Masterthesis Sameera

Communication Networks
University of Bremen
Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. C. Grg
Master Thesis
A Scalable and Self-Sustained Femtocell

Architecture for LTE-A
of
Dhanapala M. S. Palipana
Matriculation Number: 2581426
Bremen, January 16th, 2014
Supervised by:
Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. C. Grg
Dr.-Ing. Yasir Zaki
Dr.-Ing. Umar Toseef
This publication is meant for internal use only.
All rights reserved.
No liabilities with
respect to its content are accepted. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
I assure, that this work has been done solely by me without any further help from others
except for the ocal support by the Chair of Communication Networks.
used is listed completely in the bibliography.
Bremen, January 16th, 2014
(Dhanapala M. S. Palipana)
The literature
Acknowledgements
This thesis concludes my studies of the Master of Science degree in Communication
and Information Technology at University of Bremen, Germany. At this point my sincere
debt of gratitude goes to Prof. Grg for giving me the opportunity to write this Master
Thesis and my Mini Project under her supervision and also for providing the opportunities
to develop throughout my studies.
I am sincerely grateful to my supervisor Dr.- Ing. Yasir Zaki who motivated and helped
me throughout my thesis sharing his knowledge with me in many areas, for his valuable
advice, encouragement and patience.
I would also give my thanks to Dr.
Ing.
Umar
Toseef who gave me valuable advice on the thesis direction and helped whenever I asked
for his expertise. I also appreciate the help from other researchers of the Communication
Networks department Dr.-Ing. Koojana Kuladinithi, Asanga Udugama M.Eng., Dr.-Ing.
Andreas J. Knsgen, and Dipl.-Ing. Karl-Heinz Volk for the support they provided.
In addition, I would also express my gratitude to my friends for giving me a happy and
wonderful life in Bremen. Finally, special thanks goes to my family, for their unconditional
love, patience and support.
Dhanapala M.S. Palipana

Bremen, 16.01. 2014
Abstract
The continuously growing number of mobile devices in terms of hardware and applications augments the necessity for higher data rates and a larger capacity in wireless
communication networks. The Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A) standard was designed to provide these mobile users with a better throughput, coverage and a lower latency.
Instead of providing any enhancements to the macro eNodeBs introduced by its predecessor
LTE, the LTE-A standard introduced six new technologies to meet the above mentioned
goals such as Carrier Aggregation (CA), Heterogeneous Networks (HetNets), Enhanced
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output), Relay Nodes, Coordinated Multi-Point (CoMP)
and Self-organizing networks (SONs).
This thesis studies a specic area in Heterogeneous Networks, the subject of femtocells.
The aim of femtocells is to provide better indoor coverage so as to allow users to benet
from higher data rates while reducing the load on the macro eNodeBs.
However, there
is an issue with femtocells that may obstruct the performance of femto- and macrocells
which is interference. As femtocells also use the same spectrum as the macrocells and the
femtocells are deployed without proper planning, interference from femtocells to macrocells
becomes an issue here.
In this thesis, the interference from femtocells to macrocells is studied and two novel
solutions for the mitigation of this kind of interference are provided, the Home eNodeB
(HeNB) Power Control scheme and the Random PRB Selection scheme.
The rst
method utilizes an analytical approach to mitigate interference based on Channel Quality

