others;
- ri gi d pavements (the accuracy of the method is general l y euf f i ci ent);
and
- prel i mi nary studies i n the absence of rel i abl e traf f i c f orecasts.
4.2.5.2 Detemi nati on of pavement thi ckneee
Data requi red
- Normal desi gn l oad PI
- CER of the natural soi l (f l exi bl e pavement81
- Modulus of subgrade reacti on k and the pertai ssi bl e fl exural 8tress of
the concrete (ri gi d pavemnts)
Graphical method
Depending on the case under study, one uses ei ther the graph for typi cal
undercarri age (Fi gures 4-15 to 4-27) or the spectf i c graph or the ai rcraf t
(Appendix 3 )*
Note. - If ~ n t : irztends -bo dktezmine p a m m t t?ricPa*x f c;r -m a i wr a f i 5 or,
more generally, an zmdercazz4ags le3 m t ?:ncZ-z&d ir2 b& 9 j r r - h ~ i~ A ~ p z t d 3 : 3, it is
possCbZe to use tF& p q h s for a r z aircraft wF~jse m-zin z a : &x ~~mhg c Zez ( t - r mk, base)
has characteristics that most; cZoseZ-y rvr"eml;. IP &h c c Qf t h rz&-p<$t 2m&r zt zdy.
4.2.5.3 Traf f i c i ntensi ty. Ten movements per day over 10 years represents an
enti rel y reasonabl e and conservati ve assumption for the purpose of desi gni ng a new
pavement. Nevertheless, it: is concei vabl e that thi s f i gure is ei ther cl earl y b e l o w the
f oreseeabl e traf f i c volume f or the aerodrome (e.g.,a major aerodrome) or consi derabl y
hi gher (e.g.,an al ternate aerodrome). It is necessary i n those cases to take account of
the actual traf f i c i ntensi ty appropri atel y adj usted. The correcti on i s based on a
rel ati onshi p between the pai rs (P, n), where P i s the l oad and n the number of
appl i cati ons i n movements/day and the pai r (P', 10) where P' is the normal desi gn l oad
(by def i ni ti on appl i ed 10 times per day for):
-
P
p' :: -
C
The graph i n Fi gure 4-28 [ 11
transl ates rel ati onshi p 1
wi th C - 1.2 - 0.2 l og n
I mportant remark: Relationship [ 13 is onl y val i d f or a pavernent l i fe of ten
years. For any other period, i t would be appropri ate to relate the f i gure to ten years
(exarnple: -4-mooements/day over 20 years ate equi val ent to 8 movements/day over ten
years). The val ue of f actor G i s l i mf ted to 1.2 at the top end o f the scale (minimum
assumption of 1 movement/day) and to 0.8 at the bottom end of the scale (maxinurn
assumption of 100 movements/day).
I C A O 7357 PA RT* 3 ** = 484L43b 0037470 651 =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-95
n
5
W
Equi val ent si ngl e wheel (tonnes)
Fi gure 4-15. Fl exi bl e Pavement - typi cal undercarri age l eg - si ngl e wheel
3-96 Aerodrome Design Manual
*" 5 M 12 14 t-6 18 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 90 80 90100
Equivalent single wheel (tonnes)
Figure 4-16. Flexible Pavement - typical undercarriage leg - dual wheels
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** 484343b 0039472 424
Part 3. - Pavements 3-97
3R
3
-
9
8

A
e
r
o
d
r
o
m
e

D
e
s
i
g
n

M
a
n
u
a
l

S
5
-

5
6
-

4
5

I

.
,

-
1

.I

_
-

F
i
g
u
r
e

4
-
1
8
.

R
i
g
i
d

P
a
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t

-

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p
i
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a
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r
c
a
r
r
i
a
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g