Indicator (CQI) reports from macrocell users. The other method uses a more simple approach and chooses a random subset of Physical Resource Blocks (PRBs) to allocate to
HeNB users so that macrocell users will benet from a reduced interference level and a
larger range of PRBs.
The implementation and simulation of the proposed schemes are carried out using the
ComNets LTE-A system level simulator in OPNET Modeler software. The results indicate
that the two schemes alleviate the macrocell interference signicantly with respect to Signal
to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) and the performance of user applications.
The
HeNB Power Control scheme performs as a balanced scheme which mitigates the macrocell
user interference eectively while securing a better throughput for the HeNB users.
In
contrast, the Random PRB Selection scheme performs exceptionally well regarding the
macrocell user interference mitigation with a slight diminished performance for the home
users.
Kurzfassung
Die stndig zunehmende Anzahl an mobilen Endgerten und Anwendungen verstrkt
die Notwendigkeit fr hhere Datenraten und mehr Kapazitt in drahtlosen Kommunikationsnetzen. Der Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A)-Standard wurde entworfen,
um fr diese mobilen Nutzer besseren Durchsatz, grere Abdeckung und geringere Latenz
zu ermglichen. Anstelle der Verbesserung der Makro-eNodeBs, die durch den Vorgnger
LTE eingefhrt wurden, fhrte der LTE-A-Standard zur Erreichung der Ziele sechs neue
Technologien ein wie Trger-Aggregierung (Carrier Aggregation, CA), Heterogene Netze
(HetNets), verbessertes MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output), Relaisknoten, koordinierte Multipoints (CoMP) und selbstorganisierende Netze (SON).
Diese Arbeit befasst sich innerhalb des Bereiches heterogener Netze mit dem Thema
der Femtozellen.
Der Zweck von Femtozellen ist, eine bessere Abdeckung im Innenbe-
rich zu erzielen, um Benutzern eine hhere Datenrate bei Verringerung der Last fr die
Makro-eNodeBs zu ermglichen. Es gibt jedoch einen Eekt bei Femtozellen, die die Leistungsfhigkeit von Femto- und Makrozellen verringern kann, nmlich die Interferenz. Da
Femtozellen dasselbe Spektrum wie die Makrozellen verwenden und die Femtozellen ohne
sorgfltige Planung eingerichtet werden, kann die Interferenz zwischen Femto- und Makrozellen wesentlich sein.
In dieser Arbeit wird die Interferenz von Femtozellen zu Makrozellen untersucht und
zwei neuartige Lsungen zur Abschwchung dieser Art von Interferenz werden vorgestellt,
das Home eNodeB (HeNB)-Leistungsregelungsverfahren und das
PRB-Zufallsauswahlverfahren. Die erste Methode verwendet einen analytischen Ansatz
zur Verminderung der Interferenz basierend auf Kanalqualitts-Indikator-Berichten (Channel Quality Indicator, CQI) von Benutzern der Makrozelle. Das andere Verfahren verwendet einen einfacheren Ansatz und verwendet eine zufllige Untermenge von physikalischen
Ressourcen-Blcken (PRBs) fr die Zuweisung an HeNB-Nutzer, so dass MakrozellenBenutzer von einem verringerten Interferenz-Niveau und einer greren Reichweite der
PRBs protieren.
Die Implementierung und Simulation der vorgeschlagenen Verfahren werden mit dem
ComNets LTE-A-Systemsimulator in der OPNET Modeler-Software durchgefhrt.
Die
Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die beiden Verfahren die Makrozellen-Interferenz signikant reduzieren, bezogen auf das Signal-zu-Str-und-Rausch-Verhltnis (Signal to Interference and
Noise Ratio, SINR) und das Leistungsverhalten der Nutzeranwendungen.
Das HeNB-
Leistungsregelungsverfahren verhlt sich als ein ausgewogenes Verfahren, das die Interferenz fr die Makrozellen-Nutzer eektiv reduziert und gleichzeitg einen besseren Durchsatz
fr die HeNB-Nutzer erzielt. Im Gegensatz dazu verhlt sich das
PRB-Zufallsauswahlsverfahren auerordentlich gut bei der Verringerung der Interferenz
bei den Makrozellen-Nutzern mit einem leicht verschlechterten Leistungsverhalten bei den
Heimbenutzern.
Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Kurzfassung
List of Figures
List of Tables
11
List of Abbreviations
13
1 Introduction
15
1.1
Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.3
Thesis Overview
17
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Overview on Femtocells
15
19
2.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.2
LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.2.1
Carrier Aggregation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.2.2
Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output (MIMO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2.3
Heterogeneous networks (HetNets)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2.4
Relay Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2.5
Coordinated multipoint (CoMP)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.6
Self-organizing networks (SONs)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.3
Femtocell Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.4
HeNB Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.5
Requirements for the Functionality of HeNBs
27
2.6
Benets and Challenges for Femtocells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.6.1
Advantages for users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.6.2
Advantages for operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.6.3
Disadvantages of having femtocells
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.7
The Interference Problem
2.8
Intercell Interference Coordination (ICIC)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.8.1
HeNB Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.8.2
Information Exchange
2.8.3
Interference Control
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.8.3.1
Power Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.8.3.2
Resource Partitioning
36
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Scalable and Self-sustained Femtocell Architecture

3.1
CQI Reporting in LTE-A

3.1.1
3.2
39
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
EESM SINR Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
HeNB Power Control Scheme: The Analytical Approach Based on CQI Signals 41
3.2.1
Assumptions
3.2.1.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HeNB Position Estimation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
41
Contents
3.2.1.2
Wall Penetration Loss Estimation by the HeNB . . . . . . .
41
3.2.1.3
Estimation of Path Loss between HeNB and the MUE . . .
41
3.2.1.4
Detection of an Aected MUE
42
3.2.1.5
Estimation of Fading and Noise at the MUE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
42
Interference Mitigation Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.3
Random PRB Allocation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.4
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.2
4 Channel and Mobility Models
49
4.1
Signal Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Path Loss Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
4.3
Slow Fading Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
4.4
Fast Fading Model
55
4.5
Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
4.5.1
SINR Calculation for a HeNB UE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
4.5.2
SINR Calculation for a eNodeB UE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6
Link to System Level Mapping
4.7
The Mobility Model
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
5 Simulation Environment
61
5.1
Simulator Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
5.2
The Node Model
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
5.3
The Process Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
6 Simulation Results and Analysis

6.1
67
Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
6.1.1
FTP Trac Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
6.1.2
VoIP Trac Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
6.1.3
Video Trac Model
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.2
Simulation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.3
Statistical Evaluation of Simulation Results
6.4
Results Analysis
6.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.4.1
VoIP User Results
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2
FTP User Results
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
6.4.3
Video User Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
6.4.4
Throughput comparison of HeNB users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
6.4.5
Behavior of HeNB Power Control Scheme near to the eNodeB
. . .
80
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
7 Conclusions and Future Work
74
85
7.1
Outlook and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
7.2
Future Work
86
Bibliography
49
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
List of Figures
2.1
Overview of LTE-Advanced (3GPP Release 10) main features [1]
2.2
Component carrier aggregation (i) Intra-band contiguous (ii) Intra-band no-
. . . . . .
20
contiguous (iii) Inter-band non-contiguous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.3
An overview of a heterogeneous network [2]
2.4
3GPP relay architecture and interfaces [1]
2.5
3GPP femtocell architecture overview
2.6
2.7
Protocol Stack- Control plane without an HeNB gateway . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.8
EUTRAN protocol stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.9
Colayer interference
32
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Protocol Stack- User plane without an HeNB Gateway . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 Crosslayer interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.11 An example component carier aggregation scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
2.12 An example ABS scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.1
Estimation of MUE path loss
43
3.2
Random PRB Selection Scheme in a bloack diagram
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
4.1
Multipath, Shadowing and Path Loss Against Distance [3] . . . . . . . . . .
50
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Path Loss Map for a 100m
100m Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
4.3
A Simplied Example of Generating Correlated Slow Fading Values . . . . .
53
4.4
Generating a correlated 2D slow fading map using 5 neighboring points . . .
54
4.5
100m 100m
Correlated Slow Fading Map for a HeNB with mean 0 and
std. dev. 4dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6
Fast Fading Map for a HeNB UE with

model
54
3kmph speed having the PedB channel
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
4.7
AWGN Channel BLER vs. SINR Curve [4]
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
4.8
Mobility Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
5.1
OPNET Modeler environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
5.2
Simulation Scenario
63
5.3
eNodeB and HeNB Node Model
5.4
eNodeB and HeNB MAC Layer Process Model
5.5
Global UE List Process Model
6.1
Simulation Scenario
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
6.2
HenB Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
6.3
MOS values vs End to end delay of VoIP users [4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.4
PDF of the Student's t distribution with condence interval and condence

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.5
SINR, end-to-end delay and MOS values of VoIP users . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
6.6
SINR and download response time values of FTP users . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
6.7
SINR and end-to-end delay values of video users
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
6.8
g:HUE's PRB usage and throughput comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
6.9
Macro UE path plot
81
level
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Figures
10
List of Tables
2.1
No. of PRBs and the respective bandwidth of a component carrier
. . . . .
20
2.2
Interference Scenarios [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.3
Measurements from all cells [6]
32
2.5
HeNB Measurements from surrounding macro cells [6]
. . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.4
HeNB measurements from surrounding cells [6]
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.6
HeNB measurements from adjacent HeNBs [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.1
CQI vs MCS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.2
values for each MCS [7], [8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
4.1
ITU Channel Model for PedB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
6.1
Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
6.2
FTP Trac Model Parameters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.3
VoIP Trac Model Parameters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.4
Video Streaming Model Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
6.5
Scenarios types used in the simulations and the terms used for them
71
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
List of Tables
12
3GPP
3GPP2
3rd Generation Partnership Project

3rd Generation Partnership Project
2
NLM
Network Listen Mode
OI
Overload Indicator
OFDMA
Orthogonal frequency division

multiple access
ADSL
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
BLER
Block Error Rate
PBCH
Physical broadcast channel
CoMP
Coordinated Multi-Point
PDCCH
Physical Downlink Control Channel
CRS
Common Reference Signal
PDCP
Packet Data Control Protocol
CQI
Channel Quality Indicator
PDU
Protocol data Unit
PedB
Pedestrian B
eICIC
Enhanced Intercell Interference

Coordination
P-GW
Evolved NodeB
Packet Data Network Gateway
eNodeB
PRB
EPC
Evolved Packet Core
Physical Resource Block
RLC
Radio Link Control
EESM
E-UTRAN
GSM
Exponential Eective SINR

Mapping
RNTP
Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio

Access Network
RRC
Radio Resource Control
RSRP
Reference Signal Received Power
S1-AP
S1 Application Protocol
Global System for Mobile

Communications
Relative Narrowband Transmit

Power
Single Carrier Frequency Division

Multiple Access
HARQ
Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
HeNB
Home Evolved NodeB
HUE
Home User Equipment
HSS
Home Subscriber Service
SDU
Service data unit
HII
High Interference Indicator
SGSN
Serving GPRS Support Node
ICIC
Intercell Interference Coordination
S-GW
Serving Gateway
IP
Internet Protocol
SIB
System Information Block
LTE
Long Term Evolution
SU-MIMO
LTE-A
Long Term Evolution-Advanced
MAC
Medium Access Control
TTI
MCS
Modulation and Coding Scheme
TSG-RAN
MME
Mobility Management Entity
MOS
Mean Opinion Score
MUE
Macro User Equipment
MU-MIMO
NAS
Multiuser Multiple Input-Multiple

Output
Non Access Stratum
SC-FDMA
SCTP
Stream Control Transmission

Protocol
Single User Multiple Input-Multiple

Output
Transmission Time Interval
Technical Specication Group Radio Access Network
UE
User Equipment
UM
Unacknowledged Mode
UMTS
WiMAX
Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System
Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access
14
Introduction
ellular phones play a dominant part in modern day life. Nowadays it's very uncommon
to see a person without access to a mobile phone. Latest facts from ITU [9] reveal that
by the end of 2013 there are 6.8 billion mobile phone users and by 2014 this will exceed
the world population. Since the introduction of smart phones in early 2000s the number
of online users have grown rapidly and with that the data rates in cellular networks have
increased to greater proportions.
What these trends indicate is whilst network penetration is spreading to every part
of the earth, mobile phone and internet is becoming more and more aordable to the
commoner.
With these technological advancements arises the need to increase network
capacity and speed. As the number of subscribers increases and data rate demand rises,
traditional macrocells nd it dicult to make demands meet specially in densely populated
places.
In 2008 the Long Term Evolution (LTE) was introduced to cater these needs and
with that the femtocell concept was introduced. As a result of this, in a cellular network
a mixture of macro and other smaller cells, such as pico and femto cells, are expected to
coexist in future. These new cells provide the network the capability to provide satisfactory
services to places having high load, specially in densely populated areas and also to cell
edges where signal strength from macrocells can be low. But there are some adverse eects
that can arise because of this coexistence.
As an example, interference among dierent
cells can occur, specially among femtocells and macrocells because femtocells use the same
spectrum used by macrocells and cell planning is also not performed like in picocells. This is
also called intercell interference. The main reason for unplanned deployment of femtocells
is that they are installed by home users, not the network operator.
With the standardization of LTE Advanced (LTE-A) in March 2011 coexistence of
dierent types of cells was dened as a heterogeneous network. Enhanced Intercell Interference Coordination (eICIC) was newly introduced with LTE-A among other new features
which tries to tackle the problem of intercell interference. But this still remains as an open
area for further research since eICIC doesn't solve the problem entirely as of yet.
1.1 Related Work