-

s
i
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l
e

i
s
o
l
a
t
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d

w
h
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l

L
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s

t
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a
n

1
0

t
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s

I C A O 9357 PA RT* 3 ** = 4843llLb 0039474 2T7 =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-99
Fi gure 4-19. Rigid Pavement - typi cal undercarri age l eg - si ngl e i sol ated wheel
Loads rangi ng from 10 to 25 tonnes
I C A O 7157 PART* 3 ** W L)AqLL)Bb OOL9475 133 =
3-100 Aerodrome Design Manual
Figure 4-20. Rigid Pavement - typical undercarriage l eg - si ngl e i sol at ed wheel
Load6 exceeding 25 tomes
ICAO 7357 PA RT t 3 t t rn 4843436 0037476 07T =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-101
Figure 4-21. Rigid Pavement - typical undercarriage leg - dual wheels
Loads less than 15 tonnes
ICAO 9557 PART* 3 ** 484541b 0019477 TOb
3-102 Aerodrome Design Ffanual
Figure 4-22. Rigid Pavement - typical undercarriage leg - dual wheels
Loads ranging from 15 t o 32. 5 tonnes
I P A
- 5.5
-5.0
- 4.5
m
a
01
Ll
-4.0 Urn
rl
4
s4
X
rl
01
rcl
a
-3.5 2
3
E
m
rl
u:
a!
4
-3.0
-2.5
- 2.0
- 1.5
ICAO 7157 PA RT* 3 ** 484141b 0017478 9 4 2
Part 3. - Pavements 3-103
8
Fi gure 4 - 2 3 . Ri gi d Pavement - typi cal undercarri age l eg - dual wheels
Loads exceeding 32.5 tonnes
- 5.5
- 5.0
- 4.5
v)
-4.0 :
U
$4
0
rl
a
Ll
9
1
-3.5
d
a,
P
rl
v)
(0
rl
E
-3.0 2
- 2.5
- 2.0
1.5
3-104 Aerodrome Design Manual
Fi gure 4-24. Ri gi d Pavement - typi cal undercarri age l eg - dual tandem
Loads ranging from 15 to 30 tonnes
CPA
- 5.5
-5.0
- 1.5
-1.0
- 3.5
-3.0
- 2.5
- 2.0
-1.5
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 484343b 0039480 5T0
Part 3. - Pavements 3-105
Figure 4-25. Rigid Pavement - typical undercarriage l eg - dual tandem
Loads ranging from 30 to 55 tonnes
3-106 Aerodrome Design Manual
Figure 4-26. Rigid Pavement - typical undercarriage leg - dual tandem
Loads ranging from 55 t o 75 tonnes
ICAO 7157 PART* 3 ** = 4841416 OOL9482 373 =
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-107
Fi gure 4- 27. Ri gi d Pavement - typi cal undercarri age l eg - dual tandem
Loads exceeding 75 tonnes
3-108 Aerodrome Design Manual
0,OJ 0.05 0. 1 0.3 0.5 0.70.91 2 3 4 5 6 7 b 9 1 0 PO 30 5 0 70 WlOQ
Average number of dai l y novements
Figure 4-28. Correction of t he design locld wi th regard to t he traffic i ntensi ty
r
Corrected load =
Actual load
L C 1
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 48414Lb 0019484 146 =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-109
4.2.6 Optimized design
4.2.6.1 Pri nci pl e. The opti mi zed desi gn method enabl es a pavement to be designed
by taki ng i nto account several ai rcraf t types at di fferent frequenci es. Thi s method has
the advantage that the actual movements of each actual l oad consi dered can be converted
i nto equi val ent movements of the samereference l oad. It i s thus possi bl e to compare
the relative ef f ect of di f f erent ai rcraf t. In practi ce, therefore, the opti mi zed desi gn
method is used when several types of ai rcraft produci ng approxi matel y the same stresses
mst be considered (e.g. at major aerodromes), as wel l as for the purpose of granti ng
concessi ons (see 2.2.2.2 and 4.2.8). Detai l ed traf f i c f orecasts accordi ng to ai rcraf t
type serve as the basi s f or the desi gn. Beari ng i n mind that i t i s sometimes di f f i cul t
to establ i sh accurate data (parti cul arl y f or the actual l oads), i t i s recommended that
two cal cul ati ons be mde, i.e. one assuming a low traf f i c volume and the other a hi gh
one, wi th a view to assessi ng the sensi ti vi ty of the di f f erent parameters and the error
margin f or the cal cul ati on. Any pavement l i f e may be sel ected (see 4.2.6.2). The
opti mi zed desi gn takes i nto account the preci se number of actual movements of each ai r-
craf t f or the expected pavement l i fe. Contrary to the general desi gn method there i s no
minimm assumption ( 1 movement/day or 3 650 movements over ten years): the cal cul ated
pavement is more sensi ti ve to traf f i c vari ati ons.
4.2.6.2 Pavement l i f e. The l i f e of a pavement (see def i ni ti on i n 4.2.1.1) i s
normal l y sel ected on the basi s of the tabl e below:
PAVEMENT LIFE
- aerodromes wi th l ow traffi c - aerodromes wi th heavy traffi c
Constructi on - unrel i abl e traf f i c f orecasts - rel i abl e traf f i c f orecasts
Fl exi bl e 5 t o 10 years 10 years
Ri gi d ri gi d constructi on not advi sed 10 t o 20 years
A peri od of ten years i s normally adopted which corresponds to the practi ce most wi del y
used. The optimized design method takes i nto account a number of actual movements over
a fi xed pavement l i f e. Any val ue may thus be chosen for the l atter.
4.2.6.3 Determination of pavement thi ckness
a) Data requi red
- Traf f i c f orecasts (f or method used to establ i sh these, see 4.2.1.1)
- CBR of natural soi l (fl exi bl e pavements)
- Modulus of subgrade reacti on k and the permi ssi bl e fl exural stress
of the concrete (ri gi d pavements)
b) Cal cul ati on method. The cal cul ati on consi sts of appl yi ng an
"i terati ve method" whi ch permi ts the structural i ntegri ty under
I
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 ** 484hYhb 0019485 082
3-110
~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~ Aerodrome ~~ ~ Design Xanual
expected traffi c to be checked in respect of successi ve thi ckness
val ues :
Step 1 - An i ni ti al thi ckness i s establ i shed.
Step 2 - The equi val ent: traffi c of the expected actual traf f i c,
equal l i ng a number of equi val ent movements of the al l owabl e
load Po of the structure bei ng tested Fa cal cul ated. The
total number of operati ons consti tuti ng the equi val ent
traf f i c may be consol i dated i n one cal cul ati on al ong the
l i nes of the exallple shown i n Fi gure 4-29.
Step 3 - Depending on whether the resul t is less than or more than
36 500 equi val ent movements, steps I and 2 are repeated wi th
a smal l er or greater thi ckness respecti vel y, unti l a thi ck-
ness i s found where the equi val ent traf f i c i s equal or as
cl ose as possi bl e to the 36 500 equi val ent movements.
c> Practi cal cal cul ati on. In thi s way one can cal cul ate for each ai r-
craft consi dered as the most cri ti cal , the thi ckness requi red by i ts
maximumexpected mass, taki ng i nto account the number of actual move-
ments anti ci pated at thi s mass and assuming that i t would be the onl y
ai rcraf t usi ng the pavement under study. The maximum thi ckness thus
obtai ned, pl us a f ew centi wstres, usual l y produeas an i ni ti al thi ck-
ness that i s f ai rl y cl ose to the f i n a l val ue. The ef f ects of some
ai rcraf t qui ckl y become negl i gi bl e as the thi ckness is i ncreased i n
the i terati ons (as soon as P/Po i s less than 0.8). They can be
del eted from the tabl es to si mpl i fy the cal cul atl ons. The mininmm
increments i n the i terati ons are general l y 1 cmf or ri gi d pavements
and 1 t o 2 cm f or f l exi bl e pavements which represents the maximm
accuracy that may be expected from an opti mhed desi gn.
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** m 46414Lb 003946b T I 9 m
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-111
1 2 3 4 5
I I I
. . . . . . . . . r . . . . .
6 7
Actual
Equi val ent
movements movements
. . . I . . .
I
Total equi val ent traf f i c 1 N' i, j
1) Subj ect ai rcraf t. Two models of the same ai rcraf t must be considered to
be di f f erent i f the characteri sti cs of thei r undercarri ages di f f er (number of
wheel s, si ze, pressure).
2) Actual l oads P, consi dered for each model .
3 ) Al l owabl e l oads Pa, cal cul ated by means of the graphs "Fl exi bl e pavement"
and "Rigid pavement", as appl i cabl e (see Appendix 3 ) . I f there i s no graph f or
the subj ect ai rcraf t, one uses the graph or the ai rcraf t wi th characteri sti cs cl osest
to the ai rcraft under study.
4 ) Rel ati onshi p R of the actual l oad P to the al l owabl e l oad Po. Thi s
rel ati onshi p must not exceed 1.2 for aprons and 1.5 f or the other pavements (it
is recommended, however, not to exceed 1.2).
5 ) Wei ghti ng coef f i ci ent Cp cal cul ated ei ther by means of Fi gure 4-30 or by
appl yi ng the formul a:
cp = 10 m- 11 P I
6 ) Total number N of actual novements per ai rcraf t over the anti ci pated
pavement l i f e.
7) Number N' of equi val ent movements to actual movements cal cul ated by means
of the f orml a:
N'= Cp x N P I
The total equi val ent traf f i c i s obtai ned by addi ng the number of equi va-
l ent movements i n column (7).
Fi gure 4-29. Computation of total equi val ent traf f i c
I C A O 9357 PART*: J ** = 48454Lb 00&9U0? 955
3-112
~~ - Aerodrome Design Manual
0.3 0.3 0,7 0.91 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 4 1 0 20 30 50 70 90100 . 200 300
Wei ghti ng coeffi ci ent of movements
Fi gure 4-30. Equi val ent traf f i c
-
Remark
The optimized design method can be used for purposes other than cal cu-
l ati ng thi cknesses, e.g.,
1 - Granti ng of concessi ons (see 2. 2. 2. 2 and 4. 2. 8) ; and
2 - Potenti al of remaining pavement l i f e (by comparing total and past
traf f i c equi val ents for an exi sti ng pavement).
4.2.7 Frost
4.2.7.1
as fol l ows:
It is recommended that structures be tested for the ef f ects oL frost-thaw
a) Cl assi fi cati on of s oi l accordi ng to f rost suscepti bi l i ty. The
cl assi f i cati on of the L abratoi re Central des Ponts et: Chaussbs* ~ ~~- - - - - - -
(Minis te're des Transports, France) is used t o express the f cos t
suscepti bi l i ty of soils.
* Abbreviated as LCPC.
I C A O 9357 PA RT* 3 ** = 484/43b 0037488 B93
Part 3. - Pavements 3-113
b) Determi nati on of frost penetrati on. Frost penetrati on is determi ned
usi ng the modi fi ed Berggren method adapted to the mul ti -l ayer case.
The f rost i ndi ces and thermi.c parameters are def i ned i n the same
manner as the LCPC.
c) Protecti ng pavement from frost. There are three f easi bl e protecti on
l evel s, as fol l ows:
1) Total protecti on. Protecti on i s cal cul ated so as to ensure that
the f rost penetrati on determi ned f or the excepti onal l y severe
wi nter cannot reach soi l l ayers that may be suscepti bl e to f rost.
~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~
2) Hi gh protecti on. Same pri nci pl e as total protecti on; however,
the f rost penetrati on i s cal cul ated f or a not excepti onal l y severe
wi nter .
3) Low protecti on. It i s recogni zed that frost under severe wi nter
condi ti ons may penetrate a f ew centi metres i nto the courses or
i nto f rostsuscepti bl e soi l . The acceptabl e depth of penetrati on
l argel y depends on the i ndi vi dual case and w i l l be determi ned i n
consul tati on wi th the Admi ni strati on. The tabl e hereunder shows
the recommended protecti on l evel s for i nformati on:
I
NATURAL SOIL
1
AERODROME CATEGORY Homogeneous Nonttomogeneous
LARGE AND MEDI UM AERODROMES*
Runways and taxiways H T
Aprons H H
INTERMEDIATE AERODROMES**
Runways and taxiways H
Aprons L
SMALL AERODROMES***
Runways and taxiways L
Aprons L
H
L
L
Protecti on T =Total H =High L =Low
* =annual traf f i c exceedi ng 200 000 passengers
** =annual traf f i c f rom 50 000 t o 200 000 passengers
*** =annual traf f i c less than 50 000 passengers
ICAO 9357 PART*K3 ** W 484Sq 5b 0019489 728
3-114 Aerodrome Design Manual
4 . 2.8 Allowable loads
4.2. 8.1 kterml ni ng the al l owabl e l oads f or exi sti ng pavements la a reci procal
problem of the desi gn process. Actual l y, three types of questi ons are covered by thi s
heading, namely:
a) as regards a speci f i c pavement, how to publ i sh i nformati on on i ts
beari ng strength I n term of i ts characteri sti cs;
b) conversel y, how can the al l owabl e l oad for every ai rcraft be determi n-
ed from thi s i nformati on (whi ch has been establ i shed i n a syntheti c
manner 1; and
c) under what condi ti ons shoul d concessi ons be granted i f the actual
l oads exceed the al l wabl e l oads.
Moreover, i n France two systems for the publ i cati on of i nformati on on runway beari ng
strength exi st si de by si de, 1.e.
- the method based on a typi cal undercarri age l eg appl i ed i n France up
to now; and
4.2.8.2 It is i ntended i n thi s secti on t o :
a) descri be each of the two methods and the condi ti ons i n whi ch they are
used;
b) Speci fy i nteri m measures requi red as a resul t of usi ng the two methods
si de by si de; and
c> i ndi cate the cal cul ati on process used i n deci di ng when concessi ons
should be granted.
4.2.8.3 Publ i shi ng i nformati on on runway beari nR strength
a) Method based on typi cal undercarri age le& Si nce practi cal l y al l
modern ai rcraf t are equi pped wi th undercarri ages wi th si ngl e, dual or
dual tandem wheel arrangednts, the maxlmum l &d al l owabl e on each
pavement w i l l have t o be f i xed f or each of the three typi cal under
carri ages on the basi s of ten movements per day over ten years.
Example: 20 t in respect of the si ngl e wheel , 35 t In respect of the dual
wheel and 50 t i n respect of the dual tandem wheel arrangements
are expressed symbol i cal l y as fol l ows:
The characteri sti cs of the typi cal undercarri age l egs are sel ected
from the most cri ti cal l andi ng gear characteri sti cs of current
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** 484343b 0039490 44T W
Eart 3. - Pavements 3-115
ai rcraf t (see 4.2.2). This method of fi xi ng the al l owabl e l oads has
the di sadvantage of i gnori ng the vari ati ons whi ch i n fact exi st
wi thi n the same category of undercarriage. For example, I the track
of the dual wheel s or the ti re pressure i s di f f erent f rom that of the
typi cal undercarri age, the ef f ect on the pavement w i l l di f f er
consi derabl y f or the same mass of ai rcraf t. Stri ctl y speaki ng,
theref ore, an al l owabl e l oad accordi ng to ai rcraf t type shoul d be
establ i shed f or a gi ven pavement. Obvi ousl y, thi s method cannot be
appl i ed i n practi ce. However, whenever such a precise cal cul ati on i s
j usti f i ed (e.g., f or the purpose of concessi ons), the exact l andi ng
gear characteri sti cs are taken i nto account, so that thi s does not
depri ve certai n ai rcraf t of the advantages they deri ve from the desi gn
of thei r undercarri age.
b) ACN-PCN method
Note. - This method is described in Anne,?: 14 and in
f i q t e r 1 of !-his manuat. .
4.2.8.4 Choice of a method. The ACN-PCN method came i nto f orce for AI Ps on 26
November 1981 and is gradual l y repl aci ng the method based on a typi cal undercarri age
l eg.
a) Exi sti ng pavements
- A f i nal PCN wi l l be publ i shed fol l owi ng the compl ete eval uati on of
pavements under the conditions described i n Secti on 4. 2. 9, and thi s
w i l l repl ace publ i cati ons based on a typi cal undercarri age l eg.
- An i nteri m PCN w i l l be publ i shed pendi ng an eval uati on, together
wi th the exi sti ng method of reporti ng data based on a typi cal
undercarri age l eg.
b) Reinforced pavements
- A f i nal PCN w i l l be publ i shed fol l owi ng the compl ete rei nforcement
of a pavement; thi s w i l l repl ace publ i cati ons based on a typi cal
undercarri age l eg f or the ol d pavement.
c) New pavements
- A f i nal PCN w i l l be publ i shed for new pavements.
Remark: I n areas subj ect to pronounced seasonal climatic changes, the
beari ng strength of the subgrade can vary consi derabl y i n the course
of the year. Thi s may necessi tate reporti ng two sets of PCN val ues,
one for the dry and one for the wet season.
3-116 Aerodrome Design Manual
4.2.8.5 Cal cul ati ng the val ues to be publ i shed
a) Requi red data. The data requi red for publ i shi ng i nformati on on pave-
ment strength consi st of:
- total equi val ent thi ckness and the CBR oE the subgrade or fl exl bl e
pavements.
- thi ckness of the sl ab, permi ssi bl e f l exural stress, modulus of sub-
grade reacti on k f or ri gi d pavements.
Such data are obtai ned i n the case of:
-
ol d pavements: from an eval uati on of beari ng strength under
condi ti ons descri bed i n 4.2.9.
-
rei nforced pavements: from the eval uati on of the beari ng strength
pri or to rei nforcement and from the characteri sti cs adopted i n
desi gni ng the rei nforcement.
-
new pavements: from the characteri sti cs adopted or the desi gn wi th
possi bl e correcti ons to take account of the actual constructi on.
b) Cal cul ati on
-
Method based on a typi cal under car r i age. The permi ssi bl e l oad
Po f or a typi cal undercarri age l eg is obtai ned by usi ng the reverse
desi gn method which consis ts-of determining from- graphs or formul as
the l oad i n term of the characteri sti cs of the subgrade and the
pavement.
- ACN-PCN Method. Determlning the PCN i s a long and complex
operati on. The cal cul ati ons i nvol ve the fol l owi ng successive
steps:
Step 1 - Establ i shi ng a list of atrcraf t wi ng or l i ke l y to use the
pavement under study .
Step 2 - Cal cul ati ng, wi th the ai d of the reverse desi gn method,
the permi ssi bl e Poi of the vari ous ai rcraf t i n terms of the
characteri sti cs of the subgrade and the pavement.
Step 3 - Cal cul ati ng for each typi cal soi l category the ACN which
corresponds to the permi ssi bl e l oad Poi. Subsequently, i n
each category one consi ders the PCN included between the
maximm and mlntrmm ACN val ues obtai ned. The PCN i s express-
ed by two si gni f l cant f i gures.
Step 4 - Searching among the coupl es (soil category, PCN) f or the
val ue that w i l l produce permissible l oads P'oi that are
cl osest to Poi.
Part 3.- Pavements 3-117
____-- . --
3sual L y the cal cul ati on resul ts i n a subgrade category that contai ns the CBR or modulus
k val ue 3f the pavement under study. However, i t i s not unusual to obtai n an adj acent
subgrade category and the cl assi fi cati on thus determi ned must be i nterpreted "wi thi n the
aeani ng of the ACN-PCN method".
c) The four code l etters which f ol l ow the PCN are sel ected i n the f ol l ow-
i ng manner:
-
type of pavement: the cl assi f i cati on i s establ i shed accordi ng to
the cri teri a i n 4.2.1.1.
- category of subgrade strength: thi s i s provided at the same time
as the PCN by the cal cul ati on descri bed above.
- maximumal l owabl e ti re pressure: Code W (no pressure l i mi tati on)
w i l l general l y be adopted. Code X (pressure l i mi ted to 1.5 MPa) i s
adopted where there i s a proven ri sk of surface damage.
- eval uati on method: the PCN i s cal cul ated fol l owi ng a complete
eval uati on: Code T w i l l normally be adopted. Code U can only be
appl i ed f or a2 i nteri m publ i cati on of the PCN of a pavement f or
whi ch there are no rel i abl e resul ts obtai ned by detai l ed eval uati on
and whose behaviour has been judged on the basi s of i ts abi l i ty to
accept exi sti ng traf f i c.
Remarks: 1) For a runway f or whi ch several homogeneous areas can be
di sti ngui shed i n regard to beari ng strength, the val ues to be
publ i shed are the l owest obtai ned over the enti re pavement area.
2) I f an area i s amenable t o a reducti on i n the normal desi gn
l oad (see 4. 2. 2. 2), weighting i s al so used i n cal cul ati ng the
al l owabl e l oads.
4.2.8.6 Usi ng the publ i shed val ues
a) Determi nati on of al l owabl e l oads:
1) ACN-PCN method. The al l owabl e l oad Po of an ai rcraf t i s cal cul ated
on the basi s of the publ i shed PCN by the rel ati on:
PCN - min ACN
max ACN - min ACN
Po = m + (M - m ) .
[ 41
max ACN: ACN val ue correspondi ng to the maximummass*
min ACN: ACN val ue correspondi ng to the minimum mass (operati ng mass
eQ4J tY)
* See Appendix 5 , Tabl e 5-1.
2) Typi cal undercarri age l eg method. The al l owabl e Load Po on the
undercarri age l eg of the ai rcraPt under study i s that which is
publ i shed i n respect of the correspondi ng typi cal Undercarri age
l eg.
Remark: In the case oE the pavement flJ r whi ch both the l oad per
typi cal undercarri age l eg and a PCN are publ i shed, one adopts the
hi ghest val ue obtai ned by usi ng one or tho qther method.
b) Use of al l owabl e l oads:
- i f the actual l oad P is less than the al l owabl e l oad Po there i s no
restri cti on (l oad, number of mvements) for the ai rcraft under
study wi thi n the overal l f atf gue limit of the pavement.
- i f the actual l oad P exceeds Load Po: a special study mst be
carri ed out whi ch may have the fol l owi ng resul ts or the subj ect
ai rcraf t :
- no restri cti on
- l i mi ted operati on" (as regards mass or number of movements under a
concession)
- ref usal of access
Example
&termi nati on of PCN of a l exi bl e runway wi th the fol l owi ng charac-
teristics: total equi val ent thi ckness e =7U cm
CBR of subgrade CBK =8
The pavement receives traffi c consi sti ng al most excl usi vel y of B-727-200, Standard,
Airbus A-300 B2, B-747-100.
Sol uti on
Step 1. The subgrade may be cl assi f i ed in Category B ( med i u m strength) as
w e l l as i n Category C (low strength). These two categori es w i l l then be tested i.3 a
subsequent cal cul ati on,
* See 2.2.2.2 for gui dance on thi s i ssue.
Part 3.- Pavements 3-119
Step 2. Cal cul ati on of al l owabl e l oads based on French practi ce (use of
graphs i n Appendix 3 ) :
Percentage of total
Load on each main mass on each main
Ai rcraf t undercarri age l eg undercarri age l eg Total mass
A-300 B 2
B-727-200
(Standard)
B-747-100
142 000 - 85 690
142 000 - 85 690
ACN = 26 + ( 5 5 - 2 6 ) . =5 5
84 000 - 4 4 293
78 471 - 44 293
ACN =24 + ( 49 - 2 4 ) . =5 3
329 000 - 162 703
334 751 - 162 703
ACN =22 + ( 60 - 2 2 ) . =59
Step 4 . The PCN val ue to be determi ned ranges from 45 to 49 i f one adopts
Category B and between 53 and 59 for Category C. It is noted, however, that the B-727
is acceptabl e i n both cases at a l oad exceedi ng the maximumall-up mass. When
consi deri ng the A-300B2 and the B-747-100 onl y, the choi ce is l i mi ted wi thi n the range
55 to 59 for Category C.
* See Appendix 5 , Tabl e 5-1.
A-300 B2 66 t 46.5 142 t
B-727-200 (Standard) 39 t 46. 4 84 t
B-747-100 76 t 23 . l25 329 t
Step 3. Cal cul ati on of the ACN correspondi ng to the al l owabl e l oad
determined f or each ai rcraf t .
CATEGORY B
A-300 B2
142 000 - 85 690
ACN =23* + ( 45 - 2 3 ) . =4 5
142 000 - 85 690
B-727-200
(Standard)
84 000 - 44 293
78 471 - 44 293
ACN =22 + ( 43 - 2 2 ) . = 46
B-747-100
329 000 - 162 703
334 751 - 162 703
ACN =20 + ( 50 - 2 0 ) . =49
CATEGORY C
3-120
Aerodrome Desi rn Manual
Step 5. The f i nal choi ce i s made between the mean val ues PCN =47 and
PCN = 57 obtai ned for Categori es B and C respecti vel y.
Allowable load
deduced from "True" al l wabl e Dif Eerence
the PCN l oad
Category B - A-300 B2: 147. 2 t 142 t +5.2 t
PCN =47 B-747-100: 317.5 t 329 t -11.5 t
Category C - A-300 B2: 145. 8 t 142 t +3.8 t
PCN =57 B-747-100 321.2 t 329 t - 7. 8 t
The di f f erence between the al l owabl e l oads cal cul ated by means of the two
methods is less in the second ca6er
Step 6. Publ i cati on
PCN 57/F/C/W/T
4. 2. 9 Eval uati on of pavements
4. 2. 9. 1 General . Eval uati on of exi sti ng pavements i s an i ndi spensabl e tool i n
ensuri ng ef f i ci ent uti l i zati on of thei r potenti al . It f ul f i l s three mai n obj ecti ves, as
fol l ows:
a) t o determi ne when mai ntenance operati ons or more extensi ve work mst
be undertaken;
b) at the time such work ha6 to be undertaken, to assess the resi dual
qual i ti es of the pavement wi th a view to enabl i ng a techni cal and
economic sol uti on to be f ound and the desi gn f or a possi bl e rei nforce-
ment to be determined; and
c) to determi ne, at any time, which ai rcraf t t ypes can use a parti cul ar
pavement, and thei r mass and rnaxiuun movement frequency (allowable
l oads descri bed i n 4. 2. 8) .
4. 2. 9. 2 Pavement eval uati on must take i nto account both the structural and
f uncti onal characterl sti cs of the pauements. The structural characteri sti cs of the
pavement/subgrade complex govern i ts beari ng strength, i.e.,its abi l i ty to bear l oads
imposed by ai rcraf t whi l e retai ni ng i ts structural i ntegri ty duri ng a certai n l i fe. The
f uncti onal characteri sti cs af f ect the state of the pavement surface and to what extent
the pavement can be safeby used by ai rcraf t. They are:
a) the qual i ty of the l ongi tudi nal prof i l e and, in parti cul ar, the
evenness whi ch determi ne the degree of vi brati ons produced i n ai rcraf t
duri ng rol l out;
b) sl i pperi ness, whi ch determi nes the degree a di recti onal control and
braki ng of the ai rcraft; and
ICAO 9357 P A R T * I t t = 4843436 0039476 9b8
Par t 3. - Pavement s 3- 121
Mor eover , t he st r uct ur al and f unct i onal char act er i st i cs ar e not i ndependent : t hus, t he
st at e of t he sur f ace can r eveal possi bl e st r uct ur al def ect s and, conver sel y, a st r uct ur e
unsui t ed t o t he t r af f i c causes det er i or at i on of t he sur f ace.
4.2.9.3 Eval uat i on of pavement s i s a- ver y compl ex pr ocedur e whi ch cal l s f or a
synt hesi s
by a speci al i st t eam of t he f ol l owi ng el ement s:
a) dat a on t he desi gn of t he pavement and of t he subsoi l , as wel l as on
possi bl e subsequent wor k ( mai nt enance, r ei nf or cement , etc.);
b) st udy of t he aer odr ome si t e;
c) cl i mat ol ogi cal dat a ( hydr ol ogy, gr ound wat er , f r ost , etc. );
d) vi sual i nspect i ons of t he st at e of t he pavement , sur veyi ng t he
det er i or at i on and exami ni ng t he dr ai nage;
e) var i ous measur ement s whi ch enabl e cer t ai n par amet er s associ at ed wi t h
t he pavement char act er i st i cs ( evenness, sl i pper i ness, bear i ng
st r engt h) t o be det er mi ned; and
f) measur ement of t he t hi ckness and qual i t at i ve assessment of t he
pavement cour ses and t he char act er i st i cs of t he subgr ade.
4.2.9.4 The f ol l owi ng par agr aphs deal onl y wi t h t he eval uat i on of t he pavement
bear i ng st r engt h. The pur pose of t hi s eval uat i on i s t o assi gn t he f ol l owi ng
r epr esent at i ve st r uct ur al par amet er s t o an exi st i ng pavement t o r epr esent i t s cur r ent
bear i ng st r engt h whi ch can be di r ect l y appl i ed t o det er mi ne t he al l owabl e l oad and any
r ei nf or cement r equi r ed:
a) t he CBR of t he subgr ade and t he t ot al equi val ent t hi ckness f or a
f l exi bl e pavement ; and
b) t he modul us of r eact i on k of t he subgr ade, t hi ckness of t he concr et e
sl ab and t he per mi ssi bl e f l exur al st r ess of t he concr et e i n t he case
of a ri gi d pavement .
4.2.9.5 Two appr oaches may be used t o det er mi ne t hese par amet er s, as f ol l ows:
a) by a pr ocedur e whi ch i s t he exact r ever se of t he desi gn pr ocess, t he
' so- cal l ed "r ever se desi gn met hod"; and
b) by means of non- dest r uct ur e pl at e l oadi ng t est s on t he sur f ace of t he
pavement whi ch i ndi cat e t he act ual al l owabl e l oad i n t he case of a
si ngl e wheel l eg.
In pr act i ce, t he eval uat i on of a pavement bear i ng st r engt h must be made by synt hesi zi ng
t he r esul t s of t hese t wo compl ement ar y appr oaches.
I C A O 3557 PARTa3 ** L(B41456 0019497 B T Y
.~=--
3-122 ~~ ~~ ~ Aerodrome Design Yanwl
~~
4. 2. 3. 6 Reverse design method. The purpose of the desi gn method descri bed
previ ousl y which uses the subgrade data, i s to determi ne a pavement structure that can
bear a gi ven traf f i c over a certai n l i fe, provided "normal" mal-ktenance is performed.
Conversel y, once the characteri sti cs of the subgrade and o f the pavement structure are
known, thi s method enabl es the traffi c whi ch can be accepted duri ng a gi ven time to be
determined. The foregoi ng i s the basis f or eval uati on bearing strength by Mans of the
reverse desi gn method. When thi s method i s used by itself , however, consi derabl e
di f f i cul ti es are encountered i n determi ni ng the structural parameters that rmst be taken
i nto account i n eval uati ng an exi sti ng pavement and i ts subgrade. Even if records are
avai l abl e of the constructi on of the paverent, of any maintenance and reinforcement work
perf oraed i n the past, and of the traf f i c accepted, thi s method requi res many tri al
bori ngs and testi ngs of the paveaent. Moreover, there wi l l usual l y be some uncertai nty
concerni ng the resul ts because of the di ffi cul ty of eval uati ng certai n parameters
(equi val ence coeffi ci ents of the courses of a f l exi bl e pavement, load transfers between
concrete sl abs, etc. 1.
Remark: The reverse desi gn method can only be used for a pavement that i s
correctl y consti tuted (f or f l exi bl e pavements, the courses must be of i ncreasi ng qual i ty
from bottom to top and adhere closely).
4.2.9.7 Non-destructive plate tests. When i nterpreted by qual i fi ed personnel ,
non-destructi ve pl ate tests can di rectl y provi de the al l owabl e l oad for a si ngl e wheel
at a l arge number of poi nts on a f l exi bl e pavement and the al l owabl e l aad at the corners
of slabs i n the case of a ri gi d pavement. These tests are i nsuf f i ci ent to detedne the
al l owabl e l oad f or ai rcraf t wi th mul ti pl e wheel undercarri ages or to serve as the basi s
for desi gni ng a reinforcement, in which case the reverse desi gn method must be adopted.
Neverthel ess, the pl ate tests consi derabl y reduce the number of deetructi ve tests
requi red i n order to appl y a rel i abl e cross-check i n the case of f l exi bl e pavements and
enabl e the qual i ty of the l oad transfer t o be eval uated i n the case of rigid pavements,
as explained i n the fol l ovi ng paragraph.
4. 2. 9. 8 Test programme to eval uate beari ng strength. The amount of equipment
required depends on the parti cul ar obj ecti ve and how rmch is al ready known about the
pavement:
a> If the pavement is ol d and l i ttl e i s known of i t 6 characteri sti cs, al l
the equipment described below mst be used.
b) I the pavement i s of recent constructi on and adequate records are
avai l abl e or the pavement has al ready been the subj ect of a cow
prehenvi ve eval uati on of the type described above and changes i n
beari ng strength onl y are t o be determi ned, non-destructi ve pl ate
tests are usual l y adequate. This al so appl i es to a pavement which has
undergone a conpl ete eval uati on f ol l wed by rei nforcemnt work, where
the resul ts of such work are to be checked.
The following paragraph6 deal with the first case , i.e.? a complete study.
4.2.9.9 Del i neati on of homogeneous zones
a> The f i r st phase of the study is i ntended to del i neate the zones whose
structure and state are i denti cal and to assess thei r homogeneity i n
order to reduce the number OP other tests needed to determi ne the
pavement structure. To compl ete the i nformati on avai l abl e from the
i
I
ICAO 7357 PA RT* 3 X* W 4843436 0039498 730 =
Par t 3. - Pavements 3-123
records, a detai l ed vi sual i nspecti on of the pavement must f i r st be
performed, including a survey and cl assi f i cati on of i ts deteri orati on,
as wel l as an i nspecti on of the drainage system.
b) During a second stage, the fol l owi ng may be used:
For f l exi bl e pavements: ei ther the L acroi x defl ectograph of the LCPC,
or the i nf l uograph of the STBA".
For ri gi d pavements: the equi pment for measuri ng vi brati on of sl abs
(DMBD) of the LCPC.
c) Fi nal l y, a rel ati vel y l arge number of nondestructi ve pl ate tests
(from 80 to 100 on a medium-size aerodrome) are performed which not
onl y enabl e the homogenei ty of pavement behavi our to be assessed, as
i n the case of the above-mentioned equipuent, but which also give the
val ue of the al l owabl e l oad for a si ngl e wheel at each of these
poi nts.
4.2.9.10 Descri pti on of the homogeneous zones. All the above-mentioned equipment
i s used to def i ne the homogeneous zones on the basi s of thei r structure and behavi our.
-
Havi ng determi ned the al l owabl e l oad Po for each homogeneous zone, one or several
borings must be performed to eval uate each zone. These borings are performed at one or
several poi nts at which pl ate tests were carri ed out produci ng a resul t P i cl ose to the
al l owabl e l oad Po adopted for that zone. Some bori ngs are occasi onal l y al so performed
at speci fi c poi nts (e.g.,where the al l owabl e l oad P i i s parti cul arl y low). As an order
of magnitude, a total of 6 to 12 trial bori ngs are usual l y suf f i ci ent f or a medium si ze
aerodrome, depending on the homogeneity of the pavements tested. These tri al bori ngs
must cover a surface area of approxi matel y 1.5 m2 and are performed:
a) to determi ne the structure of the pavement, parti cul arl y the thi ckness
of the courses and to check the qual i ty of the materials encountered,
i f necessary i n the l aboratory;
b) to undertake CBR tests in s i t u or tests of the modulus of subgrade
reacti on k whenever possible; and
c) to measure the moi sture content and dry densi ty of the subgrade and t o
take i ntact or treated sampl es f or l aboratory anal ysi s and tests.
4.2.9.11 I nterpretati on and synthesi s of the resul ts. The resul ts f or each
homogeneous zone are i nterpreted i n the l i ght of the data i n respect of the pavement and
traf f i c i t has accepted, the surveys of i ts deteri orati on, the resul ts of. the i nspecti on
of the drai nage system and al l the measurements performed. This synthesis must be
carri ed out by a speci al i st team, i n practi ce the STBA. Cross-checking of the di f f erent
measurement values permi ts making a f i nal choi ce of the di f f erent characteri sti cs
requi red to cal cul ate the al l owabl e l oads (see 4.2.8).
* STBA: Servi ce Techni que des Bases Agri ennes, Mi ni stbre des Transports, France
..-
ICAO 9157 PART83 t t 4BYL4Lb OOL9499 677 W
3-124 Aerodrome Design Manual
4.2.10 Painforcement of pavements
4.2.10.1 General. The problem of reinforcement of aerodrome pavements can arise
when manoeuvring areas mst be adapted to w e t the future requi renents of heavi er air-
craf t or when pavements requi re strengtheni ng to meet inmediate needs of current
traf f i c. In practi ce, these two concerns are frequently confused. Reinforcement i s not
the onl y sol uti on, however, i f a parti cul ar pavement i s not sui ted to the present or
f uture traf f i c:
- It may at times be preferabl e to bui l d a new pavement somewhere else.
Thi s sol uti on obvi ates the di ffi cul ty of mai ntai ni ng the fl ow of traf f i c
duri ng the rei nforci ng work; i t al so al l ows for the i ntroducti on of an
improved l ayout more adapted to new operati ng condi ti ons.
- The "substi tuti on" method coul d al so be adopted. This consi sts of
removing the exi sti ng pavement and rebuilding a new one at the same
l evel . This sol uti on, whi ch i n the case of a runway can be l i mi ted to
15 m on ei ther si de of the centre l i ne, avoi ds mergi ng probl ems. How-
ever, of al l the possi bl e sol uti ons, i t i s the most expensive one.
The text below deal s wi th the actual rei nforcement of pave~ents; i t descri bes a method
for determi ni ng the thi ckness of the rei nforcement and deals wi th certai n rel evant
problems encountered during construction.
4.2.10.2 Choice of sol uti on. The rei nforcement for a parti cul ar pavement (f l exi bl e
or ri gi d) can be of the same type or di f f erent. The choi ce is governed by techni cal and
economic considerations, by the restri cti ons imposed by the sol uti on on the use of the
aerodrome while the work is bei ng carri ed out and by the bond between the reinforcement
and the exi sti ng pavement.
4.2.10.3 Choice of the cross-secti onal profi l e. Appreci abl e savi ngs can be made i n
the cost of rei nforci ng a runway by reduci ng the thi ckness of the pavement outsi de a
30 mwi de central stri p and subj ect to compati bi l i ty with the geometri cal standards of
the cross-secti onal profi l e. Apart from a savi ng i n rei nf orci ng material, the decrease
i n thi ckness of the rei nforcement towards the edges of the runway, sometimes down t o
nothi ng, al so mi ni mi zes or even el i mi nates the need to rai se the l evel of the shoul -
ders.
4.2.10.4 The thi ckness of the f l exi bl e rei nf orcewnt may be obtal ned usi ng the
fol l owi ng rel ati onshi p:
e =3.75 (Fht - h) [ I S]
- i n thi s rel ati onshi p, e is the equi val ent thi ckness in accordance wi th
the def i n-i ti on gi ven i n 4.2.3.4. It should bs noted that the aaterials
used f or a rei nforcement ~ 1 s t be at l east q11a1 i n qual i ty to those used
for the subbase course, i .e.,the coefficient of equi val ence m s t be at
l east 1;
- h is the thi ckness of the exi sti ng concrete sl ab;
- 4 i s the theoreti cal thi ckness of the new slab Less the exi sti ng
sl ab. This thi ckness i s cal cul ated taki ng i nto account the al l owabl e
stress and the corrected k appl i cabl e to the exi sti ng sl ab;
I C A O 7357 P A R T t 3 t t = 484143b OOL75OO 317 =
Par t 3. - Pavement s 3- 125
- F i s a coef f i ci ent of r educt i on of t he t hi ckness ht s t he val ue of
whi ch i s gi ven i n Fi gur e 4- 31 as a f unct i on of t he modul us k al r eady
ment i oned ( t he t heor et i cal t hi ckness of t he concr et e sl ab i s r educed
because i t i s assumed t hat t he sl ab wi l l cr ack t o a cer t ai n ext ent i n
ser vi ce, i n cont r ast wi t h t he assumpt i on made i n connexi on wi t h t he
cal cul at i on f or sl abs used i n t he wear i ng cour se) ;
- The equi val ent t hi ckness of t he r ei nf or cement must not be l ess t han
20 cm, unl ess speci al l evel l i ng cour ses ar e used t o cor r ect def or ma-
t i ons. Because of t he pr esence of j oi nt s and t he movement of t he sl abs,
t he concr et e wi l l have t o be cover ed wi t h a l ayer of mat er i al of
suf f i ci ent t hi ckness t o pr event t he appear ance of def ect s at t he sur -
f ace;
- Mor eover , t he r el at i onshi p at [5] i s appl i cabl e onl y t o val ues r esul t i ng
i n an equi val ent t hi ckness e exceedi ng 20 cm.
J
c
I
I
I I
0 IO 20 30 4 0 50 60 70 80 90 100
110
Modul us of React i on' K i n MN/ m3
Fi gur e 4- 31. Fl exi bl e r ei nf or cement on r i gi d pavement - Fact or F
4 . 2 . 1 0 . 5 Const r uct i on r ul es. The most pr essi ng pr obl em- and one whi ch has not yet
been sat i sf act or i l y r esol ved - associ at ed wi t h t he di r ect r ei nf or cement of concr et e wi t h
a bi t umi nous mi x i s t hat of t he r eappear ance of t he j oi nt i n t he ri gi d pavement at t he
sur f ace of t he r ei nf or cement . At t empt s ar e made t o pr event t hi s damage by r ei nf or ci ng
t he pavement at t hese j oi nt s by means of met al l at t i ces, pl at es, f abri cs, et c. , or at
l east by separ at i ng t he cour se of bi t umi nous mi x f r om t he sl ab over a cer t ai n di st ance
on ei t her si de of t he j oi nt (e.g.,by i nt er posi ng a l ayer of sand). It i s al so possi bl e
t o pr ovi de sawcut j oi nt s on t he sur f ace of t he r ei nf or cement t o avoi d i r r egul ar cr ack-
i ng. Thi s sol ut i on f aci l i t at es mai nt enance, but r educes t he bear i ng st r engt h of t he
pavement .
4.2.10.6 Al t hough sel dom encount er ed, anot her possi bl e di f f i cul t y i s caused by t he
af f i ni t y of cer t ai n j oi nt i ng compounds f or t he bi t umen, whi ch can r esul t i n swel l i ng of
I C A O 9557 PA RT t 3 t t W 48414Lb 00595OlI 055
3-126 Aerodrome Design Manual
the pavement at the j oi nt of the rei nforced sl ab. If i n doubt, it wi l l then be advis-
abl e to remove the j oi nti ng compound before the refnforcement is appl i ed and to ref i l l
the j oi nts wi th a mi xture of sand and binder compatible with the one used i n the
rei nforci ng course. These rul es cannot be appl i ed i n the case of rei nforcement wi th
concrete, unl ess the concrete i s l i mi ted to the central porti on of the runaay and a
"fl exi bl e" sol uti on i s adopted i n the case of the l ateral parts.
4.2.10.7 Prel i dnary studi es. An eval uati on of the exi sti ng pavement is requi red
(see 4.2.9). Of prime importance i s a systemati c bori ng of the pavemnt i n vi ew of the
frequent di screpanci es i n thi ckness, consti tuti on, etc. rlf the ol d pavements.
4.2.10.8 Reinforcement of f l exi bl e pavements
a1 Fl exi bl e rei nforcement. The thi ckness of the rei nforcement is
determined by the di fference between the equi val ent thi ckness requi red
f or a new pavement and that of the exi sti ng pavement. When determin-
i ng the l atter, the fol l owi ng shoul d be taken i nto account:
1) the equi val ence coeffi ci ents have to be corrected accordi ng to the
actual condi ti on of the pavement courses; and
21 the equi val ence coeffi ci ent of a pavement course at a gi ven l evel
cannot be greater than that of the course above i t. For i nstance,
i f a bituminous mix i n good condi ti on (coeffi ci ent 2) i s covered
by a coarse-aggregate cement (coef f i ci ent 1.51, the coeffi ci ent of
the f orner al so becomes 1.5.
b) Rigid reinforcement. When a f l exi bl e pavement is rei nforced wi th a
concrete sl ab, the former i s onl y consi dered as a sub-base course i n
the cal cul ati ons. The k value which is attri buted to thi s course is
determined by ref erence to Fi gure 4-13. The thi ckness of the sl ab i s
then establ i shed i n accordance wi th 4.2.4, 4.2.5, and 4. 2. 5.
4.2.10.9 Reinforcement of ri gi d pavements
a) Fl exi bl e rei nforceuent. If the exLsti ng pavement is appreci abl y
Tragmented, it i s advi sabl e to consi der i t as a f l exi bl e pavement of
the same thi ckness when computing the thi ckness o the rei nforcement.
It thus amounts to the same case as descri bed abwe. The descri pti on
below presupposes that the exi sti ng ri gi d pavement is sti l l sound (i n
that case i t i s sti l l possi bl e to consi der the exi sti ng ri gi d pavement
as a f l exi bl e pavement of the same thi ckness i f thts i s f avourabl e to
the cal cul ati ons).
b 11 Rigid reinforcement. The thi ckness of the rei nf orci ng sl ab is
obtai ned by applying the formula:
h , =
1.4 I
ChlB4
- i s the theoreti cal thi ckness of a new sl ab deterai ned usi ng the
permi ssi bl e stress i n the new concrete and the corrected modulus oE
reacti on for the exi sti ng subgrade.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 48434Lb 0039502 T93
Part 3.- Pavements 3-127
- h i s the thi ckness of the exi sti ng concrete sl ab.
- C i s a coef f i ci ent i ntroduced i n order to take account of the
qual i ty of the exi sti ng pavement:
C = 1 f or a pavement i n good condi ti on,
C = 0.75 f or a pavement exhi bi ti ng some cracki ng at the corners, but
not appreci abl y deteri orated,
C = 0.35 f or a badly fragmented pavement.
I n practice one of the two l atter val ues are general l y appl i ed.
The above rel ati onshi p onl y appl i es i f the rei nforci ng sl ab i s l ai d di rectl y on top of
the exi sti ng pavement. If a l ayer of materi al (usual l y bi tumi nous mix) i s i nterposed
between the two sl abs, e.g. i n order to al ter the prof i l e of the exi sti ng pavement, the
fornul a for cal cul ati ng the thi ckness of the rei nforcement becornes:
hr = 71 ht2 - Ch2
71
I n thi s expressi on, the si gni fi cance of the parameters and the val ues for coeffi ci ent C
are the same as detai l ed previ ousl y. Thi s f orrml a resul ts i n sl i ghtl y i ncreased thi ck-
nesses of the rei nforcement.
4.2.10.10 Constructi on rul es. To avoi d the reappearance of the j oi nts i n the exi st-
i ng pavement i n the f orm of cracks i n the rei nf orci ng sl ab, i t i s essenti al that the
j oi nts be superi mposed as accuratel y as possi bl e. Eloreover, al l the j oi nts i n the
exi sti ng pavement must have new j oi nts (of any type) above them. I n parti cul ar, si nce
the ol d sl abs are general l y smaller i n wi dth than those currentl y adopted, addi ti onal
l ongi tudi nal contracti on-expansi on j oi nts may be necessary i n the rei nf orci ng sl ab. The
placement of the di f f erent rei nf orci ng j oi nts thus cal l s f or a prel i mi nary i n-depth
study i f one wi shes to avoi d mi scal cul ati ons.
4.2.11 Light pavements
4.2.11.1 Light pavements are i ntended excl usi vel y f or ai rcraf t whose total mass
does not exceed 5.7 tonnes. Fi gure 4-32 may be used to cal cul ate the pavement thickness
i n rel ati on to the CBR of the natural soi l .
4.2.11.2 Allowable loads. The al l owabl e l oad on a l i ght pavement is 5 700 kg. The
ai rcraf t ti re pressure must not exceed 0.6 MPa (approximately 6 kg/cm2) to avoi d any
ri sk of punching. Consequently, the information to be publ i shed on pavement strength i n
accordance wi th the Annex 14 provi si ons f or l i ght pavements w i l l be 5 700 kg/O. 6 ma.
Aerodrome Design Hanual
~~ ~
25
Thickness of pavement in cm
(wearing course excluded)
Fi gure 4-32. Designing a l i ght pavement
ICAO 7357 PA RT* 3 ** = 48414Lb 0039504 A b 4
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-129
4 . 3 United Kingdom practi ce
4 . 3 . 1 Design and evaluation of pavements
4 . 3 . 1 . 1 It is the Uni ted Kingdom practi ce to desi gn for unl i mi ted operati onal use
by a gi ven ai rcraft taki ng i nto account the l oadi ng resul ti ng from i nteracti on of
adj acent l andi ng gear wheel assembl i es where appl i cabl e. The ai rcraf t i s desi gnated
"the desi gn ai rcraf t" f or the pavement. The support strength cl assi f i cati on of the
pavement i s represented by the desi gn ai rcraf t's pavement cl assi f i cati on number i denti f yi ng
i ts l evel of l oadi ng severi ty. All other ai rcraft ranked by the Uni ted Kingdom standards
as less severe may anti ci pate unl i mi ted use of the pavement though the fi nal deci si on
rests wi th the aerodrome authori ty.
4 . 3 . 1 . 2 While there are now avai l abl e a number of computer programmes based on pl ate
theory, mul ti l ayer elastic theory and fi ni te el ement anal ysi s, for those wi shi ng to have
readi l y avai l abl e tabul ated data for pavement desi gn and eval uati on, the Reference
Constructi on Cl assi fi cati on (RCC) system has been devel oped from the Bri ti sh Load
Cl assi f i cati on Number (LCN) and Load Cl assi f i cati on Group (LCG) systems. Pavements are
i denti f i ed as di vi di ng broadl y i nto ri gi d or f l exi bl e constructi on and anal ysed accordi ngl y.
4 . 3 . 1 . 3 For the reacti on of ai rcraf t on ri gi d pavements, a si mpl e two l ayer model i s
adopted. To establ i sh an ai rcraf t's theoreti cal depth of ref erence constructi on on a
range of subgrade support val ues equati ng to the I CAO ACN/PCN reporti ng method, the model
i s anal ysed by Westergaard centre case theory. Account i s taken of the ef f ect of adj acent
l andi ng gear wheel assembl i es up to a di stance equal to three times the radi us of rel ati ve
sti f f ness. Thi s i s consi dered essenti al i n any new system i n vi ew of the i ncreasi ng mass
of ai rcraft, compl exi ty of l andi ng gear l ayouts and the possi bl e i nteracti on of adj acent
wheel assemblies on poor subgrades especi al l y.
e 4 . 3 . 1 . 4 To resol ve practi cal desi gn and eval uati on probl ems, a range of equi val ency
f actors appropri ate to the relative strengths of i ndi genous constructi on materials is
adopted to convert between theoreti cal model reference constructi on depths and actual
pavement thi ckness.
4 . 3 . 1 . 5
adopted for
i s anal ysed
Beari ng Rati o (CBR) method. Thi s i ncl udes Boussi nesq defl ecti on factors and
i nto account i nteracti on between adj acent l andi ng gear wheel assembl i es up to
di stance. Practi cal desi gn and eval uati on probl ems are resol ved usi ng equi va
f actors to relate materials and l ayer thi cknesses to the theoreti cal model on
the ref erence constructi on depths f or ai rcraf t are assessed.
Ai rcraf t reacti on on f l exi bl e pavements follows the same basi c pattern
ri gi d pavement desi gn and eval uati on. I n thi s case a four pavement model
usi ng the Uni ted States Corps of Engi neersr devel opment of the Cal i forni a
takes
l enc y
20 radi i
which
4 . 3 . 2 Reporti ng pavement strength
4 . 3 . 2 . 1 It is the United Kingdom practi ce to f ol l ow the I CAO ACN/FCN reporti ng
method f or ai rcraf t pavements. The cri ti cal ai rcraf t i s i denti f i ed as the one which
imposes a severi ty of l oadi ng condi ti on cl osest to the maximumpermi tted on a gi ven
pavement for unl i mi ted operati onal use. Using the cri ti cal ai rcraEt's ACN i ndi vi dual
aerodrome authori ti es deci de on the PCN to be publ i shed for the pavement concerned.
3-130 Aerodrome Design Manual
~~
4.3.2.2 Though not reveal ed by the ICAO ACX/PCS reporti ng method, when i nteracti on
between adj acent l andi ng gear wheel assembl i es affects the l evel of l oadi ng imposed by
an ai rcraft, Uni ted Kingdom aerodrome authori ti es nay impose restri cti ons on operati ons
by a mass l i mi tati on or a reducti on i n the number of permi tted movements. This is
unl i kel y to occur, however, wi th ai rcraft currentl y i n operati onal use except where
subgrade support val ues are poor.
4.4 Uni ted States of America Practi ce
Note. - fizq spectfierztiotzs -it: this Z S ? - ? & ~ : ~ ~ L ~ C& cqhubatim~lc z+<p. t%l-icfi
tkq a m based, m?m qmt ed ik ICkO in i mke c ~ n i ! Ifzac?tir.ne t k - m ~ f . 4 7 , k h q h m&-ric
eqxivaZcnts am pz v v i de d, in accor&nes tl-ith C&T.&P;~ IcTAQ ptzc&ize, t k y camnot Ee
t aken as being as p ~ z d s e as tk figzuvs qzatsd <E < t ~ h ? s .
4.4.1 I ntroducti on
4.4.1.1 The Uni ted States Federal Avi ati on Admi ni strati on method of desi gni ng and
reporti ng ai rport pavement strength i s i n terns of gross ai rcraft wei ght for each type
of l andi ng gear. Thi s permi ts the eval uati on of a pavement wi th regard to its abi l i ty
to support the vari ous types and weights of ai rcraft. Conpari son between the pavement
strength (reported as gross wei ght for ai rcraft equi pped wi th si ngl e wheel , dual wheel ,
and dual-tandem wheel undercarriagesj and the actual gross weight of a speci f i c ai rcraf t
wi l l establ i sh the pavement's abi l i ty to accomdate the ai rcraf t. Tn 1078 the
Uni ted States Federal Avi ati on Admi ni strati on adopted the Cal i forni a Beari ng Ratio (CBR)
method of f l exi bl e pavement desi gn, edge l oadi ng assumpti on fGr the desi gn of ri gi d
pavemnts and the Uni fi ed Soi l Cl assi f i catton System. This secti on presents a detai l ed
outl i ne of current procedures and cri teri a whi ch the Vni ted States Federal Avi ati on
Admi ni strati on has found necessary to fol l ow i n pavement desi gn and i n conducti ng a
pavement strength eval uati on.
4.4.2 Basi c i nl resti gati onsand ronsid-;rag ~~ ~ ions ~~
4.4.2.1 The Uni ted States is convi nced that there is nn qui ck or si npl e method of
anal ysi ng a pavement's strength and that the servi ces r l f a qual i f i ed engi neer are
essenti al to ensure a realistic eval uati on. The thi ckness of the pavement and i ts
components is but one of the f actors to consi der. Envi ronnental features, both c'limatic
and topographi c, foundati on condi ti ons, qual i ty of materials, and construction methods
are al l essential elements of any sva Luation technique. The fnl l owi ng bas Lc i nvesti gati ons
should be included in any meaningful evaluation:
a) pavement condi ti on surveys showing haw the exi sti ng pavements are
hol di ng up under traf f i c must be conducted i n detai l . A l l areas of
f ai l ure must be accuratel y mapped and causes of s ~ c h f ai l ures
ascertai ned. I t is extremel y i mportant that faLl ures due tu traf f i c
and l oad be di fferenti ated from fai l ures due to cl i mte, drai nage,
and/or poor material, and workmnship;
b) a s oi l survey must be completed t u di scl ose i nportant vari ati ons i n
soil structure, changes i n moisture crl ntent, water-bearing Layers,
water tabl e, and similar determi nati ons;
c j adequate tests, both fi el d and l aboratory, shoul d be employed i n
eval uati ng the pavement foundation and the pavement's componerrt parts;
ICAO 9357 P ART*3 t* = 48V143b 0039506 637
Part 3. - Pavements 3-131
d) drai nage condi ti ons at the si te shal l be anal ysed to ascertai n the
need for correcti ve measures pri or to any rehabi l i tati on work;
e) an anal ysi s of the traf f i c hi story of the ai rport wi th regard to both
wei ght of ai rcraft and number of operati ons associ ated wi th traffi c
densi ty f or the parti cul ar area under study must be undertaken and
appropri atel y correl ated wi th pavement performance; and
f ) the qual i ty of pavement materials and adequacy of construction methods
and practi ces must be eval uated to determi ne the degree of conformance
wi th requi red standards and speci fi cati ons.
4.4.2.2 The soi l survey i s not confi ned to soi l s encountered i n gradi ng or
necessari l y to the area wi thi n the boundari es of the ai rport si te. Possi bl e sources
of l ocal l y avai l abl e material that may be used as borrow areas or aggregate sources
shoul d be i nvesti gated.
4.4.2.3 Sampl es representati ve of the di fferent l ayers of the vari ous soi l s
encountered and vari ous constructi on materi al di scovered shoul d be obtai ned and tested
i n the l aboratory to determi ne thei r physi cal and engi neeri ng properti es. Because the
resul ts of a test can only be as good as the sampling, it i s of utmost importance that
each sampl e be representati ve of a parti cul ar type of soi l materi al and not be a
carel ess and i ndi scri mi nate mi xture of several materi al s.
4.4.2.4 Pi ts, open cuts, or both may be requi red for making i npl ace beari ng tests,
for the taki ng of undi sturbed sampl es, for charti ng vari abl e soi l strata, etc. Thi s
type of suppl emental soi l i nvesti gati on i s recommended f or si tuati ons which warrant a
hi gh degree of accuracy or when in s i b condi ti ons are complex and requi re extensi ve
i nvesti gati on.
4.4.3 Soi l tests
4.4.3.1 Physi cal soi l properti es. To determi ne the physi cal properti es of a soi l
and to provi de an esti mate of its behavi our under vari ous condi ti ons, it is necessary
to conduct certai n soi l tests. A number of f i el d and l aboratory tests have been
devel oped and standardi zed. Detai l ed methods of performi ng soi l tests are compl etel y
covered i n publ i cati ons of the Ameri can Soci ety for Testi ng and Materials.
4.4.3.2 Testi ng requi rements. Soi l tests are usual l y i denti f i ed by terms
i ndi cati ng the soi l characteri sti cs whi ch the tests wi l l reveal. Terms which i denti f y
the tests consi dered to be the minimum or basi c requi rement f or ai rport pavement, with
thei r ASTM desi gnati ons and bri ef expl anati ons, fol l ow:
a) Dry preparati on of soi l sampl es f or parti cl e- si ze anal ysi s and
determi nati on of soi l constants (ASTM D-421) or wet areDarati on of
soi l sampl es for grai n-si ze anal ysi s and determi nati on of soi l .