After the standardization of femtocells by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) in 2009 there has been some extensive research done in the area of interference
from femtocells in the downlink. Standardization bodies like 3GPP Technical Specication
Group for Radio Access Networks (TSG-RAN) Work Group 4 (WG4) has also looked into
interference reduction methods for Long Term Evolution (LTE) [6]. All the methods they
have proposed for the downlink data channel protection can be divided into two areas,
power control and radio resource management.
Radio resource management in LTE-A
involves component carrier aggregation, almost blank subframes and resource partitioning
with resource blocks which will be further elaborated in chapter 2. In the next paragraph
other important work on power control will be listed followed by resource partitioning
methods.
Claussen et al. [10] introduced a method, instead of using xed power levels a HeNB
can congure the transmit power based on the measured signal level from the eNodeB.
Morita et al.
[11] developed a scheme that estimates the path loss between the HeNB
and the eNodeB based on the received power levels from the neighboring macrocell UEs.
1. Introduction
They extended this scheme to an auto-tuning scheme of the power oset adaptive to the
various interference conditions such as the size of buildings where the HeNB UEs exist and
distance to a street where eNodeB UEs exist [12]. But the drawback of these two methods
is that they rely on accurate estimation of path loss from the eNodeB based on reference
signal received power. Received strength of the reference signal can be erroneous because
of fading that is inherent in it and as a result path loss estimation also becomes inaccurate.
Arauz et al. proposed a method that employs distributed cooperative control theory to
enable self organization of femtocell transmitters to mitigate interference via power control
[13].
But this method requires backhaul link communication among HeNBs to manage
interference collectively which can be delay prone because interference mitigation requires
latencies of milliseconds although backhaul links are able to provide latencies in tens of
milliseconds.
A dynamic resource partitioning method that denies HeNBs to access downlink resources that are assigned to macro UEs in their vicinity was introduced by Bharucha et
al.
[14].
Through this way most vulnerable macro UEs can be eectively controlled at
the expense of femtocell capacity. But the drawback is, this method requires an X2 link,
which is an interface used by neighboring eNodeBs for communication among each other
in LTE-A. But 3GPP has discontinued the support of X2 interface for HeNBs in its latest
releases. In [15] a new intercell interference avoidance method based on resource partitioning was proposed that does not require the X2 interface or over the air signaling. In this
method the eNodeB schedules the UEs aected by HeNBs to a special part of the spectrum
such that the HeNBs map the downlink resource blocks from uplink sensing. Furthermore,
they divided this method into two, carrier aggregation approach and resource partitioning
approach. But the problems lies at the uplink to downlink Resource Block mapping that's
performed by the HeNB which implies that the mapping scheme must be exchanged among
the eNodeBs and HeNBs.
A method that involves resource partitioning and power allocation on the basis of
local information such as user required rate, desired signal quality, level of interference and
the amount of fading in each resource block that's available at the HeNB was introduced
in [16].
These inputs are used in a fuzzy inference system to control the allocation of
resource blocks to the users and change the transmit power levels. [17] describes a method
which measures the interference values of each RB at the HeNB location and computes an
interference cartography diagram for the HeNB coverage area, then it classies the RBs
and allocates them to the appropriate users with suitable transmit powers.
But these
methods are computationally intensive and are not suitable for femtocell networks.
[18] describes an interference mitigation scheme for macro users with time domain
muting where the macro users in a coverage hole are protected by scheduling them only on
the muted subframes that are free of HeNB interference. It has also considered dierent
methods for coverage hole detection. But the drawback of this method is that it wastes
resources by scheduling macro users in muted subframes and if these macro users require
higher data rates this scheme is not able to satisfy them.
1.2 Problem Statement

This thesis aims at studying the impact of femtocells on the macro and femto User
Equipment (UEs) and the operator network. It introduces two solutions that try to address
the interference problem from femtocells to macro UEs.
The rst method, HeNB Power Control scheme is an analytical solution which adapts
the femtocell transmit power based on the Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) signals from
the nearest aected UE. Here the femtocell tries to minimize its eect on the macro UE
16
1.3. Thesis Overview
throughout the time that it is in the HeNB's interfering area based on the macro UE CQI
value that it sends in the uplink. The second method, Random PRB Selection scheme
is a randomized frequency hopping technique where the macro UEs are scheduled in a
subset of random PRBs in order to reduce the overall interference on the macro UEs. The
behavior of femtocell interference is compared among these two methods in terms of the
user throughput, Exponential Eective SINR Mapping (EESM), and overall packet delays
etc., using the LTE-A Comnets System Level Simulator [4], [19], [20], [21] developed in
OPNET Modeler 17.5.
Two separate mobility models are used for both femto and macro UEs where the femto
users travel only inside a 15m
15m house at the pedestrian speed and the macro users
travel inside the macrocell coverage area at pedestrian and vehicular speeds. Both types
of users are aected by white noise, path loss, slow fading with spatial correlation, fast
fading and interference from other eNodeBs.
1.3 Thesis Overview

The rest of the thesis is organized as follows:
Chapter 2 gives an overview of the
femtocells and gives an introduction to its current standardization environment LTE Advanced which is also known as 3GPP Rel. 10. Chapter 3 discusses the two interference
mitigation schemes introduced by this thesis. Chapter 4 gives a description on the channel
model, mobility model and link to system level mapping that is used by this thesis work.
The next chapter explains the simulation environment of the OPNET modeler and the
Comnets LTE-A system level simulator. Chapter 6 evaluates the simulation results and
the nal chapter presents the conclusions and also gives a brief description on how this
work can be extended for further enhancements.
17
1. Introduction
18
Overview on Femtocells
2.1 Introduction
emtocells are small, low power, low cost, short ranged and plug and play cellular
base stations that can be placed inside homes and can be directly connected to the
backhaul network through Internet Protocol (IP). By means of a network connection such
as Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) or through optical ber this backhaul
connection can be established.
From the user's point of view these are plug and play
devices and no prior technical knowledge about the installation is required. However these
devices have to be purchased from the mobile network operator by anyone wishing to have
it in their residences. The advantages of having a femtocell are that the indoor coverage can
be enhanced, coverage holes can be eliminated and also the operators can provide a better
service at the cell edge. A detailed description about the advantages and disadvantages of
having a femtocell are given in the section 2.6.
Femtocells are also called HeNBs or simply Femto base stations and it's a subset
of a larger group called smallcells.
Other types of base stations dened by 3GPP are
Macro base stations for wide area coverage, medium range base stations called Micro
base stations and local area base stations called Pico base stations for the coverage
of large buildings like shopping malls and supermarkets.
But the main advantage of a
femtocells over picocells is their aordability for domestic use like Wi-Fi hotspots.
There are currently three organizations working on the standardization of the femtocells, 3GPP, Smallcell Forum and Broadband Forum. The industry and the universities are
also cooperating with them in the standardization process. As this thesis is based on the
3GPP Rel. 10 standardization for femtocells, which is also called LTE Advanced (LTE-A),
in the following section a brief introduction on LTE-A and its new features is given.
2.2 LTE-Advanced (LTE-A)

As mentioned in section 1.1 femtocells were rst standardized in 2009 by the 3GPP.
The initial standard formed parts of 3GPP's Release 8 and was interdependent with Broadband Forum extensions to its Technical Report-069 (TR-069) [22]. It was further enhanced
by the introduction of heterogeneous networks for the co-channel deployment of macrocells
and smallcells in 3GPP Release 10. Instead of providing any enhancements to the macro
base stations, the focus of LTE-A has been to come up with new technologies and features
for LTE in order to provide several benets for the users and the operators in terms of
increased throughput, capacity and coverage. Figure 2.1 illustrates the main features and
their benets with regards to this release.
2.2.1 Carrier Aggregation

Carrier Aggregation is a method used by 3GPP Rel. 10 to increase the user data rates
and throughput via the increase of the bandwidth. By combining a maximum of 5 LTE
Rel. 8 component carriers each having up to 20MHz of bandwidth, a combined maximum
bandwidth up to 100 MHz can be achieved.
The allowed bandwidths for a component
carrier are 1.4MHz, 3.0 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz. As the component
carrier bandwidth increases, the amount of used Physical Resource Blocks (PRBs) also
increase. Table 2.1 gives the relationship between the number of PRBs and the component
carrier bandwidth.
2. Overview on Femtocells
Carrier aggregation
Higher data rates
Multiple input,
multiple output
Higher spectral
efficiency
Heterogeneous
networks
Simple addition of
small cells
Coverage
enhancements
Relays
Coordinated
multipoint
Multicell transmissions
Self-organizing
networks
Simplified operations
Figure 2.1: Overview of LTE-Advanced (3GPP Release 10) main features [1]
Bandwidth (MHz)
No. of resource blocks
1.4
15
25
10
50
15
75
20
100
Table 2.1: No. of PRBs and the respective bandwidth of a component carrier
20
2.2. LTE-Advanced (LTE-A)
Regarding peak data rates and spectrum eciency, carrier aggregation performs almost similar to that of single carrier spectrum allocation. But it also provides the added
advantage of inter-band and intra-band contiguous and non-contiguous spectrum allocations as shown in the gure 2.2. As component carrier aggregation can also be deployed by
heterogeneous networks having macrocells and femtocells, this provides a exible frequency
reusing scheme that reduces interference among them without limiting the user data rates.
2.2.2 Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output (MIMO)

MIMO is one of the key technologies used in modern mobile communication. It uses
multiple antennas in both the transmitter and receiver sides with the aim of increasing
the throughput.
MIMO can have upto
88
antennas in the downlink and
44
in
the uplink with eight parallel data streams in the downlink and four in the uplink in
LTE-A. Along with beamforming, multiple antennas increase the user data rates and the
network capacity.
When the transmissions are for a single user, it is called Single-User
MIMO (SU-MIMO) and for multiple users it is Multi-User MIMO (MU-MIMO). SU-MIMO
signicantly improves the user throughput if the receiver also has multiple antennas and in
MU-MIMO a transmitter can use the same frequency to transmit to dierent users utilizing
the spatial separation. This way it improves the spectral eciency.
2.2.3 Heterogeneous networks (HetNets)

A Heterogeneous network refers to the co-channel deployment of macrocells and small
cells with the purpose of increasing the network capacity and coverage and also to remove
coverage holes in indoor and outdoor areas.
femtocells, distributed antennas and relays.
Small cells here mainly refer to picocells,

Picocells are well suited for shopping malls
and large oce buildings and they enhance the coverage in such places.
Distributed antennas provide a uniform quality of service over the total coverage area
although they don't increase the capacity. They just share the same resources in the air
interface in a large coverage area. The advantage of having distributed antennas is that the
system can be upgraded easily by plugging in a new base station and distributed antennas
simply extend the base station's antenna ports. A description on relays is provided in the
section 2.2.4. The main advantage of femtocells over picocells and distributed antennas is
that they do not need to be carefully planned.
One of the most important aspects in heterogeneous networks is cross-layer interference
which is more relevant to femtocells. This topic is elaborated more on section 2.7.Figure 2.3
illustrates an overview of a heterogeneous network comprising of all the above mentioned
technologies.
2.2.4 Relay Nodes