constants (ASTM D-2217). The dry method (D-421) should be used only
for cl ean, cohesi onl ess granul ar materi al s. The wet method (D-2217)
A -
. shoul d be used for al l cohesi ve or borderl i ne materi al s. I n case
of doubt, the wet method should be used.
3-132 Aerodrome Design Manual
~~
~ ~~
Parti cl e-si ze anal ysi s of soils ( ATH C- 4 2 2 ) . Thi s anal ysi s provi des
a quanti tati ve determi nati on of the di stri buti on of parti cl e sizes
i n soi l s.
Pl asti c limit of soils (ASTM D-424). The pl asti c limit of a soi l
i s defi ned as the l owest moi sture content at whi ch a soi l w i l l
change from a semi -sol i d to a pl asti c state. A t moi sture contents
above the pl asti c limit, there is a sharp drop i n the stabi l i ty of
soi l s.
Liquid limit of soi l s (ASTM D-423). The l i qui d limlt of a soil
is defi ned as the l owest moi sture content at which a soil passes
from a pl asti c to a l i qui d state. The l i qui d state is defi ned as
the condi ti on in which the shear resi stance of the soil is so
sl i ght that a small force will cause i t to fl ow.
Pl asti ci ty i ndex of soi l s (ASTH D- 424) . The pl asti ci ty i ndex i s the
numeri cal di fference between the pl asti c limit and the l i qui d limit.
It i ndi cates the range i n mai sture content over whi ch a soil remains
i n a pl asti c state pri or to changi ng i nto a l i qui d.
Moi sture densi ty rel ati ons of s oi l s !AST?l D- h58, D-1557). For purposes
of compacti on control duri ng constructi on, tests to determi ne the
moi sture-densi ty rel ati ons of the di fferent types of soi l s shoul d be
performed.
1) For pavements designed to serve ai rcraf t wei ghi ng 39 000 Ib
(13 000 kg) or more, use ASTM Method D-1557.
2) For pavements designed to serve ai rcraft wei ghi ng less than
30 000 l b ( 13 090 kg), use ASTH Xethod D-598.
4 . 4 . 3 . 3 Supplemental tests. I n many cases addi ti onal soil tests will be requi red
over those l i sted i n 4.4.3.2 above. It i s not possi bl e to cover al l the addi ti onal
tests which may be required; however, a few examples are presented below. This list
i s not to be consi dered a complete list by any means.
a ) x). This text may be requi red
i n areas where swelling soils might be encountered.
b) Permeabi l i ty of granul ar soi l s (ASlX D-2434). This test may be
needed to assist in the desi gn of subsurface drai nage.
c) Determi nati on of organi c material i n soi l s by wet combustion
(AASHTO T- 1 9 4 ) . This test may be needed i n areas where deep
pockets of organi c material are encountered or suspected.
ICAO 9157 PA RT * 3 ** W 484341b 0039508 4 0 T
Part 3. - Pavements 3-133
d) Beari ng rati o of l aboratory-compacted soi l s (ASTM D-1883). This
test i s used to assi gn a Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o (CBR) val ue to
subgrade soi l s for use i n the desi gn of fl exi bl e pavements.
e) Modulus of soi l reacti on (AASHTO T 222). This test i s used to
determi ne the modul us of soi l reacti on, K, f or use i n the desi gn
of ri gi d pavements.
f ) Cal i f orni a beari ng rati o, f i el d i n-pl ace tests. Fi el d beari ng
tests can be performed when the in s i t u condi ti ons sati sf y
densi ty and moisture conditions which wi l l exi st under the
pavement bei ng desi gned.
4. 4. 4 Uni f i ed soi l cl assi f i cati on system
4. 4. 4. 1 The standard method of cl assi fyi ng soi l s for engi neeri ng purposes is
ASTM D-2487, commonly cal l ed the Uni fi ed system. The change from the FAA system to
the Uni fi ed system is based on the resul ts of a research study whi ch compared three
di f f erent methods of soi l cl assi f i cati on. The research study concl uded the Uni fi ed
system i s superi or i n detecti ng properti es of soi l s which af f ect ai rport pavement
performance. The primary purpose i n determi ni ng the soi l cl assi f i cati on is to enabl e
the engi neer to predi ct probabl e fi el d behavi our of soi l s. The soi l constants i n
themsel ves al so provi de some guidance on which to base performance predi cti ons. The
Uni f i ed system cl assi f i es soi l s f i rst on the basi s of grai n si ze, then further subgroups
soi l s on the pl asti ci ty constants. Tabl e 4-7 presents the cl assi f i cati on of soi l s by
the Unified system.
4. 4. 4. 2 As i ndi cated i n Tabl e 4- 7, the i ni ti al di vi si on of soi l s i s based on the '
separati on of course and fi ne-grai ned soi l s and hi ghl y organi c soi l s. The di sti ncti on
between coarse and fi ne grai ned is determined by the amount of material retai ned on the
No. 200 sieve. Coarse-grained soi l s are further subdi vi ded i nto gravel s and sands on
the basi s of the amount of materi al retai ned on the No. 4 sieve. Gravels and sands are
then cl assed accordi ng to whether or not fi ne material is present. Fi ne-grai ned soi l s
are subdi vi ded i nto two groups on the basi s of l i qui d l i mi t . A separate di vi si on of
hi ghl y organi c soils is establ i shed f or materials which are not general l y sui tabl e for
Table 4-7. Cl assl f i cat ion of soi l s f or ai rport
pavement appl i cati ons
I
MAJ OR DIVISIONS
I I
Coarse-grained
soi l s more than
50X retai ned on
No. 290 si eve A/
Gravels SOX or more of
coarse fracti on retai ned
on No. 4 sieve
Sands less than 50X of
coarse fracti on retai ned
on No. 4 si eve
I I
Fine-grained
soi l s 50X or
less retai ned on
No. 200 si eve a/
Clean
gravel s
Gravels with
f i nes
Clean
sands
Sands with
f i nes
Croups
symbo 1s
Gw
GP
c;M
Gc
sw
SP
SM
sc
Si l ts and cl ays ML
Liquid limit CL
502 or less OL
S i l t s and clays
l i qui d limit
greater than 50%
Hi ghl y organi c soi l s
PT
- 1/ Based on the material passi ng the 3 i n ( 75 mm) si eve.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 484L43b OOL9530 Ob8
Part 3.- Pavements 3-135
e
constructi on purposes. The f i nal cl assi f i cati on of soi l s subdi vi des materi al s i nto
15 di fferent groupi ngs. The group symbols and a bri ef descri pti on of each i s given
below:
a) E - Well-graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, l i ttl e or no fi nes.
b) - Poorly graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or no f i nes.
c) - Si l ty gravel s, gravel -sand-si l t mixtures.
d) 5 - Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures.
e) STJ - Well-graded sands and gravel l y sands, l i ttl e or no f i nes.
f ) - Poorly graded sands and gravel l y sands, little or no fi nes.
g) SM - Si l ty sands, sand-si l t ni xtures.
h) - Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures.
i ) & - I norgani c silts, very f i ne sands, rock f l our, si l ty or cl ayey
fi ne sands.
j) E - I norgani c cl ays of low to medium pl asti ci ty, gravel l y cl ays,
si l ty cl ays, l ean cl ays.
k) 5 - Organic si l ts and organi c si l ty cl ays of l ow pl asti ci ty.
1) E - I norgani c silts, micaceous or di atomaceous fi ne sands or sil.ts,
pl asti c silts.
m) - I norgani c cl ays or hi gh pl asti ci ty, at cl ays.
n) - Organi c cl ays of medium to hi gh pl asti ci ty.
0) - Peat, muck and other hi ghl y organi c soils.
4. 4. 4. 3 Determi nati on of the f i nal cl assi f i cati on group requi res other cri teri a i n
addi ti on to those gi ve i n Tabl e 4-7. These addi ti onal criteria are presented i n
Fi gure 4-33 and have appl i cati on to both coarse and fi ne-grai ned soi l s.
4. 4. 4. 4 A fl ow chart whi ch outl i nes the soi l cl assi fi cati on process has been
developed and i s i ncl uded as Fi gure 4-34. This fl ow chart i ndi cates the steps necessary
to cl assi f y soils i n accordance with ASTM D-2487.
4.4.4.5 A major advantage of the ASTM D-2487 Uni fi ed system of cl assi fyi ng soi l s i s
that a si mpl e, rapi d method of f i el d cl assi f i cati on has al so been devel oped; see
ASTM D-2488, Description of s c d s (Visual-mgnuaZ procedure). Thi s procedure enabl es
f i el d personnel to cl assi f y soi l s rather accuratel y wi th a minimum of time and equipment.
3-136 Aerodrome Design Manual
CLASSIFICATION CRI TERI A
I
a
U
Cu = Da/ D, 0 Greater than 4
Alterberg limits plot bel ow "A" line Atterberg limits plotting
or plasticity index 1855 than 4
borderline classificrtionr
i n hatched area are
Arterberg limits plot above "A" line requiring use of dual
and blasticity index greater t han 7 symbols
Cu = D@lo Greater t han 6
'z Dl,, x Dm
~~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~
(Oj 0) 2
&tween I and 3
Not meeting b x h criteria for SY
Atterberg l i m i t s plot bel ow "A" l i n e htterhcrg limit5 plotting
or plasticity index IC55 than 4
borderline c l a ~ s i f i c a t i m ~
in hatched area are
Atterberg limits plct a b v e "A" l i n e requiring use of dual
an3 plasticity index greater than 7 sy-501~
Figure 4-33. S o i l cl assi f i cat i on cri t eri a
Part 3.- Pavements 3-137
4.4.4.6 A tabl e of perti nent characteri sti cs of soi l s used f or pavement foundations
is presented i n Tabl e 4-8. These characteri sti cs are to be consi dered as approxi mate,
and the val ues l i sted are general i zati ons whi ch shoul d not be used i n l i eu of testi ng.
4. 4. 5 Soi l cl assi f i cati on exampl es
4.4.5.1 The f ol l owi ng exampl es i l l ustrate the cl assi f i cati on of soi l s by the
Unified system. The cl assi fi cati on process progresses through the fl ow chart shown
i n Fi gure 4-34.
Example 1
Assume a soi l sampl e has the fol l owi ng properti es and i s to be cl assi f i ed
i n accordance wi th the Uni fi ed system.
Percentage passi ng No. 200 sieve - 98 per cent.
Li qui d limit on minus 40 material - 30 per cent.
Pl asti c l i mi t on minus 40 material - 10 per cent.
Sol uti on
See above "A" l i ne, Fi gure 4-33. The soi l would be cl assi f i ed as CL,
lean cl ay of l ow to medium pl asti ci ty. Tabl e 4-8 i ndi cates the material
woul d be of fai r to poor val ue its a foundati on when not subj ect to
frost acti on. The potenti al f or f rost acti on i s medium to hi gh.
Example 2
Assume a soi l sampl e wi th the fol l owi ng properti es i s to be cl assi f i ed
by the Uni fi ed system.
Percentage passi ng No. 200 sieve - 48 per cent.
Percentage of coarse fracti on retai ned on No. 4 si eve - 70 per cent.
Li qui d limit on minus 40 f racti on - 60 per cent.
Pl asti c l i mi t on minus 40 f racti on - 20 per cent.
Table 4-5. Characteristics pertinent to pavement foundations
(ill Rfl 31K) or mor0
Make vlsual examinatw of soil to determine whelher 11IS
hlghty organlc. coarsegrained. or floe gralned. I n border-
h e cases determine amount passingNO. 200 sieve
~~ ~~~
I I
I
1
Hilhty Orpanc Sc4s Coarse Cralncd fine Calncd
(R) 50% or less p a s No. 200 sieve. Mare lhan SCt% parr No. 200 s wc .
I
hlgh molsture content. p a r t i i s of
Fibms texture. color. odor. my I
vegetable matter (sticks, lum, etc.)
Runs h e anatysls Run 11and PL on mlnus 40 Steve material
I I I
Greater prcentage of CLU~Y fraction Greater percentage of coarse fraction
Examine
grain-size
I
Bordcrllne, to
SW-SM
tenstcs. e.&.
Color, odor, poswMy
LL and PL on oven
No. 40 steve
I 1
r
Note: Sieve des arc U.S. Standard.
If l l na inlerlerc with free-draining properlies use double symbol such IS CW-CY, elc
Fi gure 4-34. Plow chart f or uni f i ed soi l cl assi f i cati on system
I
Color. odor. posslbty
LL and PL on oven
dry sod
L-
2 C A O 9357 PART%] t W H 48434Lb 0019535 b 4T D
3-140 Aerodrome Design Manual
-
Sol uti on
Compute pl asti ci ty i ndex LL-PL - 40 per cent.
See above "A" l i ne, Fi gure 4- 33.
This sample is cl assi f i ed as CC, cl ayey gravel. Table 4-8 i ndi cates
the material i s good f or use as a pavemnt foundati nn when not subj ect
to f rost acti on. The potenti al f or f rost acti on I s sl l ght to medium.
4. 4. 6 Frost and permafrost
4.4.6.1 The desi gn of pavements i n areas subj ect to frost acti on or i n areas of
permafrost is a complex probl em requi ri ng detai l ed study. The detri mental ef f ects of
f rost acti on may be mani fested i n frost heave or in l oss of foundati on support through
frost mel ti ng.
4.4.6.2 The desi gn of pavements for seasonal frost condi ti ons can be accompl i shed
in four di fferent ways.
a) Complete protecti on method involves the remvval of f rost
suscepti bl e material to the depth of frost penetrati on and
repl aci ng the material wi th nonfrost suscepti bl e mteriaL.
b) Limited subgrade frost pemtrati on nethod allows the f rost to
penetrate a l i mi ted depth i nto the frost suscepti bl e subgrade.
This method hol ds deformati ons to small acceptabl e val ues.
c) Reduced subgrade strength method usual l y permi ts less pavement
thi ckness than the two rethods discussed above and should be
appl i ed to pavements where ai rcraf t speeds are low and the
effects uf frost heave are less obj ecti onabl e. The primary
aimof thi s method i s to provi de adequate structural capaci ty
f or the pavement duri ng the f rost melt peri od. Frost heave is
not the pri mary consi derati on i n thi s method.
d) Reduced subgrade frost protecti on method provi des the desi gner
a method of stati sti cal l y handl i ng f rost desi gn. This method
shoul d onl y be used vhere ai rcraft speeds are Low and some
frost heave can be tol erated. The stati sti cal - approach al l ows
the desi gner more l ati tude than the other three methods
di scussed above.
4 . 4 . 6 . 3 The desi gn of pavements i n permafrost areas requi res ef f orts to restrict
the depth of thaw. Thawing of the permafrost can resuLt i n l os s of beari ng strength.
I f thawed permafrost is refrozen, heaving can resuLt and cause pavement roughness and
cracki ng. Two methods of design are avai l abl e for constructi on in permf rost areas,
compl ete protecti on method and the reduced subgrade strength method. These methods
are somewhat similar to the methods discussed under 4.4.6.2 for seasonal frost desi gn.
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-141
4.4.6.4 The depth of frost penetrati on can be computed using the modified Berggren
equati on. The Berggren equati on requi res several i nputs concerni ng l ocal soi l condi ti ons
and l ocal temperature data. Uti l i ty compani es near the site can al so provi de val uabl e
data concerni ng frost depth. The desi gner shoul d be cauti oned that the depths of cover
requi red to protect uti l i ty l i nes are conservati ve and general l y exceed the depths of
f rost penetrati on.
4.4.6.5 The frost desi gn procedures di scussed herei n can be found i n FAA Research
Report FAA-RLI-74-30, Design of ci vi l a<rfieZd pavement f or seasonal f r os t ai d permafrost
conditions. Another val uabl e reference for frost and permafrost desi gn i s Uni ted States
Army Corps of Engi neers Techni cal Manual TM 5-818-2, Pauemmt design f or f r os t conditions.
4.4.7 Soi l strength tests
0
a
I nf or mt i on Hand1 i ng Ser vi ces, 2000
4.4.7.1 Soi l cl assi fi cati on for engi neeri ng purposes provi des an i ndi cati on of the
probabl e behavi our of the soi l as a pavement subgrade. Thi s i ndi cati on of behavi our i s,
however, approxi mate. Performance di fferent from that expected can occur due to a vari ety
of reasons such as degree of compacti on, degree of saturati on, hei ght of overburden, etc.
The possi bi l i ty of i ncorrectl y predi cti ng subgrade behavi our can be l argel y el i mi nated
by measuring soi l strength. The strength of materi al s i ntended f or use i n f l exi bl e
pavement structures is measured by the Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o (CBR) tests. Materials
i ntended f or use i n ri gi d pavement structures are tested by the pl ate-beari ng method
of test. Each of these tests i s di scussed i n greater detai l i n the subsequent paragraphs.
4.4.7.2 Cal i forni a beari ng rati o. The CBR test i s basi cal l y a penetrati on test
conducted at a uni form rate of strai n. The force requi red to produce a gi ven penetrati on
in the material under test is compared to the f orce requi red to produce the same
penetrati on i n a standard crushed l i mestone. The resul t i s expressed as a rati o of
the two f orces. Thus a material wi th a CBR val ue of 15 means the material i n questi on
offers 15 per cent of the resi stance to penetrati on that the standard crushed stone
offers. L aboratory CBR tests shoul d be performed i n accordance wi th ASTM D-1883,
BeaAng rat i o of laboratory-compacted soi l s. Fi el d CBR tests shoui d be conducted i n
accordance wi th the procedures gi ven i n Manual Seri es No. 10 (MS-10) by The Asphal t
I nsti tute.
a) Laboratory CBR tests are conducted on materials which have been
obtai ned from the si te and remoulded to the densi ty which w i l l
be obtai ned duri ng constructi on. Speci mens are soaked for
four days to al l ow the material to reach saturati on. A saturated
CBR test is used to si mul ate the condi ti ons l i kel y to occur i n a
pavement which has been i n service f or some ti me. Pavement
f oundati ons tend to reach nearl y compl ete saturati on af ter
about three years. Seasonal moi sture changes al so di ctate the
use of a saturated CBR desi gn val ue si nce traf f i c must be
supported duri ng peri ods of hi gh moi sture such as spri ng seasons.
b) Fi el d CBR tests can provi de val uabl e i nformati on on foundati ons
which have been i n place f or several years. The materials should
have been i n pl ace f or a suf f i ci ent t i me to al l ow f or the moi sture
to reach an equi l i bri um condi ti on. An exampl e of thi s condi ti on
is a f i l l whi ch has been constructed and surcharged for a l ong
peri od of time pri or to pavement constructi on.
ICAO 9157 PA RTt 3 t f 484345b 00L9617 412 W
3-142 Aerodrome DesiRn Manual
c) CBR tests on gravel l y materi al s are di f f i cul t to i nterpret.
Laboratory CBR tests on gravel of ten yi el d CER resul ts which
are too hi gh owing to the conf i ni ng ef f ects of the nmuld. The
assignment of CBR val ues to gravel l y subgrade mterials pay be
based on judgement and experience. The i nformati on gi ven i n
Table 4-8 may provi de hel pful gui dance i n sel ecti ng a desi gn
CBR val ue f or a gravel l y soi l . Tabl e 4-8 shoul d not, however,
be used i ndi scri mi natel y as a sal e source of data. I t i s
recomended that the maximumCBR for unstabLl i zed gravel
subgrade be 50.
d) The number of CBR tests needed to properl y establ i sh a desi gn
val ue cannot be si mpl y stated. Vari abi l i ty of the soi l condi ti ons
encountered at the si te wi l l have the greatest i nfl uence on the
number of tests needed. As an approximate ''rule of thumb" three
CBR tests on each di fferent maj or soil type shoul d be consi dered.
The prel i mi nary soi l survey wi l l reveal how many di f f erent soi l
types w i l l be encountered. The desi gn CBR val ue shoui d be
conservati vel y sel ected. Common pavi ng engi neeri ng practi ce is
to select a value which is one standard devi ati on below the nean.
4 . 4 . 7 . 3 Pl ate beari ng test. As the name i ndi cates, the pl ate beari ng test measures
the beari ng capaci ty of the pavenent foundation. The pl ate beari ng test resul t is
expressed as a k val ue whi ch has the uni ts of pressure over l ength. The k val ue can be
envi si oned as the pressure requi red to produce a uni t deformati on of a beari ng pl ate
i nto the pavement foundati on. Pl are beari ng tests should be performed in accordance
wi th the procedures establ i shed i n AASHTO T 222.
a) Ri gi d pavement desi gn is not tou sensi ti ve to the 1 : val ue. A n
error i n establ i shi ng a k val ue w i l l not have a drasti c i mpact
on the desi gn thi ckness of the ri gi d pavement. Pl ate beari ng
tests must be conducted i n the f i e l d and are best perforned on
test secti ons which are constructed to the desi gn cnmpacti on
and moi sture condi ti ons. A correcti on to the k val ue f ar
saturati on i s requi red to si mul ate the moi sture condi ti ons
l i kel y to be encountered by the i n-servi ce pavement.
b) Pl ate beari ng tests are rel ati vel y expensi ve to perform and
thus the number of tests whi ch can be conducted to establ i sh a
desi gn val ue is l i mi ted. General l y, onl y two or three tests can
be performed for each pavement feature. The desi gn k val ue
shoul d be conservati vel y sel ected.
c ) The ri gi d pavement desi gn and eval uati on curves presented i n thi s
material are based on a k val ue determi ned by a stati c pl ate l oad
test usi ng a 30 i n (752 mm) di arreter pl ate. Use of a pl ate of
smaller di ameter wi l l resul t i n a hi gher k val ue than is represented
i n the desi gn and eval uati on curves.
I C A O 9357 P ART*3 ** = 4843436 0039538 357
Part 3. - Pavements 3-143
d) It i s recommended that pl ate beari ng tests be conducted on the
subgrade and the resul ts adj usted to account for the effect of
sub-base. Figure 4- 35 shows the i ncrease i n k val ue for vari ous
thi cknesses of sub-base over a given subgrade k. Pl ate beari ng
tests conducted on top of sub-base courses can sometimes yield
erroneous resul ts si nce the depth of i nfl uence beneath a 30 i n
(762 mm) beari ng pl ate i s not as great as the depth of i nfl uence
beneath a sl ab l oaded wi th an ai rcraft l andi ng gear assembl y.
I n thi s i nstance a sub-base l ayer can i nfl uence the response of
a beari ng pl ate more than-the response of a loaded pavement.
e) The determi nati on of k val ue f or stabi l i zed l ayers is a di f f i cul t
problcm. The k val ue normal l y has to be esti mated. It i s
recommended that the k val ue be esti mated as fol l ows. The
thi ckness of the stabi l i zed l ayer shoul d be mul ti pl i ed by a
factor rangi ng from 1.2 to 1.6 to determi ne the equi val ent
thi ckness of wel l -graded crushed aggregate. The actual val ue
i n the 1.2 to 1.6 range shoul d be based on the qual i ty of the
stabi l i zed l ayer and the thi ckness of the sl ab relative to the
thi ckness of the stabi l i zed l ayer. Hi gh-qual i ty materi al s
which are stabi l i zed wi th hi gh percentages of stabi l i zers shoul d
be assi gned an equi val ency factor whi ch i s hi gher than a lower-
qual i ty stabi l i zed materi al . For a gi ven ri gi d pavement thi ckness,
a thi cker stabi l i zed l ayer wi l l influence pavement performance
more than a thi n stabi l i zed l ayer and shoul d thus be assi gned a
hi gher equi val ency factor.
f ) It is recommended that a desi gn k val ue of 500 l b/i n3 (136 MX/m3>
not be exceeded for any foundati on. The i nformati on presented
i n Tabl e 4-8 gi ves general gui dance as to probabl e k val ues for
vari ous soi l types.
4.4.3 Pavement desi gn phi l osophy
4.4.8.1 The FAA pol i cy of treati ng the desi gn of ai rcraft l andi ng gear and the desi gn
and eval uati on of ai rport pavements as three separate enti ti es is descri bed in 4. 4. 1 of
thi s Manual. The desi gn of ai rport pavements is a complex engineering problem which
i nvol ves a l arge number of i nteracti ng vari abl es. The desi gn curves presented i n thi s
Secti on are based on the CBR method of desi gn for fl exi bl e pavements and a j oi nted edge
stress anal ysi s f or ri gi d pavements. These procedures represent a change from pri or FAA
design methods and wi l l resul t i n sl i ghtl y di f f erent pavement thicknesses. Because of
thi ckness vari ati ons, the eval uati on of exi sti ng pavements should be performed using the
samemethod as was employed i n the desi gn. Details on how the new FAA methods of desi gn
wer e developed are as fol l ows:
i
3-144 Aerodrome Design Manual
( c m )
12 14 I6 IO 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
I I I I I I I I I
4 0 0
300
n
\ 2 00
-I
E
m
IO0
w
v)
m
U
I>
v)
LL
m
4 5 6 7 8 9 IO I I 12 13 I 4
0 THICKNESS OF SUBBASE, INCHES
a. WELL-GRADED CRUSHEO AGGREGATE
I-
O
z
0
w
Lr
Lr
W
500
400
30 0
n eo 0
z
m
\
-I
I O0
5 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 IO I1 I 2 13 14
THICKNESS OF SUBEASE, I NCHES
BANK -RUN SAND & GRAVEL PI (61
I 25
IO0
75
60 ;;;
E
40 ';.
I
30
1
2 0
I S
Figure 4-35. Effect of sub-base on modulus of subgrade reaction
- 125
- I 00
- 75
- 50 ;;
E
- 4 0 \
z
- 30 -
I
- 20
- 15
I
0
I C A O 5357 PART* 3 ** 484343b 0035520 TO7
Part 3. - Pavements 3-145
4.4.8.2 Flexible pavements. The f l exi bl e pavement desi gn curves presented i n thi s
Secti on are based on the Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o (CBR) method of desi gn. The CBR desi gn
method i s basi cal l y empi ri cal ; however, a great deal of research has been done wi th the
method and rel i abl e correl ati ons have been devel oped. Gear confi gurati ons are rel ated
usi ng theoreti cal concepts as wel l as empi ri cal l y devel oped data. The desi gn curves
provi de the requi red total thi ckness of f l exi bl e pavement (surface, base, and sub-base)
needed to support a gi ven wei ght of ai rcraft over a parti cul ar subgrade. The curves
al so show the requi red surface thi ckness. Minimumbase course thi cknesses are shown on
a separate curve. A more detai l ed di scussi on of GBR desi gn i s presented i n Appendix 4.
4.4.8.3 Rigid pavements. The ri gi d pavement desi gn curves i n thi s Secti on are
based on the Westergaard anal ysi s of edge l oadi ng. The edge l oadi ng anal ysi s has been
modified to si mul ate a j oi nted edge condi ti on. Desi gn curves are furni shed for areas
where traf f i c wi l l predomi nantl y fol l ow paral l el to the j oi nts and f or areas where
traf f i c is l i kel y to cross j oi nts at some acute angl e. Previ ous FAA ri gi d pavement
cri teri a were based on an i nteri or l oadi ng assumpti on. Pavement stresses are hi gher
at the j oi nted edge than at the sl ab i nteri or. Test val i dati ons and fi el d performance
show practi cal l y al l load induced cracks develop at the j oi nted edge and mi grate towards
the sl ab i nteri or. For these reasons the basi s of desi gn was changed from i nteri or to
j oi nted edge. The desi gn curves contai n l i nes f or f i ve di f f erent annual traf f i c volumes.
The thickness of pavement determined from the curves is for sl ab thi ckness onl y. Sub-base
thi cknesses are determi ned separatel y. A more detai l ed di scussi on of the basi s f or ri gi d
pavement desi gn is presented i n Appendix 4.
4. 4. 9 Background
4. 4. 9. 1 An ai rf i el d pavement and the operati ng ai rcraft represent an i nteracti ve
system which must be recognized i n the pavement desi gn process. Desi gn consi derati ons
associ ated wi th both the ai rcraft and the pavement must be sati sf i ed i n order to produce
a sati sfactory desi gn. Careful constructi on control and some degree of maintenance wi l l
be requi red to produce a pavement which wi l l achi eve the i ntended desi gn l i fe. Pavements
are desi gned to provi de a f i ni te l i f e and f ati gue f ai l ures are ant-i ci pated. Poor
constructi on and l ack of preventati ve mai ntenance wi l l usual l y resul t i n di sappoi nti ng
performance of even the best designed pavement.
4. 4. 9. 2 The determi nati on of pavement thi ckness requi rements is a complex
engineering problem. Pavements are subj ect to a wide vari ety of l oadi ngs and climatic
ef f ects. The desi gn process i nvol ves a l arge number of i nteracti ng vari abl es which are
of ten di f f i cul t to quanti f y. Al though a great deal of research work has been completed
and more i s underway, it has been i mpossi bl e to arrive at a di rect mathemati cal sol uti on
of thi ckness requi rements. For thi s reason the determi nati on of pavement thi ckness
must be based on the theoreti cal anal ysi s of l oad di stri buti on through pavements and
soi l s, the anal ysi s of experi mental pavement data, and a study of the performance of
pavements under actual service condi ti ons. Pavement thi ckness curves presented i n thi s
Secti on have been devel oped through correl ati on of the data obtai ned from these sources.
Pavements designed i n accordance wi th these standards are i ntended to provi de a structural
l i f e of 20 years that is free of maj or mai ntenance i f no maj or changes i n forecast traffi c
are encountered. It i s l i kel y that rehabi l i tati on of surface grades and renewal of ski d
resi stant properti es wi l l be needed before 20 years owing to destructi ve climatic ef f ects
and deteri orati ng effects of normal usage.
~ ~~
~ .
3-146 Aerodrome Design Manual
4.4.9.3 The structural desi gn of ai rport pavements consi sts of determi ni ng both the
over-al l pavement thi ckness and the thi ckness of the component parts of the pavement.
There are a number of f actors which i nfl uence the thi ckness of pavement requi red to
provi de sati sfactory servi ce. These i ncl ude tho magni tude and character of the ai rcraft
l oads to be supported, the volume of traf f i c, the concentrati on of traf f i c i n certai n
areas, and the qual i ty of the subgrade soi l and materi al s compri si ng the pavement
structure.
4.4.10 Ai rcraft consi derati ons
4.4.10.1 - Load. The pavement desi gn method is based on the gross wei ght of the
ai rcraf t. For desi gn purposes the pavement should be desi gned for the mximum take-off
wei ght of the ai rcraft. The design procedure assumes 95 per cent of the gross wei ght
is carri ed by the main l andi ng gears and 5 per cent is carri ed by the nose gear. The
maximumtake-off wei ght shoul d be used i n cal cul ati ng the pavement thi ckness requi red.
Use of the maximumtake-off weight i s recommended to provi de some degree of conservati sm
i n the desi gn and is j usti f i ed by the fact that changes i n operati onal use can often
occur and recogni ti on of the fact that forecast traffi c i s approximate at best. By
i gnori ng arri vi ng traf f i c some of the conservati sm is of f set.
4.4.10.2 Landing gear type and geometry
a) The gear type and confi gurati on di ctate how the ai rcraf t =ei ght
is di stri buted to the pavemnt and determi ne pavement response
to ai rcraf t l oadi ngs. It would have been i mpracti cal to devel op
desi gn curves for each type of ai rcraf t. However, si nce the
thi ckness of both ri gi d and fl exi bl e pavements is dependent
upon the gear di mensi ons and the type of gear, separate desi gn
curves would be necessary unl ess some val i d assumpti ons coul d
be made to reduce the number of vari abl es. Exami nati on of gear
confi gurati on, ti re eontact areas, and tire pressure i n tommOn
use i ndi cated that these fol l ow a def i ni te trend rel ated to
ai rcraft gross wei ght. Reasonabl e assumpti ons coul d therefore
be made and design curves constructed from the assumed data.
These assumed data are as fol l ows:
1) Si ngl e gear ai rcraf t. KO special assumptions needed.
2) Dual gear aircraft. A study of the spaci ng between dual
wheel s for these ai rcraft i ndi cated that a dimension of
20 i n (0.51 m) between the centrel i ne of the tires appeared
reasonabl e f or the l i ghter ai rcraf t and a dimension of
34 i n (0.85 m) between the centrel i ne of the tfres appeared
reasonabl e f or the heavi er ai rcraf t.
3) Dual tandem gear ai rcraf t. The study i ndi cated a dual wheel
spacing of 20 i n (0.51 rn) and a tandem spaci ng of 45 i n
(1.14 m) f or l i ghter ai rcraf t, and a dual wheel spacing of
30 i n (0.76 m) and a tandem spaci ng of 55 i n (1.49 m) f or the
heavi er ai rcraf t are appropri ate desi gn val ues.
c
ICAO 7357 PART* 3 ** m 4841416 0037522 B B T m
Part 3.- Pavements 3-147
4) Wide body ai rcraf t. Wide body ai rcraf t, i.e., B-747, DC-10,
and L-1011 represent a radi cal departure from the Eeometry
assumed f or dual tandem ai rcraf t descri bed i n 3 above. Owing
to the l arge di fferences i n gross wei ghts and gel r geometri es,
separate desi gn curves have been prepared for the wi de body
ai rcraf t .
-
b) T i r e pressure vari es between 75 and 200 psi (0.52 to 1.38 $Pa)
depending on gear configuration and gross weight. It should be
noted that tire pressure asserts l ess i nfl uence on pavement
stresses as gross wei ght i ncreases, and the assumed maximumof
200 psi (1.38 ma) may be safel y exceeded i f other parameters
are not exceeded.
4.4.10.3 Traf f i c volume. Forecasts of annual departures by ai rcraft type are needed
f or pavement design. I nformation on ai rcraf t operati ons i s avai l abl e from Ai rport
Master Pl ans, Termi nal Area Forecasts, the Nati onal Ai rport System Pl an, Ai rport Acti vi ty
Stati sti cs and FAA A i r Traffi c Acti vi ty. These publ i cati ons shoul d be consul ted i n the
development of forecasts of annual departures by ai rcraf t type.
4.4.11 Determi nati on of desi gn ai rcraft.
4.4.11.1 The forecast of annual departures by-ai rcraft type wi l l resul t i n a list of
a number of di f f erent ai rcraf t. The desi gn ai rcraft shoul d be sel ected on the basi s of
the one requi ri ng the greatest pavement thi ckness. Each ai rcraf t type i n the f orecast
shoul d be checked to determi ne the pavement thi ckness requi red by usi ng the appropri ate
desi gn curve wi th the forecast number of annual departures for that ai rcraft. The
ai rcraf t type whi ch produces the greatest pavement thi ckness is the desi gn ai rcraf t.
The desi gn ai rcraf t is not necessari l y the heavi est ai rcraf t i n the f orecast.
e
4.4.12 Determi nati on of equi val ent annual departures by the desi gn aircraft
4.4.12.1 Si nce the traffi c forecast i s a mixture of a vari ety of ai rcraf t havi ng
di fferent l andi ng gear types and di fferent wei ghts, the effects of al l traf f i c nust be
accounted for i n terms of the desi gn ai rcraf t. Fi rst, al l ai rcraf t must be converted
to the same l andi ng gear type as the desi gn ai rcraf t. The fol l owi ng conversi on factors
shoul d be used to convert from one l andi ng gear type to another:
To convert from
-
To Mul ti pl y departures by
si ngl e wheel
si ngl e wheel
dual wheel
dual tandem
0.8
0. 5
dual wheel dual tandem 0.6
double dual tandem dual tandem 1.0
dual tandem si ngl e wheel 2 .o
dual tandem dual wheel 1.7
dual wheel si ngl e wheel 1.3
double dual tandem dual wheel 1.7
I C A O 9157 PART* 3 ** W 4841456 0019523 71rb W
3-148 Aerodrome Design Manual
Secondly, after the ai rcraft have been grouped i nto the same l andi ng gear
confi gurati on, the conversi on to equi val ent annual departures of the desi gn ai rcraft
should be determined by the following formula:
log R1 =log R2 x (g) '
where R1 =equi val ent annual departures by the desi gn ai rcraf t
R2 =annual departures expressed i n desi gn ai rcraft l andi ng gear
Wl =wheel l oad of the desi gn ai rcraft
W2 =wheel load of the ai rcraf t i n questi on
For thi s computation 95 per cent of the gross wei ght of the ai rcraf t is
assumed to be carri ed by the main l andi ng gears. Wide body ai rcraf t requi re speci al
attenti on i n thi s cal cul ati on. The procedure di scussed above is a rel ati ve rati ng whish
compares di f f erent ai rcraf t to a comn desi gn ai rcraf t. Si nce wi de body ai rcraf t have
radi cal l y di f f erent l andi ng gear assembl i es than other al rcraf t, speci al consi derati ons
are needed to mai ntai n the relative ef f ects. This is done by treati ng each wide body as
a 300 000 l b (136 100 kg) dual tandem aircraft when computi ng equi val ent annual departures.
This should be done i n every i nstance even when the desi gn ai rcraf t is a wide body.
After the equi val ent annual departures are deterni ned, the design should prnceed using
the appropri ate desi gn curve for the desi gn ai rcraft. Fur exanpl e, i f a wide body is
the desi gn ai rcraft, al l equi val ent departures shoul d be cal cul ated as descri bed above,
then the desi gn curve for the wi de body shoul d be used wi th the cal cul ated equi val ent
annual departures.
4.4.12.2 Example: Assume an ai rpurt paverent is to be desi gned far the fol l owi ng
f orecast traf f i c:
Fnrecast
annual departures
Max imumtake-of f
weight
(l b) (kg)
Ai rcraft Gear type
727-100 dual 3 760 160 no0
(72 600)
727-200 dual 9 080 190 500 (86 500)
707-32033 dual tandem 3 050 327 000 (148 500)
DC-9-30 dual 5 800 108 000
(49 000)
CV-880 dual tandem 400 18G 590 (83 948)
737-200 dual 2 650 115 500 (52 440)
L-1011-100 dual. tandem 1 710 450 Oflo
(204 l 20)
747-100 double dual 85 700 090 (317 809)
tandem
Sol uti on a) Determi ne desi gn ai rcraft. A pavement thi ckness is deterni ned for
each ai rcraf t i n the f orecast usi ng the appropri ate de s i gn curves.
The pavement i nput data, CBR, k value, fl exural strength, etc.,
shoul d be the same f or al l ai rcraft. Ai rcraft wei ghts and departure
levels must correspond to the parti cul ar ai rcraf t i n the f orecast.
I n thi s example the 727-200 requi res the greatest pavement thi ckness
and is thus the desi gn ai rcraf t.
Part 3.- Pavements 3-149
b) Group f orecast traf f i c i nto l andi ng gear of desi gn ai rcraf t. In thi s
example the desi gn ai rcraf t is equipped with a dual wheel l andi ng
gear so al l traf f i c must be grouped i nto the dual wheel confi gurati on.
c) Convert ai rcraft to equi val ent annual departures of the desi gn
ai rcraf t. Af ter the ai rcraf t mi xture has been grouped i nto a common
l andi ng gear confi gurati on, the equi val ent annual departures of the
desi gn ai rcraft can be cal cul ated.
Dual gear
Wheel l oad
departures (l b) (kg)
Wheel l oad Equi val ent annual
of desi gn ai rcraf t departures desi gn Ai rcraf t
Ob) (kg) ai rcraf t
727-100
727-200
707-320B
DC-9-30
CV-88 0
737-200
747-100
L-1011-100
3 760
9 080
5 185
5 800
680
2 650
145
2 907
38 000 (17 240)
45 240
( 20 520)
45 240
( 20 520) 45 240
( 20 520)
38 830
(17 610)
45 240
( 20 520)
25 650
(11 630)
45 240
( 20 520)
21 910
( 9 940)
45 240
( 20 520)
27 430
( 12 440)
45 240
( 20 520)
35 625"
(16 160)
45 240
( 20 520)
35 625"
( 16 160)
45 240
( 20 520)
1 891
9 080
2 764
682
94
463
83
1 184
Total 16 241
* Wheel l oads for wi de body ai rcraft wi l l be taken as the wheel l oad for a 300 000 l b
(136 100 kg) ai rcraft for equi val ent annual departure cal cul ati ons.
d) For thi s exampl e the pavement would be desi gned for 16 000
annual departures of a dual wheel ai rcraft wei ghi ng 190 500 l b
(86 500 kg). The desi gn shoul d, however, provi de for the
heavi est ai rcraft i n the traf f i c mi xture when consi deri ng depth
of compacti on, thi ckness of asphal t surface, drai nage structures,
etc.
4. 4. 13 Desi gni ng the fl exi bl e pavement
4.4.13.1 Fl exi bl e pavements consi st of a bituminous wearing surface placed on a base
course and, when requi red by subgrade condi ti ons, a sub-base. The enti re f l exi bl e
pavement structure i s ul ti matel y supported by the subgrade. Defi ni ti ons of the functi on
of the vari ous components are gi ven i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs. For some ai rcraf t
the base and sub-base have to be constructed of stabi l i zed materials. The requi rements
f or stabi l i zed base and sub-base are al so di scussed i n 4. 4. 15.
4.4.13.2 Use of the desi gn curves for fl exi bl e pavements requi res a CBR val ue or
the subgrade material, a CBR val ue for the sub-base materi al , the gross wei ght of the
desi gn ai rcraf t, and the number of annual departures of the desi gn ai rcraft. The desi gn
curves presented i n Fi gures 4-36 to 4-44 i ndi cate the total pavement thi ckness requi red
and the thi ckness of bi tumi nous surfaci ng. Fi gure 4-45 i ndi cates the minimum thi ckness
of base course f or gi ven total pavement thicknesses and CBR val ues. For annual departures
i n excess of 25 000 the total pavement thi ckness shoul d be i ncreased i n accordance wi th
4.4.24 and the bi tumi nous surfaci ng i ncreased by 1 i n ( 3 cm) .
3-150 Aerodrome Design Manual
CBR
3 4 S 6 7 8 0 1 0 13 20 23 30
3 4 5 e 7 e e 1 0 I S 20 30 40 30 In
THICKNESS
8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 38 51 76
I I I 102 127 cm
Figure 4- 36. Flexible pavement design curves or critical areas,
single wheel gear
Part 3.- Pavements 3-151
CBR
*
in
THICKNESS
8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 38
I I I l l
- I
51 76 102 127
cm
I
Fi gure 4- 37. Fl exi bl e pavement desi gn curves or critical areas,
dual wheel gear
CBR
ICAO 95157 PARTS3 ** 4tl43451b 0051S527 361
a
~~ ~
Figure 4-38. Flexible pavement design curves for cri t i cal areas,
dual tandem gear
In
cm
ICAO 9157 PA RT* 3 ** = 484141b 0019528 2 T B
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-15 3
CBR
3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 0 15 20 23 30 40 30
3 4 5 a 7 e 0 1 0 I3 20 30 40 50
THICKNESS
8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 38 51 76 102 127
in
cm
Fi gure 4- 39. Fl exi bl e pavement desi gn curves f or cri ti cal areas,
B747-100, SR, 200 B, C, F
f
3-154 Aerodrome Design Manual
CBR
3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 0 I5 20 26 30 40 so
3 4 S 6 7 6 0 1 0 IS 20 30 40 50
THICKNESS
8 10 13 15 1: 20 28 25 51 78 102 127
38
I I
I I
In
cm
Figure 4-40. Fl e x i bl e pavement desi gn curves for critical areas,
3747-SP
ICAO 9157 PA RT* 3 t t 48434Lb 0039530 956 W
Part 3. - Pavements 3-155
CBR
3 4 S 6 7 8 0 1 0 15 20 23 30 40 30
3 4 3 e 7 EI S I O 13 20 30 40 SO in
THICKNESS
a 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 38
1 I I I I
51 76 102 127 cm
I 1 I A
Figure 4-41. Flexible pavement design curves for cri ti cal areas,
DC10-10, lOCF
3-156 Aerodrome Design Manual
COR
3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 0 15 20 25 30 40 30
4 5 6 7 8 0 1 0 I3 20 30 40 50 in
THICKNESS
8 10 13 15 1: M 23 25 38 51
I I I I I I 76 I
102 in cm
Figure 4-42. Fl exi bl e pavement design curves for cri ti cal areas,
DC10-30, 3WF, 40, 40CF
m
ICAO 9357 PA RT * 3 t t = 4843436 0019532 729 =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-157
CBR
3 4 S 6 t 8 0 1 0 15 20 25 30 40 30
3 4 3 6 7 8 0 1 0 13 20 30 40 50 i n
THICHNESS
0 10 13 15 If! 20 23 25 30 51 76 102 127 cm
1 - 1 I I I I I I I
Fi gure 4- 43. Flexible pavement design curves for cri ti cal areas,
L-1011, 100
ICAO 91157 PART83 ** W YBYLYLh 00119533 bbS W
CBR
3 4 S 6 7 8 0 1 0 13 20 25 30 40 so
i n
I C A O 9157 P A R T t 3 t t YB41q16 0019534 5T1
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-159
( c m )
17 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
100
90
8 0
7 0
60
3 50
45
v)
z
Y
2 40
I
I-
I- 35
w
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U
Q
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2 25
0
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20
I 5
I O
6 7 8 9 I O 15 20
MINIMUM BASE COURSE THICKNESS, I N.
Fi gure 4-45. Minimumbase course thi ckness requi rements
I C A O 9157 PA RT83 t* M 484l1416 0059535 Q38
3-160 Aerodrome Design ?fanual
4.4.14 Cri ti cal and non-cri ti cal areas
4.4.14.1 The desi gn curves, Fi gures 4-36 to 4-44, are used to determi ne the total
cri ti cal pavement thi ckness, T and the surface course thi ckness requi rements. The
0.9T f actor f or the non-cri ti cal pavement appl i es to the base and sub-base courses; the
surface course thi ckness i s as noted on the desi gn curves. For the vari abl e secti on
of the transi ti on secti on and thi nned edge, the reducti on appl i es onl y to the base
course. The 0.7T thi ckness for base shal l be minimum permitted, and the sub-base
thi ckness shal l be i ncreased or vari ed to provi de posi ti ve surface drai nage from the
enti re subgrade surface. For fracti ons of an i nch of 0.5 or more, use the next hi gher
whole number; f or less than 0.5, use the next l ower number.
4.4.15 Stabi l i zed base ~~and sub--base
4.4.15.1 Stabilized base and sub-base courses are necessary for new pavements
designed to accomodate j et ai rcraft wei ghi ng 100 303 l b (45 359 kg) or more. These
stabi l i zed courses my be substi tuted for granul ar courses usi ng the equi val ency
factors di scussed i n 4.4.16. A range of equi val ency factors is given because the
factor i s sensi ti ve to a number of vari abl es such as l ayer thi ckness, stabi l i zi ng
agent type and quanti ty, l ocati on of stabi l i zed l ayer i n the pavement structure, etc.
4.4.15.2 Exceptions to the pol i cy requi ri ng stabi l i zed base and sub-base shoul d
be based on proven performance of a granul ar materi al . Proven performance i n thi s
i nstance means a hi story of sati sfactory ai rport pavements usi ng the materials. Thi s
hi story of sati sfactory performance shoul d be under ai rcraft l oad-l ngs and climatic
condi ti ons comparabl e to those anti ci pated.
4.4.15.3 Other exceptions may be made on the basi s of superi or mterials bei ng
avai l abl e, such as 100 per cent crushed, hard, cl osel y graded stone. These materials
shoul d exhi bi t a remoulded soaked CBR minimum of 100 for base and 35 f or sub-base. In
areas subj ect to f rost penetrati on the materials shoul d meet permeabi l i ty and non-frost
suscepti bi l i ty tests i n addi ti on to the CBR requi rements.
4.4.15.4 The minimum total pavement thi ckness shoul d not be less than the total
pavement thi ckness requi red by a 20 CBR subgrade on the appropri ate desi gn curve.
Refl ecti on cracki ng is sometimes encountered when cement treated base i s used. The
thi ckness of the bi tumi nous surfaci ng course shoul d be at least 4 i n (10 cm) to minimize
the chances of refl ecti on cracki ng when cement treated base is used.
4.4.16.1 Stabi l i zed sub-base courses offer some structural benef i ts to a flexible
pavement. The benefi ts can be expressed i n the form of equi val ency factors whi ch
i ndi cate the substi tuti on thi ckness rati os appl i cabl e to vari ous stabi l i zed l ayers.
The thi ckness of stabi l i zed material can be computed by di vi di ng the granul ar sub-base
thi ckness requi rement by the equi val ency factor. The equi val ency factor ranges are
presented i n Tabl e 4-9 below.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 464343b 0019536 374
Part 3 . - Pavements
3-161
Tabl e 4-9. Recommended equi val ency factor range stabi l i zed sub-base
Material
Bimuminous surf ace course
Bituminous base course
Cold l ai d bi tumi nous base course
Mixed i n-pl ace base course
Cement treated base course
Soi l cement base course
Crushed aggregate base course
Gravel sub-base course
Equi val ency factor range
1.7-2.3
1.7-2.3
1.5-1.7
1.5-1.7
1.6-2.3
1.5-2.0
1.4-2.0
1.0
I n establ i shi ng the equi val ency f actors shown above, the CBR of the gravel
sub-base course was assumed to be 20.
4.4.16.2 Stabi l i zed base courses of f er structural benef i ts to a f l exi bl e pavement i n
much the same manner as stabi l i zed sub-base. The benef i ts are expressed as equi val ency
f actors si mi l ar to those shown for stabi l i zed sub-base. These rati os are used to compute
the thi ckness of stabi l i zed base by di vi di ng the granul ar base requi rement by the
equi val ency factor. The equi val ency factor ranges are presented i n Tabl e 4-10 below.
Tabl e 4-10. Recommended equi val ency factor range stabi l i zed base
Material Equi val ency factor range
Bituminous surface course 1.2-1.6
Bi tumi nous base course 1.2-1.6
Cold l ai d bi tumi nous base course 1.0-1.2
Mixed i n-pl ace base course 1.0-1.2
Cement treated base course
Soi l cement base course
Crushed aggregate base course
Sub-base course
1.2-1.6
N/ A
1.0
N/ A
The equi val ency factors shown above assume a CBR val ue of 80 for crushed
aggregate base course.
4.4.17 Design example
4.4.17.1 - A s an example of the use of the desi gn curves, assume a f l exi bl e pavement
i s to be desi gned f or a dual gear ai rcraft havi ng a gross mass of 75 000 l b (34 000 kg)
and 6 000 annual equi val ent departures of the desi gn ai rcraft. Desi gn CBR val ues for
the sub-base and subgrade are 20 and 6, respecti vel y.
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 ** W 4B424Lh 0019537 200
3-162 Aerodrome Design Manual
4.4.17.2 Total pavement thi ckness. The total pavement thi ckness requi red is
determined from Figure 4-37. Enter the upper absci ssa wi th the subgrade CBR val ue, 6.
Proj ect verti cal l y downward to tho gross mass of the desi gn ai rcraf t, 75 000 l b
(34 000 kg). A t the poi nt of i ntersecti on of the verti cal proj ecti on and the ai rcraf t
gross wei ght, make a hori zontal proj ecti on to the equi val ent annual departures, 6 000.
From the poi nt of i ntersecti on of the hori zontal proj ecti on and the annual departure
level, make a verti cal proj ecti on down to the l ower absci ssa and read the total pavement
thi ckness; i n thi s exampl e - 21.3 i n (51.2 cm).
4.4.17.3 Thickness of sub-base course. The thi ckness of the sub-base course is
determi ned i n a manner si mi l ar to the total pavement thi ckness. Usi ng Fi gure 4-37
enter the upper absci ssa wi th the desi gn CBR val ue for the sub-base, 20. The chart is
used i n the same manner as descri bed i n 4.4.17.2 above, i .e.,verti cal proj ecti on to
ai rcraf t gross wei ght, hori zontal proj ecti on to annual departures, and vertical proj ecti on
to l ower absci ssa. I n thi s example the thi ckness obtai ned is 8. 6 i n (21.8 cm). Thi s
means that the combined thi ckness of bitum-inous surface and base course needed over a
20 CBR sub-base is 8.6 i n (21.8 cm), thus having a sub-base thickness of 21.3 - 8.6 =
12.7 i n (32.2 cm) .
4.4.17.4 Thickness of bi tumi nous surface. As i ndi cated by the Note in Figure 4-37,
the thi ckness of bi tumi nous surface for cri ti cal areas i s 4 i n (10 cm) and for non-cri ti cal ,
3 i n (8 cm) .
4.4.17.5 Thickness of base course. The thi ckness of base course can be computed by
subtracti ng the thi ckness of bi tumi nous surface from the combined thi ckness of surface
and base determined i n 4.4.17.3 above; in thi s example 8. 6 - 4. 0 =4 . 6 in (11.7 cm) of
base course. The thi ckness of base course thus cal cul ated shoul d be compared wi th the
minimum base course thi ckness requi red as shown i n Fi gure 4-45. Note that the minimum
base course thi ckness is 6 i n (15 cm) f or cri ti cal areas. Enter the l eft urdi nate of
Fi gure 4-45 wi th the total pavement thi ckness as determined in 4.4.17.2 above, i n thi s
example - 21.3 i n (51.2 cm). Make a hori zontal proj ecti on to the subgrade CBR l i ne;
i n thi s example, 6. From the i ntersecti on of the hori zontal proj ecti on and the subgrade
CBR l i ne, make a verti cal proj ectl on down to the l ower absci ssa and read the minimum
base course thi ckness, i n thi s example the minimum thi ckness of 6 i n (25 cm) would be
requi red. The extra thi ckness of base requi red by Fi gure 4-45 as opposed to the earlier
cal cul ati on i s taken out of the sub-base thickness not added to the total pavement
thi ckness; i n thi s exampl e 12.7 - 1.4 =11.3 i n (28.7 cm).
4.4.17.6 Thickness of non-cri ti cal areas. The total pavement thi ckness for non-
cri ti cal areas is obtai ned by taki ng 0.9 of the cri ti cal pavement base and sub-base
thi ckness pl us the requi red bi tumi nous surface thi ckness gi ven on the desi gn charts.
For the thi nned edge porti on of the cri ti cal and non-cri ti cal pavements, the 0.7T
factor appl i es onl y to the base course because the sub-base shoul d al l ow for transverse
drai nage.
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** = Y841113b 0019538 347
Part 3. - Pavements 3-163
4. 4. 17. 7 Summary. The thi ckness cal cul ated i n the above paragraphs shoul d be rounded
off to even i ncrements. I f condi ti ons for detri mental frost acti on exi st, another anal ysi s
is requi red. The f i nal desi gn thi cknesses f or thi s example would be as fol l ows:
Thickness Requirements
Cri ti cal Non-cri ti cal
i n (cm) i n ( 4
Bi tumi nous surface
Base course
Sub-base course
Transverse drai nage
Si nce the desi gn ai rcraf t i n thi s example weighs less than 100 000 l b
( 45 300 kg), stabi l i zed base and sub-base are not requi red but coul d be used i f desi red.
4. 4. 18 Desi gni ng the ri gi d pavement
4. 4. 18. 1 Desi gn curves have been prepared for ri gi d pavements si mi l ar to those for
f l exi bl e pavements; i .e.,separate curves for si ngl e, dual , and dual tandem l andi ng gear
assembl i es and separate desi gn curves for wide-body j et ai rcraf t. See Fi gures 4-46 to
4-54. These curves are based on a jointed edge loading assumption where the load is
tangent to the j oi nt. Use of the desi gn curves requi res four desi gn i nput parameters:
concrete fl exural strength, subgrade modul us, gross wei ght of the desi gn ai rcraf t, and
annual departure of the desi gn ai rcraft. The ri gi d pavement desi gn curves i ndi cate
the thi ckness of concrete onl y. Thi cknesses of other components of the ri gi d pavement
structure must be determined separately.
4.4.18.2 Concrete fl exural strength. The requi red thi ckness of concrete pavement
i s rel ated to the strength of the concrete used i n the pavement. Concrete strength i s
assessed by the fl exural strength method as the pri mary acti on of a concrete pavement
sl ab is fl exure. Concrete fl exural strength shoul d be determi ned by ASTM C-78 test
method. Normally a 90-day f l exural strength is used for desi gn. The desi gner can
saf el y assume the 90-day fl exural strength of concrete wi l l be 10 per cent hi gher than
the 28-day strength.
4. 4. 18. 3 k val ue. The k val ue i s, i n ef f ect, a spri ng constant for the materi al
supporti ng the ri gi d pavement and i s i ndi cati ve of the beari ng val ue of the supporti ng
material.
4. 4. 18. 4 Gross wei ght of ai rcraft. The gross weight of the desi gn ai rcraf t i s
shown on each design curve. The desi gn curves are grouped i n accordance wi th main
l andi ng gear assembl y type except for wi de body ai rcraf t which are shown on separate
curves. A wide range of gross weights i s shown on al l curves to assi st i n any
i nterpol ati ons which may be requi red. I n al l i nstances, the range of gross wei ghts
shown i s adequate to cover wei ghts of exi sti ng ai rcraf t.
4. 4. 18. 5 Annual departure of desi gn ai rcraft. The fourth i nput parameter i s
annual departures of the desi gn ai rcraft. The departures shoul d be computed usi ng
the procedure expl ai ned i n 4. 4. 12.
.
3-164 Aerodrome Design Hanual
4.4.18.6 Use of desi gn curves. The ri gi d pavemnt desi gn curves are constructed
such that the desi gn i nputs are entered i n the sare order as they are di scussed above.
Concrete fl exural strength is the f i rst i nput. The l ef t ordi nate of the desi gn curve
i s entered wi th concrete fl exural strength. A hrrrLzmtal proj ect inn is made unti l it
i ntersects wi th the appropri ate foundati on modulus l i ne. A verti cal proj ecti on is
made from the i ntersecti on pai nt to the appropri ate gross wei ght of the desi gn ai rcraf t.
A hori zontal proj ecti on is made to the ri ght ordi nate shcwl ng annual departures. The
pavement thi ckness i s read from the appropri ate annual departure l i ne. The pavement
thi ckness shown ref ers to the thi ckness of the cunrrate pavement onl y, excl usi ve of
the sub-base.
4.4.1.9 Sub-base requi rements
4.4.19.1 The purpose of a sub-base under a ri gi d pavement is to provide uniform
stabl e support f or the pavement slabs. A minimum thi ckness of 4 i n (10 cm) of sub-base
i s requi red under al l ri gi d pavements, except as shorn i n Tabl e 4-11 below:
Tabl e 4-11. Conditions where no sub-base is requi red
Soi l Good drai nage Poor drai nage
cl assi f i cati on No f rost Frost No frost Frost
Gw
GP
GM
GC
sw
X X
X X
X
x X
x X
X