Relay nodes is a technology used to backhaul macrocells through the same LTE radio
interface and here the macrocell behaves as a donor eNodeB. Figure 2.4 explains how the
relay concept works. From the view of the core network the relay behaves as another sector
in the donor eNodeB and from the perspective of the neighboring cells the UE connected
to a relay is seen as a UE connected to the donor eNodeB. Having relay nodes result in a
wider network coverage to places where providing backhaul connections through wires is
dicult and it also reduces infrastructure costs for wired backhaul links.
21
Frequency
Band B
Frequency Band A
(i)
Frequency Band A
Frequency
Band B
(ii)
Frequency
Band B
Frequency Band A
(iii)
Figure 2.2: Component carrier aggregation (i) Intra-band contiguous (ii) Intra-band nocontiguous (iii) Inter-band non-contiguous
22
2.2. LTE-Advanced (LTE-A)
Picocell
ADSL or
Fiber Optic
Femtocell
RF Link
Backhaul
Link
Relay
Internet
Distributed
Antennas
Core
Network
Figure 2.3: An overview of a heterogeneous network [2]
S1
eNodeB
S1 MME/S-GW
S1
X2
S1
Uu
Uu
UE
Relay Node
Donor eNodeB
MME/S-GW
Figure 2.4: 3GPP relay architecture and interfaces [1]
23
2.2.5 Coordinated multipoint (CoMP)

CoMP is a method used to increase the cell edge throughput that usually gets limited
due to intercell interference.
This allows a user equipment to receive data from several
eNodeBs because the macrocells distributed around the cell edge area cooperate with one
another to achieve a better signal quality to the user.
Because of this, CoMP has the
advantages of improving the coverage while achieving high data rates as well as increasing
the cell edge throughput.
LTE-A species dierent techniques for CoMP in both the downlink and the uplink.
In the downlink, Joint Processing and Coordinated Scheduling can be used and in Joint
Processing, several eNodeBs transmit at the same time to the same UE. In coordinated
Scheduling, only the serving eNodeB transmits data to the aected UE. In the uplink Joint
Reception is one CoMP technique that's specied.
Here the transmissions of the UE is
received simultaneously by some or all the cooperating eNodeBs and this can be used with
inter point processing to increase the received signal quality.
2.2.6 Self-organizing networks (SONs)

Self-organizing networks help the network to operate much faster and simpler in areas
such as planning, conguration and optimization.
Their purpose is to increase the per-
formance of the network, reduce operating expenses and improve network resource usage.
There are three architectural types of SONs: distributed, centralized and hybrid. In distributed SONs the functions are distributed among eNodeBs at the edge of the network.
In centralized SONs functions are centralized among higher order network elements of the
network. Hybrid SON combines the functionality of distributed and centralized SONs.
2.3 Femtocell Architecture

The femtocell architecture gives details on connections and interfaces of HeNBs to
UEs, Evolved-Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) and core network
equipment. Figure 2.5 explains the femtocell architecture in detail which has similarities to
connections in the eNodeB architecture. Uu interface represents the air interface between a
HeNB and UEs. The S1 interface from the HeNB is connected through a broadband access
gateway which is operated by the ISP to security gateway. S1 interface also exists among
HeNB-core network, HeNB Gateway-core network and eNodeB-core network connections.
In Evolved Packet Core (EPC) all HeNBs are connected to the Mobility Management
Entity (MME) through a HeNB Gateway. This connectivity supports a large number of
HeNBs in a scalable way although directly connecting a HeNB to a MME is also allowed
by 3GPP. A HeNB Gateway is seen by the MME as a HeNB and a HeNB sees it as a
MME. The functions of a HeNB are similar to those of an eNodeB except in two occasions
[23], when a HeNB Gateway connects to the HeNB and when a HeNB has Local IP Access
(this is explained in detail in section 2.5). The procedures followed between the HeNB and
EPC are also similar to those followed between an eNodeB and the EPC [23].
EPC consist of MMEs, Serving Gateways (S-GW), Packet Data network Gateways
(P-GW), Home Subscriber Service(HSS), Security Gateways and HeNB Gateways. A brief
description on the functionality of these entities is given below as these connections are
common to both eNodeBs and HeNBs.
Serving Gateway (S-GW)

S1 interfaces from eNodeBs connect to a MME and it acts as a separation point between the core network and the radio access network. Its main function is to manage
24
2.3. Femtocell Architecture
eNB
HSS
Macro
UE
X2
S6a
S5
S1
Uu
P-GW
MME/S-GW
eNB
SGi
Operators
IP Services
S1-U/
S1-MME
Uu
S1
Home
UE
HeNB
Broadband
Access
Gateway
Broadband IP
Access
Security
Gateway
E-UTRAN
HeNB
Gateway
EPC
Figure 2.5: 3GPP femtocell architecture overview
the mobility of the users during handovers between eNodeBs and it also serves as the
anchor for mobility between LTE and other technologies such as GSM and UMTS.
Serving Gateway also routes and forwards data packets of .When a UE is idle, sending
data in the downlink to that UE is terminated by the S-GW and if data arrives again
to the same UE, paging is triggered. Paging messages are usually used to inform the
idle users about a system information change.
Mobility Management Entity (MME)

MME performs tasks such as the management of UE access to networks, assigning
network resources and managing mobility states for paging, handovers and roaming
through the use of signaling and control functions. All control plane functions that
are related to subscribers are performed by the MME. It performs bearer activation/deactivation functions such as security procedures, terminal to network session
handling and idle terminal location management. It also performs authentication of
a user with the help of a HSS because S6a interface is connected from HSS to MME.
Non Access Stratum Signaling (NAS) ends at the MME and it also generates and
allocates temporary identities to UEs.
MME also provides mobility between LTE
and other 3GPP technologies.
Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW)

Like S-GW, PDN gateway also facilitates connectivity of UEs to external packet data
networks and behaves as a termination point of the packet data interface. It connects
to the S-GW through S5 interface.
UEs can access several packet data networks
through several PDN gateways. The P-GW also performs policy enforcement such as
operator specied rules for allocation of resources, ltering of packets for each user,
as an example for detecting the application type, charging support and lawful interception. P-GW also acts as the anchor for mobility between 3GPP and other non
3GPP technologies such as WiMAX and 3GPP2.
25
Home Subscriber Server (HSS)