4.4.19.2 Sub-base thickness i n excess of 4 i n (10 cn) can be used to i ncrease the
modulus of soi l reacti on and reduce the requi red thi ckness of concrete needed, i f
economical. The cost of provi di ng the addl ti onal thi ckness of sub-base should be
weighed agai nst the savi ngs i n concrete thl ckness. The materi al s sui tabl e for sub-base
courses under ri gi d pavements are l i sted below:
Gravel sub-base course
Bituminous base course
Aggregate base course
Crushed aggregate base course
Soi l cement base course
Cement treated base course
4.4.19.3 Determination of k val ue f ur granul ar sub- bE. The probabl e i ncrease i n
k val ue associ ated wi th varl ous thi cknesses of di f f erent sub-bast. materials is shown
i n Fi gure 4-35. Fi gure 4-35 is i ntended for use when ti l t. sub-hnse i s composed c p f
unstabi l i zed granul ar materi al s. Val ues shown in Figure 4-35 art. tl .1 be ccmsidered
gui des and can be tempered by I mal experi ence.
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Fi gure 4-54. Ri gi d pavement desi gn curves - L-1011-100, 200
3-174
~~~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ Aerodrome Design Manual
4.4.20 Cri ti cal and non-cri ti cal areas
4.4.20.1 The desi gn curves, Fi gures 4-46 through 4-54 are used to determi ne the
concrete sl ab thi ckness for the cri ti cal pavement areas. A 0.9T thi ckness f or non-
cri ti cal areas appl i es to the concrete sl ab thi ckness. For the vari abl e thi ckness
secti on of the thi nned edge and transi ti on secti on, the reducti on appl i es to the
concrete sl ab thi ckness. The change i n thi ckness for transi ti ons shoul d be accompl i shed
over an enti re sl ab l ength or wi dth. I n areas of vari abl e sl ab thi ckness, the sub-base
thi ckness must be adj usted as necessary to provi de surface drai nage from the enti re
subgrade surface. For fracti ons of an i nch of 0.5 or more, use tho next higher whole
number; f or less than 0.5, use the next l ower number.
4.4.21 Stabilized sub-base
4.4.21.1 Stabilized sub-base is to be requi red for al l new ri gi d pavements designed
to accommodate ai rcraft wei ghi ng 100 000 l b (45 400 kg) or more. The structural benef i t
imparted to a pavement secti on by a stabi l i zed sub-base is ref l ected in the modulus of
subgrade reacti on assi gned to the foundati on. Excepti ons to the pol i cy of usi ng
stabi l i zed sub-base are the sameas gi ven in 4.4-15.
( c m )
12 14 16 18 2 0 2 2 2 4 2 6 28 3 0
I I I I I I f 1 I I
500
400
300
ro
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a
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80
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THICKNESS OF SUBBASE, INCHES
- I 20
- 100
. 90
. 80
- 7 0
* 60
. 50
z
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3 5
- 30
* 2 5
-
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Fi gure 4-55. Effect of stabiLized sub-base on subgrade modulus
ICAO 7357 PA RT* 3 X * m 4843Y1b 0037550 74Y m
Part 3.- Pavements 3-175
4.4.21.2 Determination of k val ue for stabi l i zed sub-base. The ef f ect of stabi l i zed
sub-base is ref l ected i n the f oundati on modulus. The di f f i cul ty i n assi gni ng a foundati on
modulus is that test data w i l l not be avai l abl e duri ng the desi gn phase. Fi gure 4-55
shows the probabl e i ncrease i n k val ue wi th vari ous thi cknesses of stabi l i zed sub-base
l ocated on subgrades of varyi ng modul i . Fi gure 4-55 i s appl i cabl e to cement stabi l i zed
and bi tumi nous stabi l i zed l ayers. Fi gure 4-55 was developed by assuming a stabi l i zed
l ayer is twi ce as ef f ecti ve as a wel l -graded crushed aggregate i n i ncreasi ng the subgrade
modul us. Stabi l i zed l ayers of lesser qual i ty shoul d be assi gned somewhat lower k val ues.
After k val ue is assi gned to the stabi l i zed sub-base, the desi gn procedure i s the same
as descri bed i n 4.4.18.
4.4.22 Design example
4.4.22.1 As an example of the use of the desi gn curves, assume that a ri gi d pavement
is to be desi gned f or dual tandem ai rcraft havi ng a gross weight of 350 000 l b
(160 000 kg) and f or 6 000 annual equi val ent departures of the desi gn ai rcraf t. The
equi val ent annual departures of 6 000 i ncl udes 1 200 annual departures of B-747 ai rcraf t
weighing 780 000 l b (350 000 kg) gross wei ght. The subgrade modulus of 100 pci
(25 NN/rc3) wi th poor drai nage and frost penetrati on is 17 i n (45 cm). The f eature
to be desi gned i s a pri mary runway and requi res 100 per cent frost protecti on. The
subgrade soi l is CL. Concrete mix desi gns i ndi cate that a f l exural strength of 650 psi
(4.5 MN/m2) can be readi l y produced wi th l ocal l y avai l abl e aggregates.
4.4.22.2 The gross wei ght of the desi gn ai rcraf t di ctates the use of a stabi l i zed
sub-base. Several thi cknesses of stabi l i zed sub-bases shoul d be tri ed to determi ne
the zost economi cal secti on. Assume a cement stabi l i zed sub-base w i l l be used. Try a
sub-base thi ckness of 6 i n (15 cm) . Using Figure 4-55, a 6 i n (15 cm) thi ckness would
l i kel y i ncrease the f oundati on modulus from 100 pci (25 MN/m3) to 210 pci (57 MX/m3).
Using Figure 4-48 dual tandem desi gn curve, wi th the assumed desi gn data, yi el ds a
concrete pavement thi ckness of 16.6 i n (42 cm). Thi s thi ckness would be rounded off
17 in (43 cm}. Si nce the f rost penetrati on i s onl y 18 i n (45 cm) and the combined
thi ckness of concrete pavement and stabi l i zed sub-base is 23 i n (58 cm), no f urther
f rost protecti on i s needed. Even though the wide body ai rcraf t di d not control the
thi ckness of the sl ab, the wide bodies would have to be consi dered i n the establ i shment
of j oi nti ng requi rements and desi gn of drai nage structures. Other stabi l i zed sub-base
thi cknesses shoul d be tri ed to determi ne the most economi cal secti on.
4.4.23 Opti onal ri gi d pavement design curves
4.4.23.1 When ai rcraf t l oadi ngs are appl i ed to a j oi nted edge, the angl e of the
l andi ng gear rel ati ve to the j oi nted edge i nfl uences the magni tude of the stress i n
the sl ab. Fi gures 4-46 and 4-47, si ngl e wheel and dual wheel l andi ng gear assembl i es,
are at the maximumstress when the gear is l ocated paral l el to the j oi nt. Dual tandem
assembl i es do not produce the maximumstress when l ocated paral l el to the j oi nt.
Locati ng the dual tandem at an acute angl e to the j oi nted edge w i l l produce the maximum
stress. Desi gn curves, Fi gures 4-56 through 4-62, have been prepared for dual tandem
gears l ocated tangent to the j oi nted edge but rotated to the angl e causi ng the maximum
stress. These desi gn curves can be used to desi gn pavements i n areas where ai rcraf t
are l i kel y to cross the pavement j oi nts at angl es at l ow speeds such as runway hol di ng
aprons, runway ends, runway-taxi way i ntersecti ons, aprons, etc. U se of Fi gures 4-56 to
4-62 is opti onal and shoul d onl y be appl i ed i n areas where ai rcraft are l i kel y to
cross pavement j oi nts at an angl e and at low speeds.
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Fi gure 4-57. Opti onal ri gi d pavement desi gn curves - B-747-100, SR, 200 B, C y F
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Fi gure 4- 58. Optional ri gi d pavement clcsign curves - B-747-SP
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Fi gure 4-59. Opti onal ri gi d pavement design curves - DC 10-10, lOCF
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ICAO 9157 P A RT t 3 t t V8Y141b 0019558 T35
Part 3. - Pavements 3-183
*
4. 4. 24 High traf f i c volumes
4. 4. 24. 1 There are a number of ai rports whi ch experi ence traf f i c i ntecsi ti es f ar
i n excess of those i ndi cated on the desi gn curves. I n these si tuati ons, mai ntenance
is nearl y i mpossi bl e due to traf f i c i ntensi ty and makes i ni ti al constructi on even more
i mportant. Unfortunatel y, l i ttl e i nformati on exi sts on the performance of ai rport
pavements under high traffi c i ntensi ti es except for the experi ence gai ned through
observati on of i n-servi ce pavements. Ri gi d pavements desi gned to serve i n si tuati ons
where traf f i c i ntensi ty i s hi gh shoul d refl ect the fol l owi ng consi derati ons.
4. 4. 24. 2 Foundation. The foundati on for the pavement provi des the ul ti mate support
to the structure. Every effort shoul d be made to provi de a stabl e foundati on as problems
ari si ng l ater from an i nadequate foundati on cannot be practi cabl y corrected after the
pavement i s constructed. The use of stabi l i zed sub-base w i l l ai d greatl y i n provi di ng
a uni form, stabl e foundati on. General l y speaki ng, the most effi ci ent combi nati on of
ri gi d pavement thi ckness and stabi l i zed sub-base thi ckness for structural capaci ty is
a 1:l rati o.
4. 4. 24. 3 Thi ckness. Pavements subj ected to traffi c i ntensi ti es greater than the
25 000 annual departure level shown on the desi gn curves w i l l requi re more thi ckness to
accommodate the traf f i c volume. Additional thickness can be provided by i ncreasi ng the
pavement thi ckness i n accordance wi th Tabl e 4-12 shown below:
Table 4-12. Pavement thi ckness for hi gh departure l evel
expressed as a percentage of the 25 000 departure thi ckness
Annual departure l evel
50 000
100 000
150 000
200 000
Percentage of
25 000 departure thi ckness
104
108
110
112
The val ues gi ven i n Tabl e 4-12 are based on extrapol ati ons of research
data and observati ons of in-service pavements. Table 4-12 was developed assuming a
l ogari thmi c rel ati onshi p between percentage of thi ckness and departures.
4. 4. 24. 4 Panel si ze. Sl ab panel s shoul d be constructed to mi ni mi ze j oi nt movement.
Small j oi nt movement tends to provi de f or better l oad transf er across j oi nts and reduces
the el ongati on the j oi nt seal ant materi al s must accommodate when the sl abs expand and
contract. Hi gh-qual i ty j oi nt seal ants shoul d be speci fi ed to provi de the best possi bl e
performance .
4. 4. 25 Rei nforced concrete pavement
4. 4. 25. 1 The main benefi t of steel rei nforci ng is that, al though it does not prevent
cracki ng, i t keeps the cracks that form ti ghtl y cl osed so that the i nterl ock of the
i rregul ar f aces provi des structural i ntegri ty and usually improves pavement performance.
By hol di ng the cracks ti ghtl y cl osed, the steel mi ni mi zes the i nfi l trati on of debri s
i nto the cracks. The thi ckness requi rements for rei nforced concrete pavements are the
same as pl ai n concrete and are determined from the appropri ate desi gn curves. Steel
rei nforcement al l ows l onger j oi nt spaci ngs, thus the cost benefi ts associ ated wi th fewer
j oi nts must be determined i n the deci si on to use pl ai n or rei nf orced concrete pavement.
4. 4. 25. 2 Type and spacing o f reinforcement. Reinforcement may be ei ther welded
wire f abri c or bar mats i nstal l ed wi th end and si de l aps to provi de compl ete rei nforcement
throughout the sl ab panel . End l aps shoul d be a minimum of 1 2 i n ( 3 1 cm) but not less
than 30 times the di ameter of the l ongi tudi nal wi r e or bar. Si de l aps shoul d be a
I C A O 9157 PART*: 3 ** Y114LQSb 0019559 971 =
I
3-184 Aeridrrmie Dc--.sign X-ianual
~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~ ~
minimum of 6 in (15 cm) but not less than 20 ti mes chi. d i;tmetrr r thy transvrrse w i r e
or bar. End and si de cl earances shoul d be a mar-I i rnwr! c ~ f ~. in !-? ICE; 2nd n vinlmum of
2 i n (5 cm) to al l ow f or nearly canplete rei nforrempnt a d yet a . h i + :r :LS.. l at e ccnrrrte
cover. L ongi tudhal members should he spaced not less than 4 in C 111 cm) R. : nDre than
12 i n (31 cm) apart; transverse members shoul d be xpacrd ncjt less thzn L in ( I n cm) nor
more than 24 i n (61 cmj apart.
4.4.25.3 Amount of rei nforcement
I
a) The steel area requi red for a rei nf nrcrd cc-mcrete pavement is
determined from the subgrade drag formula and the cnefflcient
of fri cti on formul a combined. The resul tant formul a ts
expressed as folLows :
3 . 7 L J G
fs
As =
v-here :
AS TH
desi gnati on
Type and grade of st eel
0
ICAO 7157 PA RT* 3 ** W 4841416 0037560 673 =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-185
c) The minimum percentage of steel reinforcement should be
0.05 per cent. The percentage of steel i s computed by di vi di ng
the area of steel, As, by the area of concrete per uni t of
l ength (or wi dth) and mul ti pl yi ng by 100. The minimum percentage
of steel consi dered the l east amount of steel which can be
economically placed i s 0.05 per cent. Steel rei nforcement al l ows
l arger sl ab si zes and thus decreases the number of transverse
contracti on j oi nts. The costs associ ated wi th provi di ng a
rei nforced pavement must be compared wi th the savi ngs real i zed
i n el i mi nati ng some of the transverse contracti on j oi nts to
determine the most economical steel percentage. The maximum
al l owabl e sl ab l ength regardl ess of steel percentage is 75 f t (23 m).
4. 4. 26 Ai rport pavement overl ays
4. 4. 26. 1 General
a) Ai rport pavement overlays may be requi red for a vari ety of reasons.
A pavement may have been damaged by overl oadi ng i n such a way that
it cannot be mai ntai ned sati sfactori l y at a servi ceabl e level.
Si mi l arl y, a pavement i n good condi ti on may requi re strengtheni ng
to serve ai rcraf t heavi er than those f or which the pavement was
ori gi nal l y desi gned. A pavement may al so requi re an overl ay si mpl y
because the ori gi nal pavement has served i ts desi gn l i f e and is
"worn out". General l y, ai rport pavement overl ays consi st of ei ther
Portl and cement concrete or bi tumi nous concrete.
b) Defi ni ti ons appl i cabl e to overl ay pavements are as fol l ows:
1) Overlay pavement. Pavement which is constructed on top of an
exi sti ng pavement.
2 ) Bituminous overlay. Bituminous concrete pavement placed on an
exi sti ng pavement.
3) Concrete overl ay. Portl and cement concrete pavement placed on
an exi sti ng pavement.
4 ) Sandwich pavement. An overl ay pavement contai ni ng a granul ar
separati on course.
4. 4. 26. 2 Design of bi tumi nous overl ays. Bi tumi nous overl ays can be appl i ed to
ei ther f l exi bl e or ri gi d pavements. Certain cri teri a are appl i cabl e to the desi gn of
bituminous overlays whether they are to be pl aced over exi sti ng ri gi d or f l exi bl e
pavements .
a) Overlay pavements which use a granul ar separati on course between
the ol d and new surf aces are not allowed. Overlay pavements
contai ni ng granul ar separati on courses are ref erred to as sandwich
pavements. Sandwich pavements are not al l owed because the
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** M 484343b 00395blr 52T 0
3-186 ~~ ~ Aerodrome Design Hanual
separati on course i s l i kel y to became saturated wFth water and
provi de rather unpredi ctabl e performance. Saturati on of the
separati on course can be caused by the i nf i l trati on of surface
water, i ngress of ground or capi l l ary water, or the condensatfon
of water from the atmosphere. I n any event, the water i n the
separati on course usual l y cannot be adequatel y drai ned and
drasti cal l y reduces the stabi l i ty of the overlay.
b) Bi tumi nous overl ays for i ncreasi ng strength shoul d have a minimum
thi ckness of 3 i n (7.5 em>.
4. 4. 26. 3 Bi tumi nous overl ays on exi sti ng fl exi bl e pavement
a) Use the appropri ate basi c fl exi bl e pavement curves to determi ne
the thi ckness requi rements for a f l exi bl e pavement f or the
desi red l oad and number of equi val ent desi gn departures. A CBR
val ue is requi red for the subgrade material and sub-base. Thicknesses
of al l pavement l ayers met be determined. The thi ckness of pavement
requi red over the subgrade and sub-base and the minimum base course
requi rements must be compared wi th the exi sti ng pavement to determi ne
the overl ay requi rements.
b) Adjustments to the vari ous l ayers of the exi sti ng pavement may be
necessary to compl ete the desi gn. Bi tumi nous surfaci ng may have to
be converted to base, and base to sub-base conversi on may be
requi red. A hi gh-qual i ty materi al may be converted to a lower-
qual i ty material, such as surfaci ng to base. A material may not
be converted to a hi gher qual i ty material. For example, excess
sub-base cannot be converted to base. The equi val ency factors
shown i n Tabl es 4-9 and 4-10 may be used as guidance i n the
conversion of l ayers. It must be recognized that the val ues
shown are f or new materials and the assl .gnment of factors for
exi sti ng pavements must be based on judgement and experience.
Surface cracki ng, hi gh degree of oxi datton, evi dence of l ow
stabi l i ty, etc., are onl y a few of the consi derati ons whi ch would
tend to reduce the equi val ency factor. Any bi tumi nous l ayer
l ocated between granul ar courses i n the exLsti np; pavement should
be eval uated i nch for i nch as granul ar base or sub-base course.
c) To i l l ustrate the procedure of desi gni ng a bituminous overlay,
assune an exi sti ng taxi way pavement composed of the fol l owi ng
secti on. The subgrade CBR is 7, the bi tumi nous surface course
is 4 i n (10 cm) thi ck, the base course is 6 i n (15 cm) thi ck, the
sub-base is 10 i n (25 cm) thi ck, and the sub-base CBR is L5.
Frost acti on is negl i gi bl e. Assume the exi sti ng pavement is to
be strengthened to accomdate a dual wheel ai rcraft wei ghi ng
100 000 l b (45 000 kg) and an annual departure level. of 3 090.
The f l exi bl e pavement requi red for these condi ti ons is:
Bituminous surface 4 i n (10 cm)
Base 9 i n ( 23 cm)
Sub-base 10 i n (25 cm)
Total pavement thi ckness
23 i n (58 cm)
c ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** - 484143b 0019562 466
Par t 3 . - Pavement s 3-187
The t ot al pavement t hi ckness must be 23 i n ( 58 cm) i n order t o
pr ot ect t he CBR 7 subgr ade. The combi ned t hi ckness of sur f aci ng
and base must be 13 i n ( 3 3 cm) to pr ot ect t he CBR 15 sub- base.
The exi st i ng pavement i s t hus 3 i n ( 7. 5 cm) aef i ci ent i n t ot al
pavement t hi ckness, al l of whi ch i s due t o base cour se. For t he
sake of i l l ust r at i on, assume t he exi st i ng bi t umi nous sur f ace i s
i n such a condi t i on t hat sur f aci ng can be subst i t ut ed f or base
at an equi val ency r at i o of 1.3 t o 1. Conver t i ng 2. 5 i n ( 6 cm)
of sur f aci ng t o base yi el ds a base cour se t hi ckness of 9. 2 i n
( 23 cm) l eavi ng 1 . 5 i n ( 4 cm) of unconver t ed sur f aci ng. A
2. 5 I n ( 6 cm) over l ay woul d be r equi r ed t o achi eve a 4 i n (10 cm)
t hi ck sur f ace. I n t hi s i nst ance t he mi ni mum 3 i n ( 7. 5 cm)
over l ay t hi ckness woul d cont r ol . A 3 i n ( 7. 5 cm) over l ay
t hi ckness woul d be r equi r ed.
d) The most di f f i cul t par t of desi gni ng bi t umi nous over l ays f or
f l exi bl e pavement s i s t he det er mi nat i on of t he CBR val ues f or
t he subgr ade and sub- base and conver si on of l ayer s. Subgr ade
and sub- base CBR val ues can best be det er mi ned by conduct i ng
f i el d i n- pl ace CBR t est s. The subgrade and sub- base must be at
t he equi l i br i um moi st ur e cont ent when f i el d CBR t est s ar e conduct ed.
Nor mal l y a pavement whi ch has been i n pl ace f or at l east 3 year s
wi l l be i n equi l i br i um. Layer conver si ons, i .e., conver t i ng base
t o sub- base, et c. , ar e l ar gel y a mat t er of engi neer i ng j udgement .
When per f or mi ng t he conver si ons, i t i s r ecommended t hat any conver t ed
t hi cknesses never be r ounded of f .
4. 4. 26. 5 Bi t umi nous over l ay on exi s. t i ng r i gzd pavement . To est abl i sh t he r equi r ed
t hi ckness of bi t umi nous over l ay f or an exi st i ng r i gi d pavement , i t i s f i r st necessar y
t o det er mi ne t he si ngl e t hi ckness of r i gi d pavement r equi r ed t o sat i sf y t he desi gn
condi t i ons. Thi s t hi ckness is t hen modi f i ed by a f act or F whi ch cont r ol s t he degr ee
of cr acki ng whi ch wi l l occur i n t he exi st i ng r i gi d pavement . The ef f ect i ve t hi ckness
of t he exi st i ng r i gi d pavement i s al so adj ust ed by a condi t i on f act or cb. The F and Cb
f act or s per f or m t wo di f f er ent - f unct i ons i n t he bi t umi nous over l ay det er mi nat i on as
di scussed bel ow:
a) The f act or F whi ch cont r ol s t he degr ee of cr acki ng whi ch wi l l occur
i n t he base pavement i s a f unct i on of t he amount of t r af f i c and t he
subgr ade st r engt h. The F f act or sel ect ed wi l l di ct at e t he f i nal
condi t i on of t he over l ay and base pavement . The F f act or i n ef f ect
is i ndi cat i ng t hat t he ent i r e concr et e si ngl e sl ab t hi ckness det er mi ned
f r om t he desi gn cur ves i s not needed because a bi t umi nous over l ay
pavement i s al l owed t o cr ack and def l ect mor e t han a convent i onal
r i gi d pavement . Mor e cr acki ng and def l ect i on i s al l owabl e as t he
bi t umi nous sur f aci ng wi l l not spa11 and can conf or m t o gr eat er def l ect i ons
t han a t ot al l y r i gi d pavement . Phot ogr aphs of var i ous over l ay and
base pavement s shown i n Fi gur e 4-63 i l l ust rat e t he roeani ng of t he F
f act or . Fi gur es 4-63 a), b) and c) show how t he over l ay and base
pavement s f ai l as mor e t r af f i c i s appl i ed t o a bi t umi nous over l ay on
an exi st i ng r i gi d pavement . I n t he desi gn of a bi t umi nous over l ay,
I C A O 9L57 PART83 ** D q6L154Lb OOL95b3 3T2
3- 188 Aer odr ome Desi gn Manual
t he condi t i on of t he over l ay and base pavement af t er t he desi gn l i f e
shoul d be cl ose t o t hat shown i n Fi gur e 4- 63 b). Fi gur e 4-64 i s a
gr aph enabl i ng t he desi gner t o sel ect t he appr opr i at e F val ue t o
yi el d a f i nal condi t i on cl ose t o t hat shown i n Fi gur e 4-63 b).
b) The condi t i on f act or Cg appl i es t u t he exi st i ng r i gi d pavement .
The cb f act or i s an assessment of t he st r uct ur al i nt egr i t y of t he
exi st i ng pavement . The det er mi nat i on of t he pr oper Cg val ue i s a
j udgement deci si on f or whi ch onl y gener al gui del i nes can be pr ovi ded.
A cb val ue of 1. 0 shoul d be used when t he exi st i ng sl abs cont ai n
nomi nal i ni t i al cr acki ng and 0.75 when t he sl abs cont ai n mul t i pl e
cr acki ng. The desi gner is caut i oned t hat t he r ange of ch val ues used
i n bi t umi nous over l ay desi gns is di f f er ent f r om t he Cr val ues used i n
r i gi d over l ay pavement desi gn. The mi ni mum Cb val ue i s 0.75. A
si ngl e cb shoul d be est abl i shed for an ent i r e ar ea. The Cb val ue
shoul d not be var i ed al ong a pavement f eat ur e.
over l ay i s comput ed
t
wher e t = t hi ckness
F = f act or wh
c) Af t er t he F f act or , condi t i on f act or cb, and si ngl e t hi ckness of
r i gi d pavement have been est abl i shed, t he t hi ckness of t he bi t umi nous
f r om t he f ol l owi ng f or mul a:
of bi t umi nous over l ay, i nches
i ch cont r ol s t he degr ee of cr acki ng
i n t he base pavement
h = si ngl e t hi ckness of r i gi d pavement r equi r ed for
desi gn condi t i ons, i nches. Use t he exact val ue
of h; do not r ound of f .
cb =condi t i on f act or f or base pavement r angi ng f r om 1. 0 to 0.75
he =t hi ckness of exi st i ng r i gi d pavement , i nches
Cal cul at i on of bi t umi nous over l ay t hi ckness i n met r i c uni t s shoul d
be per f or med usi ng t he f or mul a bel ow:
t = 2.5
wher e t i s i n cent i met r es
h i s i n cent i met r es
h, i s i n cent i mat r es
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 *t 4 8 4 3 4 3 b 0039564 239 =
Part 3. - P avements 3-189
SURFACE OF OVERLAY BASE PAVEMENT
(a>
SURFACE OF OVERT.,AY BASE PAVEMF,PJT
SURFACE OF OVERLAY BASE PAVEMENT
Fi gure 4-63. I l l ustrati on of vari ous F factors for bi t umi nous overlay design
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTI ON
pc i
100 20 0 300 400
Figure 4- 64. Graph of F factors v s . modulus of subgrade
reacti on for di fferent traffi c l evel s
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 tt = 4BYL43b 00395b b 003
Part 3. - Pavement s 3-191
d) The desi gn of a bi t umi nous overl ay f or a ri gi d pavement whi ch has
an exi st i ng bi t umi nous overl ay i s sl i ght l y di f f erent . The desi gner
shoul d t reat t he probl em as i f t he exi st i ng bi t umi nous overl ay
were not present , cal cul at e t he overl ay t hi ckness requi red, and t hen
adj ust t he cal cul at ed t hi ckness t o compensat e f or t he exi st i ng
overl ay. I f t hi s procedure i s not used, i nconsi st ent resul t s wi l l
of t en be produced.
1) An exampl e of t he procedure f ol l ows. Assume an exi st i ng
pavement consi st s of a 10 i n (25 cm) ri gi d pavement wi t h a
3 i n (7.5 em) bi t umi nous overl ay. The exi st i ng pavement i s
to be st rengt hened t o be equi val ent t o a si ngl e ri gi d pavement
t hi ckness of 14 i n ( 36 cm). Assume an F f act or of 0.9 and
Cb of 0.9 are appropri at e f or t he exi st i ng condi t i ons.
2) Cal cul at e t he requi red t hi ckness of bi t umi nous overl ay as i f
t he exi st i ng 3 in (7.5 cm) overl ay were not present .
t =2.5 ( 0. 9 X 14 - 0.9 X 10)
t =9 i n (23 cm)
3) An al l owance i s t hen made f or. t he exi st i ng bi t umi nous overl ay.
In t hi s exampl e assume t he exi st i ng overl ay i s i n such a
condi t i on t hat i t s ef f ect i ve t hi ckness i s onl y 2.5 i n (6 cm).
The requi red overl ay t hi ckness woul d t hen be 9 - 2.5 =6.5 i n
(17 cm). The determi nati on of the ef f ecti ve thi ckness of the
exi st i ng overl ay i s a mat t er of engi neeri ng j udgement .
e) The f ormul a f or cal cul at i ng t he t hi ckness of bi t umi nous overl ays
on ri gi d pavement s i s l i mi t ed i n appl i cat i on t o overl ay t hi cknesses
whi ch are equal t o or l ess t han t he t hi ckness of t he base ri gi d
pavement. If t he overl ay t hi ckness exceeds t he t hi ckness of t he
base pavement , t he desi gner shoul d consi der desi gni ng t he overl ay
as a f l exi bl e pavement and t reat i ng t he exi st i ng ri gi d pavement as
a hi gh- qual i t y base mat eri al . Thi s l i mi t at i on i s based on t he f act
t hat t he f ormul a assumes t he exi st i ng ri gi d pavement wi l l support
consi derabl e l oad by f l exural act i on. However, t he f l exural
cont ri but i on becomes negl i gi bl e f or t hi ck bi t umi nous overl ays.
4. 4. 26. 6 Desi gn of concret e overl ays. Concret e overl ays can be const ruct ed on
exi st i ng ri gi d or f l exi bl e pavement s. The mi ni mum al l owabl e t hi ckness f or concret e
overl ays i s 5 i n (13 cm) when pl aced on a f l exi bl e pavement , di rect l y on a ri gi d pavement ,
or on a l evel l i ng course. The mi ni mum t hi ckness of a concret e overl ay whi ch i s bonded
t o an exi st i ng ri gi d pavement i s 3 i n (7.5 cm2. The desi gn of concret e overl ays i s
predi cat ed on equat i ng t he base and overl ay sect i on t o a si ngl e sl ab t hi ckness. The
f ormul as present ed were devel oped f rom research on t est t rack pavement s and observat i ons
of i n- servi ce pavement s.
3-192 Aerodrome Desiw Manual
4.4.26.7 Concrete overhy on flcxtblc pavement. The desi gn of concrete overl ays on
exi sti np; fl exi bl e pavements is based on the desi gn curves in 4.4.18. The exi sti ng
f l exi bl e pavement is consi dered a foundati on for-the overl ay sl ab.
a) For design of the ri gi d pavement, the exi sti ng f l exi bl e pavement
shal l be assi gned a k val ue usi ng Fi gure 4-35 or 4-55 or by conducting
a pl ate beari ng test on the exi sti ng f l exi bl e pavement. I n ei ther
case the k value assigned should not exceed 500.
b) When frost condi ti on6 requi re addi ti onal thi ckness, the use of
non-stabi l i zed material is not al l owed as thi s would resul t i n
a sandwich pavement. The f rost protectf on mst be provided by
stabi l i zed material.
4.4.26.8 Concrete overlay on rigid pavement. The desi gn of concrete overl ays on
exi sti ng ri gi d pavements is al so predi cated on the ri gi d pavement design curves. The
ri gi d pavem-t desi gn curves i ndi cate the thi ckness of concrete requi red to sati sf y the
desi gn condi ti ons for a si ngl e thi ckness of concrete pavement. Use of thi s method
requi res the desi gner to assi gn a k val ue to the exi sti ng foundati on. The k val ue may be
determi ned by fi el d beari ng tests conducted i n test pi ts cut through the exi sti ng ri gi d
pavement, or may be esti mated from constructi on records for the exi sti ng pavement. The
desi gn of a concrete overl ay on a ri gi d pavement requi res an assessment of the structural
i ntegri ty of the exi sti ng ri gi d pavement. The condi ti on factor shoul d be sel ected after
a pavement condi ti on survey. The sel ecti on of a condi ti on f actor i s a matter of
engi neeri ng j udgement The use of non-destructi ve testi ng (HDT) can be of consi derabl e
val ue in assessi ng the condi ti on of an exi sti ng pavement. NDT can al so be used to
determine sites for test pi ts. In order to provi de a more uniform assessment of condition
f actors, the f ol l owi ng val ues are defi ned:
Cr =1.0 f or exi sti ng pavement i n good condi ti on - sane minor
cracki ng evi dent but no structural def ects.
Cr =0.75 f or exi sti ng pavement contai ni ng i ni ti al corner cracks due
to l oadi ng but no progressi ve cracki ng or j oi nt f aul ti ng.
C r =0.35 f or exi sti ng pavement i n poor structural condi ti on - badl y
cracked or crushed and faul ted j oi nts.
The three condi ti ons di scussed above are used to i l l ustrate the condi ti on
f actor rather than establ i sh the onl y val ues avai l abl e to the desi gner. Condi ti ons at
a parti cul ar l ocati on may requi re the use of an i ntermedi ate val ue of C, wi thi n the
recommended range.
I C A O 9157 PA RT* 3 *t 48414Lb 00195b8 984
Part 3. - Pavements 3-193
a) Concrete overl ay wi thout l evel l i ng course. The thi ckness of the
concrete overl ay sl ab appl i ed di rectl y over the exi sti ng ri gi d
pavement is computed by the fol l owi ng formul a:
hc =requi red thi ckness of concrete overl ay
h =requi red si ngl e sl ab thi ckness determi ned from desi gn curves
he =thi ckness of exi sti ng ri gi d pavement
Cr =condi ti on f actor
Due to the i nconveni ent exponents i n the above formul a, graphi c di spl ays
of the sol uti on of the formul a are gi ven i n Fi gures 4-65 and 4-66. These
graphs were prepared for onl y two di f f erent condi ti on f actors, C r =1.0 and
0. 75. The use of a concrete overl ay pavement di rectl y on an exi sti ng ri gi d
pavement wi th a condi ti on factor of less than 0.75 is not recommended because
of the l i kel i hood of refl ecti on cracki ng.
b) Concrete overl ay wi th l evel l i ng course. I n some i nstances it may be
necessary to appl y a l evel l i ng course of bi tumi nous concrete to an
exi sti ng ri gi d pavement pri or to the appl i cati on of the concrete
overl ay. Under these condi ti ons a di f f erent f ormul a f or the
computati on of the overl ay thi ckness i s requi red. When the exi sti ng
pavement and overlay pavement are separated, the sl abs act more
i ndependentl y than when the sl abs are i n contact wi th each other.
The formul a for the thi ckness of an overl ay sl ab when a l evel l i ng
course is used is as fol l ows:
hc =1 h2 - Crhe2
hc =requi red thi ckness of concrete overl ay
h =requi red si ngl e sl ab thi ckness determi ned from desi gn curves
he =thi ckness of exi sti ng ri gi d pavement
C r =condi ti on f actor
The l evel l i ng course must be constructed of hi ghl y stabl e bi tumi nous
concrete. A granul ar separati on course is not al l owed as thi s would
consti tute sandwi ch constructi on. Graphi c sol uti ons of the above
equati on are shown i n Fi gures 4-67 and 4-68. These graphs were
prepared for condi ti on factors of 0.75 and 0.35. Other condi ti on
f actors between these val ues can normal l y be computed to suf f i ci ent
accuracy by i nterpol ati on.
3-194 Aerodrome Design Manual
c) Bonded concrete overlays. Concrete overlays which are bonded to
exi sti ng ri gi d pavements are sometimes used under certai n condi ti ons.
By bonding the concrete overl ay to the exi sti ng ri gi d pavement the new
secti on behaves as a monolithic slab. The thickness of bonded overlay
required is computed by subtracti ng the thi ckness of the exi sti ng
pavement from the thi ckness of the required alab thickness determined
from design curves.
where :
hc =requfred thickness of concrete overlay
h =required single elab thicknees determined from design curves
he =thi ckness of eXi 8thg ri gi d pavement
Bonded overlays should be used onl y when the exi sti ng ri gi d pavement
is i n good condition. Defects in theexi sti ng pavement are more
l i ke l y to refl ect through a bonded overlay than other types of
concrete overlays. The major problem l i kel y to be encountered
with bonded concrete overlays is achieving adequate bond. Elaborate
eurface preparation and exacting construction techniques are
required to enaure bond.
ICAO 9157 PA RT t 3 t t W 48434Lb 0039570 532
m
m
Part 3.- Pavements 3-195
51
46
41
5 36
3a
25
20
h, (THICKNESS IN INCHES OF OVERLAY SLAB)
I I I I I
15 20 25 30 38
I
41
cm
Figure 4-65. Concrete overlay on rigid pavement
ICAO 91157 P A RT t 3 t t 4B43411b 0039573 479
3-196 ~ ~~~~ Aerodrome Design Manual
51
46
41
g 3E
30
25
20
h, (THICKNESS I N INCHES OF OVERLAY SLAB)
%. v m
1
I I
15 20 25 30 & 41
I
cm
Figure 4-66. Concrete overlay on rigid pavement
ICAO 9357 PA RTS3 t t = 4843436 0039572 305 m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-197
51
46
41
8 36
30
25
20.
h, (THICKNESS- IN INCHES OF OVERLAY SLAB)
%- v w
I I
I I I
15. 20 25 30 36
I
41
cm
Figure 4-67. Concrete overlay on ri gi d pavement with l evel l i ng course
46
41
36
30
25
20
Fi gure 4- 68. Concrete overlay on rigid pavement wi t h l evel l i ng course
*
I C A O 91157 PA RT * 3
Part 3. - Pavements 3-199
4. 4. 27 Pavement eval uati on
4.4.27.1 Purposes of pavement eval uati on
a) Ai rport pavements are eval uated for several reasons. Eval uati ons
are needed to establ i sh l oad carryi ng capaci ty f or expected
operati ons, to assess the abi l i ty of pavements to support si gni f i cant
changes from expected volumes or types of traf f i c, and to determi ne
the condi ti on of exi sti ng. pavements for use i n the pl anni ng or
desi gn of improvements which may be requi red to upgrade a f aci l i ty.
b) Eval uati on procedures are essenti al l y the reversal of design proce-
dures. Si nce the new FAA desi gn methodol ogy descri bed i n thi s Manual
may resul t i n sl i ghtl y di f f erent thi cknesses than other desi gn
methods it would be i nappropri ate to eval uate exi sti ng pavements by
the new method unl ess they had al so been desi gned by that method.
Thi s coul d reduce al l owabl e l oads and penal i ze ai rcraft operators.
To avoi d thi s si tuati on, pavements shoul d be eval uated for the
vari ous condi ti ons i ndi cated i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
4.4.27.2 Eval uati ons for expected operati ons. When ai rport pavements are subj ected
to the l oads whi ch were anti ci pated at the time of desi gn, thei r eval uati on shoul d be
based on that ori gi nal desi gn method. For example, i f a pavement was designed by method X
to serve certain ai rcraf t f or a 20-year l i f e and the traf f i c usi ng the pavement is
essenti al l y the same as was anti ci pated at the time of desi gn, the pavement shoul d be
eval uated accordi ng to method X. The eval uator shoul d recogni ze that some deteri orati on
wi l l occur over the 20 year desi gn l i fe. The l oad beari ng strength of the pavement
shoul d not be reduced i f the pavement is provi di ng a safe operati onal surface. The pri or
eval uati on curves are f urni shed i n Appendix 4, to f aci l i tate thi .s eval uati on pol i cy.
See Fi gures A4-8 to A4-21.
4.4.27.3 Eval uati ons for changi ng traffi c. Eval uati ons are someti mes requi red to
determi ne the abi l i ty of an exi sti ng pavement to support substanti al changes i n pavement
l oadi ngs. Thi s can be brought on by the i ntroducti on of di fferent types of ai rcraft or
changes i n traf f i c volume. I n these i nstances it is al so reconmended that exi sti ng
pavements be eval uated accordi ng to the methods by whi ch they were desi gned. The ef f ect
of changes i n traf f i c volume are usual l y small and w i l l not have a l arge i mpact on
al l owabl e l oads. The effect of changes i n ai rcraft types depends on the gear wei ght asd
gear confi gurati on of the ai rcraf t. The l oad carryi ng capaci ty of exi sti ng bri dges,
cul verts, storm drai ns, and other structures shoul d al so be consi dered i n these eval ua-
ti ons.
3-200
I C A O 9157 PA RT t 3 t t YBqLYLb 0059575 054
Aerodrome Desinn Manual
4.4.27.4 . EvaLuations for planninn, and desigr,. Evalnations of exi sti ng pavements
to be used in planning or designing improvements should be based on the mrthnd which will
be used to design those improvements. The procedures to b2 followed i n eval uati ng
pavements according to the desi gn cri teri a contai ned i n thi s Xanual are as follows:
a) Eval uati on steps
1) Si te i nspecti on. This may i ncl ude, i n addi ti on to the examination
of the exi sti ng drai nage condi ti ons and drai nage facL l i ti es of
the site, consi derati on of the drai nage area, outf al l , water tabl e,
area development, etc. Evidence of frost acti on shoul d be
ob served.
2) Records research and evaluation. Tnis step may, at Least i n
part, precede step 1) above. This step is accomplished by a
thorough review of constructi on data and hi story, desi gn
consi derati ons, speci fi cati ons, testi ng methods and resul ts,
as-built drawings, and maintenance history. Peather records
and the most complete traf f i c hi story avai l abl e are al so parts
of a usabl e records fi l e. When soi l , moi sture, and weather
condi ti ons conduci ve to detri mental frost acti on exi st, an
adj ustment to the eval uati on nay be requi red.
3) Sampling and testi ng. Tne need for and scope of pfi ysi cal
tests and materials anal yses sill be based on the fi ndi ngs
made from the site i nspecti on, records research, and type of
eval uati on. A compl ete eval uati on for detai l ed desi gn wi l l
requi re more sampling and testing than, or example, an
eval uati on i ntended for use i n a master plan. Sampling and
testi ng i s i ntended to provi de i nformati on on the thi ckness,
qual i ty and general condi ti on of the pavement elements.
4 ) Eval uati on report. Analysis af steps 11, 2 ) and 3) should
cul mi nate i n the assi gnment of l oad carryi ng capaci ty to the
pavement secti ons under consi derati on. The anal yses, fi ndi ngs,
and test resul ts shoul d be i ncorporated i n a permanent record
f or future reference. whi l e these need not be i n any
parti cul ar form, i t i s recommended that a drawi ng i denti fyi ng
area limits of speci f i c pavement secti ons be i ncl uded.
b) Direct sampling procedures. The basi c eval uati on procedure for
pl anni ng and desi gn w i l l be vi sual i nspecti on and reference to
the FAA desi gn criteria, supplemented by the additional sampling,
testi ng, and research which the eval uati on processes may warrant.
For rel ati vel y new pavement wi thout vi si bl e si gns of wear or stress,
strength may be based on i nspecti on of the as-constructed secti ons,
wi th modi fi cati on for any material vari ati ons or def i ci enci es of
record. Where age or vi si bl e di stress i ndi cates the ori gi nal
strength no l onger exists, further modi fi cati on shoul d be appl i ed
on the basi s of judgement or a combination of judgement and
ICAO 9357 PA RT8 3 ** 48434Lb 0039576 T50
e
Par t 3.- Pavement s 3-201
suppl ement al physi cal t est i ng. For pavement s whi ch consi st of
sect i ons not r eadi l y compar abl e t o FAA desi gn st andar ds, eval cr at i on
shoul d be based on FAA st andar ds af t er mat er i al s compar i son and
equi val enci es have been appl i ed.
1) Fl exi bl e pavement s. Labor at or y or f i el d CBR t est s may be
usef ul i n suppl ement i ng soi l cl assi f i cat i on t est s. Fi gur e 4-69
shows t he appr oxi mat e r el at i onshi p bet ween t he subgr ade
cl assi f i cat i on f or mer l y used by t he FAA and CBR.
I
CB R
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 1 3 1 6 2 0
I SUBGRADE CLASS
Fi gur e 4-69. CBR - FAA subgr ade cl ass compar i sons
Conver si on of F subgr ade cl assi f i cat i on f act or s t o CBR i s
per mi ssi bl e wher e CBR t est s ar e not f easi bl e. The t hi ckness
of t he var i ous l ayer s i n t he f l exi bl e pavement st r uct ur e must
be known i n order t o eval uat e t he pavement . Thi ckness may be
det er mi ned f r om bor i ngs or t est pi t s. As- bui l t dr awi ngs and
r ecor ds can al so be used t o det er mi ne t hi cknesses i f t he
r ecor ds ar e suf f i ci ent l y compl et e and accur at e.
2) Ri gi d pavement s. The eval uat i on r equi r es t he det er mi nat i on of
t he t hi ckness of t he component l ayer s, t he f l exur al st r engt h
of t he concr et e, and t he modul us of subgr ade r eact i on.
a) The t hi ckness of t he component l ayer s i s usual l y
avai l abl e f r om const r uct i on r ecor ds. Wher e i nf or mat i on
i s not avai l abl e or of quest i onabl e accur acy, t hi cknesses
may be det er mi ned by bor i ngs or t est pi t s i n t he pavement .
b) The f l exur al st r engt h of t he concr et e i s most accur at el y
det er mi ned f r om t est beams sawed f r om t he exi st i ng pavement
and t est ed i n accordance wi t h ASTM C- 78. Sawed beams are
expensi ve t o obt ai n and cost s i ncur r ed i n obt ai ni ng suf f i ci ent
number s of beams t o est abl i sh a r epr esent at i ve sampl e may
be pr ohi bi t i ve. Const r uct i on r ecor ds may be used as a sour ce
of concr et e f l exur al st r engt h dat a, i f avai l abl e. The
const r uct i on dat a wi l l pr obabl y have t o be adj ust ed f or age
as concr et e st r engt h i ncr eases wi t h t i me. An appr oxi mat e
r el at i onshi p bet ween concr et e compr essi ve st r engt h and
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fl exural strength exi sts and can be computed by the fol l owi ng
formula :
R = 9 p
where R = f l exural strength
f c' = compressi ve strength
Tensi l e spl i tti ng tests (ATSH C- 496) can be used to determi ne an
approxi mati ve val ue of fl exural strength. Tensi l e spl i tti ng strength
shoul d be mul ti pl i ed by about 1.5 to approxi mate the fl exural strength.
It shoul d be poi nted out that the rel ati onshi ps between fl exural
strength and compressi ve strength or tensi l e spl i tti ng strength are
approxi mate and consi derabl e vari ati ons are l i kel y.
c) The modulus of subgrade reaction is determined by pl ate beari ng tests
performed on the subgrade. These tests shoul d be made i n accordance
wi th the procedures establ i shed i n AASHTO T 222. An i mportant part
of the test procedure for determi ni ng the subgrade reacti on modulus
is the correcti on f or soi l saturati on which is contai ned i n the
prescri bed standard. The normal appl l cati on uti l i zes a correcti on
factor determi ned by the consol i dati on testi ng of sampl es at -in situ
and saturated moi sture content. For eval uati on of ol der pavement,
where evidence exists that the subgrade moi sture has stabi l i zed or
vari es through a l i mi ted range, the correcti on for saturati on is not
necessary. If a f i el d pl ate beari ng test is not practi cal , the modulus
of subgrade reacti on may be esti mated by usi ng Tabl e 4-8.
d) Sub-bases wi l l requi re an adj ustment to the modulus of subgrade reacti on.
The thickness of the sub-base is requi red to cal cul ate a k val ue f or a
sub-base. The sub-base thickness can be determined from construction
records or from borings. The gui dance contai ned i n 4.4.19 shoul d be
used i n assi gni ng a k val ue to a sub-base.
4.4.27.5 Fl exi bl e pavements. After al l of the eval uati on parameters of the exi sti ng
f l exi bl e pavement have been establ i shed usi ng the gui dance gi ven i n the above paragraphs,
the eval uati on process is essenti al l y the reverse of the desi gn procedure. The desi gn
curves are used to determi ne the l oad carryi ng capaci ty of the exi sti ng pavement.
Requi red i nputs are subgrade and sub-base CBR val ues, thi cknesses of surfaci ng, base
and sub-base courses and an annual departure level. Several checks must be performed
to determi ne the l oad carryi ng capaci ty of a f l exi bl e pavement. The cal cul ati on whi ch
yi el ds the lowest al l owabl e l oad wi l l control the eval uati on.
a) Total pavement thi ckness. Enter the l ower absci ssa of the appropri ate
desi gn curve wi th the total pavement thickness of the exi sti ng pavement.
Make a verti cal proj ecti on to the annual departure level l i ne. A t the
poi nt of i ntersecti on between the verti cal projection and the departure
level line make a hori zontal proj ecti on across the desi gn curve. Enter
the upper absci ssa wi th the CBR vahe of the subgrade. Make a
verti cal proj ecti on downward unti l it i ntersects the hori zontal
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proj ecti on made previously. The point of i ntersecti on of these two
proj ecti ons w i l l be i n the vi ci ni ty of the l oad l i nes on the desi gn
curves. An allowable load is read by noti ng where the i ntersecti on
poi nt fal l s i n rel ati on to be l oad l i nes.
b) Thickness of surfaci ng and base. The combined thickness of surfaci ng
and base must al so he checked to establ i sh the l oad carryi ng capaci ty
of an exi sti ng fl exi bl e pavement. Thi s cal cul ati on requi res the CBR of
the sub-base, the combined thickness of surfaci ng and base and the
annual departure l evel as i nputs. The procedure i s the same as that
descri bed i n a) above, except that the sub-base CBR and combined thickness
of surfaci ng and base are used to enter the desi gn curves.
c) Deficiency in base course thickness. The thi ckness of the exi sti ng
base course should be compared wi th the minimumbase course thicknesses
shown i n Figure 4-45. I nputs for use of thi s curve are total pavement
thickness and subgrade CBR. Enter the l eft ordi nate of Figure 4-45
wi th the total pavement thickness. Make a hori zontal proj ecti on to
the appropriate subgrade CBR l i ne. A t the poi nt of i ntersecti on of
the hori zontal proj ecti on and the subgrade CBR l i ne, make a verti cal
proj ecti on down to the lower absci ssa and read the minimumbase
course thi ckness. Noti ce that the minimumbase course thickness is
6 i n (15 cm). I f there is a defi ci ency i n the thi ckness of the
exi sti ng base course, the pavement should be closely monitored for
si gns of di stress. The formulation of pl ans for overl ayi ng the pavement
to correct the defi ci ency shoul d be considered.
d) Deficiency in surfacing thickness. The thi ckness of the exi sti ng
surface course should be compared wi th that shown on the appropri ate
design curve. I f the exi sti ng surface course is thi nner than that
given on the desi gn curve, the pavement should be closely observed
far surface fai l ures. It is recommended that pl anni ng to correct
the defi ci ency i n surfacing thickness be considered.
4.4.27.6 Rigid pavements. The eval uati on of ri gi d pavements f or ai rcraf t requi res
concrete fl exural strength, k val ue of the foundati on, sl ab thi ckness, and annual
departure l evel as i nputs. The ri gi d pavement design curves are used to establ i sh l oad
carrying capacity. The design curves are entered on the l eft ordi nate wi th the fl exural
strength of the concrete. A hori zontal proj ecti on is made to the k val ue of the
foundation. A t the poi nt of i ntersecti on of the hori zontal proj ecti on and the k l i ne,
a verti cal proj ecti on i s made i nto the vi ci ni ty of the l oad l i nes. The sl ab thi ckness
i s entered on the appropri ate departure l evel scal e on the ri ght si de of the chart.
A hori zontal proj ecti on i s made from the thi ckness scale unti l it i ntersects the previ ous
verti cal proj ecti on. The poi nt of i ntersecti on of these proj ecti ons wi l l be i n the
vi ci ni ty of the l oad l i nes. The load carrying capacity is read by noti ng where the
i ntersecti on poi nt fal l s in rel ati on to the l oad l i nes.
CHAPTER 5 . - METHODS FOR I MPROVI NG RUNWAY SURFACE TEXTURE
5.1 Purpose
5.1.1 Annex 14 requi res that the surface of a paved runway be so constructed as
to provi de good f ri cti on characteri sti cs when the runway i s wet. Addi ti onal provi si ons
contai n minimum speci fi cati ons for the confi gurati on of runway surfaces and recogni ze in
parti cul ar the need f or some form of speci al surface treatment. The purpose of thi s
chapter i s to provide guidance on proved methods for improving runway surface texture.
Thi s i ncl udes essenti al engi neeri ng cri teri a f or the desi gn, constructi on and treatment
of runway surfaces, the uni form and worl dwi de appl i cati on of whi ch i s consi dered
i mportant to sati sf y the rel evant provi si ons of Annex 14.
5.2 Basic Consi derati ons
5.2.1 Hi stori cal background
5.2.1.1 With the steady growth of ai rcraf t mass and the associ ated si gni fi cant
i ncrease i n the takeof f and l andi ng speeds, a number of operati onal probl em have
become apparent wi th conventi onal types of runway surfaces. One of the most si gni f i cant
and potenti al l y dangerous is the aquapl ani ng phenomenon whi ch has been hel d responsi bl e
i n a nmber of ai rcraft i nci dents and acci dents.
5.2.1.2 Ef f orts to al l evi ate the aquapl ani ng probl em have resul ted i n the develop-
ment of new types of runway pavements of parti cul ar surface texture and of improved
drai nage characteri sti cs. Experi ence has shown that these f orm of surf ace f i ni sh,
apart from successful l y rei nhi zi ng aquapl ani ng ri sks, provi de a 8ubstanti al l y hi gher
f ri cti on l evel i n al l degrees of wetness, i.e. from damp to a fl ooded surface.
5.2.1.3 It is now general l y agreed that measuri ng and reporti ng wet f ri cti on
condi ti ons i s not requi red to be done on a dai l y routi ne basi s. This is the resul t of
the development of a new phi l osophy of deal i ng wi th the wet runway problem. There i s of
course a need f or a general i nprovement of the fri cti on l evel s provi ded by runvay s u r
f aces i n "normal" wet condi ti ons and for the el i dnati on of substandard surfaces i n
parti cul ar.
5.2.1.4 Thi s has resul ted i n the def i ni ti on of ani rnum acceptabl e wet f ri cti on
l evel s f or new and exi sti ng runways. Accordingly runways should be subj ect t o peri odi c
eval uati on of the f ri cti on l evel by usi ng the techni ques i denti f i ed i n Attachment 8 of
Annex 14 and related documents. This concept favours the appl i cati on of the modern
technol ogy for the fi ni shi ng of surfaces whi ch experi ence has proved effecti vel y
provi de8 the wet friction requirements and mintmizes aquaplaning.
5.2.2 Functional requirements
5.2.2. 1 A runway pavement, considered as a whole, i s supposed to f ul l i l the
fol l owi ng three basi c functi ons:
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a) to provi de adequate beari ng strength;
b) to provi de good ri di ng qual i ti es; and
c) to provi de good surf ace f ri cti on characteri sti cs.
The f i rst cri teri on addresses the structure of the pavement, the second the geometri c
shape of the top of the pavement and the thi rd the texture of the actual surface.
5.2.2.2 All three cri teri a are consi dered essenti al to achi eve a pavement which
w i l l functi onal l y sati sfy the operati onal requi rements. From the operati onal aspect,
however, the thi rd one i s consi dered the most i mportant because i t has a di rect i mpact
on the saf ety of ai rcraft operati ons. Regul ari ty and effi ci ency may al so be affected.
Thus the f ri cti on cri teri on may become a deci si ve f actor f or the sel ecti on and the f orm
of the most sui tabl e f i ni sh of the p-avement surface.
5.2.3 Problem i denti f i cati on
5.2.3.1 When i n a dry and cl ean state, i ndi vi dual runways general l y provi de
comparable f ri cti on characteri sti cs wi th operati onal l y i nsi gni f i cant di f f erences i n
f ri cti on l evel s, regardl ess of the type of pavement (asphal dcement concrete) and the
confi gurati on of the surf ace. Moreover, the f ri cti on l evel avai l abl e i s rel ati vel y
unaffected by the speed of the ai rcraf t. Hence, the operati on on dry runway surfaces i s
sati sf actori l y consi stent and no parti cul ar engi neeri ng criteria f or surf ace f ri cti on
are needed f or thi s case.
5.2.3.2 I n contrast, when the runway surf ace i s af f ected by water to any degree of
wetness (i.e. from a damp to a fl ooded state), the si tuati on i s enti rel y di f f erent. For
thi s condi ti on, the f ri cti on l evel s provi ded by i ndi vi dual runways drop si gni fi cantl y
f rom the dry val ue and there i s consi derabl e di spari ty i n the resul ti ng f ri cti on l evel
between di fferent.surfaces. Thi s vari ance i s due to di f f erences i n the type of pave-
ment, the form of surface fi ni sh (texture) and the drai nage characteri sti cs (shape).
Degradati on of avai l abl e fri cti on (which is parti cul arl y evi dent when ai rcraf t operate
at hi gh speeds) can have seri ous i mpl i cati ons on safety, regul ari ty or effi ci ency of
operati ons. The extent w i l l depend on the f ri cti on actual l y requi red versus the
f ri cti on provided.
a
5.2.3.3 The typi cal reducti on of f ri cti on when a surf ace is wet and the reducti on
of f ri cti on as ai rcraf t speed i ncreases are expl ai ned by the combined ef f ect of vi scous
and dynami c water pressures to whi ch the ti re/surface is subj ected. Thi s pressure
causes a parti al l oss of "dry" contact the extent of whi ch tends to i ncrease wi th speed.
There are condi ti ons where the loss i s practi cal l y total and the f ri cti on drops to
negl i gi bl e val ues. Thi s is i denti f i ed as vi scous, dynami c or rubberreverted aqua-
planing. The manner i n whi ch these phenomena af f ect di f f erent areas of the ti rel surf ace
i nterf ace and how they change i n si ze wi th speed is i l l ustrated i n F-igure 5-1.
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+Direction of motion
I
tlre-ground conta
1. Dynamic pressure
2. Viscous pressure
3. "Dry" contact
High speed
Figure 5-1. Areas of ti re/surf ace i nterf ace
5. 2. 3. 4 I n the l i ght of these coneideratione, i t may be sai d that the wet runway
case appears as a si gni fi cant hazard and a potenti al threat t o fl i ght operati ons.
J 3fforts to achieve a general improvement of the si tuati on are, therefore, well j usti -
Eied. As mentioned earlier, the appl i cati on of modern runway surface treatment is
considered the mst practical and effecti ve techni que to i uprove the fri cti on character-