HSS is a database that keeps data related to users and subscribers and it is an
extension of Home Location Register in pre-3GPP Release 4 and the Authentication
Centre.
It also provides support for mobility management, call and session setup,
authentication of users and authorization of their access.
2.4 HeNB Protocol Stack

Protocol stack of a HeNB is similar to the protocol stack of an eNodeB. The interfaces
also remain the same unless a HeNB is connected to a HeNB-Gateway. The radio protocol
architecture of an eNodeB in general can be divided into two planes as control plane and
user plane. User plane is responsible for handling data that's generated at the application
layer and control plane is responsible for handling signaling messages that are created
at the Radio Resource Control (RRC) layer. Figures 2.6 and 2.7 present user plane and
control plane protocol layers and interfaces respectively.
Figure 2.6 illustrates the user plane protocol layers and interfaces that exist among the
UE, HeNB, S-GW and the P-GW. L1 of both the UE and the HeNB interface is the Physical
Layer which is at the bottom of the protocol stack and it takes all the information coming
from the MAC transport channels through air interface in the form of physical channels.
The multiple access scheme at the downlink is Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access (OFDMA) and in the uplink it is Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access
(SC-FDMA). The Physical Layer performs the functions of link adaptation, power control
and cell search for synchronization with other cells and handover.
MAC layer lies above the physical layer and it functions by mapping logical channels
coming from the RLC layer to transport channels and vice versa. The protocol data unit
(PDU) that goes down to the physical layer from the MAC layer is called the MAC PDU.
The main functions of the MAC layer are scheduling of users, correction of errors through
Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) and priority handling among dierent UEs
and dierent logical channels of the same UE.
The next layer is the Radio Link Control layer (RLC). This layer has three modes of
operation such as Transparent Mode (TM), Unacknowledged Mode (UM) and Acknowledged Mode (AM). TM is used in the initial connection for RLC messages in control plane
signaling without the addition of the RLC header.
Unacknowledged and acknowledged
modes use the RLC header to denote whether ARQ is enabled or not. Error correction
through ARQ is applicable at the RLC layer and HARQ is applicable at the MAC layer.
Other functions of RLC include concatenation, segmentation and reassembly of RLC Service Data Units (SDUs) for UM and AM transfer.
Packet Data Control Protocol is the next layer and its responsibilities lie in IP data
header compression, maintenance of sequence numbers, delivering upper layer PDUs in
order, removing duplicates, encryption and decryption of user plane data.
HeNBs do not have any layers above the PDCP layer in the user plane. It communicates with the serving gateway through a dierent interface called S1-U and there are a
dierent set of layers for this purpose, GPRS Tunneling protocol (GTP-U), User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) and layer 2 and 1 protocols that depend on the link being used between
the HeNB and the S-GW.
Figure 2.7 illustrates the control plane protocol layers and interfaces that dwell among
the UE, HeNB and the MME. Between the UE and the HeNB remains the air interface Uu
and between the HeNB and the MME is the S1 interface. Radio Resource Control (RRC)
and Non Access Stratum (NAS) layers replace the IP and Application layer at the protocol
stack of the UE and HeNB interface. Non Access Stratum protocols lie at the top of the
26
2.5. Requirements for the Functionality of HeNBs
Uu
S5/S8a
S1-U
SGi
Application
IP
IP
Relay
PDCP
Relay
GTP-U
GTP-U
RLC
RLC
UDP/IP
UDP/IP UDP/IP
MAC
MAC
L2
L2
L2
L2
L1
L1
L1
L1
L1
L1
UE
HeNB
GTP-U
GTP-U
PDCP
S-GW
UDP/IP
P-GW
Figure 2.6: Protocol Stack- User plane without an HeNB Gateway
stack and this layer is responsible for the management of mobility of the UE. The functions
of the RRC layer include broadcasting of Non Access Stratum and Access Stratum system
information, paging and security functions. Between the HeNB and the MME interface the
layers of the protocol stack are L1, L2, IP, Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
and S1 Application Protocol (S1-AP). L1 and L2 layers depend on the technology of the
link between the HeNB and the MME.
Figure 2.8 demonstrates the two protocol stacks of the control and user planes that
exist between the UE and the HeNB together in the same diagram.
2.5 Requirements for the Functionality of HeNBs

As the HeNBs are dierent new entities from eNodeBs that serve a dierent purpose,
the technical specication [24] denes service requirements for the support of basic functions of HeNBs that will enable the mobile operators to provide more advanced services and
to improve the user experience. HeNB Installation, identication and location, operation
and management, access control, mobility aspects for Home eNodeB, Local IP access and
managed remote access to home based network are some of the important requirements
among them.
HeNB installation, identication and location requirements

These requirements specify some guidelines to follow when installing, provisioning,
conguring or re-conguring HeNBs. The operator has the authority to congure the
settings of a HeNB and set it out of service if it badly aects the spectrum usage. Installing and activating a new HeNB doesn't require reconguration at the operator's
network and the radio transmitter of a HeNB is activated only after congured and
authorized by the operator.
27
Uu
S1-MME
NAS
SGi
NAS
Relay
RRC
S1-AP
RRC
S1-AP
PDCP
PDCP
SCTP
SCTP
RLC
RLC
IP
UDP/IP
IP
MAC
MAC
L2
L2
L1
L1
L1
L1
UE
HeNB
MME
Figure 2.7: Protocol Stack- Control plane without an HeNB gateway
Non Access Stratum

(NAS)
Internet Protocol (IP)
Radio Resource Control

(RRC)
Packet Data Convergence
Protocol (PDCP)
L2 & 3
Configuration &
Management
Radio Link Control