istics of a wet runway.
5.2.4 Design obj ecti ves
5.2.4.1 I n the l i ght of the foregoi ng consi derati ons, the obj ecti ve6 for runway
pavement design, which are si a&l arl y appl i cabl e for maintenance, can be fornul ated as
follows:
A runway pavement should be 80 designed and laaintained as to provide a
runway surface which meets adequately af unct i onal requirements at al l
times throughout the anti ci pated l i feti me of the pavement, i n parti cul ar:
a) to provi de i n al l anti ci pated condi ti one of wetness, hi gh fri cti on
l evel s and uniform fri cti on characteri eti ce; and
b) to ml ni dze the potenti al ri sk of al l o m of aquaplaning, i.e.
viscous, dynamic and rubber-reverted aquaplaning. I nformation on
these types of aquaplaning i s contained i n the Airport Services M a n u a l
(Doc 9137-AW898) Part 2, Pavement Surface ~onditions.
5.2.4.2 As is outl i ned below, the provi si on of adequate wet runway f ri cti on i s
cl osel y rel ated to the drai nage characteri sti cs of the runway surface. The drainage
demand i n turn i s determined by l ocal preci pi tati on rates. Drainage demand, therefore,
i e a l ocal vari abl e which wi l l essenti al l y determi ne the engi neeri ng efforts and
associ ated i nvestments/costs requi red to achi eve the obj ecti ve. In general , the hi gher
the drai nage demand, the more stri ngent the i nterpretati on and appl i cati on of the
relevant engineering criteria will become.
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5.2.5 Physical design criteria
5.2.5.1 General. The problem of f ri cti on on runway surfaces affected by water can
i n the l i ght of the latest state-of-the-art be i nterpreted as a generalized drainage
problem consi sti ng of three di sti nct criteria:
a) surf ace drainage (surf ace shape) ;
b) ti re/surface i nterface drai nage (macrotexture); and
c) penetration drainage (microtexture).
The three criteria can si gni fi cantl y be i nfl uenced by engineering measures and i t i s
important to note that al l of them must be sati sf i ed to achi eve adequate f ri cti on i n al l
possi bl e condi ti ons of wetness, i.e. ,from a damp to a fl ooded surface.
5.2.5.2 Surface drainage. Surface drainage i s a basic requirement of utmost
importance. It serves to mi ni mi ze water depth on the surface, i n particular i n the area
of the wheel path. The obj ecti ve i s to drai n water off the runway in the shortest path
possi bl e and parti cul arl y out of the area of the wheel path. Adequate surface drainage
is provided primarily by an appropri atel y sl oped surface (i n both the l ongi tudi nal and
transverse di recti ons) and surface evenness. Drai nage capabi l i ty can, i n addi ti on, be
enhanced by speci al surface treatments such as provi di ng cl osel y spaced transverse
grooves or by drai ni ng water i ni ti al l y through the voi ds of a speci al l y treated weari ng
course (porous fri cti on course). The effecti veness of the drai nage capabi l i ty of modern
types of surfaces is evi dent in that the surfaces when subj ected to even hi gh rai nfal l
rates retai n a rather damp appearance. It shoul d be cl earl y understood, however, that
special surface treatment i s not a substi tute for poor runway shape, be i t due to
i nadequate sl opes or l ack of surface evenness. This may be an important consideration
when deciding on the most ef f ecti ve method f or improving the wet f ri cti on character
istics of an exi sti ng runway surface.
5.2.5.3 Ti re/surface i nterface drai nage (macrotexture). The purpose of i nterf ace
drainage (under a moving ti re) is twofold:
a) to prevent as f ar as feasi bl e resi dual surf ace bulkwater from
i ntrudi ng i nto the forward area of the i nterface; and
b) to drai n i ntrudi ng water to the outsi de of the i nterface.
The obj ecti ve i s to achi eve hi gh water discharge rates from under the ti re with a
mininum of dynamic pressure build-up. It has been establ i shed that thi s can onl y be
achieved by providing a surface wi th an open macrotexture.
5.2.5.4 I nterface drai nage i s actual l y a dynamic process, i.e., i s highly suscept i-
bl e to the square of speed. Macrotexture i s therefore parti cul ari l y i mportant for the
provi si on of adequate fri cti on i n the hi gh speed range. Prom the operaei onal aspect,
thi s i s most si gni fi cant because i t i s i n thi s speed range where lack of adequate
f ri cti on i s most cri ti cal wi th respect to stoppi ng di stance and di recti onal control
capabi l i ty.
5.2.5.5 I n thi s context i t is worth while to make a comparison between the
textures appl i ed i n road constructi on and runways. The smoother textures provided by
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road surfaces can achi eve adequate drai nage of the footpri nt of an automobi l e ti re
because of the patterned ti re treads whi ch si gni fi cantl y contri bute to i nterf ace
drai nage. Ai rcraft tires, however, cannot be produced with similar patterned treads and
have only a number of ci rcumferenti al grooves whi ch contri bute substanti al l y less t o
i nterface drai nage. Thei r effecti veness di mi ni shes rel ati vel y qui ckl y wi th ti re wear.
The more vi tal f actor, however, which di ctates the macrotexture requi rement i s the
substanti al l y hi gher speed range i n whi ch ai rcraft operate. Thi s may expl ai n why some
conventi onal runway surfaces which were bui l t to speci f i cati ons similar to road surf aces
(rel ati vel y cl osed-textured) show a marked drop i n wet f ri cti on wi th i ncreasi ng speed
and oEten a suscepti bi l i ty to dynamic aquapl ani ng at comparati vel y small water depths.
5.2.5.6 Adequate macrotexture can be provided by ei ther asphal t or cement concrete
surfaces, though not wi th equal effort, stabi l i ty or effectiveness. With cement
concrete pavement surfaces, the requi red macrotexture may be achi eved wi th transverse
wire comb texturi ng when the surface is in the pl asti c stage or wi th cl osel y spaced
transverse grooves. Wi th asphal t surfaces, the provi si on of macrotexture may be
achi eved by provi di ng open graded surfaces.
5.2.5.7 A f urther desi gn criteria calls f or best possi bl e uni formi ty of surf ace
texture. Thi s requi rement i s i mportant t o avoi d undue fl uctuati ons in avai l abl e
f ri cti on si nce these f l uctuati ons would degrade anti ski d braki ng effi ci ency or may cause
ti re damage.
5.2.5.8 The surf ace f i ni sh consi dered most effecti ve from the standpoi nt of wet
f ri cti on is groovi ng i n the case of Portl and cement concrete and the porous fri cti on
course in the case of asphal t. Thei r effecti veness can be expl ai ned by the f act that
they not onl y provi de good i nterf ace drai nage, but al so contri bute si gni f i cantl y to
bulkwater drainage.
5.2.5.9 Penetrati on drai nage (mi crotexture). The purpose of penetrati on drai nage
is to e6 tabl i sh "dry" contact between the asperi ti es of the surface and the ti re tread
In the presence of a thi n vi scous water fi l m. The vi scous pressures whi ch i ncrease wi th
speed tend t o prevent di rect contact except at those l ocati ons of the surface where
asperi ti es prevai l , penetrati ng the vi scous fi l m. Thi s ki nd of roughness i s defi ned as
mi crotexture.
5.2.5.10 Mi crotexture refers to the fi ne-scal e roughness of the i ndi vi dual aggre-
gate of the surface and is hardl y detectabl e by the eye, however, assessabl e by the
touch. Accordi ngl y, adequate mi crotexture can be provi ded by the appropri ate sel ecti on
of aggregates known to have a harsh surface. This excl udes i n parti cul ar al l pol i shabl e
aggregates.
5.2.5.11 Macro- and mi crotexture are both vi tal consti tuents f or wet surf ace
f ri cti on, i.e. both must adequatel y be provi ded to achi eve acceptabl e fri cti on charac-
teristics i n al l di f f erent condi ti ons of wetness. The combined ePfect of micro- and
macrotexture of a surf ace on the resul ti ng wet f ri cti on versus speed is i l l ustrated i n
Fi gure 5-2 i ndi cati ng al so that the desi gn obj ecti ve f ormul ated I n 5.2.4 can be achi eved
by engi neeri ng means.
5.2.5.12 A major probl em wi th mi crotexture i s that: i t can change wi thi n short time
peri ods (unl i ke macrotexture), wi thout bei ng easi l y detected. A typi cal exaapl e of thi s
i s the accuwl ati on of rubber deposi ts i n the touchdown area which wi l l l argel y mask
mi crotexture wi thout necessari l y reduci ng macrotexture. The resul t can be a
consi derabl e decrease i n the wet Pri cti on l evel . Thi s probl em is catered f or by
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peri odi c f ri cti on measurements which provide a measure of exi sti ng mi crotexture. If i t
is determined that low wet f ri cti on i s caused by degraded surface mi crotexture, there
are methods avai l abl e to effecti vel y restore adequate mi crotexture for exi sti ng runway
surfaces (see 5.3).
5.2.6 Minimumspeci fi cati ons
5.2.6.1 The basi c engi neeri ng speci fi cati ons for the geometri cal shape (l ongi tu-
di nal sl opej transverse sl ope/surface evenness) and for the texture (macrotexture) of a
runway surface are contained i n Annex 14.
5.2.6.2 Slopes. All new runways should be designed with uniform transverse
prof i l e i n accordance wi th the val ue of transverse sl ope recommended i n Annex 14 and
with a l ongi tudi nal profi l e as nearl y l evel as possible. A cambered transverse secti on
from a centre crown is preferabl e but i f for any reason thi s cannot be provided then the
si ngl e runway crossfal l shoul d be careful l y rel ated to prevai l i ng wet winds to ensure
that surf ace water drainage i s not impeded by the wind blowing up the transverse sl ope.
(I n the case of si ngl e crossf al l s i t may be necessary at certai n sites to provi de cut
.off drai nage al ong the hi gher edge to prevent water from the shoul der spi l l i ng over the
runway surface.) Parti cul ar attenti on shoul d be paid to the need f or good drainage i n
the touchdown zone since aquaplaning induced at thi s earl y stage of the landing, once
started, can be sustai ned by considerably shallower water deposi ts further al ong the
runway .
5.2.6.3 I f these i deal shape criteria are met, aquaplaning incidents will be
reduced t o a minimum, but departures from these ideals wi l l resul t fn an i ncrease of
aquaplaning probability, no matter how good the f ri cti on characteri sti c of the runway
surface may be. These comments hol d true f or maj or reconstructi on proj ects and, i n
addi ti on, when ol d runways become due for resurfaci ng the opportuni ty shoul d be taken,
wherever possible, to improve the l evel s to assist surface drainage. Every improvement
i n shape helps, no matter how small.
5.2.6.4 Surface evenness. This i s a consti tuent of runway shape which requi res
equal l y careful attenti on. Surface evenness i s al so i nportant for the ri di ng qual i ty of
high speed j et ai rcraf t.
5.2.6.5 Requirements for surface evenness are descri bed i n Annex 14, Attachment A,
5, and ref l ect good engi neeri ng practi ces. Fai l ure to meet these minimm requirements
can seri ousl y degrade surface water drai nage and l ead to ponding. This can be the case
wi th agi ng runways as a resul t of di fferenti al settl ement and permanent deformation of
the pavement surface. Evenness requirements apply not only for the constructi on of a .
new pavement but throughout the l i fe of the pavement. The maxirmmtol erabl e deformti on
of the surface shoul d be speci fi ed as a vi tal desi gn cri teri on. Thi s may have a si gni fi -
cant impact on the determi nati on of the most appropri ate type of constructi on and type
of pavement.
5.2.6.6 With respect to suscepti bi l i ty to ponding when surf ace i rregul ari ti es
develop, runway shapes with maxi mm permissible transverse slopes are considerably less
affected than.those wi th margi nal transverse sl opes. Runways exhi bi ti ng ponding wi l l
normally require a resurfaci ng and reshapi ng to effecti vel y al l evi ate the problem.
. .
~
SURFACE APROXIMATE TRENDS IN MAXIMUM
TIRDGROUND COEFFICIENT OF
No. MACRO-TEXTURE MICRO-TEXTURE FRICTION FOR SMOOTH TREAD TIRE
I
I I I pmax
1(
OPEN macro-textured sur-
faces provide good bulk
drainage of tire-ground
contact area. in wet condl-
tions p decreases graduai-
ly with increase in V.
Tread grooves have little
effect. At high speeds p
may Increase due to
hysteresis effects.
HARSH micro-textured sur-
faces permit substantial
penetration of thin fluid
films; general level of
. micro-textured surfaces
SMOOTH or POLISHED
have poor thin-film
penetration properties and
a generally low level of
friction results.
I
I CLOSED macro-textured
~ surfacces give poor con-
tact area drainage. In wet
conditions p decreases
rapidly with increese in V.
Tread grooves are most
effective on this type of
surface.
I I pmax
HARSH micro-textured sur-
faces permit substantial
Penetration of thin fluid
I films; general level of
2--- friction is high.
I '
I V
Pmmx
n SMOOTH or POLISHED
micro-textured surfeces
have poor thin-film
penetration properties and
a generally low level of
frictlon results.
I I I V
Figure 5-2. Effect of surface texture on tire-surface
coefficient of fri cti on
I
I CA O 9357 PA RT* 3 f * 484LllLb 0039586 9 T T
Part 3. - Pavements 3-211
5.2.6.7 Surface texture. Surface macrotexture requirements are speci f i ed i n
Annex 14 i n terns of average surface texture depth, which should not be less than 1 mm
or new surfaces. It i s al so recogni zed that thi s provi si on w i l l normally call f or some
form Of speci al Surf ace treatment. The mi ni mm val ue for average texture depth has been
empi ri cal l y deri ved and refl ects the absol ute minimumrequi red to provi de adequate
i nterface drai nage. Hi gher val ues of average texture depth may be required where rain-
f al l rates and i ntensi ti es are a cri ti cal f actor to sati sf y i nterf ace drai nage demand.
Surfaces which f al l short of the minimm requi rement for average surface texture depth
w i l l show poor wet f ri cti on characteri sti cs, parti cul arl y i f the runway i s used by
aircraft wi th hi gh l andi ng speeds. Remedfal acti on i s, therefore, i mperati ve. Methods
f or improving the wet f ri cti on characteri sti cs of runways are descri bed i n 5.3.
5.2.6.8 As outl i ned earlier, uniformity of the texture i s al so an i mportant
cri teri on. I n thi s respect, there are several speci fi c types of surfaces which meet
thi s requi rement (see 5.3). These surfaces w i l l normally achieve average texture depths
hi gher than 1 mm.
5.2.6.9 The macrotexture of a surface does not normally change considerably with
time, except for the touchdown area as a resul t of rubber deposits. Therefore, periodic
control of avai l abl e average surface texture depth on the uncontaminated portion of the
runway surface wi l l only be required at l ong i nterval s.
5.2.6.10 With respect to mi crotexture there i s no di rect measure avai l abl e t o
defi ne the requi red fi ne scale roughness of the fndividual aggregate i n engineering
terms. Accordingly, there are no rel evant speci f i cati ons i n Annex 14. However, from
experience i t i s known that good aggregate rmst have a harsh surface and sharp edges to
provide good water fi l m penetrati on properti es. It i s al so i mportant that the aggregate
be actual l y exposed to the surface and not coated enti rel y by a smooth material. Since
mi crotexture is a vi tal consti tuent of wet fri cti on regardl ess of speed, the adequacy of
microtexture provided by a parti cul ar surface can be assessed general l y by f ri cti on
measurements. Lack of mi crotexture wi l l resul t i n a considerable drop i n f ri cti on
levels throughout the whole speed range. This w i l l occur even with minor degrees of
surface wetness (e.g.,damp). This rather qual i tati ve method may be adequate for
detecti ng l ack of mi crotexture i n obvi ous cases.
5.2.6.11 Degradation of microtexture caused by traf f i c and weathering may occur, i n
contrast to macrotexture, wi thi n conparati vel y short timeperiods and can also change
wi th the operati onal state of the surface. Accordingly, short-termed periodic checks by
f ri cti on measurements are necessary, i n parti cul ar wi th respect to the touchdown areas
where rubber deposits quickly mask microtexture.
5.2.6.12 Runway surface fri cti on cal i brati on. Annex 14 requi res runway surfaces to
be cal i brated peri odi cal l y to veri f y thei r f ri cti on characteri sti cs when wet. These
f ri cti on characteri sti cs must not f al l below l evel s speci fi ed by the State f or new
constructi on (minirmm design objective) and for maintenance. Wet f ri cti on l evel s,
ref l ecti ng minimumacceptabl e limits f or new construction and maintenance, which are i n
Use i n some States are given i n Attachment B, 7 of Annex 14.
3-212 Aerodrome Design Manual
5.2.6.13 For the desi gn of a new runway, the optimum appl i cati on of the basi c
engineering criteria f or runway shape and texture wi l l normally provide a fai r guarantee
of achi evi ng l evel s wel l i n excess of the appl i cabl e speci fi ed minimumwet f ri cti on
l evel . When l arge devi ati ons from the basi c speci fi cati ons for shape or texture are
planned, it will then be advi sabl e to conduct wet f ri cti on measurements on di f f erent
test surf aces i n order to assess the rel ati ve i nfl uence of each parameter on wet
f ri cti on, pri or to deci di ng on the fi nal desi gn. Si mi l ar consi derati one appl y for
surface texture treatment of exi sti ng runways.
5.3 Surface treatment of runways
5.3.1 General
5.3.1.1 The methods described i n thi s secti on are based on the experiences of
several States. It is important that a ful l engi neeri ng appreci ati on of the exi sti ng
pavement: be made at each si te before any parti cul ar method i s considered, and that,
once selected, the method i s sui tabl e f or the types of ai rcraft operating. It should be
noted that wi th respect to the improvement of the f ri cti on characteri sti c8 of exi sti ng
runway pavements, a reshapi ng of the pavement may be requi red i n certai n cases pri or to
the appl i cati on of speci al surf ace treatmnt i n order to be effecti ve.
5.3.2 Surface dressi ng of asphalt
5.3.2.1 Operati onal consi derati ons. Ai rcraft wi th dual tandem undercarriage at
ti re pressure 1930 Wa and al l - up masses exceeding 90 000 kg have been operating regu-
l arl y f or a number of years from runways whi ch have been del i beratel y surfacedressed to
i uprove fri cti on. (Fi gure 5-3. ) There i s no evidence of an increase i n ti re wear.
5.3.2.2 Consideration of exi sti ng pavement. The over-al l shape and profi l e of the
exi sti ng runway i s not as important as it i s wi th other treatments and, uhere a number
of transverse and l ongi tudi nal sl ope changes occur i n the runway l ength, surface dress-
ing i s probabl y the onl y sui tabl e method short of expensive reshaping. In spi te of the
fact that the over-al l shape need not be i deal , neverthel ess, for a successful appl i ca-
tion of this treatment, the compacting equipment met be capable of follawing the minor
surf ace i rregul ari ti es to ensure a uniform adhesion of the chippings. Wherethi s condi-
ti on cannot be ensured, a new asphal t weari ng course may be necessary before applying
the surf ace dressing.
5.3.2.3 Effectiveness of treatment. A sati sfactory surface dressi ng will
i ni ti al l y raise the f ri cti on coef f i ci ent of the surf ace to a high value which, there-
after, depending on the i ntensi ty of traf f i c, w i l l slowly decrease. Normally an
ef f ecti ve l i f e of up to fi ve years can be expected.
5.3.2.4 Runway ends . Runway ends used f or the start of take-off should not be
treated. Ai rcraft w i l l scuff i n turni ng, both fuel spi l l age and heat will soften the
bi nder, and bl ast will tend to loosen chippings.
i
I
I C A O 9157 PA RT* 3 ** 4843416 0039588 772 =
Part 3. - Pavements 3-213
Fi gure 5-3. Surface dressi ng of asphal t
5.3.2.5 Chippings. The chi ppi ngs may be from one of the fol l owi ng groups:
Basalt, Gabbro, Grani te, Gri tstone, Hornfel s, Porphyry or quartzi te.
5.3.2.6 Mechani cal gri tter. The chi ppi ngs are di stri buted by a mechani cal gri tter
of approved type i ncorporati ng a mechani cal feed capabl e of ensuri ng that the sel ected
rate of spread is ri gi dl y mai ntai ned throughout the work.
5.3.2.7 Restri cti ons duri ng bad weather. Work rmst not be carri ed out duri ng
peri ods of rai n, snow or sleet or on f rozen surf aces or on those on which water is
l yi ng. When weather condi ti ons di ctate, sui tabl e protecti on mst be afforded to the
chi ppi ngs duri ng del i very.
5.3.2.8 Exi sti ng pi t covers, gul l y grati ngs and aerodrome markings. These rmst
be protected by maski ng, and the surface dressi ng fi ni shed neatl y around them. When
masking of the aerodrome markings i s not i ndi cated, they may be obl i terated.
5.3.2.9 Preparati on of the exi sti ng surfaci ng. I mmedi atel y before sprayi ng the
bi nder, the exi sti ng surf aces mst be thoroughly cleaned by mechanical brooms, supple-
mented by hand brooming i f necessary. All vegetati on, l oose materi al s, dust and debri s,
etc., must be removed as i ndi cated.
5.3.2.10 Appl i cati on of surface bi nder. The bi nder must be appl i ed at the sel ected
rate wi thout vari ati on and so that a f i l m of uni form thi ckness resul ts. Parti cul ar care
must be taken t o avoi d dri ppi ng, spi l l i ng and creati ng areas of excessi ve thi ckness.
5.3.2.11 Appl i cati on of coated chippings. The temperature of the chi ppi ngs when
appl i ed to the sprayed surf ace bi nder must be not less than 83C when usi ng bi tumen
3-214
I C A O 9357 PART* 3 ** U 48Ulr4Sb 0019589 b09 W
Aerodrome Design Xanual
bi nder and 72OC when usi ng tar bi nder. Before and duri ng the rol l i ng operati on any bal d
patches nust be covered wi th fresh chi ppi ngs.
5.3.2.12 Rol l i n% The coated chi ppi ngs must be rol l ed i mmedi atel y after spreadi ng
and before loss of heat.
5.3.2.13 Fi nal sweeping and rol l i ng. Wi thi n three days of the gri tti ng operati on
- al l l oose chi ppi ngs must be swept from the surface wi th hand-broom, l oaded onto trucks
and removed as di rected. Then the enti re surf ace uust agai n be thoroughl y rol l ed at
least three more tires. All chi ppi ngs mst adhere fi rml y to the fi ni shed surface whi ch
shoul d be of uni form texture and col our. The surface rmst be enti rel y f ree of i rregu-
l ari ti es due t o scabbi ng, scrapi ng, draggi ng, droppi ngs, excessi ve overl appi ng, faul ty
l ane or transverse j uncti ons, or other defects, and i t mst be l ef t cl ean and ti dy.
Under no ci rcumstances shoul d swept up chi ppi ngs be reused.
5.3.3 Grooving of pavements
5.3.3.1 Operati onal consi derati ons. There are no operati onal obj ecti ons to the
groovi ng of exi sti ng surfaces. Experi ence of operati ng all types of ai rcraf t from
grooved surfaces over a number of years i ndi cates that there is no limit wi thi n the
f oreseeabl e f uture to the ai rcrf t si ze, l oadi ng or type or whi ch such surf aces w i l l be
sati sfactory. There i s i nconcl usi ve evi dence of a sl i ghtl y greater rate of ti re wear
under some operati onal condi ti ons.
5.3.3.2 Methods of groovi ng i ncl ude the sawi ng of grooves in exi eti ng or properl y
cured asphal t (Fi gure 5-41 or Portl and cenrent concrete pavements, and the groovi ng or
wire combing of Portl and cement concrete whi l e i t is i n the pl asti c condi ti on. Based on
current techni ques, sawed grooves provide a more uniform width, depth, and alignment.
This method is the most ef f ecti ve means of removing water from the pavement/ti re i nter-
face and i mproves the pavement ski d resi stance. However, pl asti c groovi ng and wire
combing are al so ef f ecti ve i n I mprovi ng drai nage and f ri cti on characteri sti cs of pave-
ment surfaces. They are cheaper eo constmct than the sawed grooves, parti cul arl y where
very hard aggregates are used i n pavements. Therefore the cost-benefi t rel ati onshi p
shoul d be consi dered i n deci di ng whi ch groovi ng techni que shoul d be used for a
parti cul ar runway.
Fi gure 5-4. Grooving of asphal t surface
(Note.- Scale shows 2.5 cm di vi si ons)
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 t t q B Y L 4 3 b 0039570 320
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-215
5. 3. 3. 3 Factors to be considered. The fol l owi ng factors shoul d be consi dered i n
j usti fyi ng groovi ng of runways:
hi stori cal revi ew of ai rcraf t acci dents/i nci dents rel ated to aqua-
pl ani ng at ai rport f aci l i ty;
wetness frequency (review of annual rai nf al l rate and i ntensi ty);
transverse and l ongi tudi nal sl opes, f l at areas, depressi ons, mounds,
or any other abnormal i ti es-that may af f ect water run-off;
surf ace texture qual i ty as to sl i pperi ness under dry or wet condi-
ti ons. Pol i shi ng of aggregate, i mproper seal coati ng, i nadequate
dcrotexture/macrotexture, and contaminant buildup are some examples
of condi ti ons whi ch may af f ect the l oss of surf ace f ri cti on;
terrai n l i mi tati ons such as drop-offs at the ends of runway end safety
a reas ;
adequacy of number and l ength of avai l abl e runways;
crosswi nd ef f ects, parti cul arl y when low f ri cti on f actors prevai l ;
and
the strength and condi ti on of exi sti ng runway pavements.
5. 3. 3. 4 Eval uati on of exi sti ng pavement. Asphal t surfaces mst be examined t o
deterdne that the exi sti ng weari ng course is dense, stable and well-compacted. If the
surf ace exhi bi ts f retti ng or where l arge parti cl e f racti ons of coarse aggregate are
exposed on the surf ace i tsel f , then other methods w i l l need to be consi dered, or
resurfaci ng w i l l have to be undertaken before groovi ng i s put i n hand. Rigid pavement
must be examined to ensure that the exi sti ng surf ace i s sound, f ree of scal i ng or
extensi ve spal l s, or "worki ng cracks". Apart from the condi ti on of the surface i tsel f,
the rati o between transverse and l ongi tudi nal sl opes becomes i mportant. I f the l ongi tu-
di nal sl opes are such that the water run-off i s di rected al ong the runway i nstead of
cl eari ng qui ckl y to the runway si de drai ns, then a condi ti on coul d arise when the
grooves would f i l l wi th free water, f ai l to drai n qui ckl y and possi bl y encourage
aquapl ani ng. For the same reason, surfaces wi th depressed areas shoul d be repai red or
repl aced before groovi ng.
5. 3. 3. 5 Effecti veness of treatment. Transverse groovi ng wi l l . al ways resul t i n a
measurabl e i ncrease of the fri cti on coeffi ci ent, though the extent of the i mprovement
w i l l be rel ated to the qual i ty of the exi sti ng surf ace. The durati on of thi s improve-
ment w i l l depend on the properti es of the asphal t weari ng course, the climate and
traffi c. Experi ence has shown that groovi ng does not resul t i n an i ncrease of the rate
of deteri orati on of the asphal t. The improvement al so appl i es to ri gi d pavement
surfaces as they are not adversel y affected by the groovi ng. No grooves becoming
cl ogged wi th dust, i ndustri al waste, or other contami nants have been found al though some
minor rubber deposits have been observed.
3-21 .6
Fi gure 5-5. Grooving wi t h disc flails
! b7
.e Design
Figure 5-6. Grooving with saws
0
ICAO 9357 PA RT* ] t f 48434bb 0039592 I T 3
Part 3. - Pavements
f
3-217
e 5. 3. 3. 6 Technique. The surf ace i s to be grooved across the runway at ri ght angl es
to the runway edges or paral l el t o non-perpendi cul ar transverse j oi nts, where appl i -
cabl e, wi th grooves whi ch fol l ow across the runway i n a conti nuous l i ne wi thout break.
The machine for groovi ng w i l l i ncorporate di sc f l ai l s (Fi gure 5-5) or f l ai l cutters or a
sawing machine (Figure 5-6) i ncorporati ng a minimum of 12 bl ades. Sawing machines
i ncl ude water tanks and pressure sprays. Commonly used groove confi gurati ons are 3 mm
wide by 3 mm deep at approxi matel y 25 mm centres, or 6 mm by 6 mmwi th a centre spaci ng
of 31 mm.
5. 3. 3. 7 The grooves may be termi nated wi thi n 3 m of the runway pavement edge to
al l ow adequate space for the operati on of the grooving equipment. Tolerances should be
establ i shed to defi ne groove al i gnment, depth, wi dth and spaci ng. Suggested tol erances
are +- 40 mm i n al i gnment for 22 m, and average depth or width f 1.5 mm. Grooves should not
be cut cl oser than 75 mm to transverse j oi nts. Magonal or l ongi tudi nal saw kerf s where
l i ghti ng cabl es are i nstal l ed shoul d be avoi ded, Grooves may be continued through
l ongi tudi nal constructi on j oi nts. Extreme care must be exerci sed when groovi ng near i n-
runway l i ghti ng fi xtures and sub-surface wi ri ng. A 60 cm easement on each si de of the
speci f y the contractor's l i abi l i ty f or damage to l i ght f i xtures and cable. Clean-up i s
extremel y i mportant and shoul d be conti nuous throughout the groovi ng operati on. The
waste material col l ected duri ng the groovi ng operati on mst be di sposed of by fl ushi ng
wi th water, sweeping, or vacuuming. I f waste material is f l ushed, the speci f i cati ons
shoul d state whether the ai rport owner or contractor i s responsi bl e f or f urni shi ng water
for cl eanup operati ons. Waste material col l ected duri ng the groovi ng operati on =st not
be allowed to enter the ai rport storm or sani tary sewer, as the material w i l l eventual l y
cl og the system. Fai l ure to remove the materi al . can create condi ti ons that wi l l be
hazardous to ai rcraf t operati ons.
l i ght f i xture is recommended to avoi d contact by the groovi ng machi ne. Contracts shoul d
5. 3. 3. 8 Pl asti c grooves and wi r e comb. Grooves can be constructed i n new Portl and.
cement concrete pavements while i n the pl asti c condi ti on, The "pl asti c groovi ng" or
wire comb (see Fi gure 5-7) techni que can be i ncl uded as an i ntegral part of the pavi ng
trai n operati on. A test secti on shoul d be constructed to demonstrate the performance of.
the pl asti c groovi ng or wire combing equipment and set a standard for acceptance of the
colqplete product .
5. 3. 3. 9 Techni que. Tol erances for pl asti c groovi ng shoul d be establ i shed to
defi ne groove al i gnment, depth, wi dth, and spaci ng. Suggested tol erances are
f 7.5 mm i n al i gnment for 22 m; minimum depth 3 mm, maximumdepth 9.5 mm; minimum wi dth
3 mm , maximm wi dth 9. 5 mm; minirmm spaci ng 28 mm, maxirmm spaci ng 50 mm centre to
centre. Tol erances for wi r e combing shoul d resul t i n an average 3 mm x 3 mm x 12 mm
confi gurati on.
3-218 Aerodrome Design Manual
~~
Fi gure 5-7. Hew concrete surfacing textured with wire comb
Figure 5-8. Existing Portland cement concrete
before and after scori ng
ICAO 4357 PARTS3 ** m 4843436 0039544 T76 m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-219
5.3.3.10 The j uncti on of groove face and pavement surface shoul d be squared or
rounded or sl i ghtl y chamfered. Hand-fi ni shi ng tool s, shaped to match the grooved
surface, shoul d be provided. The contractor shoul d furni sh a "bri dge" for workmen to
work from to repai r any imperfect areas. The equipment should be designed and
constructed so that it can be control l ed to -grade and be capable of produci ng the fi ni sh
requi red. If pavement gri ndi ng i s used to meet speci fi ed surface tol erances, it should
be accomplished i n a di recti on paral l el to the formed grooves.
Grooving runway i ntersecti ons
5.3.3.11 General. Runway i ntersecti ons requi re a deci si on as to which runway's
continuous grooving i s to be appl i ed. The sel ecti on of the preferred runway wi l l
normally be dictated by surf ace drai nage aspects, except that i f thi s cri teri on does not
favour ei ther runway, consi derati on wi l l be gzven to other rel evant criteria.
5.3.3.12 Criteria. The main physi cal cri teri an is surface drai nage. Where
drai nage characteristics are similar for the groovi ng pattern of ei ther runway,
consi derati on shoul d be gi ven to the fol l owi ng operati onal criteria:
- ai rcraf t ground speed regime;
- touchdown area; and
- ri sk assessment.
5.3.3.13 Surface drai nage. The primary purpose of grooving a runway surface i s to
enhance surface drainage. Hence, the preferred runway is the one on which grooves are
al i gned cl osest to the di recti on of the maj or downsl ope wi thi n the i ntersecti on area.
The major downslope can be determined from a grade contour map.
5.3.3.14 Theabove aspect i s essenti al because i ntersecti on areas i nvol ve, by
desi gn, rather f l at grades (to sati sfy the requi rement to provi de smooth transi ti on to
ai rcraf t travel l i ng at hi gh speeds) and, therefore, are suscepti bl e to water ponding.
5.3.3.15 Where appropri ate, consi derati on may be gi ven to addi ti onal drai nage
channel s across the secondary runway where the groove pattern termi nates i n order to
prevent water from this ori gi n from af f ecti ng the i ntersecti on area.
5.3.3.16 Aircraft speed. Since grooving i s parti cul arl y effecti ve regardi ng wet
surf ace f ri cti on characteristics i n the hi gh ground speed regime, preference should be
gi ven to that runway on which the higher ground speeds are frequentl y attai ned at the
i ntersecti on.
5.3.3.17 Touchdown area. Provi ded the speed cri teri on does not appl y, the runway
on whfch the i ntersecti on forms part of the touchdown area should be preferred because
grooving wi l l provi de rapi d wheel spin-up on touchdown i n parti cul ar when the surface i s
wet.
5.3.3.18 Ri sk assessments. Eventual l y, the sel ecti on of the primary runway can be
based on an operati onal judgement of ri sks for overruns (rej ected take off or l andi ng)
taki ng i nto account:
- runway use (take of f/l andi ng);
- runway l engths;
- avai l abl e rrunway end saf ety areas;
31/8/89
No. 2
3-220 Aerodrome Design Manual
1
,
Figure 5-9. Scoring wi t h diamond segmented cutting drum
Figure 5-10. Reflex percussive technique - Portland cement concrete
Part 3.- Pavements 3-221
- movement rates; and
- parti cul ar operati ng condi ti ons.
5.3.4 Scoring of cement concrete
5.3.4.1 Operati onal consi derati ons. There do not appear to be any operati onal
obj ecti ons to the scori ng of exi sti ng Portl and concrete surfaces (Fi gure 5-8), and thi s
method o f treatment seems to be sui tabl e for al l types of aircraft.
damaged or poorly formed j oi n&, or on which l ai tance has l ed to-extensi ve spal l i ng of
the surface, would be equal l y di ffi cul t to score. I f the exi sti ng surface i s reasonably
f ree of these defects, there are no other engi neeri ng l i mi tati ons to scori ng.
5.3.4.3 Effecti veness of treatment. Transverse scori ng of concrete improves
consi derabl y the f ri cti on characteri sti cs of pavements i ni ti al l y textured at the time of
constructi on wi th bol ts, burl ap or broom. The usef ul l i f e of the treatment depends on
the frequency of traf f i c but i n general the scori ng remai ns ef f ecti ve f or the l i f e of
the concrete.
5.3.4.4 Runway ends. Runway ends shoul d be l eft unscored to make it easier t o
wash down and cl ean off fuel and oi l droppi ngs. Moreover, engine blast can be more
damaging on a scored than on an untexured surface. The di recti onal control of an
ai rcraf t moving from the taxi way on to the runway can become reduced, presumably because
of a tendency of the tires to track i n the scores. I n addi ti on, a possi bi l i ty of an
i ncrease i n ti re wear i n turni ng cannot be total l y di scounted.
5.3.4.5 Technique. An acceptabl e "trial" area should be avai l abl e f or i nspecti on
and it i s recommended that thi s be provi ded at the aerodrome to determi ne a preci se
texture depth requi rement, as thi s w i l l tend to vary wi th the qual i ty of the concrete.
The runway i s t o be scored transversel y by a si ngl e pass of a cutti ng drum (Fi gure 5-9)
i ncorporati ng not less than 50 ci rcul ar segmented diamond saw bl ades per 30 cm wi dth of
drum. The drum i s t o be set at 3 mm setti ng on a mul ti -wheel ed arti cul ated frame wi th
outri gger wheel s, fi xed to gi ve a uni form depth of scori ng over the enti re surf ace of
the runway to ensure the removal of al l l ai tance and the exposure of the aggregate. It
should be noted that scori ng generates a great deal of dust duri ng treatment and i t i s
necessary to sweep and wash down the surface before operati ons re-start.
5.3.5 Refl ex percussi ve techni que
5.3.5.1 The refl ex percussi ve techni que i s predomi nantl y appl i ed for groovi ng of
exi sti ng runway surfaces and represents a cost-ef f ecti ve al ternati ve to saw-cut grooving
techniques. It has been successful l y appl i ed on vari ous types of runway surf aces to
provide adequate grooving. The techni que can al so effecti vel y be used f or other pur-
poses, such as removal of rubber deposi ts i n touchdown zone areas or f or the restorati on
of micro/macrotexture of a degraded exi sti ng runway surface.
5.3.5.2 The refl ex percussi ve techni que uses starshaped or pentagonal di sk
f l ai l s. The speci f i cati on of the cross secti on and spaci ng of the grooves wi l l be
di ctated pri mari l y by the drai nage requi rements determi ned from l ocal preci pi tati on
condi ti ons and the sl opes of the runway surface. For cement concrete surfaces, the
pitch ranges normally from 42 mm t o 48 mm and for asphal t surfaces from 42 mm to 56 mm,
respecti vel y. For ei ther type of surface, however, l ocal condi ti ons may requi re cl oser
spacings between two consecuti ve grooves to sati sfy drai nage demand, down to 32 mm. On
the other hand, hi gher spaci ngs are often used at runway ends where ai rcraf t l i ne up, i n
order to avoi d hi gh stresses on the treads of scrubbi ng ai rcraft tires. Typi cal cross
secti ons for groovi ng cement concrete and asphal t surfaces are:
31f 8 f 89
No. 2
3-222 Aerodrome Desinn Manual
Figure 5-11. Reflex percussive technique - Asphalt surface
Figure 5-12. Porous f ri ct i on course surfacing
31/8/89
No. 2
ICAO 7357 PA RT * 3 ** = 4843436 0039598 631 =
Part 3.- Pavements 3-223
Portl and cement Wi dth/depth/pi tch 10/3/27 mm,
concrete : edges and trough rounded (see Fi gure 5-10)
Asphal t surface: Wi dth/depth/pi tch 9/3/58 mm,
edges and trough rounded (see Fi gure 5-11).
5.3.5.3 The surf ace of the Portl and cement concrete or asphal t surface i s to be
grooved perpendi cul ar to the runway centre l i ne or paral l el to non- perpendi cul ar trans-
verse j oi nts, where appl i cabl e, i n conti nuous uni nterrupted l i nes termi nati ng approxi -
mately 3 m before the edge of the runway. On concrete runways, a stri p on both si des
adj acent to each j oi nt i s t o be l ef t ungrooved to prevent weakeni ng of the i ndi vi dual
sl ab edges. After groovi ng, debri s and al l l oose material are to be removed sati sf ac-
tori l y.
5.3.6 Porous fri cti on course
5.3.6.1 The porous fri cti on course consi sts of an open-graded, bituminous surface
course composed of mi neral aggregate and bituminous material, mixed i n a central mi xi ng
pl ant, and placed on a prepared surface (Fi gure 5-12). Thi s fri cti on course i s
del i beratel y desi gned not onl y to i mprove the ski d-resi stance but to reduce aquapl ani ng
i nci dence by provi di ng a "honeycomb" materi al to ensure a qui ck drai nage of water from
the pavement surface di rect to the underl yi ng i mpervi ous asphal t. The porous f ri cti on
course is abl e, because of i ts porosi ty and durabi l i ty, to mai ntai n over a l ong peri od a
constant and rel ati vel y hi gh wet f ri cti on val ue.
5.3.6.2 Li mi tati ons of porous fri cti on course. Fri cti on courses of thi s ki nd
shoul d onl y be l ai d on new runways of good shape, or on reshaped runways approaching the
criteria expected for new runways. They must always be over densely graded impervious
asphal t weari ng courses of hi gh stabi l i ty. Both of these requi rements are necessary to
ensure a qui ck fl ow of the water bel ow the fri cti on course and over the i mpervi ous
asphal t to the runway drai nage channel s.
5.3.6.3 Runway ends. The porous fri cti on course is not recommended at the runway
ends. O i l and fuel droppi ngs would cl og the i ntersti ces and soften the bi tumen bi nder,
and jet engi ne heat would soften the material which bl ast would then erode. Erosi on
would tend to be deeper than on a normal dense asphal t and the possi bi l i ty of engi ne
damage through i ngesti on of parti cl es of runway materi al shoul d not be di scounted.
Scuffing might occur i n turni ng movements duri ng the fi rst few weeks after l ayi ng, For
these reasons, i t i s recommended that runway ends be constructed of brushed or grooved
concrete, or of a dense asphal t.
5.3.6.4 Aggregate. The aggregate consi sts of crushed stone, crushed gravel , or
crushed sl ag wi th or wi thout other i nert fi nel y di vi ded mi neral aggregate. The aggre-
gate is composed of cl ean, sound, tough, durabl e parti cl es, free from cl ay bal l s,
Organic matter, and other del eteri ous substances. The type and grade of bituminous
material is to be based on geographi cal l ocati on and climatic condi ti ons. The maximum
mixing temperature and control l i ng speci f i cati on i s al so to be speci f i ed.
5.3.6.5 Weather and seasonal l i mi tati ons. The porous fri cti on course i s to be
constructed onl y on a dry surface when the atmospheri c temperature i s loo C and ri si ng
(at calm wind condi ti ons) and when the weather is not foggy or rai ny.
5.3.6.6 Preparati on of exi sti ng surfaces. Rehabi l i tati on of an exi sti ng pavement
for the pl acement of a porous fri cti on course i ncl udes: constructi on of bi tumi nous
overl ay, j ol nt seal i ng, crack repai r, reconstructi on of f ai l ed pavement and cleaning of
grease, oi l , and f uel spi l l s. I mmedi atel y before pl aci ng the porous fri cti on course,
the underl yi ng course i s to be cl eared of al l l oose or del eteri ous material wi th power
31/8/89
No. 2
ICAO 9157 P A RT t 3 t t 48454L b 0019599 558
3-224 Aerodrome Design Manual
bl mers, power broom, or hand broom as di rected. A tack coat i s to be placed on those
exi sti ng surfaces where a tack coat is necessary for bondi ng the porous fri cti on course
to the exi sti ng surf ace. If eml si f i ed asphal t is used, placement of the porous
friction course can be applied iunnediately. However, i f cutback asphal t is used,
placement of porous fri cti on course must be delayed unti l the tack coat has properl y
ai red.
5.3.7 Emulsified asphalt sl urry seal
5.3.7.1 The eml si f i ed asphal t sl urry seal course consi sts of a mlxture of emlsi-
fl ed asphal t, mi neral aggregate, and water, properly proportioned, mixed, and spread
evenly on a prepared underlying course of exi sti ng weari ng course. The aggregate
consi sts of sound and durable natural or manufactured sand, slag, crusher fines, crushed
stone, or crushed stone and rock dust, or a combination thereof. The aggregate is to be
cl ean and free from vegetabl e matter, di rt, dust, and other del eteri ous substances. The
aggregate is to have a gradati on wi thi n the limits shown below.
GRADATION OF AGGREGATES
Sieve Percentage by wei ght passi ng si eves
Size Type 1 QPe 11 Type 111
9.5 mm 100 100
4.75 mm 100 9U- l f i O 7*9a
2.36 uun 90-100 65-90 45-70
1.18 mm 65-90 45-70 28-50
600 micro m 40-60 39-50 19-34
300 micro m 25-42 18-30 12-25
150 micro m 15-30 10-21 7-1 11
75 micro m 10-20 5-15 5-5
~~~ ~~ ~~
-_
Resi dual asphal t 10-16 7.5-13.5 6.5-12
content-percentage
dry aggregate
Kilograms of 3.2-5.4 5.4-8.1 8.1-10.8
aggregate per
square metre
5.3.7.2 The Type I gradati on is used for maximumcrack penetrati on and is usual l y
used i n low densi ty traffi c areas where the prinrary objective i s seal i ng. The Type 11
gradati on i s used to seal and improve ski d resi stance. The Type 111 gradati on is used
to correct surface condi ti ons and provi de ski d resi stance.
5.3.7.3 Mineral f i l l er i s only used i f needed to improve the workabi l i ty of the
mix or t o improve the gradati on of the aggregate. The f i l l er i s considered as part of
the blended aggregate.
5.3.7.4 Tack coat. The tack coat i s a di l uted asphal t eml si on of the same type
5.3.7.5 Weather l i mi tati ons. The sl urry seal is not appl i ed if ei ther the
speci fi ed for the sl urry mix. The rati o of asphal t erml si on to water should be 1 to 3.
pavement or the ai r temperature is 13O C or below or when rai n i s imminent. Sl urry
placed at lower temperatures usually w i l l not cure properl y due to poor dehydrati on and
poor asphalt coalescence.
31/8/89
No. 2
a
a
I C A O 7357 PA RT t 3 t t = 4843436 OOL7600 OTT =
Part 3. - Pavements 3- 2248
5.3.7.6 Cl eani ng exi sti ng surface. Pri or to pl aci ng the tack coat and sl urry seal
coat, unsati sfactory areas are to be repai red and the surface cl eaned of dust, di rt, or
other l oose forei gn matter, grease, oi l , or any type of obj ecti onabl e surface fi l m. Any
standard cl eani ng method i s acceptabl e except that water f l ushi ng i s permi tted i n areas
where considerable cracks are present i n the pavement surface. Any pai nted stri pes or
marking on the surface to be treated are to be removed before appl yi ng the tack coat.
When the surf ace of the exi sti ng pavement or base i s i rregul ar or broken, i t nust be
repai red or brought to uni form grade and cross secti on. Cracks wi der than 10 mm must be
seal ed wi th compati bl e j oi nt sealer pri or to appl yi ng the sl urry seal .
5.3.7.7 Application of bituminous tack coat. Following the preparation for
seal i ng, appl i cati on of the di l uted emul si on tack coat is done by means of a pressure
di stri butor i n amounts between 0. 23 to 0.68 L/rn2. The tack coat i s to be appl l ed at
least two hours before the sl urry seal, but wi thi n the same day.
5.3.7.8 The main items of desi gn i n eml si f i ed asphal t sl urry seals are aggregate
gradati on, eml si fi ed asphal t content, and consi stency of the mixture. The aggregates,
eml si f i ed asphal t, and water should form a crearny-textured sl urry that, when spread,
wi l l flow i n a wave ahead of the strike-off squeegee. This w i l l allaw the sl urry to
flow down i nto the cracks i n the pavement and f i l l them before the stri ke-off passes
over, The cured sl urry i s to have a homogeneous appearance, f i l l a l l cracks, adhere
f i rml y to the surf ace, and have ski d resi stant texture.
31/8/89
No. 2
CHAPTER 6 . - PROTECTION OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
6.1 The problem
6.1.1 Since petroleum-base fuels and lubricants contain solvents for asphalt,
thei r spi l l age on asphal ti c pavements creates problems. Severity of probl em is rel ated
to the degree of exposure to the penetrati ng sol vents.
6.1.2 The hi ghl y vol ati l e gasol i nes and hi gh octane fuel s of the past have been
less of a problem si nce they qui ckl y evaporated when spillage occurred and systems using
these fuel s have provi ded good containment. Massive and frequently repeated spillage
can be a problem, of course, si nce such fuel s are excel l ent sol vents. Fuel spi l l age
surfaced as a parti cul ar probl em wi th the advent of turbi ne and j et engines. The
kerosene and l i ght oi l j et fuel s i nvol ved do not readi l y evaporate and earl y engi ne
systems routi nel y spi l l ed-quanti ti es of f uel on engine shutdown. Hydraul i c fl ui ds and
l ubri cati ng oi l s, which evaporate or "cure out" even less rapi dl y than j et fuel s, can
al so cause or contri bute to problems.
6.1.3 Si nce the severi ty of adverse effects of spi l l age on asphal t pavements i s
rel ated to exposure, concern mst be f or the number of times spi l l age i s repeated i n one
l ocati on, the l ength of time the spi l l ed f uel or oi l remains on (or i n) the pavement,
and the l ocati on and extent of spi l l age on the pavement. It has been found that a
si ngl e spi l l age of j et f uel , and even several spi l l ages i n the same l ocati on when there
i s timefor evaporati on and curi ng between spi l l ages, do not normally have a si gni f i cant
adverse effect on the pavement. However, some stai ni ng and a render pavement are to be
expected duri ng the curi ng peri od.
6.1.4 Spi l l ages can resul t from routi ne operati ons such as engi ne shutdown,
fuel tank sedi ment drai ni ng, consi stent use of sol vents for cl eani ng of engi ne or
hydraulic system elements, etc. More commonly spi l l age i s the resul t of fuel handl i ng
operati ons, of spi l l ed oi l or hydraul i c f l ui d, or accurml ated dri ppi ngs f rom engi ne oi l
leakage or mishandling.
a
6.1.5 Thus l ocati ons of concern on pavements are those where ai rcraf t are
regul arl y fuel l ed, parked, or servi ced. The broad areas of landing and taxiing opera-
ti ons wi l l not be of concern, si nce even spi l l ages attendant to ai rcraft acci dents w i l l
be minimized by cl ean-up and represent onl y a si ngl e spi l l age which w i l l cure without
permanent damage. Even f uel burned on the asphal t surface w i l l normally only leave a
surface scar of no structural si gni fi cance.
6.1.6 I n areas where spi l l age occurs repeatedl y or spi l l ed fuel or oi l remai ns
for l ong peri ods on the pavement the sol vent acti on softens the asphal t and reduces
adhesi on to the surface aggregate. Whi l e heat from the sun or warm ai r condi ti ons hel p
evaporate sol vents and re-cure the asphal t, the el evated temperatures contri bute to the
asphal t softeni ng. The resul t of the spi l l age, aggravated by heat, can be shoving of
the asphal t mix, ti re tread pri nti ng, tracki ng of asphal t to adj acent areas or produc-
ti on of l oose material, and pavement abrasi on al so produci ng l oose material on the
pavement surface. In maintenance and work areas asphal t and gr i t picked up by tool s,
shoes, and cl othi ng can be transferred to mechani cal system.
3-225
3-226
~~ ~ ~~~ Aerodrome Design Zlanual
6.1-7 The surface texture and condi ti on of paverrents have a beari ng on the
severi ty of the problem. Open or porous pavements will be more readi l y penetrated by
f uel or oi l and wi l l slow the evaporati on and re-cure process. It has been found that
rubber ti re traf f i c, whether f rom rol l i ng or traEfic tends t o cl ose the surf ace and
retard f uel penetrati on. Cracks and j oi nts, not well seal ed, are a parti cul ar source of
trouble. These provide access f or f uel to deeper zones wi thi n the pavenent, provi de
greater surf ace areas f or f uel i ntake, and retai n f uel rmch l onger thereby retardi ng
evaporati on and cure. Low areas which will retai n or pond fl ui ds, whether adj acent to
cracks or j oi nts or in central areas of pavement, vi11 prol ong exposure to spi l l ed
fuel .
6.2 Treatment of the problem
6.2.1 The best treatment is avoi dance of spi l l age and thi s may be possi bl e i n
many cases of operati onal spi l l age and so= acci dental spi l l age. Fuel tauk sedi ment
drainage can be caught and need not be al l owed on the pavement. Drip pans can be used
f or oi l dri p l ocati ons and f or bl eedi ng or servi ci ng of hydraul i c system. rays may be
practi cal to catch engi ne shutdown epi l l age or small quanti ti es of refuel l i ng
spi l l age.
6.2.2 Removal of the spi l l ed f uel or oi l and reducti on of expoeure through cl ean
up is the next aspect of treatment. Spi l l ed f uel or oi l can be f l uehed off the pavement
wi th water. Addition of detergents assist8 the process of separati ng the fuel and
especi al l y oi l from the asphal t pavement. While thi s has been a common treatment there
are begi nni ng to be envi ronmental compl ai nts from effects of the run-off. A vacuuming
process, wi th sui tabl e equi pment, can be ueed to remove spi l l ed f uel and some f uel
recovery i s possible. Absorbent materials can al so be used for f uel and oi l pi ckup wi th
sui tabl e arrangement for di sposal . Rolls, pads, and granul ar materials are al l used and
in some cases wri ngers are used for fuel recovery. There i s another aspect of absorp-
ti on by granul ar materi al s i n spi l l age areas to consi der. Accunul ati ons of dust and
sand, ei ther blown or man pl aced, will absorb small spi l l ages, oi l dri ppi ngs , etc., and
f orm a mat whi ch contai ns the spi l l ed material and reduces i ts avai l abi l i ty f or soi l i ng
of personnel and equipment. While thi s temporari l y f aci l i tates movement of personnel i t
can greatl y i ncrease exposure of the paveent to ef f ects of the f uel and oi l .
6.2.3 Since problems are aggravated by repeated exposure to spi l l age, i t is
sometimes possible to rel ocate ai rcraf t parki ng, f uel l i ng, or servi ci ng posi ti ons to
amel i orate the deteri orati on.
6. 2. 4 Spillage problems cannot develop i f spi l l ed f uel or oi l i s not al l owed to
come i n contact wi th the asphal t pavement. Protecti ve coati ngs have accordi ngl y been
developed to provi de a barrier between the f uel or oi l and the pavement, which is then
not affected by the spi l l ed f uel or oi l .
6.3 Protecti ve coati ngs
6. 3. 1 Protecti ve coati ng materials are general l y l i qui ds, some heated to become
l i qui d, whi ch when spread on the pavement cure or set to become a protecti ve coati ng.
These are commonly ref erred to as seal coats when comton spray appl i cati on and bi tumi -
nous materials are involved. Most of the l i qui d materials can be appl i ed i n any of
several ways i ncl udi ng sprayi ng usi ng hand sprays or asphal t di stri butor equi pment,
pouri ng on the surface and spreadi ng usi ng squeezes, rol l i ng onto the surface wi th pai nt
rol l ers, and appl i cati on or spreadi ng usi ng brushes. Si ngl e and ml ti pl e appl i cati ons
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 ** 484343b 0039603 BO9
6. 3. 2 Coating materials i n eml si on form can be extended and premixed with fine
aggregate t o form a sl urry and appl i ed as a sl urry seal. * Si ngl e or ml ti pl e appl i ca-
ti ons can be used here al so. Two l ayer appl i cati ons are common.
6. 3. 3 Thin overlays of materials not affected by spi l l age can be appl i ed to
protect asphal t pavements. Conventional construction methods are appl i cabl e unl ess some
very unconventional materials are employed. .
6. 4 Materials for protecti ve coati nps
6. 4. 1 Coal -tar pi tch i s onl y sl i ghtl y sol ubl e to i nsol ubl e i n the l i ght petro-
leum fracti ons (napthas) whi ch are sol vents for asphal ts and can be employed, i n mch
the same way as is asphal t, in pavement appl i cati ons. Also, i n many places, depending
upon rel ati ve avai l abi l i ty and economi c ci rcumstances, tar has been cost competi ti ve
wi th asphal t for spray appl i cati ons and as a bi nder f or pavements. Thus coal -tar pi tch
is used as a protecti ve seal er**and i s the basi c i ngredi ent i n vari ous commerci al l y
offered sealers for protecti ve coati ng appl i cati ons.
6. 4. 3 Seal i ng materials are offered which employ epoxies and polymers of vari ous
types ei ther. al one or i n a bituminous base, which can be tar or asphal t. While these
have attri butes whi ch shoul d make them effecti ve, experi ence wi th thei r appl i cati on i n
the f i el d i s limited. Therefore tri al test appl i cati ons are recommended to hel p assess
effecti veness before broad appl i cati ons are undertaken. These materials range i n pri ce
i n the Uni ted States up to 20 times that of l i qui d asphal ts.
6. 4. 4 Tar-rubber binder materials and, i n at l east one i nstance, epoxy-asphal t
binder of a type used for bri dge deck protecti on, have been pl aced as overl ays of
asphal t pavements to provi de protecti on from fuel spi l l age al ong wi th structural
upgrading. These are ef f ecti ve s o long as cracki ng can be control l ed (prevented or
cracks kept seal ed). Cost of the tar-rubber bi nder i s perhaps twice the cost of asphal t
* ASTM D-3910 Standard Practice of Design, Testing, and Construction of Slurry
Seal,
(Mineral Colloid Type).
** ASTM D-3423 Standard Practi ce for Appl i cati on of Emulsified Coal-Tar Pi tch
ICAO 9557 PART* 3 ** 484545b OOSSbO4 745
3-228 Aerodrome Design Hanual
~~~- ~ = - ~~~ ~ ~ _ = ~ ~
mix whi l e the epoxyasphal t may run to f i ve rims the cost of asphal t mix but can be
placed as a very thi n (20 mm) overlay.
6.5 Application
6.5.1 Surfaces to recei ve protecti ve coati ngs met be thoroughly cleaned. Any
surface fi l m; o f oil need to be careful l y removed. Areas of pavement which ha= becoms
affected by pri or f uel spi l l age and any badly cracked areas nust be removed and replaced
with sound pavement and these patches should be thoroughly cured (2 to 4 weeks) pri or t o
the seal i ng. All but very narrow cracks mst be cleaned and f i l l e d ui th crack f i l l er.
6.502 Methods of appl i cati on shoul d fol l ow standard practi ce a6 reco-nded by
ai rf i el d or highway authori ti es, trade associ ati ons, or the product manufacturer. Seal
coat guidance can be found i n ASTM D-3423 or the United States FAA Engineering Brief No.
22, Appendix B. Sl urry seal gui dance w i l l be found i n ASTM D-3410.
6.5.3 CoPPmonly, si ngl e appl i cati ons of seal or sl urry seal are such as to
provide Om3 t o 0.5 kg/m2 of resi dual bitumen. Two and even three appl i cati ons are
usual. Surfaces should be moist but not wet for euul si on appl i cati ons and temperatures
should be favourable both for application and eubsequent cure - 10C to 27'C i s deai r
able. A lower limit: i s 7'C and favourable temperatures should continue at l east 4 hours
af ter placement. Epoxy and polymeric seals should be applied and cured as recommnded
for the i ndi vi dual material, but coagaonly appl i cati on rates are 0.3 to 0.4 kgln?.
6.6 Protection gained
6.6.1 Durability and wear can vary wi th the saterials and appl i cati ons, the
surface cleaning and preparation, maintenance of the protecti ve coati ng, and of course
exposure to spi l l age and traffic. Testing and experience have shown that good coati ngs,
well appl i ed to cl ean well prepared surfaces and properly maintained, w i l l provide
sati sf actory protecti on i n wst cases. I n areas of very severe exposure, as at central
fuel l i ng poi nts, no protecti ve coati ngs have been found to be enti rel y sati sf actory.
6.6.2 I n other than the most severe spi l l age l ocati ons unsati sfactory behavi our
can be experienced when elements of good practi ce are ignored. Sonre materi al forml a-
ti ons and appl i cati on methods, ei ther i ndi vi dual l y or i n concert, can resul t i n i mper-
f ect coverage by the seal coati ng. Bubbl es can exi st at appl i cati on (somztlmes called
fi sh eyes) and leave holes i n the coati ng or bubbl es can form beneath a coati ng after
cure and on breaking leave holes, and coatings can shrink and crack. I mproper surface
cl eani ng can resul t i n a poor bond and peeling of the coating. And cracks i n the coated
pavement w i l l tend to corn through the protecti ve surface coati ng.
6.6.3 When f uel can gain access through holes or cracks i n the seal coat,
through peel ed areas, or through cracks refl ected from the lower pavement, or when f uel
saturated pavement has not been removed and i s covered by the seal coat, conditions are
worsened rather than irsproved by the seal si nce, i n addi ti on to not preventi ng access of
the spi l l ed f uel or o i l to the asphal t, the seal coat greatl y i nhi bi ts the evaporati on
and cure-out of the spi l l age.
6. 6. 4 Overlays of tarrubber bi nder gi ve sptl l age protecti on and are not subj ect
t o bubble holes, peeling, or wear through. Tarrubber overlays are subj ect to shrink-
age, cracking and to crack reflection from underlying pavements. They mst be properly
compacted si nce pavements having voids of as rmch as 6 per cent w i l l be porous enough to
permit penetration of j et f uel .
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 t* W ~AL13416 0039605 bA3 =
Part 3. - Pavements
a
3-229
6.7 Maintenance consideration
6.7.1 Maintenance includes clean-up of spi l l s as discussed earlier under
"treatment of the problem". Ponding mst be prevented to avoid extending exposure from
spillage. Other maintenance is concerned with maintaining integrity of the protecti ve
coating. Cracks must be kept seal ed wi th a f uel resi stant sealer. Retreatment mst be
employed when deteri orati on, wear through, or peel i ng l eads to openi ngs i n the coati ng.
Accidental scars must be closed. I f asphalt patching i s requi red then the surface,
after sui tabl e cure, needs to be coated agai nst spi l l age effects.
6. 8 Some rel ated concerns
6. 8. 1 Some seal coats provi de reduced ski d resi stance, and while f uel resi stant
coatings are not commonly employed on aerodromes i n areas of severe ski ddi ng potenti al ,.
the problem, should i t intrude, can be treated through embedment of sand si ze aggregate
in the seal coat before fi nal cure.
6.8.2 As earlier mentioned there i s devel opi ng concern for the fl ushi ng of
spi l l ed f uel and oi l , and of chemicals employed to assist the removal of oi l s, i nto
adj acent drai ns. Catchments and acceptabl e di sposal practices may be required.
6. 8. 3 Spi l l ed fuel which fi nds its way i nto subsurface drai ns and cul verts can
be a safety hazard. Such spi l l age can devel op expl osi ve fuel -ai r mi xtures i n the
confined drains and a spark i gni ti on wi l l resul t i n an expl osi on. The ri sk to l i fe and
property can be real and consequential.
6. 8. 4 There can be a questi on as to the desi rabi l i ty of rol l i ng seal coats.
Rol l i ng can improve fi l m adhesi on, and, as earlier mentioned, cl ose surface pores and
reduce fuel penetrati on. General l y, therefore, rol l i ng of bituminous seals usi ng f l at
(no tread) rubber ti re rol l ers shoul d be benefi ci al , but whether the resul ti ng improve-
ment warrants the rol l i ng effort has not been establ i shed. Steel wheel rol l i ng would
not be of benefit and may damage the coati ng. Any rol l i ng of polymeric seals might be
undesi rabl e, and suppl i er recommendations should be followed.
CHAPTER 7. - STRUCTURAL CONCERNS FOP CULVERTS AND BRIDGES
7.1 Probl em descri pti on
7.1.1 Subaurface structures for drai nage or access uust commonly be crossed by
pavements which support aircraft. Such facilities are subj ect to the added l oadi ng
imposed by the ai rcraf t sometimes di rectl y as i n the case of bri dges, subeurface
termi nal f aci l i ti es, and the l i ke, but more of ten i ndi rectl y as l oadi ng transmi tted to
buri ed pi pes and cul verts through the soi l l ayer beneath the pavement.
7.1.2 These subsurface structures met be consi dered i n connel ti on wi th eval ua-
ti on of pavement strength. Thepatter n of stresses induced by surface wheel l oad8 as
they are transdtted downward are not the same on the subeurface structures as on the
subgrade. This is not onl y because these etructures are not at subgrade l evel but al so
because the presence of the structure di storte the patterns. Thus the consi derati ons
whi ch permi t uae of the ACN-PCN method t o limit pavement overloadtng are not necessari l y
adequate to protect subsurface structures. I n BOE cases the subaurf ace structure can
be the cri ti cal or l i mi ti ng el ement thereby necessi tati ng the reporti ng of a lover PCN
f or the pavement.
7.1.3 I n the design of new f aci l i ti ee care mat be gi ven to the structural
adequacy of pfpes, cul verts, and bri dged crossi ngs, not only for the contempl ated desi gn
l oadi ngs but for possi bl e f uture l oadi ngs to avoi d a need f or very costl y correcti ve
treatments made necessary by a growth i n ai rcraf t l oadi ngs.
7.2 Types of substructures
7.2.1 Probabl y the most c omn and l east apparent buried structures at aero-
dromes are pi pes f aci l i tati ng drai nage of surf ace or subsurf ace water. These can range
i n diameter from 100 mm t o 4 or 5 m and i n cover depth from 300 m t o 50 P and wre i n
the case of hi gh embankments, and they can be qui te sti f f i n rel ati on to the surroundi ng
soi l (ri gi d pi pe) or qui te easi l y def orsed by verti cal l oadi ng (f l exi bl e pi pe). The
most common ri gi d pi pe i s made of rei nforced cement concrete but there are al so pi pes
made of pl ai n cement concrete or cl ay. The latter pi pes are of necesei ty smaller i n
diameter. The most common f l exi bl e pi pe i s of corrugated steel but there are al so
corrugated al umi ni um pi pes, several types of pl asti c pi pes, bl turni ni zed fi bre pi pes and
others. Pi pe i nstal l ati ons are desi gned taki ng i nto account such factors as the pi pe
type, the beddi ng, backfi l l , i nstal l ati on materials and condi ti ons, the embankment depth
and the load imposed by it, and surf ace l i ve l oads to be suetai ned.
7.2.2 Box cul verts whi ch are ei ther square or rectangul ar in shape are commonly
used for stream crossi ngs beneath pavements. They are desi gned f or the hydraul i c f l aw
and the l oads to be supported. They are usual l y of cast in ziti! reinforced cement
concrete. Span between side walls can vary from about 1 t o 5 m. Smaller box drai ns are
of ten used i n wide apron areas di rectl y beneath pavements as surface flow col l ectors.
7.2.3 Arches of structural metal pl ates, of the type used for constructi ng l arge
di ameter pi pes are sometimes used i n pref erence to short bri dges to span stream or pave-
ment crossi ngs. I n such cases, soi l i s pl aced besi de and above the arch up eo subgrade
l evel and the pavement constructed thereon. In rare cases tunnel s may pass beneath
aerodrome pavements.
3-230
ICAO 9157 PARTU3 *Kt = 484141b 0019607 454
Part 3. - Paveroents 3-231
7.2.4 Bridges are used in a number of cases f or highways to pass beneath taxi-
ways and runways and, i ncreasi ngl y, subsurface termi nal faci l i ti es are pl aced beneath
aprons and taxiways. These are designed to support the usi ng ai rcraft and structure
dead loads. Also runway extensions over water are sometimes placed on bridges supported
on piles and these mst be designed to accommodate ai rcraf t l oads i n addi ti on to thei r
dead weight.
7.3 Some guiding concepts
7.3.1 The di scussi on i n Chapter 3, 3; 2.4, on Ai rcraft Loading i s perti nent to
concepts of di stri buti on of stresses from surface loads within embankments beneath pave-
ments. High stress surface l oads are di stri buted by the pavement structure and as the
loads extend downward they are further di stri buted over wi der areas with consequent
reducti on i n stress magnitudes. As the pattern of stress goes deeper and extends over
wider areas, the effects of adj acent wheel s overl ap l eadi ng to doubl i ng or even greater
multiplying of the stress induced by one wheel. The deeper the pattern extends, the
farther apart i ndi vi dual wheel s can be and sti l l have i nteracti ng effects. These are
the patterns of stresses introduced by the l i ve l oads (ai rcraf t) i nto the ground beneath
pavements, and al ong wi th the mass of the soi l and pavement, represent the magnitudes of
stresses or l oadi ng del i vered to buri ed structures.
7.3.2 The presence of a buri ed structure (which does not act i n the same manner
as the s oi l it di spl aces) has a si gni fi cant impact on the pattern of l i ve and dead load
stresses (ambient stresses) induced by the surface l oads, pavement and backfi l l
material. A concrete pi pe, for i nstance, is rmch sti f f er i n the verti cal di recti on than
is the adj acent soi l . Thus compressi on (verti cal defl exi on) of the soi l under aircraft
l oadi ng resul ts i n a rel ati ve upward thrust of the ri gi d pi pe i nto the soi l wi th a con-
sequent accumulation of greater than ambient stress and loading. This i s why some deep-
l y buri ed ri gi d pi pes are protected by soft (bal ed straw, l oose soi l , etc.) zones above
the pi pe. I n such cases, the verti cal sti f f ness of the pi pe and soft zone i s less than
the sti f f ness of soi l besi de the pi pe and stresses are accuml ated more by the adj acent
soi l . This i s al so why the character and condi ti on of bedding and backf i l l are very
important.
7.3.3 Box cul verts accurnulate stresses i n the same way as ri gi d pi pes but the
i mpact on the structure is not the same. The verti cal si dewal l s of box cul verts whi l e
nuch sti f f er than the soi l are far stronger than necessary to sustai n the accunul ated
stresses or l oadi ng, and the span between si dewal l s i s less sti f f than the si dewal l s and
subj ect to reduced stress. It should be noted that these reductions are small, however,
and are reduced from the higher stresses accumulated on the sti f f box cul vert.
7.3.4 Metal and other fl exi bl e pi pes are general l y less sti f f verti cal l y than
adj acent soi l and not subj ect to stress accuml ati ons i n the manner of ri gi d pi pes.
However, metal pi pes are very sti f f in circumference and some l arger di ameter pi pes wi th
deep corrugations and located near the surface can accumulate more than ambient loading,
Large metal arches wi th fi xed footi ngs can al so be rel ati vel y sti f f structures.
7.4 Evaluation of subsurface structures
7.4.1 General
7.4.1.1 Every subsurface structure beneath a pavement mst be considered i n
connexion with evaluation of the pavement. And whi l e speci fi c determi nati ons would i n
each case requi re careful structural anal ysi s, the l i kel i hood that a parti cul ar
3-232 Aerodrome Design Manual
structure would prove more critical than the pavement i n l i ml ti ng ai rcraf t l oads depends
greatl y on the type, si ze, and l ocati on of the structure. Accordi ngl y, certai n gui dance
can be suggested to assist i n determining which structures can, at small rlsk, be
consi dered not to be l i mi ti ng, which ones are marginal and need to be careful l y
considered, and which require study and analysis to defi ne l oad l i mi tati ons or needed
strengthening.
7. 4. 2 Deeply buri ed structures
7. 4. 2. 1 The l i ve l oad on deepl y buri ed structures tends to be only a mall
f racti on of the dead load s o that pi pes or cul verts of moderate si ze and smaller, which
do not accumulate an undue share of the l i ve l oad, will not l i mi t surface l oadi ngs.
This w i l l i ncl ude pi pe di ameters or structure spans up to about one-thi rd of the
protecti ve cover (di stance between pavement surface and top o f pi pe or cul vert). Tabl e
7-1 i ndi cates the thi ckness of protecti ve cover of soi l and pavement structure above
drai nage structures of not too l arge span which will spread the l oad suffi ci entl y,
consi deri ng combining of eff ects from adj acent wheel s, to reduce the pressure i nduced on
the structure by ai rcraf t (l i ve) l oads to less than 10 per cent of the earth (dead)
load. It i s not l i kel y that an added 10 per cent of pressure w i l l exceed the structural
capaci ty of i n-eervi ce pi pes or cul verts. Where ai rcraf t to be supported have ti re
l oads greater than 200 kt? somewhat greater cover depths may be needed to attai n the 10
per cent l i mi tati on on i ncreased (l i ve l oad) pressure.
Table 7-1. Protective cover needed over structures beneath aerodrome pavements
Number of wheels" Cover depth i n metree
1
2
4
8
16
4
5
6
7.5
9.5
Pipes and culverts of the si zes i ndi cated (about one-hi rd of the depth of cover) and a t
depths equal to or greater than that shown i n Table 7-1 should not require a separate
l oad l i mi tati on of the overlying pavement.
7.4.2.2 Structures at shallower depths need more detailed examination. Whether
l oad l i mi tati ons beyond those for protecti on of the paveent may be needed w i l l depend
on ri gi di ty of the pi pe or cul vert, beddi ng and backfi l l , pavement stucture, and con-
servati sm of the ori gi nal desi gn. Suffi dent analysis should be made either to confi rm
that the buri ed structure does not requi re a more cri ti cal l oad l i mi tati on than the
pavement or to establ i sh appropri ate l oad l i mi tati ons.
7.4.2.3 Wide span structures; i.e., very l arge pi pes, arches, and wide box cul-
verts, even wi th substanti al cover w i l l tend to accunulate stress from surface l oads (by
s oi l arching) and may have to support vi rtual l y al l of the ai rcraft (l i ve) l oad as well
a8 the earth (dead) l oad. Thus any structure whose span exceeds about one-third o f the
cover depth should be careful l y anal yeed to establ i sh surface l oad l i mi t8 or possi bl e
need for s trengthening.
* Consider al l wheels within or touching a circle whose di ameter equal s the depth of
protecti ve cover over the structure.
Part 3.- Pavements 3-233
7.4.3 Shal l ow pi pes, condui ts, subdrai ns, and cul verts
7.4.3.1 The ACN-PCN method limits ai rcraf t mass to prevent over-stress of the
pavement subgrade and overl yi ng l ayers. These same limits tend to protect shal l ow
buri ed structures f rom over-stress, except f or qui te l arge (over 3 or 4 m di ameter or
span) structures, whi ch may accumulate load on the same cri ti cal secti on from more than
one l andi ng gear l eg. Beneath ri gi d pavements a minimum cover of about one-hal f metre
between the sl ab and structure i s commonly consi dered to provi de adequate protecti on
from any l oadi ng. Pi pes and cul verts beneath fl exi bl e pavements w i l l be protected when
thei r top surf ace (outer crown of pipe) i s wi thi n about one-hal f metre of the top of the
subgrade. A t greater depths, whi l e stresses from surface wheel l oads or combined
ef f ects of several wheel l oads attenuate and are less than the pavement subgrade can
accept, the combined ef f ect (stress) and f or an ai rcraf t mul ti pl e wheel l oad, though
ACN-PCN l i mi ted, may be greater than were consi dered in the ori gi nal pavement design.
Therefore pi pes, drai ns, cul verts, etc., shoul d be careful l y exami ned for possi bl e need
for strengtheni ng when the i ndi vi dual wheel l oad or the number of wheel s of the usi ng
ai rcraf t are expected to be i ncreased.
7.4.3.2 Shal l ow structures of substanti al span (over 3 or 4 m) wi l l need anal ysi s
in connexi on wi th any contempl ated i ncreases i n wheel l oads or gross ai rcraf t masses.
7.4.4 A t surf ace drai ns, condui ts, and the l i ke
7.4.4.1 Col l ector drai ns, box condui ts (f or l i ghti ng, wi ri ng, f uel l i nes, etc.),
and any similar pavement crossi ng i nstal l ati ons, are someti mes pl aced di rectl y at the
pavement surface. These would rarely be so l arge that more than a si ngl e wheel would
need t o be supported by the i nstal l ati on at any time. Consequentl y, onl y si ngl e wheel
l oadi ngs need be of concern for the desi gn as well as eval uati on.
7.4.5 Bridges supporting aerodrome pavements
7.4.5.1 Need f or passage of highway and rai l traffi c beneath aerodrome pavements
and the pl acement of termi nal connexi ons and faci l i ti es beneath taxi way and apron pave-
ments has requi red tne use of bri dges to support the pavements and usi ng ai rcraft. Such
structures recei ve l i ttl e i f any protecti on from pavement l oad l i mi tati ons and must be
separatel y consi dered i n establ i shi ng saf e l oadi ngs. The ori gi nal desi gn anal yses wi l l
have establ i shed the type and magni tude of l oads for whi ch the bri dges are adequate. If
the i ntended usage has changed and paveaents are l i kel y to be used by markedly heavier
ai rcraf t or ai rcraf t wi th di f f erent undercarri age conf i gurati on than consi dered in
desi gn, a new anal ysi s wi l l be needed to establ i sh the sui tabi l i ty of the structure f or
such usage.
7.4.6 Pi l e supported structures
7.4.6.1 Sometimes runways and taxiways extend over water and these are pl aced on
pi l e supported structures. These, as f or bri dges, wi l l have been subj ect to desi gn
anal yses to provi de for the contempl ated l oads. Here agai n there w i l l be a need f or
reanal ysi s if operati ons by heavi er ai rcraf t or ai rcraf t wi th substanti al l y di f f erent
undercarri age l ayout are contemplated.
7.4.7 Tunnels under pavements
7.4.7.1 Tunnels behave in a manner similar to l arge di ameter pi pes and can be
consi dered to respond i n much the same manner. Thus shal l ower tunnel s woul d requi re
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 ** W YBY1Y1b 0019610 T Y9
3-234 Aerodrome Design Manual
careful anal ysi s of expected i ncreased ai rcraft l oads on overlying pavements. Deeply
buri ed tunnel s mi ght requi re onl y casual examination i f cover depths were suf f i ci ent to
minimize induced l i ve l oads.
7.4.8 Treatment of severel y l i mi ti ng cases
7.4.8.1 Where structures beneath pavements l i mi t ai rcraft l oads beyond the PCN
(which i s assessed to protect the pavement) these l i mi tati ons wi l l need to be reported
i n terms of speci f i c ai rcraf t type and load (mass) as excepti ons. Where mul ti pl e taxi -
ways permit avoidance of the cri ti cal structures the probl em can be handl ed by l ocal
routi ng of ai rcraf t. If, however, al l ai rcraf t rmst cross the cri ti cal structure the
l i mi tati on must be emphasized when reporti ng pavement strengths. Only very shallow
structures and extreme overl oadi ng - except f or bri dges or pi l e supported pavements -
represent some hazard to ai rcraf t, and ai rcraf t saf ety w i l l rarel y i f ever be compromis-
ed by overl oad of buri ed (earth covered) structures. Bri dges and pi l e supported pave-
ments recei ve the l oadi ng dkrectl y and uust be structural l y capabl e of supporti ng the
imposed l oadi ngs.
7.4.8.2 Load l i mi tattons on critical Structures can be el i mi nated ei ther by
speci al anal yses whi ch establ i sh that l arger than i ntended desi gn l oadi ngs can be
sustai ned, or by strengtheni ng. Commonly, desi gn conservati sm, better-than-mi ni mrn
i nstal l ati on, l arger-than-needed eaf ety E actors and more searchi ng desi gn type anal yses
may resul t i n l arger al l owabl e l oadi ngs. These can range from a simple restudy of the
desi gn data to extensi ve f i el d study of the i nstal l ati on i ncl udi ng study of surroundi ng
backf i l l or measurement of strai n or def l exi on response of the structure under l oad. An
exanpl e o such a study can be found i n the A pri l 1973 i ssue of Ai rport World under the
ti tl e, "New Bri dge or No?". This is a publ i cati on of the Uni ted States Aircraft Owners
and Pi l ots Associ ati on and the arti cl e deal s wi th a study undertaken i n the 1970s t o
assess the sui tabi l i ty of an exi sti ng bri dge at Chicago O'Hare I nternati onal Ai rport for
use by wi de bodi ed ai rcraft.
7.4.8.3 The strengtheni ng of a substructure can be accompl i shed usi ng i nternal
bands, struts, or l i ners to strengthen or reduce span i n pi pes, cul verts, arches, etc.,
but these reduce the desi gned drai nage capaci ty. Sometimes structures can be sti f f ened
by grouti ng surroundi ng soi l from the surface or from i nsi de the structure. It may be
possi bl e to i ntroduce compressi bl e zones of soi l or other material above pi pes or cul -
verts and reduce the transmi ssi on of pavement l oads to the buri ed structure. Al so,
provi si on of l oad di stri buti ng pavement structures (buri ed sl abs f or i nstance) may
reduce l oads on pi pes, cul verts or drai ns. Of course, redesi gn and reconstructi on is
the obvi ous ul ti mate sol uti on. Some bri dges or pile-supported pavements may be
strengthened by addi ng el ements (beams, etc.) to the exi sti ng structure.
7.5 Consi derati ons i n desi gn of new faci l i ti es
7.5.1 Structural concerns or drai nage and similar structures i n rel ati on to the
eval uati on of pavements for l oad support capaci ty have been di scussed earlier i n thi s
chapter. Patterns of behaviour in connerdon wi th si ze, fl exi bi l i ty, l i ve and dead
l oads, deep and shal l w cover have been i ndi cated, and these appl y al so to desi gn
consi derati ons where new f aci l i ti es are pl anned, Thi s secti on will ampl i fy EO= of the
earlier di scussi ons and treat aspects of structural behavi our of somewhat nore di rect
concern for desi gn.
7.5.2 Loads. Loads which met be consi dered i n desi gn of buri ed structure6 are
-
those resul ti ng from the wei ght of overl yi ng s oi l and pavement structure (overburden)
i
I
Part 3. - Pavements 3-235
pl us those i nduced by ai rcraf t or other vehi cl es on the pavement above. Heavy construc-
ti on l oads passi ng over pi pe before i t has i ts f ul l protecti ve cover may al so need to be
consi dered. These l oads produce the patterns of ambi ent stress present i n embankments
where they are not di srupted by the presence of pi pe or other structures or by the
pockets of l oose, dense or other types of s o i l i ntroduced by the i nstal l ati on of pi pes,
cul verts, etc. It i s the di storti on of the ambient stress patterns by the character of
the pi pe or structure, the nature of the pi pe beddi ng, any trench used duri ng i nstal l a-
ti on, and the type and compacted densi ty of the backf i l l around the pi pe whi ch l eads to
l arger or smaller than ambi ent stress l oads on the buri ed structures. Thi s too i s what
compl i cates the desi gn probl em and l eads to establ i shed desi gn methods whi ch provi de
only nominal guidance.
7.5.3 Ambient ovsrburden stresses are the resul t of the mass of overl yi ng soi l
and pavement structure and can be di rectl y determi ned. Stresses i nduced by ai rcraf t
tire l oads can be cal cul ated usi ng the theory f or a uni f orml y di stri buted ci rcul ar l oad
on the surf ace of a continuum. The theory f or an elastic l ayered conti nuum, wi th sui t-
abl e elastic constants (E, p), shoul d be pref erred, but the theory f or a si ngl e l ayer
system (Boussinesq) w i l l provi de reasonabl e stress determi nati ons for fl exi bl e pavements
and deeper i nstal l ati ons beneath ri gi d pavements. Pl ots or tabul ati ons of si ngl e l ayer
stresses can be found i n ref erences such as: the 1954 Highway Research Board
Proceedi ngs, HRB Bul l eti n 342 of 1962, Yoder's textbook on "Principles of Pavement
Desi gn" (Uni ted States), Croney's text "The Design and Performance of Road Pavements"
TRRL (United Kingdom). Stresses f or the combined ef f ects of several wheel s can be
deterdned by superposi ti on of the si ngl e wheel stresses at perti nent l ateral spaci ngs.
Because of the time rate of response of soi l to rapi d l oadi ng it i s not necessary to
consi der any added dynami c effects of the ai rcraf t l oadi ng.
7.5.4 The ambient stresses whi ch obtai n at the vari ous depths beneath the pave-
ment are thus a combination of the overburden (dead l oad) stresses and the ai rcraf t
l andi ng gear l oad (l i ve l oad) stresses. It i s these stresses modi fi ed by the exi stence
and behavi our of a pi pe or other buri ed structure and any di storti ons due to i ts
i nstal l ati on that determi ne the l oads whi ch mst be supported by the pi pe or structure.
I n general , hard (sti f f ) el ements or zones w i l l accuml ate stress from the adj acent
embankment soi l whi l e sof t el ements or zones w i l l shed stress to the adj acent soi l .
Thus the more ri gi d structures, such as box cul verts, concrete pi pe, and the l i ke, w i l l
tend to be subj ect to greater stress and l oad than that i mpl i ed by the ambi ent stress,
whi l e more f l exi bl e structures, such as steel, aluminium, and pl asti c pi pe or ri gi d
structures provi ded wi th an overl yi ng zone of l oose s oi l , straw, sawdust, etc. wi l l tend
to be subj ect to less than the ambi ent stress.
7.5.5 A most i mportant consi derati on i n the determi nati on of l oadi ngs for desi gn
of buri ed structures is i n provi di ng f or f uture upgradi ng of pavement f aci l i ti es and
growth i n ai r cr af t masses supported. Where upgradi ng i s l i kel y i n the f uture the desi gn
of buri ed structures beneath pavements for the heavi er l oadi ngs expected w i l l commonly
be f ar less costl y duri ng the ori gi nal desi gn and constructi on than when l ef t f or subse-
quent modif i cati on.
7.5.6 Pi pes. Pi pes are descri bed general l y i n 7.2.1 and most types are covered
by ASTM standards f or the pi pe characteri sti cs and tests to determi ne pi pe strength.
Concrete, cl ay, asbestos-cement, sol i d wal l pl asti c, and other geometri cal l y si mi l ar
types of pi pe are made in a vari ety of wal l thi cknesses and/or rei nforcements, as wel l
as di ameters to provi de an array of strengths f or use i n desi gn of i nstal l ati ons.
Steel , aluminium, and s o w pl asti c pi pes are made in a vari ety of gauges (thi cknesses of
material) and corrugati on confi gurati ons to provi de an array of pi pe sti f f nesses and
3-236 Aerodrome Design Manual
si de-wal l strengths for i nstal l ati on desi gn purposes. Whi l e round pi pes are most common
there are el l i pti cal pi pes - used verti cal l y for i ncreased strength or hori zontal l y f or
l ow head - and pipe arches having rounded crown and f l attened i nvert f or speci al
appl i cati on as access ways, uti l i ty ducts, etc.
7.5.7 Design l i mi tati ons for ri gi d pi pe are commonly establ i shed to control the
progression of cracking at the crown and invert. Prevention of cracks wider than 0.4 m
i s the usual practi ce. Earl i er practi ce for fl exi bl e pi pe i nstal l ati on desi gn was to
limit pi pe defl ecti on to 5 per cent of the pi pe di ameter, but current practi ce prefers
to requi re competent backf i l l soi l compaction (85 per cent of Standard Density -
ASTM D-698) and limit the buckl i ng i n ri ng conpressi on.
7.5.8 I nstal l ati on condi ti one. Bedding, backf i l l , and trench conditions of pi pe
i nstal l ati on can have si mi fi cant effect on performance. Pipe can be placed on f l at
compacted earth, on a 60', goo, or 120' shaped bed, on a sand or fi ne gravel cushi on, I n
a l ean or coupetent concrete cradl e, etc. Pipe can be placed i n a narrow or wide
trench, shallow or deep trench, vertical or sl opi ng si dewal l trench, or no trench.
Backfi l l can be poorly compacted beneath (haunches) or besi de the pi pe and can be the
sameas adjacent embankment material or a select sand, gravel , or other superi or
material, or i t can be a stabi l i zed (cement or lime) soil. Mgi d pi pe can be i nsul ated
Prom i ts normal accuwl ati on of greater than ambi ent stress by pl aci ng a sof t zone of
l oose soi l , straw, foamed pl asti c, l eaves, or ei mi l ar materi al above the pipe. A11 of
these many variables can have an impact on the desi gn l oads to be Considered.
7.5.9 Design. Because of the many vari abl es i n l oadi ng, pi pe characteri sti cs,
and i nstal l ati on condi ti ons desi gn concepts, methods, and supporting methods for chara-
cteri zi ng behavi our of materials are beyond what can be presented here. Design details
can be found i n some geotechnical textbooks, such as "Soi l Mechanics" by Krynine (United
States), "Soil Engineering" by Spangler (United States) and i n trade l i terature, such
a6 "Concrete Pipe Design Manual" of the American Concrete Pipe Association (United
States Library of Congress Catalog No. 78-586241, "Handbook of Steel Drainage and
Highway Construction Products" of the American I ron and Steel I nsti tute (Uni ted States
Library of Congress Catalog NO. 78-174344) and in the many references t o techni cal
l i terature contai ned i n these documents. Some speci fi c desi gn gui dance for minirmm
protecti ve cover beneath fl exi bl e or ri gi d pavement for several types of pi pe precomput-
ed based on selected (common) i nstal l ati on condi ti ons can be found i n the Uni ted States
F M manual on "Airport Drainage" AC 150/5320-%, as wel l as i n the two trade l i terature
manuals referenced above.
7.5.10 Other structures. Design of bridges and pile supported extensions over
water, whi ch support ai rcraft l oads di rectl y, rmst fol l ow accepted structural desi gn
practi ce. It wi l l be most important to anti ci pate f uture ai rcraft growth l oads to avoi d
very costly subsequent strengthening. Box cul verts wi l l be subj ect to the ambi ent
stresses (7.5.3) increased by the upthrust of such sti ff structures i nto the overl yi ng
embankment (7.5.4). The resul ti ng l oad shoul d be determi ned by careful anal ysi s, but
should f al l between about 130 per cent and 170 per cent of the l oad due onl y to ambi ent
stress depending upon span of the structure, magnitude and extent of surface load,
protecti ve cover depth, and soi l sti ffness adj acent to the cul vert. Any l arge corrugat-
ed metal arches (over 5 m) wi th shal l m soi l cover shoul d be subj ected to careful geo-
techni cal and structural desi gn. Each wi l l be a separate case and of a magnitude t o
warrant careful desi gn anal ysi s.
ICAO 9357 PA RTS3 ** m 48414Lb 0019633 758 m
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CHAPTER 8. - CONSTRUCTION OF ASPHALTIC OVERLAYS
8. 1 I nt r oduct i on
8. 1. 1 The vol ume and f r equency of oper at i ons at many ai r por t s makes i t vi r t ual l y
mandat or y t o over l ay ( r esur f ace) r unways por t i on by por t i on so t hat t hey may be r et ur ned
t o oper at i onal st at us dur i ng peak hour s. The pur pose of t hi s chapt er i s t o det ai l t he
pr ocedur es t o be used by t hose associ at ed wi t h such over l ayi ng, vi z. t he ai r por t manager ,
pr oj ect manager , desi gner and cont r act or s t o ensur e t hat t he wor k i s car r i ed out mogt
ef f i ci ent l y and wi t hout l oss of r evenues, - i nconveni ence t o passenger s or del ays t o t he ai r
t r af f i c syst ems. A uni que f eat ur e of such of f - peak const r uct i on i s t hat a t empor ar y r amp
(a t r ansi t i on sur f ace bet ween t he over l ay and t he exi st i ng pavement ) must be const ar ct ed
at t he end of each wor k sessi on so t hat t he r unway can be used f or ai r cr af t oper at i ons
once t he wor k f or ce cl ear s t he ar ea. Thi s chapt er i ncl udes gui dance on t he desi gn of such
t empor ar y r amps, however , i t i s not t he i nt ent of t hi s chapt er t o deal wi t h t he desi gn of
over l ays per se. For gui dance on t he l at t er subj ect , t he r eader shoul d r ef er t o
Chapt er 4.
8. 2 Ai r por t aut hor i t y s r ol e
8. 2. 1 Pr oj ect co- or di nat i on
8. 2. 1. 1 Of f - peak const r uct i on i s, by i t s ver y nat ur e, a hi ghl y vi si bl e pr oj ect
r equi r i ng cl ose co- or di nat i on wi t h al l el ement s of t he ai r por t dur i ng pl anni ng and desi gn
and vi r t ual l y dai l y dur i ng const r uct i on. Once a r unway pavi ng pr oj ect has been i dent i f i ed
by t he ai r por t , i t i s i mpor t ant t hat t he nomi nees of t he ai r por t aut hor i t y, user s and t he
Ci vi l Avi at i on Aut hor i t y of t he St at e meet t o di scuss t he manner i n whi ch const r uct i on i s
t o be i mpl ement ed. The f ol l owi ng key per sonnel shoul d be i n at t endance at al l pl anni ng
meet i ngs: f r om. t he ai r por t aut hor i t y - t he pr oj ect manager , t he oper at i ons, pl anni ng,
engi neer i ng and mai nt enance di r ect or s; f r om t he ai r l i nes - l ocal st at i on manager s and head
of f i ce r epr esent at i ves wher e appr opr i at e; f r om t he ci vi l avi at i on aut hor i t y -
r epr esent at i ves f r om Ai r Tr af f i c Ser vi ces and Aer onaut i cal I nf or mat i on Ser vi ces. The
agenda shoul d i ncl ude:
a) det er mi nat i on of wor ki ng hour s. Si nce t i me i s of t he essence i n
of f - peak const r uct i on, t he cont r act or shoul d be gi ven as much t i me as
possi bl e t o over l ay t he pavement each wor k per i od. A mi ni mum per i od of
88 hour s i s r ecommended. Wor k shoul d be schedul ed f or a t i me per i od
t hat wi l l di spl ace t he l east amount of schedul ed f l i ght s. The sel ect i on
of a speci f i c t i me per i od shoul d be devel oped and co- or di nat ed wi t h
ai r l i ne and ot her r epr esent at i ves dur i ng t he i ni t i al pl anni ng meet i ngs.
Ear l y i dent i f i cat i on of t he hour s wi l l al l ow t he ai r l i nes t o adj ust
f ut ur e schedul es, as needed, t o meet const r uct i on demands. I t i s
essent i al t hat t he r unway be opened and cl osed at t he desi gnat ed t i me
wi t hout except i on, as ai r l i ne f l i ght schedul es, as wel l as t he
cont r act or s schedul es, wi l l be pr edi cat ed on t he avai l abi l i t y of t he
r unway at t he desi gnat ed t i me;
b) i dent i f i cat i on of oper at i onal f act or s dur i ng const r uct i on and
est abl i shment of accept abl e cr i t er i a i ncl ude:
1) desi gnat i on of wor k ar eas;
2) ai r cr af t oper at i ons;
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3- 238 Aerodrome Desi gn Manual
3) af f ect ed navi gat i on ai ds ( vi sual and non- vi sual ai ds) ;
4) securi t y requi rement s and t ruck haul rout es;
5) i nspect i on and requi rement s t o open the area or operat i onal use;
6) pl acement and removal of const ruct i on barri cades;
7) t emporary aerodrome pavement marki ng and si gni ng;
8 ) ant i ci pat ed days of t he week t hat const ruct i on wi l l t ake pl ace; and
9) i ssuance of NOTAM and advi sori es;
c ) l i nes of communi cat i on and co- ordi nat i on el ement s. I t is essent i al t hat
t he proj ect manager be t he onl y person t o conduct co- ordi nat i on of t he
pavement proj ect . The met hods and l i nes of communi cat i on shoul d be
di scussed f or det ermi ni ng t he avai l abi l i t y of t he runway at t he st art of
each work peri od and t he condi t i on of t he runway pri or t o openi ng i t f or
operat i ons;
d) speci al aspect s of const ruct i on i ncl udi ng t emporary ramps and ot her
det ai l s as descri bed herei n; and
e) cont i ngency pl an i n case of abnormal f ai l ure or an unexpect ed di sast er.
8.2.2 Rol e of proj ect manager
8.2.2.1 Proj ect manager. I t i s essent i al t hat t he ai rport aut hori t y sel ect a
qual i f i ed proj ect manager t o oversee al l phases of t he proj ect , f rom pl anni ng t hrough
f i nal i nspect i on of t he compl et ed work. This i ndi vi dual shoul d be experi enced in desi gn
and management of aerodrome pavement const ruct i on proj ect s and be f ami l i ar with t he
operat i on of t he ai rport . The proj ect manager shoul d be t he f i nal aut hori t y on al l
t echni cal aspect s of t he proj ect and be responsi bl e f or i t s co- ordi nat i on wi t h ai rport
operat i ons. Al l cont act wi t h any el ement of t he ai rport aut hori t y shoul d be made only by
t he proj ect manager so as t o ensure cont i nui t y and proper co- ordi nat i on wi t h al l el ement s
of aerodrome operat i ons. Responsi bi l i t i es shoul d i ncl ude:
a) pl anni ng and desi gn:
1) est abl i shment of cl ear and conci se l i nes of communi cat i ons;
2) part i ci pat i on as a member of t he desi gn engi neer' s sel ect i on t eam;
3) co- ordi nat i on of proj ect desi gn t o meet appl i cabl e budget
const rai nt s;
4) co- ordi nat i on of ai rport and ai rl i nes wi t h regards t o desi gn revi ew,
i ncl udi ng desi gnat ed worki ng hours, ai rcraf t operat i onal
requi rement s, t echni cal revi ew and est abl i shment of procedures f or
co- ordi nat i ng al l work; and
5) chai rmanshi p of al l meet i ngs pert ai ni ng, t o t he proj ect ; and
b) const ruct i on:
1) compl et e management of const ruct i on wi t h adequat e number of
i nspect ors t o observe and document work by t he cont ract or;
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I nf or tmt i on Hand1 i ng Servi ces, 2000
Par t 3. - Pavement s 3-2388
2) checki ng wi t h t he weat her bur eau, ai r por t oper at i ons and ai r t r af f i c
cont r ol pr i or t o st ar t i ng const r uct i on and conf i r mi ng wi t h t he
cont r act or ' s super i nt endent t o ver i f y i f weat her and ai r t r af f i c
condi t i ons wi l l al l ow wor k t o pr oceed as schedul ed;
3) conf er r i ng wi t h t he cont r act or ' s pr oj ect super i nt endent dai l y and
agr eei ng on how much wor k t o at t empt , t o ensur e t he openi ng of t he
r unway pr ompt l y at t he speci f i ed t i me each mor ni ng. Thi s i s
especi al l y appl i cabl e i n ar eas wher e pavement r epai r and r epl acement
ar e t o t ake pl ace; and
4) conduct i ng an i nspect i on wi t h ai r por t oper at i ons of t he wor k ar ea
bef or e openi ng i t t o ai r cr af t t r af f i c t o ensur e t hat al l pavement
sur f aces have been swept cl ean, t empor ar y r amps ar e pr oper l y
const r uct ed and mar ki ng i s avai l abl e f or ai r cr af t t o oper at e
saf el y.
8 . 2 . 2 . 2 Resi dent engi neer . The desi gnat i on of a r esi dent engi neer , pr ef er abl y a
ci vi l engi neer , wi l l be of gr eat benef i t t o t he pr oj ect , and of gr eat assi st ance t o t he
pr oj ect manager . Dut i es of t he r esi dent engi neer shoul d i ncl ude:
a) pr epar at i on of document at i on on t he wor k execut ed dur i ng each wor k
per i od;
b) ensur i ng al l t est s ar e per f or med and r esul t s obt ai ned f r om each wor k
per i od;
c) schedul i ng of i nspect i on t o occur each wor k per i od;
d) obser vi ng cont r act speci f i cat i ons compl i ance and r epor t i ng of any
di scr epanci es t o t he pr oj ect manager and t he cont r act or ; and
e) mai nt ai ni ng a const r uct i on di ar y.
8.2.3 Test i ng r equi r ement s
8.2.3.1 Ther e i s no r equi r ement f or addi t i onal t est s f or of f - peak const r uct i on
ver sus convent i onal const r uct i on. The onl y di f f er ence wi t h of f - peak const r uct i on i s t hat
i t r equi r es accept ance t est i ng t o be per f or med at t he compl et i on of each wor k per i od and
pr i or to openi ng t o oper at i ons and r esul t s r evi ewed bef or e begi nni ng wor k agai n. These
pr ocedur es nor mal l y wi l l r equi r e addi t i onal per sonnel t o ensur e t hat t est s ar e per f or med
cor r ect l y and on t i me.
8.2.4 I nspect i on r equi r ement s
8.2.4.1 One of t he most i mpor t ant aspect s of successf ul compl et i on of any ki nd of
pavi ng pr oj ect i s t he amount and qual i t y of i nspect i on per f or med. Si nce t he ai r por t
accept s benef i ci al occupancy each t i me t he r unway i s open t o t r af f i c, accept ance t est i ng
must t ake pl ace each wor k per i od. I n addi t i on t o t he pr oj ect manager and r esi dent
engi neer , t he f ol l owi ng per sonnel ar e r ecommended as a mi ni mum t o obser ve compl i ance wi t h
speci f i cat i ons:
a) Asphal t pl ant i nspect or . A pl ant i nspect or wi t h a hel per whose pr i mar y
dut y i t wi l l be t o per f or m qual i t y cont r ol t est s, i ncl udi ng aggr egat e
gr adat i on, hot bi n sampl es and Mar shal l t est s.
b) Pavi ng i nspect or s. Ther e shoul d be t wo pavi ng i nspect or s wi t h each
pavi ng machi ne. Thei r dut i es shoul d i ncl ude col l ect i on of del i ver y .
t i cket s, checki ng t emper at ur es of del i ver ed mat er i al , i nspect i on of
3l . f 81 89
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3- 238B Aer odr ome Desi gn Manual
gr ade cont r ol met hods, and i nspect i on of asphal t l ay- down t echni ques and
j oi nt const r uct i on smoot hness.
Compact i on i nspect or . The compact i on i nspect or shoul d be r esponsi bl e
f or obser vi ng pr oper sequenci ng of r ol l er s and for wor ki ng wi t h a f i el d
densi t y met er t o pr ovi de t he cont r act or wi t h opt i mum compact i on
i nf or mat i on.
Sur vey cr ew. Fi ni shed gr ade i nf or mat i on f r om each wor k per i od i s
essent i al t o ensur i ng a qual i t y j ob. An i ndependent r egi st er ed sur veyor
and cr ew shoul d r ecor d l evel s of t he compl et ed pavement at i nt er val s of
at l east 8 m l ongi t udi nal l y and 4 q t r ansver sel y, and r epor t t he r esul t s
t o t he pr oj ect manager at t he compl et i on of each wor k per i od.
Pavement r epai r i nspect or . Shal l be r esponsi bl e f or i nspect i on of al l
pavement r epai r s and sur f ace pr epar at i on pr i or t o pavi ng.
El ect r i cal i nspect or . Ensur es compl i ance wi t h speci f i cat i ons.
8. 3 Desi gn consi der at i ons
8. 3. 1 Gener al . Pl ans and speci f i cat i ons f or pavement r epai r and over l ay dur i ng
of f - peak per i ods shoul d be pr esent ed i n such det ai l as t o al l ov r eady det er mi nat i on of t he
l i mi t s of pavement r epai r , f i ni sh gr ades and dept hs of over l ay. Pl ans and speci f i cat i ons
ar e t o be used f or each wor k per i od by t he cont r act or and i nspect i on per sonnel , and shoul d
be cl ear and pr eci se i n ever y det ai l .
8. 3. 2 Pavement sur vey
8. 3. 2. 1 A compl et e syst emof bench mar ks shoul d be set on t he si de of t he r unway or
t axi way t o per mi t a r eady r ef er ence dur i ng cr oss- sect i oni ng oper at i ons. The bench marks
shoul d be set at appr oxi mat el y 125 m i nt er val s. Pavement cr oss- sect i oni ng shoul d be
per f or med at 8 i nt er val s l ongi t udi nal l y, and 4 i nt er val s t r ansver sel y. Ext r eme car e
shoul d be exer ci sed i n l evel oper at i ons, si nce t he el evat i ons ar e to be used i n
det er mi ni ng t he dept h of asphal t over l ay. The desi gner shoul d not consider utilizing
gr ade i nf or mat i on f r om pr evi ous as- bui l t dr awi ngs or sur veys t hat wer e r un dur i ng t he
wi nt er mont hs, as i t has been shohn t hat el evat i ons can var y f r m one season to t he next .
Thi s i s especi al l y cr i t i cal for si ngl e l i f t asphal t over l ays.
8. 3. 2. 2 Af t er f i ni sh gr ades and t r ansver se sl ope of t he r unway ar e det er mi ned, a
t abul at i on of gr ades shoul d be i ncl uded i n t he pl ans f or t he cont r act or t o use i n bi ddi ng
t he pr oj ect and f or est abl i shment of er ect ed st r i ngl i ne. The t abul at i on of gr ades shoul d
i ncl ude a col umn showi ng exi st i ng r unway el evat i on, a col umn showi ng f i ni sh over l ay gr ade,
and a col umn showi ng dept h of over l ay. Gr ades shoul d be shown l ongi t udi nal l y ever y 8 m
and t r ansver sel y ever y 4 m. This i t em i s consi der ed essent i al i n t he pr epar at i on of pl ans
f or cont r act i ng of f - peak const r uct i on.
8. 3. 3 Speci al det ai l s
8. 3. 3. 1 Det ai l s per t ai ni ng t o t he f ol l owi ng i t ems shoul d be i ncl uded i n t he pl ans:
a) Tempor ar y r amps. At t he end of each hot mi x asphal t concr et e over l ay
wor k per i od, i t wi l l be necessar y t o const r uct a r amp t o pr ovi de a
t r ansi t i on f r om t he new cour se of over l ay t o t he exi st i ng pavement . The
onl y except i on to const r uct i on of a r amp i s when t he dept h of t he
over l ay is 4 cm or l ess. I n mul t i pl e l i f t over l ays, t hese t r ansi t i ons
shoul d be not cl oser t han 150 q t o one anot her . As f ar as possi bl e, t he
over l ay shoul d pr oceed f r om one end of t he r unway t owar d t he ot her end
i n t he same di r ect i on as pr edomi nant ai r cr af t oper at i ons so t hat most
ai r cr af t encount er a downwar d r amp sl ope. I n t he event of cont i nued
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ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** m 4843436 0039bL7 3T3 m
part 3. - Pavements 3-2386
t--
T x 100 cm to 125 cm
Transi ti on
4
Overlay T
I
2 X A
I Heel Cut
Exi s ti ne grade l i ne
.~
T =Thickness of overl ay (i n cm)
I l l ustrati on a)
2nd ni ght overl ay + + 1st ni ght overl ay
Heel Cut I
4
i 7-
2 X A her l ay 1 T
Transi ti on to remain Exi sti ng grade l i ne/
i n pl ace A =M a x i m si ze of aggregate
I l l ustrati on b )
Figure 8-1. Temporary ramp construction with cold planing machine
t-
T x 100 cm to 125 cm
Remove enti re
transi ti on pri or 1
to start of-work I
4
T
- / -,- f
.
\
Rake out l arge stone
and compact edge T Thickness of overlay (in cm)
Figure 8-2. Temporary ramp constructi on without cold planing machine
31/8/89
No. 2
3-238D Aerodrome Desi gn Manual
operat i onal change of di rect i on, i t woul d be advant ageous f or t he
overl ayi ng t o proceed upgrade si nce an upgrade ramp i s short er and
avoi ds l ong t hi n t apers. The const ruct i on of t he ramp i s one of t he
most i mport ant f eat ures i n t he work peri od. A ramp t hat i s t oo st eep
coul d cause possi bl e st ruct ural damage t o t he operat i ng ai rcraf t or
mal f unct i on of t he ai rcraf t ' s i nst rument s. A ramp t hat is t oo l ong may
resul t i n a ravel l i ng of t he pavement , and f orei gn obj ect damage t o
ai rcraf t engi nes, as wel l as t aki ng excessi ve t i me t o const ruct . The
l ongi t udi nal sl ope of t he t emporary ramp shal l be bet ween 0 . 8 and 1. 0
per cent , measured wi t h ref erence t o t he exi st i ng runway surf ace or
previ ous overl ay cour se. The ent i re wi dt h of t he runway shoul d normal l y
be overl ai d duri ng each work sessi on. Except i onal ci rcumst ances,
e. g. adverse weat her condi t i ons, equi pment f ai l ure, et c. may not permi t
t he overl ayi ng of t he f ul l runway wi dt h duri ng a work sessi on. Shoul d
t hat be t he case, t he edges need t o be merged wi t h t he ol d pavement
surf ace t o avoi d a sudden l evel change i n t he event an ai rcraf t veers
of f t he overl ai d port i on. The maxi mum t ransverse sl ope of t he t emporary
ramp shoul d not exceed 2 per cent . A t emporary ramp may be const ruct ed
i n t wo ways, dependi ng upon t he t ype of equi pment t hat i s avai l abl e.
The most ef f i ci ent way i s t o ut i l i ze a col d pl ani ng machi ne t o heel - cut
t he pavement at t he begi nni ng and at t he end of t he work peri od overl ay
( ref er t o Fi gure 8-1). I f col d pl ani ng equi pment i s not avai l abl e, t hen
a t emporary ramp shoul d be const ruct ed as shown i n Fi gure 8-2. I n no
case shoul d a bond- breaki ng l ayer be pl aced under t he ramp f or easy
removal duri ng t he next work peri od. Experi ence has shown t hat t hi s
bond- breaki ng l ayer al most al ways comes l oose causi ng subsequent
breaki ng- up of t he pavement under ai rcraf t operat i ons.
b) I n- pavement l i ght i ng. Det ai l s depi ct i ng t he removal and re- i nst al l at i on
of i n- pavement l i ght i ng are t o be i ncl uded on t he pl ans where
appl i cabl e. The det ai l s shoul d depi ct t he removal of t he l i ght f i xt ure
and ext ensi on ri ng, pl acement of a t arget pl at e over t he l i ght base,
f i l l i ng t he hol e wi t h hot mi x dense graded asphal t unt i l overl ay
operat i ons are compl et e, accurat e survey l ocat i on i nf ormat i on, core
dri l l i ng wi t h a 10 cm core to l ocat e t he cent re of t he t arget pl at e, and
f i nal cori ng wi t h an appropri at e si zed core machi ne. The l i ght and new
ext ensi on ri ng can t hen be i nst al l ed t o t he proper el evat i on.
c) Runway marki ngs. Duri ng t he course of of f - peak const ruct i on of a runway
overl ay, i t has been f ound accept abl e, if properl y covered by a NOTAH,
t o mark onl y t he cent re l i ne st ri pes and t he runway desi gnat i on numbers
on t he new pavement unt i l t he f i nal asphal t l i f t has been compl et ed and
f i nal st ri pi ng can t hen be perf ormed. I n some cases where col d pl ani ng
of t he surf ace or mul t i pl e l i f t overl ays are used, RS many as t hree
consecut i ve cent re l i ne st ri pes may be omi t t ed t o enhance t he bond
bet ween l ayers.
31/8/89
No. 2
APPENDIX 1
AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTrCS AFFECTING PAVEMENT BEARING STRENGTH
1. General
1.1 Thi s Appendi x descri bes those characteri sti cs of ai rcraft whi ch affect
pavement strength desi gn, namel y: ai rcraft wei ght, percentage l oad on nose wheel,
wheel arrangement, mi n l eg l oad, tire pressure and contact area of each tire.
Tabl e Al-1 contai ns these data for most of the commonly used ai rcraf t.
1.2 Ai rcraf t l oads are transmi tted to the pavement through the landing gear
whi ch normal l y consi sts of two main l egs and an auxi l i ary l eg, the latter bei ng ei ther
near the nose (now the most frequent arrangement) or near the tai l (ol der system).
1.3 The porti on of the l oad i mposed by each l eg wi l l depend on the posi ti on
of the centre of gravi ty wi th ref erence to the three supporti ng poi nts. The stati c
di stri buti on of the l oad by the di f f erent l egs of a common tri cycl e l andi ng gear may
be i l l ustrated as fol l ows:
A
t:
L1 CG 9 L2
r .
1)
Where W i s the ai rcraf t wei ght; P1 the l oad transmi tted by the auxi l i ary l eg; 9 the
l oad transmi tted by both mai n l egs; L 1 and L2 the di stance measured al ong the pl ane
of symmetry from the centre of gravi ty to P1 and P2 respecti vel y, then
L1
Theref ore P2 =P I
2
3-239
3-240 Aerodrome Design Manual
1.4 Usual l y the rati o Ll / L2 i s around 9, i .e. the auxi l i ary l eg accounts
for approxi matel y 10 per cent of the ai rcraft gross wei ght. Therefore, each main
l eg imposes a l oad equal to about 45 per cent of that wei ght. Wheel base and track
wi dth have not been i ncl uded, si nce these di mensi ons are such that there is no
possi bi l i ty of i nteracti on of the stresses imposed by the di f f erent l egs of the
l andi ng gear.
1.5 From the above consi derati ons, it wi l l be seen that the characteri sti cs
of each main l eg provi de suf f i ci ent i nf ormati on f or assessi ng pavement strength
requi rements. Accordi ngl y, the tabl e confi nes i tsel f to provi di ng data thereon.
136 The l oad supported by each l eg is transmi tted to the pavement by one
or several . rubber-ti red wheel s. The following wheel arrangements wi l l be found on
the main l egs o f l andi ng gear of ci vi l ai rcraf t at present i n service.
0
Single Dud
1. 7 For pavement desi gn and eval uati on purposes the fdl owi ng wheel spaci ngs
are si gni f i cant, and theref ore l i sted i n the tabl e.
S - di stance between centres of contact areas of dual wheel s
ST - di stance between axis of tandem wheels
SD - di stance between centres of contact areas of di agonal wheel s and
i s gi ven by the expressi on
=J?s +ST>
2 2
Tire pressures gi ven are i nternal , or i nf l ati on pressures.
1.8 It shoul d'be noted that throughout the tabl e fi gures refer to the
ai rcraf t at its maximum take-off weight. For lesser operati onal wei ghts, fi gures
quoted for "l oad on each l eg'', "ti re-pressure" and/or "contact area" should be
decreased proporti onal l y.
31/8/89
No. 2
ICAO 9157 PARTS3 f t 4A414Lb 0037623 824
Part 3.- Pavements 3-241
C9M
D
DT
P
R
S
SD
ST
T
kg
MPa
cm
L i st of abbrevi ati ons used in Table Al-1
- Complex
- D u d
- Dual tandem
- Front
- Rear
- Distance between centres of contact areas of dual wheels
- Distance between centres of contact areas of diagonal wheels
- Distance between axi s of tandem wheels
- Tandem
- Kilogram
- Megapascal
- Centimetre
Note on uni ts
Thi s tabl e has been prepared i n metric uni ts. To convert from kilogram to newton
mul ti pl y by 9.80665.
31/8/89
No. 2
Table Al-1.- Aircraft characteristics for design and evaluation of pavements
A300 B2
Airbus
137 000
A300 B2
Airbus
A300 R4
Airbus
A300 B4
Airbus
A300 R4
Airbus
A30&600
Airbus
A300-600R
Airbus
A300-600R
Airbus
A310-200
Airbus
A310-200
Airbus
A310-200
Airbus
A310-300
Airbus
A310-300
Airbus
142 000
150 000
157 000
165 000
165 000
170 000
171 700
132 000
138 600
142 000
150 000
157 000
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.4
47.4
46.7
46. 7
46.7
47.0
47.4
DT
DT
PT
DT
PT
PT
DT
DT
DT
nT
PT
DT
DT
64 390
66 740
70 500
73 790
77 550
77 550
80 580
81 390
61 1640
64 730
66 310
70 500
74 42n
1.2
1.23
1.39
I .48
1.29
1.29
1.35
1.35
1.23
1.3
1. 33
I . 42
1.43
89
8P
93
93
93
93
93
03
93
93
93
93
93
165.9
165.9
168.1
168.1
I6P. 1
168.1
168. I
16P. 1
16e.1
168. I
IhP.1
1fie.1
168.1
A320-100
Ai rbus
Dual
A320-100
Ai rbus
Dual
A320-100
Ai rbus
Dual tandem
A320-200
Ai rbus
Dual
A320-20Q
Ai rbus
Dual Tandem
BAC 1-11
Seri es 400
BAC 1-11
Seri es 475
BAC 1-11
Seri es 500
BAe 146
Seri es 100
BAe 146
Seri es 200
B707-120B
B707-320B
B707-320C
Frei ghter
66 000 47.1 D 31 090 1.28 93 - -
68 000 47.1 D 32 030 1.34 93 - -
68 000 47.1 DT 32 030 1.12 78 100 126.8 Opti on
73 500 47.0 D 34 550 1.45 93 - -
73 500 47 .O DT 34 550 1.21 78 100 126.8 Opti on
39 690
44 679
47 400
37 308
40 600
117 027
148 778
152 407
47.5
47.5
47.5
46.0
47.1
46.7
46 .O
46.7
D
D
D
D
D
DT
DT
DT
18 853
21 223
22 515
17 162
19 123
54 652
68 438
71 174
0.93 53 -
-
0.57 62 -
-
1.08 53 - -
0. 80/ 0. 52 71 - -
0. 88/ 0. 61 71 - -
1.17 86 142 166.0
1.24 88 142 167.1
1.24 88 142 167. 1
152 407
143 335
104' 326
106 594
73 028
77 110
78 471
84 005
86 636
89 675
95 254
44 361
45 722
52 616
52 616
53 297
56 699
46.7
46.0
47.4
46.4
47.8
47.6
48.5
48.0
47.7
46.9
46.5
46.2
45.4
45.5
45.5
46.4
46.3
DT
DT
DT
DT
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
71 174
65 934
49 451
49 460
34 907
36 704
38 058
40 322
41 325
42 058
44 293
20 495
21 215
23 940
23 940
24 730
26 252
1.24
1.24
1 .oo
1 .oo
1.09
1.14
1.15
1 .02
1.06
1.15
1.19
0.95
0.97
1 .I4
0.66
1.16
1.23
88
88
81
81
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
78
78
78
78
78
78
B737-200 58 332
Advanced
B737-300 61 462
B737-300 61 462
B737-400 64 864
B737-500* 60 181
B747-100 323 410
8747-100B 334 749
(Passenger)
8747.-lQOB 341 553
B747-100B 260 362
SR
B747-SF 302 093
B747-SP 318 881
B747-200B 352 893
46.0
45.9
45.9
46.9
46.1
23.4
23.1
23.1
24.1
22.9
21.9
23.6
D
D
D
D
D
COM
COM
COM
COM
COM
COM
CON '
26 833
28 211
28 211
30 421
28 020
75 678
77 327
78 899
62 747
69 179
69 835
83 283
1.25
1.34
1.14
1.44
1.34
1.50
1.56
1.32
1.04
1.30
1.40
1.37
78
78
78
78
78
112
112
112
112
110
110
112
-
-
-
-
-
147
147
147
147
137
137
147
-
-
-
-
-
184.8
184.8
184.8
184.8
175.7
175.7
184.8
Main U/ C - 4 No. DT uni ts
di stri buti on
Data hased on equal l aad
Main U/ C - 4 No, DT uni ts
Data based TI equal l oad
di stri buti on
Main U/ C - 4 No, DT uni ts
Data hased on equal l oad
di stri buti on
Main U/ C - 4 No. PT uni ts
nata hased on equal l oad
di stri buti on
Main U/C - 4 No. DT uni ts
Data based on equal l oad
di stri buti on
Main U/ C - 4 No. DT uni ts
Data based on equal l oad
di stri buti on
Main U/ C - 4 No. DT uni ts
Data based on equal l oad
di stri buti on
42 "Prel i mi nary i nformati on,
B747-200C
B747-400
B757-200
B767-200
B767-200-ER
8767-300
B767-3UO-ER
8767-300-EK
Carnvclle 10
Cnruvelle 12
Concordc
Canndair
CI, 44
cv a00 M
cv 990
DC-3
23.1
23.2
23.4
45.2
46.1
46.9
47.5
40. 9
4 6 . 0
h6. 1
46
48.0
47.5
46.6
48.5
46.8
86 233
87 975
92 661
49 411
66 431
74 925
75 841
R1 052
R5 339
23 966
25 743
88 803
45 461.
40 901
S6 098
5 349
1.30
1.39
1.41
1.17
1.31
1.21
I .21
1.31
1.38
F0.75
R1.I7
Ff l . 69
R1 .flP
1 . 2h
1.12
1.03
1.18
0.31
z 12
111
112
86
114
114
1,14
114
114
R413
F45
n a
R4 1
68
F51
R7ri
55
til
-
184.8
184.8
184.8
142.8
l F2.1
183.1
182.1
182.1
182.1
11.5.1
114.1
180.3
137.5
126.6
1. 3:? . H
-
Main U/C - 4 No. DT uni ts
Dntn based on equal. load
di stri buti on
Main U/C - 4 No. I)T uni ts
nata hased on equel load
di stri buti on
P3in IT/C - 4 No. DT uni ts
Data based on equal load
di stri buti on
1
DC- 4
DC- 8- 43
DC- 8- 55
DC- 8- 61/ 71
DC- 8- 62/ 72
DC- 8- 63173
DC- 9- 15
DC- 9- 21
DC- 9- 32
DC- 9- 41
DC- 9- 51
MD- 81
MD- 82 188
MD- 83
MD- 87
DC- 10- 10
DC- 10- 10
DC- 10- 15
DC- 10- 30140
33 113
144 242
148 778
148 778
160 121
162 386
41 504
45 813
49 442
52 163
55 338
63 957
68 266
73 023
68 266
200 942
196 406
207 746
268 981
253 105
46. 8 D
46. 5 DT
47 .O DT
48 .O DT
46. 5 DT
47. 6 DT
46. 2 D
47. 2 D
46. 2 D
46. 7 D
47 .O D
47. 8 D
47. 6 D
47. 4 n
47. 4 D
46. 9 DT
47. 2 DT
46. 7 DT
37. 9 COM
37. 7 COM
15 480
67 073
69 926
71 413
76 858
77 296
19 175
21 624
22 842
24 334
26 009
30 539
32 460
34 613
32 358
94 141
92 605
96 914
101 944
95 421
0. 53
1. 22
1. 28
1. 30
1. 29
1. 30
0. 90
0. 98
1. 07
1.10
1. 17
1. 17
1. 27
1. 34
1. 17
1. 31
1. 28
1. 34
1. 24
1. 17
74
76
76
76
81
81
61
64
64
66
66
71
71
71
71
137
137
137
137
137
-
140
140
140
140
140
-
-
-
-
I
-
-
-
-
163
163
163
163
163
-
159. 3
159. 3
159. 3
161. 7
161. 7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
212. 9
212. 9
212. 9
212. 9
212. 9
Loading based on wing DT.
Main U/C includes central D.
Loading based on wing DT.
Main U/ C includes central D.
Loading based on wing DT.
Main [T/ Cincludes central D.
260 816
274 650
19 867
19 777
20 820
20 820
29 484
29 484
44 680
10 600
1 3 340
21 092
162 600
168 000
171 000
211 500
37.6
39.2
46.8
47.5
47.8
47.8
46.3
46.3
47.8
45.5
45.5
43.6
47.0
47.0
23.5
31.2
COM
COM
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
DT
DT
COM
COM
98 069
107 663
9 228
9 394
9 952
9 952
13 651
13 651
21 357
4 824
5 160
9 196
76 910
79 460
38 730
64 390
1.21
1.41.
0.74
0.54
0.59/
0.55
0.42
0.58
0.69
0.98
0.77
0.83
0.59
1.08
1.08
0.59
0.88
137
I37
42
45
52
52
58
55
59
32
32
48
80
80
-
125
Loading based on wing DT.
Main U/C i ncl udes cent ral D.
Loading based on wing DT.
Main [[/I: i ncl udes cent ral n.
-I s1 I-
I@ 88
I# I#
S 62
S1 144
Main V/C 3 DT uni t s
-I I-
S
.. - . . - ,
MAIN LEGS OF LANDING GFAR
Load on
All-up oqc main . Load on 'fire
maRR gear 1% ea& leg pressure Wheel spacing (cm)
Wheel Addi ti onal data f or complex
Aircraft type (kg) ( X ) arrangemeqp (kg 1 ( ma) (s) (ST) (SD) wheel arrangement
. . . . .
-
L-100-20
L-100-30
L1011-1
L-loll-lao/2oo
L-1011-500
Trident 1E
Trident 2E
Trident 3
TU134A
TU154B
VC10-1150
70 670
70 670
195 952
212 281
225 889
61 160
65 998
68 266
49 000
98 000
151 953
48.2
48,4
k7,A
46,8
46.2
46.0
47.0
45.5
45,6
45.1
48.3
T
T
DT
DT
DT
CON
COM
COP
DT
COM
DT
17 031
17 102
92 881
99 348
104 361
28 196
31 019
31 095
22 690
44 198
73 317
0.72
-
0.72
-
1,33 132
1.21 132
1.27 132
1.03
-
1.07
-
1.14
c
0.83 56
0.93 62
1.01 86
154
154
178
178
178
-
-
-
99
F103
R 98
155
-
-
221.6
221.6
221.6
-
-
-
113.7
223.6
177.3
Main wheeJs arranged i n
tandem on four separate
legs.
Maln wheels arranged i n
tandem on four separate
l egs.
'7 I I
IN
ICAO 7357 PA RT* 3 t f = 484143b 00396313 837 =
AP P ENDI X 2
PROCEDURES FOR DETERMI NI NG THE AI RCRAFT
. CL AS S I F I CATI ON NUMBER OF AN AI RCRAFT
1. Rigid pavements
1.1 The ACN of an ai rcraf t f or operati ons on a ri gi d pavement shal l be
determi ned usi ng Computer Programme No. 1.
m. - Computer LPtmpamnz Eo. 1 i s based on programre PDILB developed by
Mr. R.G. Packard of Portland Cement Association, IZZino-is, United States, for dgsign of
r i g i d pavements. For convenimce, severai! ai rcraf t t ypes currentZy i n use have been
evaluated on ~ g i d pavements fovndgd 071 the four strbgradg categories at Annex 14,
Chapter 2, 2.5.6 b) and the results tabulated in Attachment E, Table 15-1 of t hat Annex
and Table Ab-1 of Appendix 5 of t hi s l d a n m l .
2. Fl exi bl e pavements
2.1 The ACN of an ai rcraf t f or operati ons on a f l exi bl e pavement shal l be
determi ned usi ng Computer Programme No. 2.
?ate.- Computer Programme No. 2 i s based OH. the United States Amny
Engineer's CBR method of design of f l exi bl e pavements (see United States A- my Engineer
Watermays Experiment Stcfiion Inst ruct i on Report 5-77-21. For convenience, =vera2
aircraft types currentZy i n use h u e been evatuated on fZe3cibI.e pavements founckd on
the four subgz.ade categories a t Annex 14, Chapter 2, 2.5.5 b) and the results tabulated
i n Attachment B, TabZe B-1 of t hat Annex and TabZe A5-1 of Appendix 5 of t hi s I d a n u a Z .
3-251
I C A O 9157 PART* 3 ** = YBY5Lthb 0039635 773 m
3-252 Aerodrome Design Manual
Computer Programme No. 1
The purpose of these i nstructi ons i s to provi de the i nformati on needed for
operati ng the computer programme.
Abstract
Descri pti on. Thi s programme determi nes fl exural stresses in a concrete
pavement for ai rcraft gear l oads, the requi red concrete thi ckness far the i nput subgrade
and 2.75 MPa concrete stress and ACNs of ai rcraf t. It is based on Westergaard's anal ysi s
f or l oads at the i nteri or of a pavement sl ab supported by a dense l i qui d sub-base. Loads
are assumed to be uni forml y di stri buted on el l i pti cal shapes representi ng tire contact
areas.
The programe i s operated i n one of the fol l owi ng modes*:
Mode 2. Pavement eval uati on - For an exi sti ng pavement, thickness and
subgrade strength known, the programme gi ves the maximum stress
f or the speci fi ed l oadi ng condi ti on. This node is used by the
desi gner to determi ne i f an exi sti ng pavement is structural l y
adequate for operati on of a parti cul ar ai rcraf t.
Mode 5. I f Mode 5 is i nput, the programme iterates to f i nd the requi red
concrete thi ckness for the i nput subgrade and 2.75 MPa concrete
stress.
Mode 6 . I f Mode 6 is i nput, the programme iterates to find the requi red
thi ckness f or the standard ACN/PCN subgrade categori es and the
standard concrete stress of 2.75 "Pa, pl us the ACN val ues f or
the standard subgrade categori es.
Speci fi cati ons
Language : I BM 1130 Monitor FORTRAN.
Equipment : I BM 1130 (1131 CPU, 8R, wi th DISK), 1442
Programme type: Mai nl i ne programs (PDILE) and four
Card Read Punch, 1132 Pri nter (opti onal )
sub-routi nes (I NMAX, PARAB, CN7G and CACN).
I nput
I nput cards for each of the three modes are punched as shown i n Fi gure A2-1
and sample inputs are shown on page 3-257.
Co-ordinates of wheels. I n a l l of the i nput formats, X-Y co-ordi nates of
wheel centres are used to speci fy wheel spaci ngs, wi th the X-di recti on i ndi cati ng the
l ongi tudi nal axi s of the ai rcraft.** Thi s means that spacing between dual wheels is
speci f i ed as a Y-dimension and spacing between tandem wheels is speci fi ed as an
X-dimens i on.
* See Reference 4 f or use of ?lodes 1, 3 and 4 .
** Thi s conventi on must be fol l owed i n al l modes of operati on si nce the computer
programme i ni ti al l y ori ents the maj or axis of each contact area el l i pse i n the
X-direction.
25/10/85
No. 1
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 t t = 4843436 0039632 bOT
Part 3.- Pavements 3-253
The fol l owi ng consi derati on is al so i mportant i n speci fyi ng the wheel
co-ordi nates. The parti cul ar wheel i n the gear that i s j udged cl osest to the l ocati on
of maximum stress is desi gnated as Wheel 1 and i ts co-ordi nates are set at X =0.00,
Y =0.00. The other wheel s are numbered as desi red and thei r X-Y co-ordi nates are
speci f i ed correspondi ng to thei r posi ti on relative to Wheel 1. Sketches 1 and 2 of
Fi gure A2-2 i l l ustrate the posi ti ons and wheel co-ordi nates for dual wheel gear and
f or dual-tandem gear. Sketches 3, 4 and 5 of the same f i gure show the sel ecti on of
Wheel 1 f or more complex gear confi gurati ons. Of the two most closely spaced wheels
i n a-compl ex confi gurati on, the wheel cl osest to the gear centre i s usual l y sel ected
as Wheel l.*
output
Sample resul ts f or each of the modes are gi ven on pages 3-258 to 3-260.
The f i rst part of the output, down to and i ncl udi ng MODE, represents a reproducti on of
the i nput data. The remai ni ng data are the resul ts of computations and are di scussed
separatel y accordi ng to mode i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
Mode 2. I n thi s mode, F-values and COUNT are pri nted for each wheel and
are total l ed. These val ues are rel ated to stress and bending moment as fol l ows:
(Bending moment)
(Contact pressure)
Ft =
10 000 x (F)
CoUNTtt =
(Rad. rel. sti f f . )Z
STRESS =
6 x (Bending moment) - 6 x (F) x (Contact pressure)
(Thi ckness)Z
-
(Thi ckness)Z
CODES 0 , 1 and 2 i ndi cate, respecti vel y, whether i ndi vi dual wheel s are
i nsi de, parti al l y outsi de, or compl etel y outsi de the programme's zone of i nfl uence
(radi us of 311).
A t the end of the pri nt-out, maximumstress and the l ocati on and di recti on
(XMAX, YMAX and MAX. ANGLE) of maximumstress are l i sted.
Mode 5. Thi s output i s similar to that of Mode 2 wi th the addi ti on of
number of i terati ons.
Mode 6. Thi s output is similar to that of Mode 5 except that cal cul ated
val ues are repeated for each subgrade, and the ACN val ues are added.
* Concei vabl y, for an unusual gear confi gurati on wi th a number of closely spaced
wheel s, separate computer runs wi th di fferent wheel s speci fi ed as Wheel 1 might
be requi red.
I- The f actor, F, is used to conveni entl y express a measure of the rel ati ve bendi ng
moment i ndependent of contact pressure.
comparing COUNT agai nst the number of i nfl uence bl ocks counted on Pi ckett and
Ray's I nfluence Chart No. 2.
I-? COUNT i s l i sted so that the user can veri f y computer resul ts. Thi s i s done by
25/10/85
No. 1
ICAO 9157 PARTs3 ** U 4Brllr4Lb 0059633 5r l b
3-254 A erodrm Design Manual
Programme L i sti ng
A l l Fortran programme statements are l i sted starti ng on page 3-261.
Limitat i ons
A l l contact areas are assi gned equal size, shape and contact pressure.
Analysis of a set of contact i mpri nts wi th di fferent shapes, areas or pressures wi thi n
the set would requi re a modi fi cati on of the programme.
The programme computes stresses f or the contact areas, or porti ons thereof,
that are wi thi n a radi us of 3a cm from the sel ected reference Wheel 1. For contact
areas outsi de thi s bound, the stress i s set to zero.
References:
1. Pi cket t , Gerald and Ray, Gordon K., I?a37!ue~e C = h c ~ ~ k f o i a Concz.e te _Pdt'ernent~,
American Soci ety of Ci vi l Engi neers Tramaoti-om, Paper No. 2425, Vol. 115,
1951, pp. 49-73.
2 . Dzsigz of Concrete Aiz+Ejoz>t Pavement, Portl and Cement Associ ati on, Chi cago, I l l i noi s.
3. Pi ckett, Geral d; Ravi l l e, Mi l ton E.; J anes, William C.; and McCormick, Frank J.,
LkflecCiona, M~merats and Reactive Bescmec foil Ccmcrete avrrncnt sJ Kansas State
Col l ege Bul l eti n No. 65, Oct. 1951.
4 . Packard, Robert: G., Computer Program for? Airport Puverw?2t E ~ s i p , Portl and Cement
Association, Chicago, I l l i noi s.
25/10/85
No. 1 .
I C A O 9157 PA RT* 3 ** Y 84141b 0019634 482
Part 3. - Pavements 3-255
f
CARD 1
I
6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
I I I I I - I I I I I I I I I I I I
CARD 2
ISI I
I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 I7 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
I
8
Sr
AIRCRAFT GEAR AIRCRAFT MASS
!$
TIRE PRESSURE PERCENT MASS ON NUMBER OF
(kPa) MAIN GEAR LEGS MAI N GEAR LEGS
CARD 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11112 13114 15116117118119 20 21 22 23 24 25126 27 1129 +I 321331u 35 36 3713 39b4142b 44 45 4447 48 491451 5453 54 55
B - 7 9 7 M A I W 0 9 I I 13152 8 4 3 I 1 113 ?l al * 9 54.y. I I I I Y *
COORDINATES OF WHEEL SO
X Y
I CARD FOR EACH WHEEL
(UP TO 20 WHEELS) I
I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 70 71 72173 74175 76 77 78 79
SUBGRADE
SLAB
THICKNESS
k
LAST CARD
I I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425262728293031 0 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
I I
Notes: 1. Number of problems.
2. Optional output; use 1 for typewriter, 3 for line printer.
3. Desired mode of operation.
4. Total number of wheels in gear@) being analyzed. (Use column 14 if less than 10 wheels.)
5. X- and Y-coordinates of wheel centers. X-direction indicates longitudinal axis of aircraft; e.g. dual wheel spacing is Y-dimension,
tandem spacing is X-dimension.
Fi gure A2-1. Input Form f or Modes 2 , 5 and 6
25/10/85
ao. 1
3-256 Aerodrome Design Manual
o.0o:o.oo
x
Sketch 3
25/10/85 '
No. 1
0.0 0; 0.00 172.72 I O . 0 0
X
I Y
Sketch 4
0
0
Sketch 5
0
0
0
4
0
Figure A2-2. Wheel Co-ordinates and Selection of Wheel 1
Part 3. - Pavements 3-257
SAMPLE INPUTS
Mode 2
3 : 3
2
8-747 MAIN04 352893. 1370.
0.00 0,oo
0.00 111.76
147.32 0.00
147-32 111-76
80.00 30.48
Mode 5
5
8-747 MAIN04 352893. 1370.
0.00 0.00
0,OO 1 1 1-76
147.32 0.00
t47.32 111.76
80,OO 30.48
94 -4 4.
Mode 6
6
3-747 MAIN04 352893, 1370- . 94.4 4.
0.50 0.00
0.00 1 1 1.76
147.32 0.00-
147.32 111.76
80.90 30.48
. . ._ _ ..~ . -
94.4
25/10/85
No. 1
I
I C A O 9557 PARTS3 ** YClYLLiLb 0059b37 595
3-258 Aerodrome Design Manual
SAMPLE OUTPUTS
A IRCXFT GZAR- NO. O F WHL S . CONTACT ARE A CONTACT P RE S S URE
0- 747 M A I N 4 1491- 64 1. 37
C OOR DI NAT E S OF WHLS.
NO. X Y
1 0.00 0. 00
r 0.00 1 1 1.76-
3 147. 32 0. 00
4 147. 32 111. 76
--
MODE K S UBBAS E S UBGR ADE P AVE ME NT T HI C K i J E S S
2 80. 00 30 .4
WHL, NO. 1 F 44. 4532 CODE 0 COUNT 318. 4
WHL. NO. 3 F 3, 0917 CODE 0 COUNT 22- 1
T OT A L F 52. 3457 T OT AL C OUNT 375- 0
WHL. NO. 2 F 1. 3062 CODE 0 COUNT 9.4
UHL. NO. 4 F 3. 4945 CODE 0 COUNT 25.0
XMAX -0.4 Y MAX - 0. 5 PIAX. ANGL E 57. 6
MAX S T R E S S 3. 0
AI R C R AF T GE AR NO. O F WHLS. CONTACT ARE A CONTACT P RE S S URE
0-?47 M A I N 4 1491. 64 1. 37
C OOR DI NAT E S OF lJ HLS,
N 0, X Y
1 0.00 0. 00
2 0.00 1 1 1 - 7 6
3 '~ 147. 32 0. 00
4 1 4 7 - 3 2 111. 76
WO DE K S UBBAS E S UBGR ADE P AVE ME NT T HI C K NE S S
5 80.00 32.6
RAD. RE L . S TI F F , 9 9 - 9 1
WHL. NO. 1 F 45. 5237 CODE 0 COUNT 294.2
WHL. NO. 2 F 1. 8989 CODE 0 COUNT 1 2 - 3
WHC. NO. 4 F 4. 0273 CODE 0 COUNT 26.0
WHL. NO. 3 F 3. 6762 CODE 0 COUNT 2 3 - 8
T OT AL F 55, 1260 T OT AL C OUNT 356- 3
XMAX - 0. 5 Y MAX -0.5 MAX. ANGL E 57. 7
MAX. S TRE S S 2.8 I T E R A T I O N S 8
25/10/85
No. 1
ICAO 7357 PA RT* 3 ** = 484143b 0017638 028
Part 3. - Pavements 3-259
AI R C R AF T GE AR NO, OF WHLS. CONTACT A RE A CONTACT P RE S S URE
8 - 7 4 7 MA I N 4 1491 - 64
C OOR DI NAT E S OF WHL S.
NO. X Y
1 0. 00 0,oo
2 0. 00 111. 76
3 , 1 4 7 . 3 2 0.00
4 1 4 7 . 3 2 1 1 1 - 7 6
MODE K SUBBASE S UBGRADE P AVE ME NT- THICKNESS
6 20. 00 41- 6
RAD, RE L. S TI F F . 170. 49
WHL, NO. 1 F 5 6 , 6 4 4 0 CODE
0 c- I! LJ !.I
WHL. NO. 2 F 9, 8882 CODE 0 C 0 UNT
WHL. NO. 3 F 1 1 . 6 2 1 4 CODE 0 C 0 UNT
WHL. NO. 4 F 1 1 , 4 9 3 5 CODE 0 COUNT
T OT A L F 8 9 , 6 4 7 2 T OT AL C OUNT
XMAX - 1. 2 Y MAX - 0 . 9 MAX. ANGL E
5 8 . 2 . .~.
M A X . S T R E S S 2. 8 I T E R A T I O N S 7
1. 37
13-53-7-
2 1 -9
25. 8
25, s
199. 0
ACN 7 3 , 6
1
I I
MODE K S UBBAS E S UBGR ADE P AVE ME NT T HI C K NE S S
6 40. 00 37. 3
RAD. RE L . S TI F F . 1 3 2 - 0 7
WHL. NO. 1 F 51. 3276 CODE 0 COUNT 1 8 9 - 8
WHL. NO. 2 F 5. 7093 CODE 0 COUNT 21.1
WHL. NO. 3 F 7 , 4 5 5 4 CODE 0 COUNT^ 27. 6
WHL. NO, 4 F 7 . 5 3 3 0 CODE 0 COUNT 2 7 - 9
T OT AL F 72. 0253 T OT AL C OUNT 266- 4
XMAX - 0 . 9 Y MAX -0.7 MAX. ANGLE 5 8 . 0
MAX. S TRE S S 2. 8 I T E R A T I O N S 4 A C N- 64- 1
25/10/85
No. 1
ICAO 3LS7 PART* 3 ** 48414Lb 00Lqb33 Tb4 W
3-260 Aerodrome Design Manual
HO DE K S UBBAS E S UBGR ADE P AVE ME NT T HI C K NE S S
6 80.00 32.7
R AD. R E L . S T I F F . 100.80
WHL. NO. 1 F
45,7074 CODE 0 C 0 UNT
WHl. NO. 2 F 2.0044 CODE 0 COUNT
WHC. NO, 4 F
4.1225 CODE 0 co UNT
WHL. NO. 3 F 3.7804 CODE 0 COUNT
~~ T OT AL F 55.6147 T OT AL C OUNT
XMAX -0.5 Y MAX -0.6 MAX. ANGL E 57.7
MAX. S T R E S S 2.8 I T E R A T I O N S 4
MODE K SUBBASE S UBGR kDE P AVE ME NT T HI C K NE S S
6 150,OO 28.8
WHL. NO. 1 F 40.4128 CODE 0 COUNT
WHt. NO. 2 F -0.5664 CODE 0 C 0 UNT
WHt. NO, 3 F 1.2575 CODE 0 COUNT
WHL, NO. 4 F 1.8376 CODE 0 COUNT
T OT AL F 42,9415 T OT AL C OUNT
. _ -
XMAX -0.0 Y MAX -0.3 MA X. ANGL E 57.3
MAX . S T R E S S 2.7 I T E R A T I O N S 4
25/ IO/ 85
No. 1
290.2
12.7
24.0
26.2
3 5 3 m 2
ACN 5 3 . 9
426.6
-6.0
13.3
19.4
453.3
ACN 4 5 . 3
ICAO 7357 PA RT* 3 *Kt 4841436 0039640 786
PROGRAMME L I S T I NG
COMPUTER PROGRAMME NO. 1
R I GI D PAVEMENT ACN
10 PROGRAM ACNRI A
2 0 c
3 0 C PROGRAM ACNRI I S I N I N T . U N I T S
4 0 C ADJ USTMENTS I NCUDED SUGGESTED B Y AUSTRAL1 EN GOVERNNENT
5 0 C
60 C
70 C J UNE 1979 MODI F I C AT I ON TO P C A/ P DI L B TO COMPUTE ACN VALUES F O R STANDARD
80 C SUBGRADES PER I C A O ACN/PCN METHOD,
90 C
100 c
110 c
1 2 0 c
130 COMMON I OUT
140 DI ME NS I ON S U B K I ( 7) r S U B K I I ( 7)
150 DI ME NS I ON X ( 2 O ) r Y ( 2 O ) r A I R C R ( 2 > r E ( l O ) r S T ( 1 4 ) r D X ( 1 4 ) , F ~ 2 ~ ~ 3 ~
160 . DI ME NS I ON B E T A ( 2 0 ) r A ( 1 4 ) , B ( 1 4 ) r X U ( Z O)
170 C SAVE SPACE FOR ACN/PCN STANDARD SU3GRADES
180 DI ME NS I ON ACNK(4)r DF WHL(2O)r DC3UVTc 20) I DCODE CZO)
190 C
200 c DOUBLE P RECI SI ON CARDS NEEDED DEP ENDI NG ON ACCURACY OF MACHI NE
210 c ( T HI S MAC HI NE 16 DE C I Y R L DI GI T S F OR DOUBLE PREC.)
220 c
240 + A XI B , B ETA I B QDRTI B XI CI COUNTI CQDRT~DI DCOUNT, DENOM, DFWHL , DI FFO,
250 + D I F F l r D I S C R ~ D T H E T ~ D V ~ ~ ~ D V ~ O O , D V l ~ ~ D V 2 ~ D V 2 O ~ D V 6 ~ D V 6 O ~ D X ~ D l O ~ D l O O ~
26 0 + D 1 2 r D 1 2 0 , D 2 , D 2 0 r D 4 r D 4 0 , 0 6 ~ D 6 o ~ D ~ ~ D ~ ~ ~ E ~ F ~ F A C C ~ F C T N ~ F E L M ~ F T ~ T ~ F W H L
2 7 0 + ~ P I E I P X ~ , P X ~ I P ~ ~ P ~ ~ Q I R A I R ~ ~ R S L T I S I S L T ~ S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S L P ~ ~ S L ~ ~ ~ S P C F L ~ S T ~
280 + S T O R ~ ~ S T O R ~ ~ S T R S I S U B K I T H E T / T H E T ~ ~ T H E T ~ , T H E T ~ , T O T C T , V ~ ~ V ~ ~ X ~ X H N ~ X K N ~ X L ~
290 + X M A X I X N P X N M R ~ X U I X X L I Y , Y M A X I Y N , Y ~ ~ Y ~ ~ Y ~ ~ Y ~ ~ X I N T R M
300 DATA S U B K I / 2 O . r 2 S , r 4 0 . r 6 O . r 8 3 . r 1 2 3 . r 1 5 3 . /
31 0 X I NCH2=6. 4516
32 0 XI NC H = 2.54
3 3 0 XPRES = 145, 0377438
340 XPOUND = 2. 2046225
350 P I E =3, 1415926535898
36 0 J B S=O
370 R E AD( 5r 100) J OBS #I OUT
380 100 F O R M A T ( I ~, ~X I I ~)
39 0 WR I T E ( I OUT , l Ol )
40 0 107 F ORMAT( ' ' / / / / ' ' ~~~X I ' A I R P O R T P A V E Y E NT DE DS I G N' / / / ' U NI T S KG
41 0 1 CM DE GR E E S ' / / )
420 102 I N =7
430 R E AD( 5/ 103) MODE
440 103 F OR MAT ( I 1)
450 C SAVE I NPUT MODE T O I NDI CATE LTER9TI ON AND ACN CALCULATI ONS.
460 M O D I = MODE
470 I F C M O D I .GT. 4 ) MODE= 2
480 G O TO ( 104r 104r 107r 107) r MO DE
4 9 0 1 0 4 R E A D ( 5 , 1 0 5 ) A I R C R ~ G E A R ~ M e A f 4 A ! j S t P R S W ~ P f l M G p A M L G
500 105 F O R M A T ( Z A 4 r A 4 / 1 2 ~ 4 E l d . O )
e 230 DOUBLE P RE CI S I ON A~AC~ACNIACNKIALPHIALPHDIAMAXIAMAX,AMIN,AQDRT,AREA,AS,
e 510 WT=AMASS*9. 815/1000.
25/10/85
No. 1
I C A O 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 484L4Lb 00lI9b45 bli!
3-262 Aerodrome Design Manual
5 2 0
530
540
550
56 0
5 7 0
5 8 0
590
60 0
61 0
620
63 0
64 0
6 5 0
660
670
680
69 0
700
71 0
72 0
730
74 0
7 5 0
76 0
770
780
790
800
81 0
82 0
83 0
84 0
8 5 0
860
87 0
880
890
90 0
91 0
92 0
930
94 0
9 5 0
960
970
98 0
990
1000
1010
to20
1030
1 0 4 0
1 os0
1060
1070
TL MG=WT*P MMG/ 100.
T L S MG=T L Mb/ AML G
WM=M
TL S W=TL S MG/ WM
ARE A=TLS W*I OOOO. O/ P RS W
Q=P RS W/ 1000. 0
W R I T E ( I O U T I ~ ~ ~ ) A I R C R I G E A R ~ M I A R E A I Q
ARE A = ARE A / X I N C H Z
Q = Q * XP RE S
106 F OR MAT ( ' AI R C R AF T GE AR NO. OF dHLS.
1C T P R E S S U R E ' / ' ' I ~ A ~ I A ~ I I ~ ~ I F ~ ~ . ~ I F ~ S ~ ~ / )
G O TO 110
107 R E A D ( S I ~ O ~ ) A I R C R I G E A R I M # A R E A
108 F O R M A T ( 2 A 4 r A 4 r I 2 r F 7 . 2 )
W R I T E ( I O U T I I O ~ ) A I R C R I G E A R ~ M ~ A R E A
AR E A = ARE A / X I N C H 2
109 F OR MAT ( ' AI R C R AF T GE AR VO. OF AHE E L S
110 R E A D ( S I I I I ) ( X ( N ) I Y ( N ) I N = I ~ M )
11 1 F OR MAT ( 2F 7. 2)
112 F OR MAT ( ' C OOR DI NAT E S OF WHL S . ' / ' V O.
W R I T E ( I O U T I I ~ ~ ) ( N I X ( N ) I Y ( N ) ~ ~ = ~ I ~ )
113 F ORMAT(' '1131F 10. 21F 8. 2)
D O 1113 N =I I M
X( N) = X ( N ) / X I N C H
141A 8r I 101F 19. 2/ )
WR I T E ( I O U T r l 1 2 )
1113 Y ( N) = Y( N) / X I N C H
GO TO ~1 1 4 1 1 1 7 r 1 ~0 ~1 2 0 ~1 M O D E
114 R E AD( 5, I l S ) S UBK O
115 F OR MAT ( F 7. 2)
W R I T E ( I O U T I ~ ~ ~ ) M O D E I S U B K O
C AL L R S UBK ( S UBK , S UBK O)
C ONT AC T AR E A C ONT A
C O N T A C T A R E A ' / ' 9 , 2 ~
X Y ' 1
116 F OR MAT ( ' '/' MODE K S U B B A S E S U B G R A DE ' / ' ' r I 31F 17. 2/ )
117 R E AD( S I I I ~) S UBK OI D
GO TO 1 2 7
CAL L RS UBK( S UBKI S UBKO)
I F ( MO D 1 . EQ. 6) A C N K ( 1) = 73.679
I F ( MO D 1 . EQ. 6) A C NK ( 3) = 294.72
C S E T S T ANDAR D S UBGR ADE S - U L T R A L3d1 LOWI MEDI UM# AND STRONG.
I F ( MO D1 . EQ. 6 ) A C NK ( 2) a 147.36
I F ( MO D 1 . EQ. 6) A C NK ( 4) = 552. 58
I S U B = 0
I F ( 1 S U B .GT, 4 ) GO T O 350
I F ( MO D 1 . EQ. 6) S UBK AC NK ( I S Ui 3)
I S U B I =( I S U B - 1) * 2 +1
I T C T =O
C S E T UP COUNTE R AND L OOP F OR S T4NDARD ACN/ P CN S UBGRADE S .
1117 I S U B = I S U B + 1
I F ( MODI 1 E Q a 6 ) S U B K O =S U B K I ( I S U B I )
118 F ORMAT(F ~. ZI F S . I )
C S T AR T T HI C K NE S S C ONVE R GE NC E L O3P.
C DE L AY OUT P UT S UNT I L C ONVE R GE NC E I S C OMP L E T E .
1118 C ONT I NUE
I F ( M O D 1 .GT. 4) G O TO 1 2 8
W R I T E ( I O U ~ I ~ ~ ~ ) M ~ D E ~ S U E ~ K O I D
D = D / X I N C H
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** 48434Lb 0039642 55'7 =
Part 3. - PaveEnts 3-263
1080 119 F OR MA T ( ' '/' MODE K S UBBAS E S US GR ADE P AVE ME NT THICKNESS'/*
1090 1 'rI 3rF17.2eF21.1/)
1100 G O TO 128
1110 120 WRITE(IOUTe121)MODE
1 1 20 121 F O R MA T ( ' '/ ' M O D E ' / ' ' #13/ )
1130 I F(MODE-3)122r122~124
1140 122 SPCFL=O.O
1150 ~ 123 AMAX=O.O
1160 G O T O 129 .
1110 124 R E A D ( ~ ~ I ~ ~ ) S P C F L I A M I N ~ A M A X
1180 SPCFL = SPCFL/XINCH
1190 125 FORMAT(F6,2e2(F6.1))
1200 ALPHD-AMIN
1210 ALPH=AMIN/180,*PIE
1220 W R I T E ( I O U T I I ~ ~ ) A M I N , A M A X *
1230 126 F O R MA T ( ' R O T A T E FROM',F6.1r1 T O' rF 5, l . ' DE G R E E S ' / )
1240 GO TO 130
1250 127 D=l O. O
1260 128 XXL=DSQRT(D**3/SUBK)
1270 I FCXXL.LT.0.) XXL=O,
1280 SPCF L = 2 4 . 1 6 5 2 * DSQRT ( XXL )
1290 GO TO 123
1300 129 ALPHZO. 0
1310 ALPHD=O,O
1320 I F (MODE-3) 134,134,130
1330 130 WRITE(IOUT,131)ALPHD
1340 131 F O R MA T ( ' R O T A T I O N ANGLE'rF7.1/)
1350 134 D O 320 L=20r100110
1360
1370
1380
XL=L
IFCSPCFL ,NE. 0 1 XL = SP CF L
I F C M O D I ,GT. 4) GO T O 138
1390 135 IF(MODE-2)138rl36,136
1400 136 XLO = XL*XINCH
1410 WRITE(IOUTe137)XLO
1420 137 F O R MA T ( ' RAD, REL. S T I F F . ' , F i ' . i ? r/ >
1430 138 A X = O . S * ( D S Q R T ( A R E A / . 5 2 2 7 ) I / X L
1440 BX=AREA/(PIE*AX*XL*XL)
1450 FWHL=O.O
1460 F TOT= 0.0
1470 FACC'O.0
1480 K =l
1490 139 DO 196 N=I,M
1500 Y N=Y (N)
1510 XN=X(N)
1520 GO T O (140,143e140r14a)rMODE
1530 140 I F (K- 2)141r147r148
1540 141 X F ( Y ( N ) * X ( N ) ) 1 4 5 , 1 4 2 e l 4 5
1550 142 I F(Y(N))144,143r144
1560 143 BE TA(N)=O.
1570 G O TO 146
1580 144 B E T A ( N) =P I E / Z.
1590 G O TO 146
? 600 145 S E T A ( N ) =D A T A N ( Y ( N ) / X O )
161 0 146 ALPH=-BETA ( N)
1620 GO T3 148
1630 147 ALPH=PIE/Z.-BETA(N)
25/10/85
No. 1
I
ICAO 9157 PARTU3 ** W 4B434Lb 0059b113 495
3-264 Aerodrome Design Manual
1640 148 XHN=DABS(XN/XL)
1650 XKN=DABS(YN/XL)
1660 C = ( A X * X K N ) * * 2 + ( B X * X H N ) * * Z - ( A X * B X ) * * 2
1670 I F(C)160r160r149
1680 149 I F ( A X - D A B S ( X H N ) ) 1 5 0 r l 5 9 r 1 5 0
1690 150 S L P l t ( - ( X HN* X K N) - DS QRT ( C) ) / ( A X * * 2 - - X HN* * 2 )
1700 S L P Z = ( - ( X HN* X K N) + DS QRT ( C) ) / ( A X * * 2 - X HN* * 2 )
1710 I F ( S L P 2 - S L P 1 ) 1 5 1 r 1 5 2 r l 5 2
1720 151 STORJ 'SLPZ
1730 sLPz=sLPl
1740 SLPl=STOR3
1750 152 THET2=DATAN(SLP2)
1760 I F ( X H N ) I S ~~I S S R I S ~
1770 153 I F ( S L P 2 - X K N / X H N ) l S S r I S 4 ~ 1 5 ~
1780 154 I F (StP 1)157~156r156
1790 155 T HE T I =P I E - DAT AN( DABS (S LP I ) 1
1800 G O TO 158
1810 156 T HE T l oDAT AN( S L P 1)
1820 G O TO 158
1830 157 THE TI =- DAT AN ( DABS (SLP1))
1840 158 DT HE T = ( T HE T 2 - T HE T I ) / 2 0 . 0
1850 T HE T =T HE f l +DT HE T / Z. O
1860 G O TO 161
1870 159 S L P l = ( X K N* * 2 - B X * * 2 ) / ( 2 . o * X HN* X K t ~ )
1880 THET2=PIE/2.0
1890 GO T O 154
1900 160 THET1=(-2.0*PfE)/88.0
1910 DTHET=(2.O*PIE)/ 88.0
1920 J =44
1930 s=-1.0
1940 T HE T =T HE T I +DT HE T
1950 G O TO 162
1960 161 J = 2 0
1970 S=I.O
1980 162 DO 186 I =l r J
1990 IF(THET~(PIE/2.0))163~165r163
2000 163 I F ( T H E T - ( 3 . O* P I E / 2 . O) ) 1 6 4 r 1 6 5 r 1 6 4
201 0 164 SL P= DSI N( T HET ) / DCOS( T HET )
2020 AQDRT+BX**2+(AX*SLP)**2
2030 B QDRT=- ( 2. O* XHN* B X* * 2+2. 0* XK N* SL 3* 9Y* * 2)
2040 CQDRT" (BX*XHN) **2+(AX*XKN) **2- ( A X * 3 X ) **2
2050 DI S CR= B QDRT * * 2 - C. O* A QDRT * CQDRT
2060 IF(DISCR.LT.0.) DI S CR=O.
2070 P X I = < - B Q D R T - D S Q R T ( D I S C R ) ) / ( 2 . O * A a D ~ T )
2080 P X Z = ( - B Q D R T + D S Q R T ( D I S C R ) ) / ( 2 . O * A a D A I )
2090 P l =P X l / DC O S ( T HE T )
21 00 P Z=P XZ/ DC OS ( T HE T )
21 10 G O TO 166
21 20 165 R S L T = AX+*2- XHN**2
2130 I F ( R S L T ,LT. 0.) RS L TE O.
2140 P I = X K N - ( B X / A X ) * D S QR T ( R S L T )
21 50 P Z = X K N + ( B X / A X ) * D S QR T ( R S L T )
2160 166 I F(P2-P1)167r168r168
21 70 167 S T OR I =P Z
2180 P 2=P1
2190 P l =S T OR I
2200 168 fF (P 2- 3. 0)171r169r169
221 0 169 I F ( P 1- 3~0) 170r 170r 180
2220 170 P2=3.0
2230 171 FELMnO-0
2240 I F ( I - J / 2) 175r172r175
2250 172 I F (P 2- 3. 0)174r173r173
2260 173 I C O DE =I
2270 , GO TO 175
2280 174 I CODE=O
2290 175 CONTI NUE
2300 I F ( P 1) 177r176r177
231 0 176 VI =O.O
2320 G O TO 181
2330 177 I F ( P 2) 179r178rl 79
2340 178 V2-0.0
235 0 G O TO 181
2360 179 V 2 = ( 2 , O/ P I E ) * D L OG( D A B S ( P 2 / 2 . 0 ) )
2370 V 1 = ( 2 . 0 / P I E ) * D L OG( D A B S ( P 1 / 2 . 0 ) )
2380 GO TO 181
2390 180 FWHL=O,O
2400 I CODE=2
241 0 G O TO 187
2420 181 B(Z)=(P 2/3. 0)**2
2430 A(2)=(P 1/3. 0)**2
2440 DO 182KA=4/14rZ
2450 B(KA)=B(KA- 2)*B(Z)
2460 182 A(KA)=A(KA- 2)*A(2)
2470 D2= (B(Z)-S*A(Z)) * ( -.222121 1
2480 D 4= (B(4)- S*A(4)) *2, 53125
2490 D6= (B(6)- S*A(6)) *( -1.31648 1
2500 D 8= ( B( 8) - S *A( 8) ) *( -.177944 1
2510 D10= ( B( I O) - S *A( l O) ) ,0401
2520 D l 2= (8(12)- S *A(12)) * ,001 429
2530 DV2= (VZ*B(2)- S*VI *A(Z)) *( -4.5 1
2540 D V6= (V2*B(6)- S *Vl *A(6)) *1. 89846
2550 D V 1 0 = - . 0 3 9 9 * ( V 2 * B ( 1 0 ) - S * V l * A ~ l ~ ) )
2560 D V I 4= (V2*B (1 4)-S*V1 *A(14)) * .000099
2570 D 20= (B(Z)- S *A(Z)) *( -.6056 1
2 580 D40= (8(4)- S *A(4)) *( -.63281 )
2 590 D60= (B(6)- S*A(6)) *,253
2600 D 80= ( 8 ( 8 > - S * A ( 8 ) ) * - 022224
261 0 D100= ( B ( I O ) - S * A ( I o ) ) *( -.00428 )
2620 D l 20= (8(12)- S *A(12)) *( -.000105 1
2630 DV20= (V2*8<2)- S*Vl *A(2)) * 2.25
2640 D V60= (V2*8(6)- S *VI *A(6)) *( -.31639 1
2650 D V 1 Oo= ( V2*B( l O) - S *Vl *A( I O) 1 * .003944
2660 D I F F O = D 1 2 0 + D V 1 0 0 + D 1 0 O + D 8 0 + D V 6 O t D ~ O + D 4 O + D 2 ~ + D V 2 ~ + O , ~ - ~ . ~ * S
2670 D I F F 1 = D V 1 4 + D 1 2 + D V 1 0 + D l O + D 8 + D V 6 + D 5 + D $ + D 2 + D V 2
2 680 Y6=DSI N(DABS(DTHET))
2690 I F ( Y ( N ) * X ( N ) ) 1 8 3 r 1 8 4 r 1 8 4
2700 183 XU(N)=-1.0
2710 G O T O 185
2720 184 XU(N)=1.0
2730 185 Y 7 = 2 , 0 * ( T HE T + A L P H* X U( N) )
2740 Y8=DCOS(Y7)
2750 Y l =Y b*Y 8
25110185
No. 1
I C A O 9557 PA RT* 3 ** m 48115115b OOL9b45 268 m
3-266 Aerodrome Design Manual
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O F E L M = X L * * 2 / 8 . 0 * ~ 1 . 1 5 * D A B S ~ D T H E T ~ * D I F F 1 + l . 7 * Y l * ~ D I F F l / 2 . O t D I F F O ~ O . 5 +
l O. S *S ))
THE T=THE T+DTHE T
DFWHL (N)=FWHL
186 FWHL=FWHL+FELM
187 GO TO (188r188r188r192)rMODE
188 XF(Ko2)189r189r190
189 F(NrK)=FWHL
G O TO 192
190 I F (K- S)191r191r192
191 F (NrK-2)SFWHL
192 COUNT=FWHL * 10000. 0/ ( XL ) * * 2
DCOUNT (N) =COUNT
I DC O DE ( N) =I C O DE
FACC=FWHL+FACC
I F ( M O D 1 .GT. 4 ) GO T O 196
GO TO (1968193r193r194),#0DE
193 X F(K-8) 196r196r194
194 W R I T E ( I O U T ~ ~ ~ ~ ) N ~ F W H L ~ I C O D E I C O D E ~ C O U N T
195 F O R MA T ( ' 'rlOXr'WHLe N O l ' r I 3 r S X r ' F ' r F 9 . 4 r 3 X r ' C O D E ' r 1 2 r 5 X r ' C O U ~ T ' r
1F7.1)
196 FWHLfO.0
F TOT=F TOT+F ACC
E ( K ) =F T OT
TOTCT=FTOT* 1 0 0 0 0 . 0 / ( XL ) * * 2
I F ( MO D 1 .GT. 4 ) GO T O 200
G O TO (200r197r197r198)rMODE
197 I F (K- 8)200r200r198
198 WR I T E ( IOUT0199) F T O T r T O T C T
199 F O R MA T ( ' ' r ZO X r ' T O T A L F'rF9.4r8Xn'TOTAL COUNT'rF7,1/)
200 G O TO (201r2Olr201r310)rMODE
201 GO TO
202 XNMR+OeO
DENOMZO.0
00207N=lrM
AC=DCOS (Z. *BE TA(N))
I F( DABS ( A S ) - ~000~~203r 204r 204
204 I F ( DA B S ( A C~ - r 0 0 0 1 ~ 2 0 5 r 2 0 6 r 2 0 6
206 X N M R = X N M R - D A B S ( F ( N r I ) - F o ) * A S
207 CONTI NUE
208 ALPH=PIE/4.0*(1 . O+DS I G N( l . Or DE NOM) )
209 IF(DENOM)211r210r211
210 A L P H= . 5 * P I E * ( 1 . + . 5 * DS I GN( l . r X NMR) )
211 A L P H ~ P I E / 4 . 0 * ( 1 ~ O + D S I G N ( 1 , O I D E N O M ) ) t ~ . 5 * O A T A N ~ X N M R / D E N O M ~
212 ALPHD=18Or0*ALPH/PfE
213 CALL X Y MA X ( M r X L r E ( C ) r E ( 3 ) r E ( S ) r ~ r Y r Y M A X )
AS =DS I N( Z. *BE TA( N) )
203 AS=O.O
205 AC=O. O
D E N OM= D E N OM+ OA B S ( F ( N r l ) ~ F ( N r 2 ) ) * 4 C
I F(XNRR)209r208r209
GO TO 212
GO T O 212
GO TO 215
GO T O 215
214 CALL XY MAX ( M r X L r E ( 7 ) r E ( 6 ) r E ( 8 ) n ~ r X r X M A X )
25/10/85
No. 1 .
Part 3. - Pavements 3-267
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215 K = K + 1
F TOT=O. O
F ACC=O. O
G O TO 139
21 6 D0217N=1 r f l
Y (N)=Y ( N ) - Y MA X
217 X ( N ) =X ( N ) - X MA X
I F C M O D I ,GT. 4 .AND. ALPHD .GE,0,3) GO T O 240
I F (MODE-Z)218r232r232
218 STRS=6.0*Q*FTOT/D**2
S T ( I N ) =S i R S
DX ( I N ) =D
I F ( D- 1Og0) 2l 9r219r222
219 I F ( S T R S - 6 2 0 . 0 ) 2 2 0 r 2 2 Or 2 2 1
220 I NZI N- 1
D =D / ~ - 3
GO TO 128
I N = 8
D=13.0
GO TO 128
221 I L =I N
222 I F ( S T R S - 6 2 O S ) 2 2 4 r 2 2 4 r 2 2 3
223 I L =I N
225 I N=I N+'l
D=1 .3*D
G O T O 128
I N=I L +l
I O =D X (I N- 1 )
D =I D
D=D+1 ,O
WRI TE(I OUTr227)
224 I F (STRS- 280. 0) 226r226r22S
226 I H =I N
227 F O R MA T ( ' '//I 'r24Xr'THI CKNESS 'r3Xr'MAX. S T R E S S ' )
228 R A = D L O G ( S T ( I N - ? ) / S T ( I N ) ) / . 2 6 2 3 6 3
R B = D L O G ( S T ( I N - 1 ) ) + R A * D L O G ( D X ( I N - 1 ) )
S T R S = D E X P ( R B - R A * D L O G ( D ) )
DO = D * X I N C H
S T R S O = S T R S / XP R E S
WRI TE(I OUTr229)DOrSTRSO
229 F O R MA T ( ' 'r25XrF 5. l rF 13. 1)
I F ( ST RS- 2 8 0 . 0 ) 3 1 0 r 3 1 Or 2 3 0
230 D=D+o - 5
I F(D-DX(I N))228,228,231
231 I N=I N+l
I F ( I N- I HI 228r Z28r 310
232 I F (ALP HD1233r234r234
233 ALPHD=180.0+ALPHD
I F ( M O D 1 ,GT. 4) G O T O 240
234 WR I T E ( I O U T r 2 3 5 ) X M A X r Y M A X r A L P H D
235 F O R MA T ( ' ' r l O X r ' X M A X ' r F S . f r S X r ' Y ~ A X ' r F 5 . 1 ~ 3 X r ' M A X . ANGLE',F7,1/)
240 CONTINUE
250 STRS=6.0*Q*FTOT/D**2
I F (MODE - 3)250r310r310
C CONVE RGE O N R E QU I R E D T HI C K NE S S .
X I NT R M=A R E A *Q
25/10/85
No. L
I C A O 9157 PART* 3 ** m 484142b 00B9647 030 m
3-268 Aerodrome Design Manual
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NO. I .
I F ( M O D 1 .EQ* 5 ) F CTN = XI NT R M * 403. 0 / S T R S
IF(MOD1 . EQm 6) F C T N = XI NT R M * 398.85 / S T R S
I F ( M O D 1 ,GT* 4)CALL C NV G ( *1118r * 2 5 3 r F C T N t XI NT R MI DP MODI , I T C T )
260 I F ( M O D 1 ,LE. 4 ) GO T O 270
WR I T E OUTPUTS(DELAYED UNTIL COVVE?GENCE WAS COYPLETE).
DO = D * XI NC H
XLO= XL * XI NCH
WRI TE(I OUTrll9) MO DI # SUBKOr D O
WRITE(IOUTr137) XLO
WRITE(IOUTr195) (NrDFWHL(N)rIDCODE(N)r DCOUNT( N) r N=I,M)
WRITE(IOUTrl99) F T OT r T OT C T
WR I T E ( I O U T r 235) X MA X r Y MA X / ALPHD
270 C ONTI NUE
S T R S O = S T R S / XP R E S
WRITE(IOUTr28O)STRSO
280 F OR MA T ( ' ',lOX,'MAXm STRESS'rF7.I)
S A V E NUMBER OF I T E R A T I O NS R E QUI R E D FOR CONVERGENCE.
I F ( MO D 1 .GT. 4 ) WRITE(IOUTr290) I T C T
290 FORMA T( ' + ' r 36X, ' I T E R AT I ONS ' , IS)
COMP UTE AND WRI TE ACNI AND RETURN T O S T A R T OF LOOP.
I F ( MO D 1 .EQ. 6) CALL C A C NC D r AC Nr I S UB )
I F ( MOD1 .EQ. 6 ) WRITE(IOUTr300) A C Y
300 F ORMAT(' +' , 57x1 'ACN', F6.lr / / 1
31 0 XMAX=O. 0
YMAX=O.O
I F ( M O D 1 .EQ. 6) GO T O 1117
I F (SP CF t)330r320r330
320 CONTI NUE
330 I F ( MODE- 3 ) 35l3r350r340
340 ALPHD=ALPHD+S,O
ALPH=ALPHD/18OeO*PIE
I F ( A L P H D - A MA X ) 1 3 0 r l 3 O r 3 5 0
350 J BS=J BS+1
WRITE(IOUTr360)
360 F OR MA T ( ' ' / / / / I
I F(J OBS-J BS)370r370rlO2
370 CONTI NUE
S T OP
END
SUBROUTI NE PARAE (ArBrCrDtSrXLrG)
DOUBLE P RE CI S I ON AIB~CIDIGIXL
G= D+ ( ( A - B ) / ( 2 . * C- A - B ) + 2 m* S) * . 0 2 5 * XL
RETURN
END
SUBROUTI NE X Y MA X (MIXLIB~A~C~KIYIYMAX)
D I ME NS I ON Y (20)
DOUBLE P R E C I S I O N A~AB~B,CIYPYYAXRXL
GO T O ( 2 3 0 ~ 2 1 5 r 2 1 5 r 2 1 7 ~ 2 2 0 ~ 2 1 5 ~ 2 1 7 ~ 2 2 0 ~ ~ K
215 D0216N=lrM
Part 3. - Pavements 3-269
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216 Y (N)=Y (N)- XL/ZO. O
217 I F ( B - A ) 218r 215r 215
218 D0219N=l , M
G O T3 230
219 Y (N)=Y (N)+XL/10. 0
G O T O 230
220 I F ( Y ( 1) ) 221, 226r 226
221 I F ( 2. *8- A- C) 2221222, 223
222 A=B
B=C
K=K-1
GO T O 215
223 CALL P ARAB ( A , C ~ B I Y ( ~ ) , ~ . O I X L I Y M ~ X )
224 AB=Y (1)
225 Y (N)=Y (N)+Y MAX- AB
DO2 25 N=l r M
G O T O 230
226 I F (2. *A- B- C)227, 227, 229
227 DO 228N=l,M
228 Y ( N) =Y ( N) +XL / Zo. o
A=C
B=A
K=K- I
GO T O 230
GO T O 224
RETURN
END
229 CALL P ARAB ( C , B I A I Y ( ~ ) , - ~ , O I X L I Y M A X )
230 CONTI NUE
SUBROUTI NE CNVG CONVERGES ON REFERENCE THICKNESS,
SUBROUTINE CNVG( *I * t FCTN, T R G T e Y111, MODI , I T C T )
DOUBLE P RE CI S I ON FCTNITRGTIYI 1 l r Y 2221Y 333r X 2221X 333
I F C I T C T ,EQ. 0 GO T O 30
r T C T = I T C T + 1
I F ( 1T C T ,GT. 2 0 1 GO T O 40
I F (DABS((F CTN- TRGT) /TRGT) . LT. 0,0001 ) GO T O 40
I F CF CTN . Gt. T R G T 1 GO TO 10
Y 222 = Ylll
X222 = FCTN
G O TO 20
10 Y333 = Ylll
X333 = FCTN
20 Ylll = Y 222 + (Y 333 - Y 222) * ( T R G T - x2221 / ( X 333 - x222
RETURN 1
30 I T C T = 1
Y 222 = 0.0
x222 = 0.0
Y 333' = Ylll
X333 = FCTN
G O TO 2 0
4 0 C 0N.T I NU
. RETURN 2
END
25/10/85
No. 1
- .
~.
i
I
I C A O 9157 PART* 3 ** LltlLlZL1Lb 0057647 903
.~ 3-270 Aerodrome Design Manual.
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C
C
C
C S UBROUTI NE C A C N CALCULATES A C N ' S F OR FOUR S T A NDA R D S UBGRADE S .
SUBROUTI NE C A C N( Dr AC Nr I S UB 1
DI ME NS I ON DACN(6r4)
DOUBLE P R E C I S I ON D A C N ~D I S S W~A C N
DA T A DA C N /-a367886361 D+Olr -.3533157820+021 '3.246548051 D+03r
(1 0.537926926DtOlr -.141694493D+08r 8.190408260D-021
8 -.899203216D+OOr -.414577103D+02. l e2638319750+03r
8 0~666320153D+Ol r -.180481030D+03r 1.256828585D-32r
& 0.2342931 79D+OIr -.529631013D+O?r 3.28521 7274D+03r
8 Omt3033983850+01r -.209875377D+OO, Oa305236166D-921
8 OO139960077D+02r -.854754059D+02r 3.319839693D+03r
8 O1825962325D+01r -.1500194270+05r I. 153530363D-02 /
SSW = DAC N( 1r I S UB)
DO 1210 I AC N 2 r 6
SSW = SSW + DACN(1ACNrI S UB) * D**( I AC N- l )
1210 CONTI NUE
1260 RETURN
ACN = SSW * 2.0 / 1000.0 / 2.20452
END
SUBROUTI NE RSUBK(SUBKrSUBK0)
DI ME NS I ON SUBKI (7)r SUBKI I (7)
COMMON I OUT
DAT A S U B K 1 / 2 0 . r 2 5 . r 4 0 . r b O . r 8 ~ ~ r 1 2 ~ . ~ 1 5 ~ . /
DO 10 NS AVE = 187
I F ( S UBK O= S UBK I ( NS AVE ) ) GO T O 20
WRITE(IOUTr50)SUBKO
s TOP
RETURN
END
D A T A
10 CONTI NUE
20 SUBK =: S UBK I I ( NS AVE )
50 FORMAT(1H~r'INVALID SUEK 'rF17.2)
No. 1
ICAO 9357 P A RT t 3 tt = 4A4143b 0039650 625
Computer Programme No. 2
1. The computer programme ori gi nated by the Boeing Co-mpany, and further
developed by the Uni ted States Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Stati on (USAEWES)
f or cal cul ati ng f l exi bl e pavement thi ckness requi rements has been modi fi ed by McDonnell
Douglas to cal cul ate f l exi bl e pavement Ai rcraf t Cl assi f i cati on Number (ACN) val ues.
The changes to the USAEWES computer programme, as publ i shed i n Report S-77-1, were
extensi ve, and i ncl uded changi ng the i nput system from ti me-shari ng-opti on to batch
system, changi ng the output statements to be compati bl e wi th the I BM 370 system, adding
code to calculate ACN val ues and adding a subrouti ne "CVRG" to converge on the requi red
pavement thickness.
2. It wi l l be noted that the output of the McDonnell Douglas modi fi cati on
di f f ers sl i ghtl y from the Report S-77-1 wi th respect to the Coverages and the Alpha
data. The reason i s that the McDonnell Douglas modi fi cati on sets the f i rst Coverages
val ue to 10 000, and i gnores any other i nputs. It also sets the f i rst Al pha val ue to
the val ue of Fi gure 14 of Report S-77-1, and i gnores any other Alpha val ues. Thi s is
done (regardl ess of what val ues are i nput) because the defi ni ti on of ACN f or f l exi bl e
pavements is based on 10 000 coverages, and the corresponding Alpha value. A copy of
Fi gure 14 of Report S-77-1, a pl ot of the Alpha val ues (Load Repeti ti on Factor), is
reproduced as Fi gure A2-4.
3. The procedures for cal cul ati ng CBRI thi ckness desi gn curves and -ACN of
ai rcraft have been computeri zed wi th the excepti on of the pass-per-coverage rati os.
Detai l ed bel ow are an i nput gui de, an i nput fi l e, a problem output, and a programme
l i sti ng f or these procedures. The problem outputs are f or the C-14lA.
The basi c data f or the C- 14U are:
Ai rcraft gross mass =145 152 kg
Percentage mass on main gear legs =90
Number of main gear legs =2
T i re pressure = 119 kPa
Number of wheel s under consi derati on =4
T i r e spaci ng =82.55 cm by 121.92 cm.
(See Figure A2-3)
8
'-> . . ..
3-272 Aerodrme Design Manual
Other requi red data are:
Pass l evel s =1-7 pass levels as sel ected.
Alpha val ues =1-7 al pha val ues correspondi ng to the sel ected pass levels
are obtai ned from Fi gure A2-4.
Grid l ocati on and di mensi ons =The gri d is used in the search for the
posi ti on of maximum def l ecti on for E W L cal cul ati ons.
Locati on of the gri d may be a tri al -and-error procedure
f or a parti cul ar gear, al though, wi th experi ence, thi s
l ocati on can be determi ned by good engineering judgement.
The val ues of GX and GY represent the X-Y ori gi n of the
gri d, DGX and DGY the di stance betwen gri d l i nes, and
XK and YK the number of gri d l i nes i n each di recti on.
The gri d used i n the sample problem is shown in Fi gure A2-3.
Normally, the di mensi ons between gri d l i nes shoul d bo i n
the order of 112 radi i . The radi us of the tire contact
area assumes the area to be a circle and, f or thi s example,
is cal cul ated as follows:
1 ICAO 9357 P ARTS3 f f 4643436 0037652 4TB
Par t 3. - Pavements 3-2 7 3
Y-AX IS
1
X- AXI S
+-- 82 55 .-4
- a. WHEEL CONFIGURATlON, COORDINATES {GRI D LOCATI ON
X- DATA
GX= O.
-4.-
D GX= 10.32
XK = 5.
-
b. GRI D DI ME NS I ONS COORDI NATES
Fi gure A2-3. C-141A gear and gri d
2S/lO/S5
No. 1
Y - DATA
GY =0.
DGY =15.24
Y K = 5 .
I
C
A
O

9
3
5
7

P
A
R
T
*
3

*
*

W

4
B
4
L
L
(
L
b

0
0
5
9
b
5
3

3
3
4

m

3
-
2
7
4

A
e
r
o
d
r
o
m
e

D
e
s
i
g
n

M
a
n
u
a
l

2
5
/
1
0
/
8
5

N
o
.

1

BATCH MODE INPUT GUIDE FOR ACN COMPUTER PROGRAMME FOR FLEXI BLE PAVEMENT
(uni ts are kilograms and centi metres)
t
TITLE - - - ALPHABETIC AND NUMERIC CHARACTERS MAY BE USED IN ANY OF THE 80 COLUMNS.
THIS CARD ALSO MAY BE BLANK, BUT MUST BE PRESENT.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 79 80
COLUMN 20. FOR MODE GREATER THAN 10, PROGRAMME FINDS DEPTHS FOR DESIRED CBRs.
RD SUBGRADES. FOR MODE
3 X-COORDINATE FOR EACH WHEEL (32 MAXIMUM). USE ADDITIONAL CARDS AS REQUIRED.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 79 80
14
Y-COORDINATE FOR EACH WHEEL (32 MAXIMUM). USE ADDITIONAL CARDS AS REQUIRED.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 79 80
I I I I I 1 1 1 d
Fi gure A2-5. Sample i nputs C-14l.A
6 NUMBER (M)
OF DEPTHS
DELTA I WTH FOR MODE LESS THAN 11, PROGRAMME SETS DEPTHS TO (N X DELTA). (N =0, 1, 2,.., M-I),
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1213141516171819M
(MAXIMUM M IS 8). FOR MODE GREATER THAN 10, PROGRAMME FINDS DEPTHS FOR
DESIRED CBRs. FOR MODE GREATER THAN IO, THIS CARD I~AAY BE BLANK.
I l l l f l l i l . I I I I I I I e l I
7 NUMBER (K) OF SETS NUMBER (K) OF SETS OF AIRCRAFT DATA TO FOLLOW.
i
I TIRE PRESSURE I PER CENT MASS
~~~~ ~
)8) AIRCRAFT MASS
(kPa) ON MAIN GEAR LEGS I MAIN NUMBER GEAR OF LEGS I ONE CARD FOR EACH SET OF A'RCRAFT
Fi gure AZ-5. Sample i nput s C-141A (cont .)
~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~
9 NUMBER (J ) NUMBER (J ) OF PASS LEVELS OR COVERAGE LEVELS. (MAXIMUM J =7). FOR MODE EQUAL 11,
~~~
OF LEVELS PROGRAMME SETS J =1.
PASS LEVELS OR COVERAGE LEVELS (J LEVELS). ADJ UST EACH INPUT TO THE EXTREME RIGHT. FOR
MODE EQUAL 11, PROGRAMME SETS FIRST LEVEL TO 10.000. fNOT USED IN COMPUTATIONS.)
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
111 ALPHA VALUES FOR PASS LEVELS OR COVERAGE LEVELS (J ALPHA VALUES). FOR MODE EQUAL 11, I
PROGRAMME,SETS FIRST ALPHA VALUE TO 10,000 COVERAGE VALUE FOR INPUT NUMBER OF WHEELS.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58
I I I
21 DESIRED CBRs. MAXIMUM OF 4. FOR MODE EQUAL 11, PROGRAMME SETS THE STANDARD
~ ~~~
SUBGRADE CBRs. FOR MODE LESS THAN 11, PROGRAMME FINDS CBRs FOR INPUT DEPTHS.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
I I
1 1 1 1 l l l l l l 1 1 1 1 l / l l l 1 l l l l l l l o l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l 0 0 0 W
Fi gure A2-5. Sample i nputs C-141A (cont.)
ICAO 9557 PART* 3 ** 4S4545b 0059b57 TAT
3-278 . Aerodrome Desim Manual
SAEPLE INPUTS
4
0.00
O m 00
. ~ 0,o
1
1 4 5 1 52.
1
10000
0 . 8 2 5
L OC K HE ED C 1 4 1 A
11
8 2 . 5 5 a2. 55 O m CO
0.0 121 . 92 121. 92
10.32. 5 m0 0. c 15. 24
1190. 90 . 2.
50000 1or3000
SAMPLE OUTPUTS
L OC K HE E D C
25/10/85
No. 1
14 1 A
NUMBER O F WHE E L S ( MAXI MUM 32) MODE
4 11
.- X C OOR DI NAT E S OF- WHE E LS
Y C OOR DI NAT E S OF WHE E LS
L OC O OF GRDIGRD I NCRTI t J0. OF L I N S ( H A X (10))
NUMBER O F DEP . (M-AX -cg) AND DE P . I NC R E ME NT
NO. OF S E T S OF MAS S AND T Y R E P R E S S UR E
1
A I R C R A F T MA S S
T Y R E P R E S S UR E
P E R C E NT MAS S ON MAI N GE AR
R A DI U S O F TY RE CONTACT ARE A
0.00 8 2 - 5 5 8 2 . 5 5 Os00
0.00 0.00 121.92 121. 92
0.00 10. 32 5. 00 0.00 15. 24 5 . 0 0
0.00 0.00
145152. 00
. _. - - --, -
Il90.0b I l90.0b 1190.00 11 90.00
90.00
20.71 20.71 20.71 20. 71
. -- P AS S E S OR COVE RAGE S
10000
0.825
AL P HA VAL UE S MAX ( 7 )
DE S I R E D C BR
3.00 6 -00 10.00 15. 00
5 .
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 t t LIBLILLILb 0039658 9Lb
Part 3.- Pavements 1-779
a
SAMPLE OUTPUTS (cont. )
C BR - T-
ESWL PA SSES DEPTH
K G 10000 C M
2 0 9 5 5 . 294. 32 0. 00
5 2 4 2 9 . 3. 00 143. 53
._
THE A CN FOR A SUBGRADE CBR O F 3 I S 73. 53
CBH . . - T -
. E f Wt P k S S E S D E P T H
K G 10000 CM
2095 5 . 294. 32 0. 00
41313. 6.00 89. 08
THE A CN F OR A SUB GRA DE CB R OF 6 I S 59.30
C BR - T -
ESWL PA SSES DEPTH
K G 10300 CM
2095 5 . 294. 32 0 000
32675 . 10.00 60.12
THE A CN F OR A SUBGRADE CBR OF 10 I S 4d. 00
C BR - T -
ESWL PA SSES DEPT H
K G 1 ouoo CM
20955. 294. 32 0. 00
2 8 0 8 0 . 15. 00 43. 94
THE ACN FOR A SUBGRADE CBR OF 1 5 IS 41. 93
25/10/85
No. 1
.~
I C A O 9357 PART83 *Kt W 4843456 0039659 852 m
3-280 . Aerodrome Design Manual
10
20 c
30 C
4 0 C
50 c
60 C
70 C
80 C
9 0 C
100 c
110 c
120 c
130 C
1 4 0 C
150 C
160 C
170 C
180 C
190 c
200 c
210 c
220 c
230 C
2 4 0 C
2 5 0 C
260 C
2 7 0 C
280 C
290 C
.ooo c
300 C
310 C
320 C
330 C
340 C
350 C
360 C
370 C
380 C
390 C
a000 c
410 C
420 C
4 3 0 C
,000
450
460
470
480
490
500 c
25/10/95
NO. 1
PROGRAMME L I S T I N G
COMPUTER PROGRAMME NO. 2
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT ACN
P R OGR AM AC NF I T
P R O G R A H A C N F I I S I N I N T . U N I T S
A P R I L 1979 M O D I F I C A T I O N T O C OHP UT E AC N VAL UE S F OR S T ANDAR D
S UBGRADE S ACtJ / P CN ME THOD.
********* 1 WAR 6 9
WES MOD 41- 62- R 0- 144
PROG. 41- 20- 001 G R O U ND F L O T 4T I 3N DE S I G N *** B OE I NG A I R C R A F T
DO C U ME N T 06- 4088T N T R A N S P O R T DI V I S I O N r B OX 707r RE NTONt WAS H.
NOTE TO T HE OR I G I NA L B OE I NG P ? 3G R A # T HE P A V E ME NT DE S I G N
DI V I S I ONr S +P L r WE S r HA S MA DE S E V E R A L C HA NG E S . T HE T HI C K NE S S
S OL U T I ON U A S R E P L A C E D WI T H A N I NT E R P OL A T I ON S C HE ME . T HE
T H I C K N E S S I S NOU DE R I VE D F R OM C B? / D VS. T / S QR ( A) C UR VE .
T HE O L D F t P E R C E NT DE S I G N T HI C K NE S S ) HA S B E E N R E P L A C E D
WI T H AN AL P HA VAL UE . T HE T E R M C OVE R AS E S I S R E P L AC E D WI T H
P AS S L E VE L S .
T HI S P R O G R A M ' C HA NG 4' I S I DE NT I C A L T O ' C HA NG Z'
P AS S L E VE L S .
32 NN NUMBE R OF WHE E LS
32 X (NW) X C OOR DI NAT E C M C M
32 Y (NW) Y C OOR DI NAT E C bl CM
32 R AD( NY ) R AD I US CH CM
32 R ADZ( NU) R AD1 US S QUAR E D C M
32 P R (NU 1 P3 ES S URE MPA
32 P R S ( NW) P I E S S U R E K P A
WI T H O N E E X C E P T I O N . A N O P T I O N I S A V A I L A B L E TO R UN 1-7
GX X COORD O F GRI D(D1S P L . C) DGX DE L TA X
GX Y COORD OF G R I D( DI S P L C 1 DG Y DE L T A Y
X K =K X NU MB E R G R I D L I NK S ( S I ZE )
Y K Z K Y NU MB E R G R I D L I NK S ( S I Z E )
Z KZ KZ NUMBER OF DE P T HS
1 o* P H I A N G L E U S f D I N I N T E G R A T I O N
1 o* c s C OS I NE 3F P H I
1 o* S N 2 S Q OF S I N E OF P H I
1 O ~l O r 8 S ( I r J r K ) D I S P L A C E M E N T
6 KK Z NUMBE R O F MAX. 3R DE R E D DI S P L A C E ME N
I P R NU MB E R S E T S OF MAS S AND T Y S E 3R E S S UR E
5 c I T H C O V E R A G E V A L J E
8 z DE P T H OF I T H d H E E L
8 z 2 Z( 1) S QU A R E D
COMMON X ( 3 2 ) r Y t 3 2 ) r R A D ( 3 2 > ~ R A D ~ ( 3 Z ) , P R ( 3 2 ) , P R S ( 3 2 )
COMMON X G ( I O ) r Y G ~ 1 0 ) r S ( l O r l O r 3 ~ )
COMMON Z ( 3 0 ) / Z 2 ( 3 0 ) r X L O C ( 3 0 r 6 l r Y ~ ~ C ( 3 0 r 5 ) r S D ( 3 0 r 6 )
COMMON C C S ) r E S U L ( 3 0 ) r C B R ( 3 0 / 7 )
COMMON S N 2 ( 1 0 ) r C S ( 1 0 )
D I M E N S I O N K T I T L E ( 2 0 )
T S / DE P T H
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** 484L4Lb 0039bbO 574 W
I
Part 3. - Pavements 3-281
0 000
520
530
. 000
550
560
570
580
590
600
61 0
620
63 0
640
650
660
67 0
680
690
700
71 0
72 0
73 0
740
75 0
760
77 0
78 0
790
800
820
830
84 0
85 0
86 0
870
88 0
89 0
900
91 0
92 0
930
940
950
96 0
97 0
980
99 0
1000
101 0
1020
1030
1040
1050
,000
a1 o
I'
25/10/85
No. 1
. I
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 ** YBY145b OO39bb3 400 W
3-282 . Aerodrome Design Manual
0 000
0000
,000
. 000
1100
1110
1120
1130
1150
1160
1170
1180
1 190
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1250
0000
1270
1280
0 000
1300
1310
0000
1330
1340
0 000
1360
1370
1380
1390
1400
IO00
1410
0000
1430
1440
0 000
1450
. 000
1460
1470
1480
1490
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1550
1560
1570
000
1140
25/10/85
No. I.
910 FORMAT(1H r l 3 H A I R C R A F T MASS/(9F11 . 2))
911 F OR MA T ( 1H rl3HTYRE PRESSURE/(9F1l02)>
950 FORMAT(1H r25HP E HCE NT MAS S ON HAI N GEAR/(9F8.2))
912 FORMAT(1H r27HRADIUS OF T Y R E C O NT A C T AREA/(9F8.2))
913 FORMAT(1H r 20HP AS S E S OR C OVE R AGE S / r7110>
914 F O R MA T ( 4X r ' DE P T H' r C X # ' DE F . ' r 4 X r ' X - C R D . ' r 3 X r ' Y =C R D .
+ ~ X I ' D E P T H ' I ~ X I ' D E F . ' ~ ~ X I ' X - C R D . ' ~ ~ X ~ ' Y - C R D . ' ~
+ 5x1' CR 'r3X#'FACTOR'r4Xr' c # ' r 5 X r ' CPI ' I
+ 4x1' C M 'r3X,'FACTOR'r4X,' C# ' ~5 x 1 ' C q ' 1
915 F O R M A T ~ F 9 ~ l r F 9 ~ 3 r F 9 0 2 r F 9 0 2 r F 9 0 1 r F 9 ~ 3 r F9.2rF9.2/
916 F O R M A T ~ F 9 ~ l r F 9 ~ 3 r F 9 . ~ ~ F 9 0 ~ / ~ F 1 8 0 ~ r F 9 0 2 r F 9 ~ 2 ~ ~
+( F1803r F9. 2r F902r F18. 3r F9. 2/ F9. 2r F902) )
5 F O R M A T ( ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C B R ~ ~ X I ~ H C B R ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C ~ R ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C B R ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C B R ~
+ 7Xr 3H- T- r / r 4Xr 4HESWL I 5XI 6HPASSESI 4X16HPASSESr 4Xr 6HPASSESr 4Xr 6HPASSESr 4Xr
+ ~ H P A S S E S I ~ X P ~ H P A S S E S ~ ~ X ~ ~ H D E P T H P / , ~ X ~ ~ H KG / 110rI 10rI 10r
+110rI lOr6Xr3HCM r/rF90Or6F10,2)
925 %O R MA T ( l H rl9HALPHA VALUES MAX(7)./r(7F1013))
927 TORMAT(1H r l l H D E S I R E D CBRr / F1002rF1 0.2rF10.2rF10.2)
I FORMAT(1H r I S X r 3 H C B R r 7 X r 3 H o T - r / r 4 x r 4 H E S U L 1 5 X 1 6 H P A S S E S r S X 0 S H D E P ~ H ~
+ /r3Xr6H K G rI I Or6Xr3HCM 0
+ /r30(/rF9.012F10,2)//)
+ ~ X I ~ H P A S S E S I ~ X ~ S H D E P T H ~ / ~ ~ X # ~ H K G rZI I Or6Xr3HCH I
+ /r30(/rF 9, 0r3F I 0, 2)//)
+ ~ ( ~ X ~ ~ H P A S S E S ) ~ S X P ~ H D E P T H ~ / ~ X I ~ H K G r3110r6Xr3HCM I
+ / r30( / rF 9, 0~4F 1002) / / )
+ ~ H E S W L ~ ~ X ~ ~ ( ~ X ~ ~ H P A S S E S ) ~ ~ X ~ ~ H D E P T H ~ / ~ ~ X H ~ H KG r411016Xr3HCH r
+ /r30(/rF 9. 0rSF I 0. 2)//)
2 F O R MA T ( 1H ~ ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C B R ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C ~ R I ~ X ~ ~ H - T - ~ / ~ ~ X ~ ~ H E S W L ~ ~ X ~ ~ H P A S S E S ~
3 F OR HAT ( 1H r 1 S X r 3 H C ~ R r 7 X r O H C 8 R r 7 X r 3 ~ C 3 R r 7 X r 3 H ~ T - r / ~ 4 X r 4 ~ E S W L ~ l X r
4 FORMAT(1H ~ ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C B R ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C B R I ~ X ~ ~ H C B R ~ ~ X ~ ~ H C B R ~ ~ X ~ ~ H - T - ~ / ~ ~ X ~
940 FORMAT(8ElU.O)
941 FORMAT(BI10)
X I NCH=2 . 54
XPRES=145.0377438
PI=3.1415926535898
X P O M D ~2.2046225
10 CONTI NUE
R E AD CURRENT T I T L E C A R D
R E A D ( 5 r l S r END=6000) KTITLE
15 F O R MA T ( 2O A 4)
READ(Sr941)NWrMODE
IF(NWmGT,7)G0 T O 20
R E A D ( 5 1 9 4 o ) ( X ( l ) r I = l r ~ W )
G O T O 30
20 CONTI NUE
READ(51940)(X(I )rI =l r8)
IF(NW.LT.9)GO T O 40
R E A D ( 5 r 9 4 0 ) ( X ( I ) r I = 9 r l 6 )
I F(NY oLTo17)G0 T O 40
R E A D ( S r 9 4 O ) ( X ( I ) r I ~ 1 7 r 2 4 )
IF(NU.LT.25)GO T O 40
R E A D ( 5 r 9 4 0 ) ( X ( I ) r I I 2 S r 3 2 )
G O TO 40
( C A R D TY P E '1')
( C A R D TY P E ' 2 ' )
( C A R D TY P E ' 3' )
( C A R D T Y P E ' 4' )
I ICAO 7357 P ARTS3 ** m 4843436 0037662 347 m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-283
a
1 5 8 0
1 5 9 0
1600
161 0
1620
1630
1 6 4 0
1 6 5 0
1660
1670
1680 C
- 000 c
1690
1700 C
171 0
1720
1730
1740
1750
1760
1770
1780
. 000
1800
1810
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.
820
830
84 0
850
860
870
880
890
000 c
91 0
920
930
940 C
.ooo c
,000 c
1950
1960
-000 c
- 000 c
.ooo
. 000
.ooo
. 000
. 000
IO00
, 000
.ooo
. 000
IO00
2000
201 0
30 R E A D ( 5 r 9 4 0 ) ( Y ( I ) r I = I r N W)
GO TO 50
4 0 R E A D ( 5 , 9 4 0 ) ( Y ( I ) r I =1 . 8 )
I F ( N W. L T - 9) G O T O 50
R E A D ( 5 # 9 4 0 ) ( Y ( I ) r I = 9 . 1 6 )
I F ( Nd. L T . 1i ' ) GO T O 50
R E A D ( 5 , 9 4 0 ) ( Y ( I ) , I = 1 7 r 2 4 )
I F ( NW. L T . 25) G O T O 50
R E A D ( S r 9 4 O ) ( Y ( I ) r I = 2 5 # 3 2 )
50 C O N T I N U E
R E A D I N G R I D DI S P L A C E ME N T I I N C R E ME N T A N D S I ZE F O R X A ND Y - A X I S
( C A R D T Y P E ' 5' )
R E A D ( ~ , ~ ~ O ) G X I D G X ~ X K I G Y I D G Y ~ Y K
I F T HE NU MB E R O F L I N E S ( X K OR Y K) I S NOT I NP U T I S E T DE F A U L T S .
I F ( X K .GT. ZE R O ) GO T O 70
XMAX= 0.0
D O 60 MA X X = IINW
I F ( X C M A X X ) .GT. XMAX) XNAX = X ( 4A X X )
60 C O N T I N U E
GX= 0.0
XK =10. 0
DGX= ( XMAX - G X ) /2.0 / ( X K - 1 .O)
Y MAX = 0.0
I F ( Y C M A X Y ) ,GT, Y MAX) Y MAX = Y ( MA X Y )
80 C ONT I NU E
G Y = 0.0
Y K = 10.0
DGY = ( Y MAX- GY ) / Z, O/ ( XK - I . O>
K X = XK
K Y = Y K
R E A D NU MB E R OF DE P T HS A ND DE P T H I NC R E ME NT ( C A R D T Y P E ' 6' )
R E A D ( 5 r 9 4 0 ) Z K l D Z
K Z=ZK
M =O
70 I F ( Y K .GT. ZE RO GO TO 90
DO 80 MAXY = I r N W
90 C O N T I N U E
**************
R E A D NO. O F S E T S O F MAS S #T Y R E P R E S S , # MAS S ON MAI N GE AR # NO. OF L E GS
R E A D( 5,941 ) I P R
D O 4 5 0 0 I P R S =I / I P R
R E A D A I R C R A F T MA S S e T Y R E P R E S S . # Y A S S ON M A I N G E A R # NO,OF L E G S
( C A R D T Y P E '8')
( C A R D T Y P E ' 7' )
R E A D( S r 940) A MA S S ~P R S WI P MMG I A ML G
WT =A MA S S *9, 8f 5/ 1000. 0
T L MG =WT *P MMG / 100. 0
T L S MG =T L MG / A ML G
W N= NW
T L S W=T L S MG / WN
AR E S W=T L S W*l OOOO. O/ P R S W
R E S W=S Q R T ( A R E S W/ P I )
P E S W=P R S W/ 1000. 0
RE S W2 = RE S W * R E S W
C A R E A = C A R E A / ( X I N C H * X I N C H )
C A R E A = RE S W * R E S W * P I
25110185
No. 1
ICAO 9357 PA RTM3 ** 41145436 0059bb3 283
' 3-284 . Aerodrome Design Manual
2020 RESWi ? =RESW2/ ( XI NCH* XI NCH)
2030 DO 100 I 'l rNW
IO00 P R S ( f ) =P R S W
204 0 P R( 1) = PESW
2050 100 R A D C I ) = RESW
. 000 I F ( I P RS . E Q. 1) GO T O 120
. 000 DO 110 I ol rNW
. 000 X ( I ) = X ( I ) * X I NC H
. 000 Y ( f ) = Y ( 1 ) * X I NC H
.OOO 110 CONTI NUE
. 000 G X = GX * X I N C H
. 000 DG X DGX * X I NC H
. 000 G Y = G Y * X I N C H
t 000 DG Y D6Y * XI NC H
. 000 D Z = DZ * X I NC H
. 000 G O TO 150
2070 C F O R ACN CALCULATIONS ONLY THE 10000 C OV E R A G E VALUE I S USED.
2080 C READ NO. OF P A S S LEVELS.
.ooo c ( C A R D T Y P E ' 9' )
,000 120 R E A D( 5r941) NAL
2100
.ooo c
2120
21 30
,000 C
2150
2160 C
21 70
2180
21 90
2200
221 0
2220
2230
2240
2250
2260
2270
-000 c
2290
2300
231 0
2320
2330
2340
2350
000
2380
2390
2400
241 0
2420
f430
. 000
2440
0 000
I F ( MODE . E Q. I I ) NAL=I
R E A D ( S r 9 4 1 ) ( N C C ( I ) r I = I r ~ A L )
I F C MODE .EQ. 11) NCC(1) = 10000
READ ALPHA'S ( C A R D T Y P E '11')
R E A D ( 5 / 9 4 O ) ( B ( I ) r I = l r N A L )
F OR ACN CALCULATIONS S E T F I R S T ALPHI\ T O 10000 C OV E R A G E VALUE.
I F ( MODE .NE, 11) G O T O 130
I F ( NW . EQ. 1) B ( 1) = 0. 995
I F ( N W .Ea, 2) B(1) = 0.9
I F ( NW . EQ. 4) El ( ?) = 0.825
I F ( N U .EQ. 6) B(1) 0.788
I F ( NW .EQ. 8) B ( 1 ) = 0. 755
I F ( N W .EQ,12) B(1) = 0.722
I F ( NW .EQ,18S B(1) = 0.700
I F ( NW .EQ.24) B ( 1) 0 0.689
NCC(1) = 10000.0
R E AD P ASSES. ( C A R D TY P E '19')
130 CONTI NUE
R E A D CBR DE S I R E D ( T A R G E T )
R E A D ( S r 9 4 0 ) ( S C B R ( I ) r I = I r 4 )
IF( MODE .NE. 11) GO T O 140
S CBR(2) :: 6.0
SCBR(3) = 10.0
SCBR(4) = 15.0
S C BR ( 1) = 3.0
140 CONTI NUE
150 WRITE(6r9001
WRI TE (68901 1
WRITE(6r902) KTITLE
iJ RITE ( 6~903) NWrMODE
WRI TE(6r904) (X(1)rI SlrNU)
WRITE(br905) ( Y ( I Y r E * ? r N W)
WRITE(6r906) G X r D G X r X K r G Y r D G Y r Y K
IFfIPRS.NE.1~ G O TO 760
WRITE(br9072 Z K r D Z
'1-60 WR I T E ( 6~909) I P R
( C A R D TY P E '12')
.
25/10/8-5
No. 1
-I
Part 3. - Pavements 3-285
IO00
2470
. 000
2480
2490
2 500
251 0
2520
2530
2540
2550
2560
2570
2580
2 590
2600
261 0
2620
2630
2640
2660
1000
0000
0 000
2680
2690
2 700
271 0
2 720
2 730
2740
2750
2760
2770
2 780
2790
2800
2820
281 o
2 a30
2840
2870
2880
2850
2 860
2890
2900
291 0
2920
2930
2940
295 0
2960
2970
2980
2990
WR I T E ( 68910) A M A S S
WR I T E C 6r 911) ( P R S ( I ) rI =l , NW)
WR I T E (6,950) PMMG
WR I T E ( 6r912) ( R A D ( I ) r I =l r N W )
WR I T E ( 68913) ( NC C ( I ) r I =l r NAL )
WR I T E ( 68925) ( B ( I ) r I =l r NA L )
WR I T E (68927) (S CBR( I) I 1"l 84)
DO 170 I =I / NW
X ( I ) = X ( I ) / X I NC H
Y <I ) = Y ( I ) / XI NCH
P R ( I ) = P R ( I ) * XPRES
R A D ( 1 ) = R AD( I ) / XI NC H
G X =G X / X I N C H
DGX=DGX/XINCH
GY=GY/XI NCH
DG Y = DGY /XI NCH
R E S W =RESW/XI NCH
02 = D Z / XI NCH
DP E= 3.0/(2.0 * P I * R E S W * PESW)
I F (MODE.LT.11) G O TO 180
WR I T E ( 6r 900)
170 CONTINUE
PESW= PESW* XPRES
180 DO 520 I CBR = l r 4
TRGT = SCBRCI CBR)
I T C T = 0
C F OR ' T ' USE T WO DEPTHS - ZERO AND INCREMENT. INCREMENT WILL BE
C ESTI MATED8 AND USED A S THE F I R S T T R I AL I N THE I TERATI ON.
IF( MODE .GE, 11) KZ=2
I F ( MODE ,GE, 11) DZ= S Q R T ( C A R E A P ESrf/lO.O/ SCBR(1CBR))
z (1 )=O.O
Z2( 1) =0*0
D O 190 I =2r K Z
Z ( I ) =Z ( I - l ) +D Z
z 2 ( I ) =z ( I ) * z ( I )
G O T O 210
ZZ( K 2) = Z ( K Z ) * Z ( K Z )
C SET-UP OF G R I D DEPTHS
190 CONTINUE
200 CONTI NUE
210 CONTINUE
P LD40 = . 078539816339744830
P I D20 = . 157079632679489661
P I D10 = . 314159265358979323
P I = 3, 141592653589793238
P I D = . 157079633
P H I
= - . 0785398163
D O 220 I=lrlO
P HI ZP HI + P I 0
S I NE = S I NC P HI )
S NZ( I ) =S I NE * S I NE
C S ( I ) =COS (P HI )
C SET-UP R A D I I SQUARED
C S E T UP S I NCP HI ) S Q AND COS(PH1)
220 CONTI NUE
D O 230 I = ~ ~ N W
25/10/85
No. 1
3-286 Aerodrome Design Manual
3000
301 0
3020
3030
3040
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
3100
3110
31 20
31 30
3140
31 S O
3160
31 70
31 80
31 90
3200
321 0
3220
3230
3240
3250
3260
3270
3280
3290
3300
331 0
3320
3330
3360
3350
3360
3370
3380
3390
3400
341 0
3420
3430
3440
3450
3460
3470
3480
3490
3500
351 0
3520
3530
3 5 4 0
3550
230 R A D 2 ( I ) a R A D ( I ) * R A D ( I )
C SET-UP X- COORDS F OR G R I D
X G ( l ) =G X
D O 240 I =~I K X
240 X G ( I ) =X G ( I - l ) +D G X
C SET-UP Y - C OOR DS F OR G R I D
Y G ( l ) =G Y
DO 250 I t 2 r K Y
250 Y G ( I ) =Y G[ 1- 13 + DGY
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D O 370 I Z I P K Y
D O 360 J =l r K X
XJ = XG(J )
D O 350 K =l r K Z
22K = Z2(K)
ss= 0. 0
D O 340 Ltl rNkl
RAD2L = RAD2(L)
RADL 3 RADCL)
PAL = P R(L)
S J I K = 0.0
XLG =X(L)-XJ
R 2 aXLG*XLG
YLG SY tLI - Y I
R 2 =YLG*YLG + R2
R +S QR T ( R Z)
I F (R-RADL) 260d60r290
Y I = Y G ( 1 )
C SUM DISPLACEMENT DUE TO ONE WHEEL: R 4D. S R E AT E R THEN R
260 DO 280 MI1 r l 0
S A R = S QR T ( R A D 2 L - R 2 * S N 2 ( M) )
R C R * C S ( M)
E RP =RC+S AR
ERP Z=ERP *ERP
ERM =S A R - R C
E R M2 S E R M *E RM
OW2 00.0
DW1 =SQRT(ERP2+22K)
I F (DWl . E Q. O. )GO T O 270
O W2 = ERP 2/DW1
270 DW3 = 0.0
DW1 SQRT(ERY2 + 22K )
DW3 = ERM2/DW1
GO T O 310
290 DO 300 MtlrlO
I F ( DWl . EQ. 0.1 GO TO 280
280 S J I K = SJ IK +( DW2 + DW3)* P I D
C SUM DISPLACEMENT DUE T O ONE WHEEL. ? AD. L E S S THA N R
S A R = S Q R T ( R 2 - R A D2L * S N 2 ( Y ) )
AC = R A DL * C S ( M)
SP A = A C + S AR
SP A? = SPA * SPA
S S A = S A R - A C
S S A 2 = S S A * S S A
300 SJ IKSSJ IK + A C / S A R * ( S P A 2/ S Q R T ( S P A 2 + Z2K ) - S S A 2/ S Q R T ( S S A 2+2ZK ) ) *
+ P I D
25/10/85
No. 1
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-287
310 SJ I K = S J I K * PRL
320 S S = SS + S J I K
3580 330 CONTI NUE
3590 340 CONTI NUE
3600 S ( J P I ~K ) =S S
361 0 350 CONTI NUE
362 0 360 C ONT I NUE
3630 370 CONTI NUE
3640 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3650 D040~I Z=I / K Z
3660 EMAX=-l,OE-38
3670 D0390IX=lrKX
3680 DO39oI Y =i r K Y
3690 I F ( S ( I X I I Y I I Z ) - E M A X ) ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
3700 380 E MA X =S ( I X I I Y I I Z)
371 0 I X M =I X
3720 I Y M=I Y
3730 S D( I ZI I ) =S ( I X I I Y I I Z)
3740 390 CONTI NUE
3750 S ( I X M I I Y M I I Z ) =~. O E - ~~
3760 400 CONTI NUE
3770 C CALCULATE E QUI V. SINGLE WHEEL L O A D
3780 D0410I =lrKZ
* 000 410 E S W L ( I ) = S D ( I I ~ ) * S Q R T ( R E S W ~ + Z ~ ( I ) )
3800 S R A R E A =S Q R T C C A R E A )
381 0 DO 490 I =lrNAL
3820 KS=2
383 0 D O 480 J =lrKZ
3840
3860
3850 V l =T A ( J , I ) / S R A R E A
3870 C B R ( J , I ) = U ( l ) * ( E S WL ( J ) / C A R E A )
3880 G O TO 470
3890 420 CONTI NUE
3900 DO 430 K=KS1170
391 0 I F <V( K ) . GT . Vl ) G O TO 450
3920 430 CONTI NUE
3930 WR I T E (6,440)
394 0 440 F OR MAT ( 5X, ' ***** T HI C K NE S S VAL UE C O ' J S I DE R E D E X C E E DS LI MI TS OF CURV
395 0 &E ***** * )
3960 G O TO 4500
3970 450 UL=ALOGIO(U(K-I))-((V~-V(K-I))*(AL~SIO(U(K-~))-ALOGIO(U(K)
3980 +) ) ) / ( V ( K ) - V ( K - I ) )
3990 ul=lO.**uL
4 000 C B R ( J , I ) = U l * ( E S WL ( J ) / C A R E A )
401 0 F CTN = CBR(J r1)
000 IF(M0DE . GE. 11)CALL C V R G ( * ~O O I *453r F CTN, T R G T t ZC K Z) , MODE I I TCT)
4030 460 CONTI NUE
404 0 K S=K
4050 470 C ONT I NUE
4060 480 CONTI NUE
407 0 490 C ONT I NUE
4080 C ************ P R I N T P AGE 3
4090 I F C MO DE .EQ. 11) ACN = ( Z( K Z) *2. 54) * ( Z ( K Z ) * 2 . 5 4 ) /1000.0 /
4100 8 (0.878/FCTN - 0.01249 1
4110 D O 500 I=I~KZ
T A ( J , I ) =Z( J ) / B ( I )
I F(V1 .NE.O.) GO T O 420
25/10/85
No. 1
ICAO 9357 PARTS3 ** 484343b OOLSbb7 929
3-288 Aerodrome Desim Manual
4120
4130
4140
.ooo
4160
4170
41 90
4200
4210
4220
4230
4240
4250
4260
4270
4290
4300
431 0
4320
4330
4340
4350
0 000
.ooo
.ooo
000
4370
4380
4 390
4400
441 0
4420
4430
4440
4450
4460
4470
4490
4500
451 0
4520
4530
4540
4550
4560
4570
4 590
4600
461 0
4620
463 0
4640
4180
4 280
4480
4580
510 F OR MAT ( / / / rl H r29HT HE ACN F OR A SU3CRADE CBR OF r 13 r 4 H I S r F 7 .
1 / / / I
I F(MODE.LT.11) GO T O 4500
520 CONTI NUE
4500 C ONTI NU
GO TO 10
4000 WR I T E (6,7000)
7000 F OR MAT ( / / / rl HUr 15x1 15HE ND OF P ? 33L E M 1
STOP
END
SUBROUTI NE C V R G ( * I * r FCTNr T R G T r Ylllr MODE0 I T C T 1
I F ( 1T C T .EQ. 0 1 GO T O 30
I T C T = I T C T + 1
I F ( 1T C T .GT. 20 1 GO TO 4 0
I F (ABS ((F CTN- TRGT1 / TRGT) .LT. 0.0311 1 G O TO 40
I F ( ABS ( ( Y 222 - Y 111)/ Y 1 1 1 ) .LT. 9.3001 ) GO T O 40
I F ( F C T N .LT. TRGT 1 GO TO 13
v222= Yt l l
X222 = F C tN
G O TO 2 0
10 Y333 = Yl l l
X333 = FCTN
2 0 Ylll Y 222 + (Y333 - Y 222) * ( T R GT - x2221 / t x333- x222 1
I F ( M0DE .GE. 11) Ylll = Y 222 + ( Y 333 - Y 222) * (ALOGl O(TRGT) -
RETURN 1
30 I T C T = 1
Y 222 = 0.3
x222 = 0.0
I F ( M0DE .GE. I t ) X222 = 300.0
Y 333 = Ylll
C SUBROUTINE CVRG CONVERGES ON REFEREVCE THICKNESS
8 AL OGl O( X222) ) / ( AL OGl O( X333) - AL 3Gl O( X222) )
2.
1 .> I C A O 7357 PARTa3 * X q84143b 0037668 865
Part 3. - Pavements 3-289
c
4650
4660
X333 = F C T N
G O TO 20
4670 40 I T C T = 0
4680 RETURN 2
4690 E N D
Note. - Pages 3-291 t o 3-298 deleted by Amendment No. 1.
25/10/85
No. 1
APPEND I X 3
PAVEMENT DESIGN AND EVALUATI ON GRAPHS PROVIDED BY FRANCE
Notes:
1) The pavement desi gn and eval uati on graphs i ncl uded i n thi s
Appendix are based on the same ai rcraf t characteri sti cs (track,
wheel base, standard ti re.pressure) as those used to cal cul ate
the ACN.
2) The wei ghts shown i n the graphs represent stati c l oads on the
mai n undercarri age l eg.
3) The ri gi d pavement graphs assume that the ti re pressure remai ns
constant at the val ue qo shown i n the graphs. Should the actual
ti re pressure q be di f f erent from q" , proceed as fol l ows:
a) I f P is the wei ght of the undercarri age l eg i n questi on,
fi nd the wei ght PI produci ng the same contact area at the
pressure q" usi ng the rel ati onshi p:
p l = P
q q
b) Consul t the graph to determi ne stress crl produced by the
weight pl i n the sl ab i n questi on.
c) The val ue cr requi red i s then gi ven by the rel ati onshi p:
a q
3 =-0
o q
4 ) The f l exi bl e pavement graphs assume that the ti re pressure
remai ns constant at the val ue qa shown i n the graphs. I f the
actual tire pressure q does not di ffer by more than ? 0.3 MPa
from qo, it i s accepted that the effects of the pressure may
be di sregarded.
Conversely, a correcti on i s made i n accordance wi th the
fol l owi ng :
1%
h =h" ( q expressed i n MPa)
3-299
3-300 Aerodrome Design Manual
~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~ ~ ~_ _ _ _ ~ ~~
Where h i s the thi ckness sought for pressure q
h" i s the thickness read on the graph drawn up for pressure 9'.
5) Figures A3-1 to A3-10 are provided as examples.
Graphs f or a l l types of aircraft: are available on request from:
MINISTERE DES TRANSPORTS
Di recti on GGnErale de 1' Avi ati on Civile
Servi ce Technique des Bases AEriennes
246, rue Lecourbe - 75732 PARIS CEDEX 1 5 - FRANCE
I C A O 9357 P A R T t 3 t t = 4843436 0039673 35T
Part 3.- Pavements 3-301
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
A 300 B2
Main Leg
Tire pressure: 1.23 FiPa
;BR
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure A3-1
- 7
- 8
- 9
- 10
~
ICAO 9157 PA RT t 3 t t 48454hb 0019b7i l 29b D
3-302 ~~ ~~~ ~ Aerodrome Design Manual
RIGID PAVEMENT
A 300 B2
Main Leg
Tire pressure : 1. 23 FPa
Figure A3-2
ICAO 7157 PA RT t 3 t t 44414Lb 0019673 122
a
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-303
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
A 300 B4 - A310
Main Leg
T i re pressure: 1.41 EPa
Fi gure A3-3
ICAO 9557 PART* 3 ** 4B414Lb DOL9674 Ob9 W
3-304 Aerodrome Design Manual
RIGID PAVEMENT
A 300 B4 - A310
Main Leg
Tire pressure: 1.41
Figure A3-4
Part 3. - Pavements 3-305
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
B 727 (al l series)
Main Leg
T i re pressure: 1.09 MPa
Fi gure A3-5
3-306 Aerodrome Design Manual
RI GI D PAVEHENT
A 727 (al l series)
Main Leg
Tire pressure: 1. 09 MPa
Figure A3-6
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** = LI84143b 0039677 878
Part 3. - Pavements 3-307
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
B 737 (al l series)
Main L eg
T i r e pressure: 1.02 m a
CBR
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- s
- 6
- 7
- 0
- 9
-10
115
220
0
ESW (T)
Fi gure A3-7
3-308 Aerodrome Des i gn Manual
RIGID PAVEMENT
B 737 ( al l series)
Main Le g
Ti r e p r e s s u r e : 1.02 MPa
m
m
QI
C
.x
0
.rl
E-c
QI
U
k
QI
c
U
u
0
F i g u r e A3-8
ICAO 9157 PA RT* 3 ** = 4t34L4Lb 0037679 640
Part 3. - Pavements 3-309
R
ESW (T)
Figure A3-9
ICAO 9557 PART* 3 ** l l 84LYLb 0059680 362 U
3-310 Aerodrome Design Manual
RIGID PAVEMENT
B 747 (series 100 - 200, E, C, F - SR)
Main Leg
Tire pressure : 1.45 MPa
PA
- 5.5
-5.0
- 4.5
-4. 0
- 3.5
rn
rn
a
I-(
u
m
rd
Id
1
X
d
a
Fr,
0
rl
-3.0 4
-2.5 -fl
E
(II
r(
0)
a
LL
- 2.0
-1.5
Figure A3-10
ICAO 9357 P AR T *3 t f = 4843436 0019683 2T9
AP P ENDI X 4
BACKGROUND I NFORMATI ON ON THE UNI TED STATES PRACTI CE
FOR THE DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF PAVEMENTS
1. Pri or FAA Kethod of soi l cl assi f i cati on
1.1 Background
The FAA method of soi l cl assi f i cati on which was used pri or to the adopti on
of the Uni fi ed Soi l Cl assi fi cati on System is presented i n thi s Appendix. The reason
for i ncl udi ng the method i n thi s Appendix is that many past records contai n references
to the FAA method and thi s Appendix al l ows the reader to converse i n the FAA cl assi f i ca-
ti on method.
1.2 Soi l cl assi f i cati on
a) While the resul ts of i ndi vi dual tests i ndi cate certai n physi cal
properti es of the soi l , the pri nci pal val ue is deri ved from the
fact that, through correl ati on of the data so obtai ned, it i s
possi bl e to prepare an engi neeri ng cl assi fi cati on of soi l s rel ated
to thei r f i el d behavi our. Such a cl assi f i cati on i s presented i n
Fi gure A4-1.
b) The soi l cl assi f i cati on requi res basi cal l y the perf ormance of three
tests -- the mechani cal anal ysi s, determi nati on of the l i qui d
l i mi t , and determi nati on of the pl asti c limit. Tests f or these
properti es have been uti l i zed for many years as a means of
eval uati ng soi l f or use i n the constructi on of embankments and
pavement subgrades. These tests i denti f y a parti cul ar soi l as
havi ng physi cal properti es similar to those of a soi l whose
performance and behaviour are known. Therefore, the test soi l
can be expected to possess the same characteri sti cs and degree of
stabi l i ty under l i ke condi ti ons of moisture and climate.
c) As can be discerned from Figure A4-1, the mechani cal anal -yses
provi de the i nformati on to permi t separati on of the granul ar
soi l s from the fi ne-grai ned soi l s, whereas the several groups are
arranged i n order of i ncreasi ng val ues of l i qui d limit and
pl asti ci ty i ndex. The di vi si on between granul ar and fi ne-grai ned
soi l s i s made upon the requi rement that granul ar soi l s must have
less than 35 per cent of silt and cl ay combined. Determination of
the sand, si l t, and cl ay fracti ons i s made on that porti on of the
sampl e passi ng the No. 10 si eve because thi s i s consi dered to be
the cri ti cal porti on wi th respect to changes i n moi sture and
other climatic i nfl uences. The cl assi f i cati on of the soi l s wi th
respect to di fferent percentages of sand, silt, and cl ay i s
shown i n Fi gure A4-2.
3-311
I C A O 9357 PA RT* 3 tt m 48434Lb 0039683 073 m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-313
Group E-1 i ncl udes wel l -graded, coarse, granul ar soi l s that
are stabl e even under poor drai nage condi ti ons and are not
general l y subj ect to detri mental f rost heave. Soi l s of thi s
group may conform to wel l -graded sands and gravel s wi th l i ttl e
or no f i nes. I f f rost is a factor, the soi l shoul d be checked
to determi ne the percentage of the materi al less than 0.02 mm
i n di ameter .
Group E-2 i s similar to Group E-1 but has less coarse sand and
may contai n greater percentages of si l t and cl ay. Soi l s of
thi s group may become unstabl e when poorl y drai ned as wel l as
bei ng subj ect to f rost heave to a l i mi ted extent.
Groups E-3 and E-4 i ncl ude the f i ne, sandy soi l s of i nf eri or
gradi ng. They may consi st of fi ne cohesi onl ess sand or sand-cl ay
types wi th a fai r-to-good qual i ty of bi nder. They are less
stabl e than Group E-2 soi l s under adverse condtti ons of drai nage
and f rost acti on.
Group E-5 compri ses al l poorl y graded soi l s havi ng more than
35 per cent but less than 45 per cent of si l t and clay combined.
Thi s group al so i ncl udes al l soi l s wi th less than 45 per cent
of si l t and cl ay but whi ch have pl asti ci ty i ndi ces of 10 to 15.
These soi l s are suscepti bl e to f rost acti on.
Group E-6 consi sts of the si l ts and sandy si l ts having zero-to-low
pl asti ci ty. These soi l s are f ri abl e and qui te stabl e when dry or
at l ow moi sture contents. They l ose stabi l i ty and become very
spongy when wet and, f or thi s reason, are di f f i cul t to compact
unl ess the moi sture content is caref ul l y control l ed. Capi l l ary
rise i n the soi l s of thi s group is very rapi d; and they, more than
soi l s of any other group, are subj ect to detri mental f rost heave.
Group E-7 i ncl udes the si l ty cl ay, sand cl ay, cl ayey sands, and
cl ayey silts. They range from fri abl e to hard consi stency when
dry and are pl asti c when wet. These soi l s are sti f f and dense
when compacted at the proper moi sture content. Vari ati ons i n
moi sture are apt to produce a detri mental volume change.
Capi l l ary f orces acti ng i n the soi l are strong, but the rate
of capi l l ary rise i s rel ati vel y sl ow and f rost heave, whi l e
detri mental , i s not as severe as i n the E-6 soi l s.
Group E-8 soi l s are similar to the E-7 soi l s but the hi gher l i qui d
limits i ndi cate a greater degree of compressi bi l i ty expansi on,
shri nkage, and l ower stabi l i ty under adverse moi sture condi ti ons.
Group E-9 compri ses the si l ts and cl ays contai ni ng mi caceous and
diatomaceous materials. They are hi ghl y el asti c and very di f f i cul t
to compact. They have low stabi l i ty i n both the wet and dry state
and are subj ect to f rost heave.
3-314 Aerodrome Design Manual
9) Group E-10 i ncl udes the si l ty clay and clay soils that form hard
cl ods when dry and are very pl asti c when wet. They are very
compressi bl e, possess the properti es of expansi on, shri nkage,
and el asti ci ty to a high degree and are subj ect to f rost heave.
Soi l s of thi s group are more di f f i cul t to compact than those of
the E-7 or E-8 groups and requi re careful rnntrol of moi sture to
produce a dense, stabl e f i l l .
10) Group E-11 soi l s are similar to those of the E-10 group but have
hi gher l i qui d limits. Thi s group i ncl udes al l soils wi th l i qui d
limits between 70 and 80 and pl asti ci ty i ndi ces over 30.
11) Group E-12 comprises al l soils havi ng l i qui d limits over 80
regardl ess of thei r pl asti ci ty i ndi ces. They may be hi ghl y
pl asti c cl ays that are extremel y unstabl e i n the presence of
moi sture, or they map be very elastic soils contai ni ng mica,
di atoms, or organi c matter i n excessive amounts. Whatever
the cause of thei r i nstabi l i ty, they wl l l requi re the maximum
i n correcti ve measures.
12) Group E-13 encompasses organic swamp soils such as muck and
peat which are recognized by examination i n the f i el d. I n
thei r natural state, they are characteri zed by very low
stabi l f ty and densi ty and very hi gh moi sture content.
1.3 Speci al condi ti ons affecti ng fi ne-grai ned soi l s
a) A soi l may possi bl y contai n certai n consti tuents that wi l l gi ve
test resul ts which would pl ace it, accordi ng to Fi gure A4-1, i n
more than one group. This could happen wlth soils contal ni ng
mica, di atoms, or a l arge proporti on of col l oi dal materi al .
Such overl appi ng can bo avoided by the use of Fi gure A4-3 i n
conj uncti on wi th Fi gure A4-1, wi th excepti on of E-5 soi l s, which
shoul d be cl assi f i ed stri ctl y by Fi gure A4-1.
b) Soi l s wi th pl asti ci ty i ndi ces hi gher than correspondi ng to the
maximuml i qui d limit of the parti cul ar group are not of common
occurrence. When encountered, they are pl aced i n the hi gher
numbered group as shown i n Fi gure A4- 3. Thi s is j usti f i ed by
the f act that f or equal l i qui d limits the hi gher the pl asti ci ty .
i ndex, the l ower the pl asti c limit (the pl asti c limit is the
poi nt when a sl i ght i ncrease i n moi sture causes the soi l to
rapi dl y lose stabi l i ty)
1.4 Coarse material retai ned on No. 10 si eve
Only that porti on of the sampl e passi ng the NCJ. 10 sieve is consi dered i n
the above-descri bed cl assi fi cati on. Obvi ousl y, the presence of material retai ned on the
No. 10 sieve shoul d serve to improve the over- al l stabi l i ty of the soi l . For thi s
reason, upgradi ng the soi l from 1 to 2 classes is permi tted when the persentage of the
total sampl e retai ned on rhe No. 10 si eve exceeds 45 per cent f or soils of the E-l to
E-4 groups and 55 per cent f or the others. Thi s appl i es when the caarse f racti on
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 * X = 484343b 0039685 9 4 4
Part 3 .- Pavements 3-315
consi sts of reasonabl y sound materi al whi ch i s f ai rl y wel l graded from the maximum si ze
down to the No. 10 sieve si ze. Stones or rock fragments scattered through a soi l shoul d
not be consi dered of suffi ci ent benefi t to warrant upgradi ng.
1.5 Subgrade cl assi f i cati on
a) For each soi l group, there are corresponding subgrade classes.
These classes are based on the performance of the parti cul ar
soi l as a subgrade for ri gi d or fl exi bl e pavements under
di fferent condi ti ons of drai nage and frost. The subgrade
class is determi ned from the resul ts of soi l tests and the
i nformati on obtai ned by means of the soi l survey and a study
of cl i matol ogi cal and topographi cal data. The subgrade classes
and thei r rel ati onshi p to the soi l groups are shown i n
Fi gure A4- 4. The pref i x 'IF" i ndi cates subgrade cl asses for
f l exi bl e pavements. These subgrade cl asses determi ne the
total pavement thi ckness for a gi ven ai rcraf t l oad. A bri ef
descri pti on of the cl asses w i l l be presented here.
b) Subgrades cl assed as Fa furni sh adequate subgrade support
wi thout the addi ti on of sub-base materi al . The soi l 's
val ue as a subgrade materi al decreases as the number
i ncreases.
c) Good and poor drai nage refer to the subsurface soi l
drai nage.
1) Poor drai nage i s defi ned for the purpose of thi s manual
as soi l that cannot be drai ned because of i ts composition
or because of the condi ti ons at the si te. Soi l s pri mari l y
composed of si l ts and cl ay f or al l practi cal purposes are
impervious; and as long as a water source is avai l abl e,
the soi l 's natural af f i ni ty f or moi sture w i l l render these
materials unstabl e. These fi ne-grai ned soi l s cannot be
drained and are cl assi f i ed as poor drai nage as i ndi cated
i n Fi gure A4- 4. A granul ar soi l that would drain and remain
stabl e except f or condi ti ons at the si te, such as hi gh water
tabl e, f l at terrai n, or i mpervi ous strata, shoul d al so be
desi gnated as poor drai nage. I n some cases, thi s condi ti on
may be corrected by the use of subdrai ns.
2) Good drai nage i s defi ned as a condi ti on where the i nternal
soi l drai nage characteri sti cs are such that the material can
and does remain wel l drai ned resul ti ng i n a stabl e subgrade
material under al l condi ti ons.
3-316 Aerodrome Design Manual
Fi gure A4- 3. Cl assi f i cati on chart for fi ne-grai ned soi l s
Soi l Group
E-1
E- 2
E-3
E-4
E-5
E-6
E- 7
E-8
E-9
E-10
E-11
E-12
E-13
Subgrade Class
Good Drainage
No Frost or Frost
Fa
Fa
F1
F1
Poor Drainage
No Frost
Fa
F1
F2
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10
Frost
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
Fh
F7
F8
F9
F10
F10
FL0
Kot sui tabl e for subgrade
Figure A4-4. Ai rport pavi ng subgrade cl assi f i cat i on
ICAO 7357 PARTS3 t f m 444343b 0039687 7L7 m
Par t 3 . - Pavements 3-317
d) There is a tendency to overl ook the detri mental ef f ects of f rost
i n pavement design. The ef f ects of f rost are wi del y known;
however, experience shows that al l too often pavements are damaged
or destroyed by f rost that was not properl y taken i nto account
i n the desi gn. Most i norgani c soi l s contai ni ng 3 per cent or more
of grai ns fi ner than 0.02 mm i n di ameter, by wei ght, are f rost
suscepti bl e f or pavement design purposes. The subgrade soi l shoul d
be cl assi f i ed ei ther as "NO Frost'' or "Frost" dependi ng on one of
the two fol l owi ng condi ti ons:
1) No frost shoul d be used i n the desi gn when the average f rost
penetrati on anti ci pated is less than the thi ckness of the
pliirement sect i on.
2) Frost shoul d be used when the anti ci pated average f rost penetrati on
exceeds the pavement secti ons. The desi gn shoul d consi der i ncl udi ng
non-frost suscepti bl e material bel ow the requi red sub-base to
mi ni mi ze or el i mi nate the detri mental frost effect on the subgrade.
The extent of the subgrade protecti on needed depends on the soi l
and the surface and subsurface environment at the site.
2. Development of pavement desi gn curves
2. 1 Background
a) The pavement desi gn curves presented i n Chapter 4, 4 . 4 of thi s manual
were devel oped usi ng the Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o (CBR) method f or
f l exi bl e pavements and the Westergaard edge l oadi ng anal ysi s for
ri gi d pavements. The curves are constructed for the gross wei ght
of the ai rcraft assumi ng 95 per cent of the gross wei ght i s carri ed
on the main landing gear assembly and 5 per cent of the gross wei ght
i s carri ed on the nose gear assembl y. Ai rcraft traffi c is assumed
to be normal l y di stri buted across the pavement i n the transverse
di recti on. Pavements are desi gned on the basi s of stati c l oad
anal ysi s. I mpact l oads are not consi dered to i ncrease the pavement
thi ckness requi rements.
b) General i zed desi gn curves have been devel oped for si ngl e, dual , and
dual tandem main landing gear assemblies. These generalized curves
do not represent speci f i c ai rcraf t but are prepared for a range of
ai rcraf t characteri sti cs which are representati ve of al l ci vi l
ai rcraft except wi de body. The ai rcraf t characteri sti cs assumed
for each l andi ng gear assembl y are shown i n Tabl e A4-1, A4-2 and
A4 -3.
3-318
~~ ~~
Aer odr ome Desi gn Manual
-
2. 2 Fl exi bl e pavement s
a) The desi gn cur ves f or f l exi bl e pavement s ar e based on t he CBR met hod
of desi gn. The CBR i s t he r at i o of t he l oad r equi r ed t o pr oduce a
speci f i ed penet r at i on of a st andar d pi st on i nt o the mat er i al i n
quest i on t o t he l oad r equi r ed t o pr oduce t he same penet r at i on in a
st andar d wel l - gr aded, cr ushed l i mest one. Pavenent t hi cknesses
necessar y to pr ot ect var i ous CBR val ues f r om shear f ai l ur e have been
devel oped t hr ough t est t r ack st udi es and obser vat i ons of i n- ser vi ce
pavement s. These t hi cknesses have been devel oped f or si ngl e wheel
l oadi ngs. Assembl i es ot her t han si ngl e wheel ar e desi gned by
comput i ng t he equi val ent si ngl e wheel l oad f or t he assembl y based
on def l ect i on. Once t he equi val ent si ngl e wheel i s est abl i shed, t he
pavement sect i on t hi ckness can be det er m- l ned f r om t he r el at i onshi ps
di scussed above.
b) Load r epet i t i ons ar e i ndi cat ed on t he desi gn cur ves i n t er ms of
annual depar t ur es. The annual depar t ur es ar e assumed t o occur over
a 20- year l i f e. I n t he devel opment of t he desi gn cur ves, depar t ur es
ar e conver t ed t o cover ages. For f l exi bl e pavement s, cover age i s
a measur e of t he number of maximum st r ess appl i cat i ons t hat occur
on t he sur f ace of t he pavement due t o t he appl i ed t r af f i c. One
cover age occur s when al l poi nt s on t he pavement sur f ace wi t hi n t he
t r af f i c l ane have been subj ect ed t o one appl i cat i on of mxi mum
st r ess, assumi ng t he st r ess is equal under t he f ul l t i r e pr i nt .
Each pass ( depart ure) of an ai r cr af t can be conver t ed to cover ages
usi ng a si ngl e pass- t o- cover age r at i o whi ch i s devel oped assumi ng
a nor mal di st r i but i on and appl yi ng st andar d st at i st i cal t echni ques.
The pass- t o- cover age r at i os used i n devel opi ng t he f l exi bl e pavement
desi gn cur ves ar e gi ven i n Tabl e A4-4. Annual depar t ur es ar e
conver t ed t o cover ages by mul t i pl yi ng by 20 and di vi di ng t hat pr oduct
by t he pass- t o- cover age r at i o gi ven i n Tabl es A4- 4. Fi gur e A4-5 shows
t he r el at i onshi p bet ween l oad r epet i t i on f act or and cover ages. The
pavement sect i on t hi ckness determ-ined i n accor dance wi t h a) above is
mul t i pl i ed by t he appr opr i at e l oad r epet i t i on f act or ( Fi gur e A4-5) t o
gi ve t he f i nal pavement t hi ckness r equi r ed for var i ous t r af f i c l evel s.
ICAO 9357 PARTa3 t t W 484343b 0039689 59T =
Par t 3. - Pavement s 3-319
Tabl e A4-1. Si ngl e wheel assembl y
Gr oss mass
Ti r e pr essur e
l b (kg) Psi (MN/m2)
30 000
(13 600) 75 (0.52)
45 000
( 20 400) 90 (0.62)
60 000
(27 200) 105 (0.72)
75 000 (34 000) 120 (0.83)
Tabl e h4-2. Dual wheel assembl y
Gr oss mass Ti r e pr essur e
lb
Dual spaci ng
(kg) psi (MN/m2) i n (cm)
50 000 (22 700) 90 (0.55) 20 (51)
100 000
(45 400) 140 (0.97) 23 (58)
150 000
(68 000) 160 (1. l o) 30 (76)
200 000
(90 700) 200 (1.38) 34 (86)
75 000 (34 000) 110 (0.76) 21 (53)
Tabl e A4-3. Dual t andem assembl y
Gr oss mass Ti r e pr essur e
l b
Dual
spaci ng
psi (MN/m2) i n ( 4 i n ( cm> (kg)
Tandem spaci ng
100 000
(45 400) 120 (0.83) 20 (51) 45 (114)
150 000
(68 000) 140 (0.97) 20 (51) 45 (114)
200 000
(90 700) 160 (1.10) 21 (53) 46 (117)
300 000
(136 100) 180 (1.24) 26 (66) 51 (130)
400 000 (181 400) 200 (1.38) 30 (76) 55 (140)
Speci f i c desi gn cur ves ar e pr esent ed f or wi de body ai r cr af t . The ai r cr af t char act er i st i cs
ar e shown on t he desi gn cur ves.
Tabl e A4-4. Pass- t o- cover age r at i os f or f l exi bl e pavement s
Desi gn cur ve
Pass- t o- cover age
r at i o
Si ngl e wheel
Dual wheel
Dual t andem
B-747
DC 10-10
DC 10-30
L-1011
5.18
3.48
1.84
1.85
1.82
1.69
1.81
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ICAO 9357 PA RTf 3 f f m 48434Lb 0039bqL 148 m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-321
P L A B EDGE
P
SINGLE WHEEL
TANGENT
I+----- SL A B EDGE
I
0
0
DUAL TANDEM
TANGENT
S L A B EDGE -1
P o
DUAL WHEEL
TANGENT
SL AB EDGE rn
0 0
SL A B EDGE -40
DUAL TANDEM
PERPENDI CUL AR
P
DUAL TANDEM
ROTATED
Figure A4- 6. Assembly positions for rigid pavement analysis
I
ICAO 9557 PARTS3 ** U L1SYLY5b 0019692 OB Y U
3-322 Aer odr ome Desi gn Manual
2 . 3 Ri gi d pavement s
a) The desi gn of r i gi d ai r por t pavement s is based on t he k' est ergaard
anal ysi s of an edge l oaded sl ab r est i ng on a dense l i qui d f oundat i on.
The edge l oadi ng st r esses ar e r educed by 25 per cent t o account f or
l oad t r ansf er acr oss j oi nt s. Two di f f er ent cases of edge l oadi ng
are covered by t he desi gn curves. Fi gures 4-46 t o 4-54 of Chapt er 4
assume t he l andi ng gear assembl y i s ei t her t angent t o a l ongi t udi nal
j oi nt or per pendi cul ar t o a t r ansver se j oi nt , whi chever pr oduces t he
l ar gest st r ess. Fi gur es 4-56 t o 4-62 of t he same chapt er ar e f or
dual t andem assembl i es and have been rot at ed t hrough an angl e to
pr oduce t he maxi mum edge st r ess. Comput er anal yses wer e per f or med
f or angl es f r om0 to 90 degr ees in 10- degr ee i ncr ement s. Si ngl e and
dual wheel assembl i es wer e anal ysed f or l oadi ngs t angent t o t he edge
onl y as t he st r ess i s maxi mum i n t hat posi t i on. Sket ches of t he vari ous
assembl y posi t i ons ar e shown i n Fi gur e A4- 6.
b) Fat i gue ef f ect s ar e t aken i nt o consi der at i on by conver t i ng t r af f i c
t o coverages. The cover age concept pr ovi des a means of nor mal i zi ng
pavement per f or mance dat a whi ch can consi st of a var i et y of wheel
si zes, spaci ngs and l oads f or pavement s of di f f er ent cr oss sect i ons.
For r i gi d pavement s, cover age is a measur e of t he number ef maxi mum
st r ess appl i cat i ons occur r i ng wi t hi n t he pavement sl ab due t o t he
appl i ed t r af f i c. One cover age occur s when each poi nt i n t he pavement
wi t hi n t he l i mi t s of t he t raf f i c lane has exper i enced a naxi r num st r ess,
assumi ng t he st r ess is equal under t he f ul l t i r e pr i nt . Each pass
( depart ure) of an ai r cr af t can be conver t ed t o cover ages usi ng a
si ngl e pass- t o- cover age r at i o whi ch is devel oped assumi ng a nor mal
di st r i but i on and appl yi ng st andar d st at i st i cal t echni ques. The
pass- t o- cover age r at i os used i n devel opi ng t he r i gi d pavement desi gn
cur ves ar e gi ven i n Tabl e A4- 5. Annual depar t ur es are conver t ed t o
cover ages assumi ng a 20- year desi gn life. Cover ages ar e det er mi ned
by mul t i pl yi ng annual depar t ur es by 20 and di vi di ng t hat pr oduct by
t he pass- t o- cover age r at i o shown in Tabl e A4- 5.
I
Tabl e A4-5. Pass- t o- cover age r at i os f or r i gi d pavement s
Desi gn cur ve Pass- t o- cover age
r at i o
Si ngl e wheel 5 .IS
Dual wheel 3 . 4 8
Dual t andem 3.68
B-747 3.70
DC 10-10 3. 64
DC 10-39 3. 38
L-1011 3. 62
Part 3.- Pavements 3-323
c) After the conversi on of departures to coverages, the sl ab thi ckness
is adj usted i n accordance wi th the fati gue curve devel oped by the
Corps of Engineers from test track data and observation of i n-servi ce
pavements. The fati gue rel ati onshi p is appl i cabl e to the pavement
structure; i .e., the sl ab and foundation are both i ncl uded i n the
rel ati onshi p. The thi ckness of pavement requi red to sustai n
5 000 coverages of the desi gn l oadi ng i s consi dered to be 100 per cent
thi ckness. Any coverage l evel coul d have been sel ected as the
100 per cent thi ckness l evel as l ong as the rel ati ve thi cknesses f or
other coverage l evel s shown i n Fi gure A4-7 i s maintained.
d) Pavement thi ckness requi rements for 5 000 coverages were computed
for vari ous concrete strengths and subgrade moduli. Allowable
concrete stress f or 5 000 coverages was computed by di vi di ng the
concrete fl exural strength by 1.3 (analogous to a saf ety f actor).
The pavement thi ckness necessary to produce the al l owabl e concrete
stress f or 5 000 coverages i s then mul ti pl i ed by the percentage
thi ckness shown i n Fi gure A4-7 for other coverage l evel s.
3. Pri or FAA pavement eval uati on curves
3.1 To f aci l i tate the pavement eval uati on pol i cy descri bed i n Chapter 4, 4.4.27.2
the eval uati on curves used by the FAA previ ousl y are reproduced as Fi gures A4-8 to A4-21
of thi s Appendix.
130
I20
I IO
IO 0
90
IO 20 30 40 50 60 70
COVERAGE IN THOUSANDS
80 90 100
Figure A4-7. Percentage thickness vs. coverages
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ICAO 9157 PA RT* 3 ** R 484h 41b 0019bqb 72T
e
INCHES
8 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 I 5 60 65
INCHES
3-326 Aerodrome Design Manual
Figure A4- 9. Fl exi bl e pavement eval uati on curves - dual wheel gear
ICAO 9357 PA RT* 3 ** = 484343b 0039697 666 m
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-327
CENTIMETRES
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160
I I I
I
INCHES
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
180 L
160
-
140
-
120
-
100
-
go
-
80
-
7 0 -
60
-
50
-
40
-
30
-
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8 10
L
I NOUS SUR FACI
AREAS
15 20 25
INCHES
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I a I , I I I I I , l , j l l
20 30 4 0 5Q 60 7 0 80 90 100 f 2O 140 160
CENTIMETRES
CRITICAL AREAS - TOTAL PAVEMENT THl CKNESS
Fi gure A4-10. Fl exi bl e pavement eval uati on curves - dual tandem gear
317 P 2
t
v)
u)
227
180
20 25 38 51 64 76 89 102 127 152 178 203 229 254 cm
I I 1 1 L 1 1 1 I 1 1 L 1 1
CRITICAL AREAS-TOTAL PAVEMENT THICKNESS
in
in
CRITICAL AREAS - TOTAL PAVEMENT THICKNESS
I I 1 I I I I 1 I I I 1 I 1
20 25 38 51 64 76 89 102 127 152 178 203 229 254 cm
kg
272
227
181
136
113
91
18 25 3a 51 76
I I I I I I I
114 152 254 crn
I
I I I I I I I I I crn
18 20 25 38 51 76 114 152 254
Figure A4-12. Fl exi bl e pavement evaluation curves - DC10- 10
kg
318 -
272 -
227 - .-
8
x
Y
I
- 2
=x
B
t
$
x
181
a
3
- 2
Q
136
113
-
91 -
15 18 20 23 25 38 51 64 76 102 114 127 140 152 254 cm
I 1 , I 1 1 I I 1 I I l l 1
Iha
CRITICAL AREAS-TOTAL PAVEMENT THICKNESS
CRITICAL AREAS-TOTAL PAVEMENT THICKNESS
I I I 1 I I
15 25 38 64 102 152
I cm
254
Figure A4- 13. Flexible pavement eval.uatf.on curves - DC10-10
kg
272 -
227 -
0
0
0
r
181
- x
-
I
3
v)
136
- 5
a
z
z
B
113
- v)
v )
a
91 -
68
-
15 18 20 23 25 38 51 64 76 127 254 cm
1 I 1 I I I I I I I 1
CRI TI CAL AREAS-TOTAL PAVEMENT THI CKNESS
I I I I I
15 25 51 76 127
254 cm
Fi gure A4-14. Flexible pavement evaluation curves - L-1011
t
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I C A O 9x57 PARTx 3 *t l t 845Yl b 0059702 853 m
3-332 Aerodrome Design Manual
MPa
4.83
4.14
3.45
2.76
2.07
1.38
PSI
70 0
Concrete Working Stress
and Slab Thlckness vs.
Gross Alrcraft Mass
for Single Wheel Gear
600
500
f m
c
rr
3
L
400
300
eo0
Figure A4-15. Rigid pavement evaluation curves - s i ngl e
wheel gear
in
16
I S
14
13
cm
41
36
a
It
IO
9
e
7
6
ICAO 9357 PA RT t 3 f t 484343b 0039703 79T
Part 3 . - Pavements 3-333
MPa
4.83 -
4.1 4--
3.45-
Psi
700
Concrete Working Stress
and Slab Thickness vs.
Gross Aircraft Mass
for Dual Gear
I in
cm
:
c
3i
.=
- x
2.76
2.07--
1.38-
Fi gure A4-16. Rigid pavement evaluation curves -
dual wheel gear
41
36
30
25
20
15
MPa
4.83
4.1 4
3.45
2.76
2.07
1.38
Psi
700
Concrete Working Stress
and Slab Thlckness vs.
Gross Aircraft Mass
\; \ ~~ h ~ I ~
\ , \ ,\! , !---\-. .
\a ~- \ .
. . ~. Dual Tandem Gear
7
In cm
n
n
E
3i
.-
f
F
Figure A4-17. Ri gi d paverwnt: evaluation C : I I KV ~ S - dual
tandem -car
1
41
36
30
25
20
I C A O 9357 PART* 3 *ct m 48434Lb 0039705 562 m
Part 3. - Pavements 3-335
MPa
4.83
4.14
3.45
2.76
2.07
1.38
Psi
70 0
600
500
u)
W
u)
(0
I-
O
X
a
E
400
300
200
in
22
21
20
IS
18
u)
v)
17 W
z
Y
16 t-
X
4
-1
cn
u
m
I 5
14
13
12
I I
IO
C : r n
56
51
$6
$1
36
30
25
Fi gure A4-18. Ri gi d pavement eval uati on curves - B-747
v
MPa
4.83
4.1 4
3.45
2.76
2.07
1.38
Psi
70 0
600
500
u)
u)
w
U
k
u
z
x
9 400
a
300
200
Figure A4-19. Rigid pavement cval.uation curves - DC 10-10
in
22
21
20
10
I 6
u)
u)
17 W
Z
Y
16 I-
I
<
-I
cn
I!
m
15
14
I 3
12
I 1
IO
cm
-56
I
!
I
I
51
46
41
36
,30
25
ICAO 9157 PART* 3 ** 4 B q L 4 1 b 0019707 335
Part 3. - Pavements 3-337
MPa
4.83
4.1 4
3.45
2.7E
2-01
1.31
Psi
70 0
600
500
u)
W
w
a
G
0
x
p 400
z
a
300
200
10-30
i6
51
t6
41
36
30
25
I C A O 9357 PART* 3 ** M 48454L b 0039708 235 =
3-338 Aerodrome Des ian Manual
MPa
4.83-
4.1 4
3.45
2.76.
2-07.
1.38
Pal
70 0
600
500
u)
v)
W
a
ti
(3
z
X
p 400
-
a
. 300
200
Fi gure A4-21. Rigid pavement eval uati on curves - L-1011
i n
22
21
20
19
I8
v)
v)
i f w
Z
Y
I6 t-
X
m
<
A
In
v
15
14
13
I 2
I I
IO
ICAO 9257 PA RT * 3 ** m 484242b 0029709 208 m
AP P ENDI X 5
ACNS FOR SEVERAL AIRCRAFT TYPES
1. I n trod uc t i on
1.1 For conveni ence, several ai rcraft types currentI y i n use have been
eval uated on ri gi d and fl exi bl e pavements usi ng the computer programmes in Appendix 2
and the resul ts tabul ated i n Tabl e A5-1. The two al l -up masses shown i n column 2 f or
each ai rcraf t type are respecti vel y the maximum apron (ramp) mass and a representati ve
operati ng mass empty. To compute the ACN for any i ntermedi ate val ue, proceed on the
assumpti on that the ACN vari es l i nearl y between the operati ng mass empty and the maximum
apron mass.
3-339
mB2
Airbus
mB2
Airbus
mB4
Ai rbus
mB4
Airbus
mB4
Airbus
Am-600
Airbus
Airbus
A3m-6mR
Air&
A310-200
Airtus
A310-2m
Airtus
A310-2EK)
Airlxls
A310-300
Airbus
A310-300
Airbus
A320-loo
Ai r bus
Dual
A320-loo
Airbus
m
A32Flrn
Airbus
Dudl Tptxlm
31/8/89
No. 2
137 m 47.0
85 9lO
142 OOo 47.0
85 910
l5oooo 47.0
88180
157 OOO 47.0
88 330
165 OOo 47.0
88 505
165 OOO 47.0
87 190
170 OOO 47.4
85 033
171 700 47.4
85 033
132 Wl 46.7
76 616
138 6m 46.7
76 747
142 Wl 46.7
75 %1
1%ooo 47.0
7? 037
157 Wl 47.4
78 93
66ooo 47.1
37 203
68ooo 47.1
33 700
68 OOO 47.1
40 243
1.2
1.29
1.39
1.48
1.29
1.29
1.35
1.35
1.23
1.3
1.33
1.42
1.49
1.28
1.34
1.12
Table A5-1. ACNs or several aircraft types on r i g i d and f l exi bl e pavements
t
a
a
a
I < ICAO 9357 PA RTS3 S t = 444243b 0039732 466
Part 3. - Pavements 3-341
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A32G-200 73 500 47.0
Ai rh 39 748
Dual
A32G-200 73 500 47.0
Airbus 40 291
DudL T ~T K ! ~
BAC 1-11 39 690 47.5
Series 400 22 498
MC 1-11 44 679 47.5
Series 475 23 451
BAC 1-11 47 400 47.5
Seri es 500 24 757
BAe 146 37 308 46.0
Serfes 100 23 OOO
Bl k3 146 37 3x3 46.0
Seri es 100 23 OCX3
BAe 146 40600 47.1
Series 2Qo 23 OOO
BAe 146 40600 47.1
Series 200 23 OOO
B707-12oB 117 027 46.7
57 833
B707-32oB 148778 46.0
64 764
B707-32OC 152 407 46.7
(Freighter)
61 463
B707-32OC 152 407 46.7
(Convertible)
67 269
B707-320/420 143 335 46.0
64682
B720 104326 47.4
50 258
B720B 106 594 46.4
52 163
B727-100 77 110 47.6
41 322
B727-100C 73 028 47.8
41 322
1.45
1.21
0.93
0.57
1.08
0.80
0.52
0.88
0.61
1.17
1.24
1.24
1.24
1.24
1.00
1 . 00
1.14
1.09
44 46 48 50 38 40 44 50
20 22 23 25 19 19 m 24
--------
18 22 26 30 19 21 26 35
9 10 11 13 9 10 11 14
, __- - - - - - -
25 26 28 29 22 24 27 29
--------
13 13 14 15 11 12 13 15
22
--------
25 27 28 19 24 28 31
10 11 12 13 9 10 12 1';
--------
32 34 35 36 251 30 33 35
15 16 16 17 13 13 15 17
18 x) 22 23 17 18 20 24
10 11 12 13 10 10 11 13
16 18 19 21 13 16 19 23
9 10 11 12 8 9 11 13
22 23 25 26 19 21 23 27
11 12 13 14 10 10 11 13
19 21 23 24 16 20 22 27
10 11 12 12 8 10 11 13
--------
--------
--------
--------
28 33 39 46 31 34 41 54
--------
12 12 15 17 13 14 15 20
38 46 54 62 42 47 57 72
13 14 17 20 15 15 17 22
--------
40 48 57 66 44 49 60 76
13 14 16 19 14 15 17 21
40 48 57 66 44 49 60 76
--------
--------
14 15 18 21 16 17 19 24
36 43 52 59 40 44 54 69
13 14 17 20 15 15 17 22
25 30 37 42 29 31 39 51
10 11 13 16 11 12 14 18
25 30 37 42 29 31 39 51
10 11 13 16 11 12 14 18
46 48 51 53 41 43 49 54
22 23 25 26 20 20 22 26
43 45 48 50 39 40 46 51
22 23 25 26 20 21 22 26
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
31/8/89
No. 2
~PLl v ami )
B737-200
( - 1
B737-300
B737-300
B737-400
B737-5W
B747-103
B747-1oc)B
B727-200 78 471 48.5
( S t i X d d ) 44 293
B727-200 84 005 48.0
44 270
B727-200 86 636 47.7
(Aavaacea) 44 347
B727-200 89 675 . 46.9
kfwnCd) 44 470
B727-200 95 254 46.5
( - 1 45 677
B737-100 44 361 46.2
26 581
B737-200 45 722 46.4
27 170
B737-200 52 616 45.5
27 125
B737-m 52 616 45.5
27 125
B737-200/2(MC 53 297 46.4
!pmmncea) 29 257
B737-200LXXC 56 699 46.3
28 965
58 332 46.0
23 620
61 462 45.9
32 904
61 462 45.9
32 904
64864 46.9
33 643
60 781 46.1
31 312
323 410 23.4
162 385
334 749 23.1
173 036
1.15
1.02
1.06
1.15
1.19
0.95
0.97
1.14
0.66
1.16
1.23
1.25
1.34
1.14
1.44
1.34
1 .?Io
1.56
31/8/89
No. 2
L I C A O 9357 PART* 3 ** 4843436 0037733 637
Part 3.- Pavements 3-343
Am m AmFOR
RIGID PAWMWT sw(; RADES - &N/u? mFxI BLE PAVE" !BXFNES - C3R
Aircraft All-up bad on Tire Ultra-
tvpe ln%S onemin pressure High Medim Law law High Medim Law Very law
gear leg 1-50 80 40 20 15 10 6 3
(kg) (%I Wa)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1@ 11 12
B747-10aB 341 553 23.1
171 870
B747-10aB 260 362 24.1
SR 164 543
B747SP 302 093 22.9
147 716
B747SP 318 881 21.9
147 996
B747-2ooB 352 893 23.6
172 886
B747-200C 373 305 23.1
166 749
B747-200P/300 379 201 23.2
156 642
B747-400 395 987 23.4
178 459
B757-200 109 316 45.2
60 260
B767-200 143 789 46.2
78 976
B767-2oo-ER 159 755 46.9
80 853
B767-300 159 665 47.5
86 070
B767-3CO-D 172 819 46.9
87 926
B767-300-ER 185 520 46 .O
88 470
caravelle 52 OOO 46.1
Series 10 29 034
(;turavelle 55 960 46.0
Series 12 31800
Cb XOr d e 185 066 48.0
78 698
Qnadair 95 708 47.5
a44 40 370
1.32
1.04
1.30
1.40
1.37
1.30
1.39
1.41
1.17
1.31
1.21
1.21
1.31
1.38
0.75
0.88
1.26
1.12
41 49 58 68 46 51 62 82
17 19 22 26 20 21 23 30
27 32 40 47 33 36 43 59
16 17 21 25 19 20 23 30
35 42 51 59 40 44 52 71
14 16 19 22 17 17 19 25
--------
--------
--------
37 44 52 60 41 45 54 72
14 15 18 21 16 17 18 23
45 53 64 73 50 55 67 88
18 20 24 28 21 22 24 31
46 55 66 76 52 57 70 92
16 18 21 25 19 20 22 29
47 57 68 78 53 59 73 94
16 17 20 24 18 19 21 26
53 63 75 85 57 64 79 101
19 21 25 29 21 22 25 32
27 32 38 44 29 32 39 52
12 14 17 19 14 14 17 22
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
33 38 46 54 37 40 47 65
15 17 m 24 18 19 21 26
--------
37 44 54 63 43 47 57 77
16 18 21 25 19 19 22 28
--------
38 45 54 63 43 48 58 78
17 19 23 27 20 21 24 32
--------
43 51 61 71 48 53 65 86
18 20 24 28 21 22 24 32
--------
47 56 66 76 51 57 70 92
18 20 24 28 21 22 24 31
--------
15 17 20 22 15 17 19 23
7 8 9 10 7 7 9 11
--------
16 19 22 25 17 19 21 26
8 9 10 12 8 9 10 12
--------
--------
61 71 82 91 65 72 81 98
21 22 25 29 21 22 26 32
25 30 35 40 27 30 36 47
9 10 11 13 9 10 11 14
--------
31/ 8/ 89
No. 2
I CA O 9357 PART* 3 ** 4893456 OOL97Lll 575 W
comrair
880H
Gmvair
990
I303
Do4
DC-8-43
m- 55
Do&61/71
m2 / 7 2
DC+63/73
W 7 1 5
m9-21
Do3-32
DM-41
DC-9-51
" 1
m2/ 88
"33
m-87
31/8/89
No. 2
87 770 46.6
40 195
115 666 48.5
YI 685
11 430 46.E
7 767
33 113 46.8
-
144242 46.5
61 919
148 775 47.0
2 71c
1M778 48.G
@ 5-3:
160 121 45.5
65 023
162 3 6 47.5
72 m2
41 X4 46.2
22 x17
45 813 47.2
23 87%
49 442 46.2
25 789
52 163 46.7
27 821
55 333 47.0
29 336
63 957 47.8
35 571
68266 47.6
35 623
73 023 47.4
36230
68 266 47.4
33 965
1.03
1.28
0.31
0.53
1.22
1 .X!
~ - ~-
L . : ' !
1.s
1 3
0.w
G.9i;
1.07
1.10
1.17
1.17
1.27
1.34
1.27
f i
ICAO 9157 PA RT* 3 ** = 48414Lb 0019715 401
Part 3. - Pavements 3-345
Am FCR Am FOR
RIGID PAVEMEMl SJWWIES - Wb? FDXIBLEPAvEMaTTSJBGWES-CBR
Aircraft All-up Load an Tire Ultra-
type W S onemain pressure Hi g h &dim b l aw High EIediun OW
g- 1% 150 80 40 20 15 10
6 3
(kg) (%I @Pa)
1 2 3 4 P 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
196 406
108940
200 942
105279
207 746
105 279
253105
120 742
260 816
124 058
268 981
124 058
274 650
127 OOO
I 9 867
11793
I9 777
11879
20 820
12 649
20 820
12 649
29 484
15 650
29 484
16 550
44680
24 375
10600
5683
11340
5683
21 092
12 183
162 6tKl
66 400
47.2
46.9
46.7
37.7
37.6
37.9
39.2
46.8
47.5
47.8-
47.8
46.3
46.3
47.8
45.5
45.5
43.6
47.0
1.. 28
1.31
r.34
1.17
1.21
1.24
1.41
0.74
0.54
0.59/
0.55
0.41
0.58
0.69
0.98
0.77
0.83
0.59
1.08
45 52 63 73 52 57 6a 93
23 25 28 33 26 27 30 38
46 54 64 75 54 58 69 %
22 24 27 31 24 25 28 36
48 56 67 74 55 61 72 100
22 24 27 31 24 25 28 36
44 53 64 75 53 59 70 97
--------
--------
--------
--------
m 21 24 28 22 23 25 32
46 55 67 78 56 61 74 101
20 21 25 29 23 23 26 33
49 59 71 83 59 64 78 lffi
20 21 25 29 23 23 26 33
56 66 79 92 64 70 85 114
23 25 28 32 25 26 29 37
11 12 13 13 10 11 12 14
6 6 7 7 5 6 6 8
10 11 12 12 8 10 12 13
5 6 6 7 4 5 6 7
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
10 11 12 13 8 10 12 14
6 6 7 7 5 5 . 6 8
--------
9 10 11 12 6 9 11 14
5 5 6 7 4 5 6 8
--------
14 15 17 18 11 14 16 19
6 7 8 9 5 6 7 9
--------
15 16 18 18 13 15 17 20
8 8 9 10 6 7 8 10
--------
28 29 31 32 25 27 30 32
13 14 15 16 12 13 14 16
--------
6 6 7 7 5 5 6 7
3 3 6 3 2 3 3 3
--------
7 7 7 8 5 6 7 8
3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3
10 11 11 12 8 9 11 13
5 5 6 6 4 5 6 7
--------
--------
42 50 60 69 47 54 64 79
14 15 18 20 16 17 18 24
--------
31/8/89
No. 2
1 2 3 IC 5 6 7 8 9 i n 11 12
IL-6B
5-76T
5-86
L-100-20
L-100-30
L-1011-1
L-1011
-100/2oc,
L-1011
-500
Tri dent E,
Tri dent 2E
Trident3
Wl34A
TIF-154B
mo-1150
168 (joo 47.0
71 400
171 OOO 23.5
838ocl
209m 31.2
111 ooo
70 670 48.2
34 205
70 670 45.4
34 701
195 952 47.4
108 862
212 281 46.8
110 986
225889 46.2
108 924
61 ,160 46.0
33203
65 998 47.0
33 980
68 266 45.5
39m
47 600 45.6
29 350
98 OOO 45.1
53 500
151 953 48.3
71 940
1 .m
0.64
0.m
0.72
0.72
1.33
1.21
1.27
1.03
1.07
1.14
0.83
0.93
1.01
--------
43 52 62 71 M 57 67 83
16 17 19 22 17 18 M 26
38 38 38 39 37 4lr 45 53
11 14 15 16 15 16 I5 22
25 31 30 46 34 26 43 61
13 14 16 19 16 17 1s 23
3 33 3h 38 27 31 33 38
14 15 16 17 12 14 15 16
x) 33 36 38 27 31 33 39
14 15 15 17 12 14 15 17
45 52 52 73 52 % 66 91
24 25 28 33 25 27 29 38
46 55 66 78 56 61 73 100
23 24 28 32 25 25 30 38
50 59 72 e4 ficl 65 79 107
23 24 27 31 25 26 25 36
32 34 37 39 23 24 27 32
15 16 17 18 10 11 12 15
37 39 42 44 x 28 31 36
16 17 18 19 11 12 13 16
37 40 42 44 26 B 31 36
18 19 21 22 13 14 15 18
11 13 16 19 12 13 16 21
7 8 9 10 7 a 9 12
19 25 32 38 20 24 30 38
8 10 13 17 In 11 13 18
38 46 56 65 44 50 61 77
16 17 20 23 17 18 21 27
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
--------
- END -
311 8/89
No. 2
f
ICAO 9357 PART* 3 *t W LtBLtL4Lb OOL 97L 7 284
ICAO TECHNI CAL PUBLI CATI ONS
Tlte following summary gives the status, and also
describes in general terns the contents of the various
seri c~s of technical publications issued by the inter-
national Civil Aviation Organization. i t does not
include specialized publications that do not fall
specifically within one of the series, such as the
Aeronautical Chart Catalogue or the Meteorological
Tables for International Air Navigation.
International Standards and Recommended Prac-
tices are adopted by the Council in accordance with
Articles 54, 37 and 90 of the Convention on
International Civil Aviation and are designated, for
convenience, as Annexes to the Convention. The
uniform .application by Contracting States of the
specifications contained in the Internationai Stan-
dards is recognized as necessary for the safety or
regclarity of international air navigation while the
uniform application of the specifications in the
Recommended Practices is regarded as desirable in
the interest of safety, regularity or efficiency of
international air navigation. Knowledge of any differ-
ences between the national regulations or practices of
a State and those established by an International
Standard is essential to the safety or regularity of
international air navigation. In the event of non-
compliance with an International standard, a State
has, in fact, an obligation, under Article 38 of the
Convention, to notify the Council of any differences.
Knowledge of differences from Recommended Prac-
tices may also be important for the safety of air
navigation and, although the Convention does not
impose any obligation with regard thereto, the
Council has invited Contracting States to notify such
differences in addition to those relating to Interna-
tional Standards.
Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS) are
approved by the Council for world-wide application.
They contain, for the most part, operating procedures
regarded as not yet having attained a sufficient degree
of maturity for adoption as International Standards
and Recommended Practices, as well as material of a
more permanent character which is considered too
detailed for incorporation in an Annex, or is suscep-
tible to frequent amendment, for which the processes
of the Convention would be too.cumbersome.
Regional Supplementary Procedures (SUP%) have
a status similar to that of PANS in that they are
approved by the Council, but only for application in
the respective regions. They are prepared in consoli-
dated form, since certain of the procedures apply to
overlapping regions or are common to two or more
regions.
The following publications are prepared by author-
ity of the Secretary General in accordance with the
principles and policies approved by the Council.
Technical Manuals provide guidance and informa-
tion in amplification of the International Standards,
Recommended Practices and PANS, the implementa-
tion of which they are designed to facilitate.
Air Navigation Plans detail requirements for facili-
ties and services for international air navigation in the
respective ICAO Air Navigation Regions. They are
prepared on the authority of the Secretary General
on the basis of .recommendations of regional air
navigation meetings and of the Council action there-
on. The pIans are amended perip3cally to, reflect
changes in requirements and in the status of imple-
mentation of the recommended facilities and services.
ICAO Circulars make available specialized informa-
tion of interest to Contracting States. This includes
studies on technical subjects.
ICAO 9157 PARTU3 ** m 4841416 00177L8 110 m
PRICE: U.S.$18.00
(or equivalent in other currencies)
@ ICAO 1983
9/83, EIP113500
Doc 9157, Part 3
Order No. 801303
e
I nf or tmt i on Hand1 i ng Ser v i c es , 2000

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