(RLC)
Logical Channels
Medium Access Control

(MAC)
Transport Channels
Physical Layer
EUTRAN
Related
Protocols
Physical Channels
Figure 2.8: EUTRAN protocol stack
28
2.6. Benets and Challenges for Femtocells
Operation and management requirements

This species operational and management related issues such as allowing the operator to remotely congure the HeNB, deploy software upgrades, detect and report
changes in RF conditions and perform general operation and management tasks.
Moreover, the HeNB supports the automatic discovery of an operator's management
platform which is used to perform OA&M tasks at the HeNB. Furthermore, the HeNB
is allowed to deactivate the air-interface if the connection between the HeNB and the
operator network is lost.
Access control
The operator is allowed to congure the HeNB as either in open access, closed access
or hybrid access modes. If it's congured in open access mode, the HeNB is able to
provide access to any nearby user subject to roaming agreement. This way it performs as another base station facilitating handover procedures. But if it's congured
for closed access, only users authenticated by the owner are able to get services from
the HeNB. If it's congured for hybrid access, the HeNB can provide services to its
associated Closed Subscriber Group members and also other nearby users. It's more
like providing services to the closed and open access users. Closed access mode is very
critical for the establishment of this research topic as it's one of the major reasons for
the generation of interference to macro UEs. If a HeNB is congured in this mode it
behaves as an interferer to all the UEs that do not belong to its Closed Access Group.
The interference analysis in this work is based on the prior assumption that all the
HeNBs are congured in the CSG mode.
Local IP access
For the UEs having IP capabilities, local IP access provides access to the internet via
HeNBs. The data trac however does not go through the operator's network except
through the operator network devices that are placed inside the place where the HeNB
is situated. But the signaling trac is designed to go through the operator's network.
Using LIPA both the network operator and the user can be beneted.
However
providing LIPA through HeNBs is a win-win for both the operators and the users.
For mobile operators, by providing value added services without investing on extra
network infrastructure higher revenues can be gained. For users this is a more faster
and secure option as the trac within the home network won't travel outside the
subnet. The subscribers can also benet from high speed applications such as video
streaming and le transfers that do not involve the operator core network. Having
to go through the core network could possibly result in bottlenecks and using LIPA
this can be avoided [25]. The Internet Service Providers do not have to be from the
same company of the mobile operator as well.
2.6 Benets and Challenges for Femtocells

The femtocell concept provides advantages for both users and operators. But as any
other newly introduced technology it still has some issues that requires more research. Sections 2.6.1, 2.6.2 and 2.6.3 provide descriptions of advantages and challenges of femtocells.
2.6.1 Advantages for users
Better indoor coverage: Wall penetration loss is a reason for the weakening of the
signal which arrives from macrocells at indoors. Hence femtocells are a good low cost
29
option. This is especially advantageous for the cell edge users as they receive further
weakened signals from the macro cells due to path loss.
Furthermore interference
from other macro eNodeBs are also high at the cell edge. If a HeNB is deployed in
such a place with a reasonable transmit power a much better indoor coverage can be
achieved.
Lower transmission power at home: Both phone and the base station are now indoors,
so they don't need to transmit with higher transmit powers. This is also benecial
for the health aspects of the users.
Increased phone battery life: Since the HeNB receiver is at indoors, the UEs do not
need to transmit at higher powers to achieve a better reception quality. Hence this
increases phone's battery life.
Since femtocells are plug and play devices, no technical knowledge is required by the
users for installation and operation.
2.6.2 Advantages for operators
Higher data rates: The users subscribed to the Mobile Network Operators (MNO)
receive higher data rates from femtocells depending on their broadband connection
through Local IP Access. The user trac goes to the Internet Service Provider instead
to the mobile operator network. Hence the MNO is able to provide better data rates
for the users while ooading trac from the macrocells.
Increased Network capacity: Trac ooad from macrocells provides better network
capacity and it also contributes for a slower growth of the backhaul costs.
Increased Revenue: MNOs can place special taris for calls taken through femtocells.
This also depends on the pricing policy of the operator.
2.6.3 Disadvantages of having femtocells
Interference: This is the main problem of using femtocells as it becomes an interferer

to the nearby macro users as well as other femtocell users if it's under co-channel
deployment.
More about this will be elaborated in section 2.7 because mitigating
this interference is the main focus of this thesis
Quality of service: If the femtocell shares the home backhaul connection for data
trac with other equipment such as internet browsing and gaming consoles, this might
aect the quality of service that it provides to the femto users. For example if someone
uses a video streaming application over the phone, the femtocell might struggle to
reach the data rate requirement in a shared connection. Minimum requirements of
the backhaul capacity must be expressed by the operator when the femto cells are
bought. Some QoS dierentiations as well as link reservation for femto trac can be
applied at the subscriber backhaul equipment.
Spectrum accuracy: Femtocells are low cost devices. It is very dicult to generate
a very accurate spectrum through low cost oscillators inside these devices.
Hence
3GPP has also relaxed its standards on spectrum accuracy for femtocells from its
later standards starting from Release 8
Equipment location: Base stations usually nd there location from the Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS most of the time is unable to nd locations indoors due
to low signal quality that occurs because of high wall penetration losses.
30
2.7. The Interference Problem
2.7 The Interference Problem

There are several interference scenarios involving HeNBs, Macro eNBs, MUEs and
HUEs. Table 2.2 lists all the possible interference scenarios that are currently identied
by 3GPP. The scenario that is relevant to this topic is scenario no.2 in the table which is
the interference at the downlink of the MUE from HeNBs.
When an eNodeB is interfering with a UE that is attached to another eNodeB in the
downlink, it's called downlink interference and when a UE is interfering with an eNodeB's
reception from another UE this is called uplink interference. When a HeNB is interfering
the users attached to another HeNB, this type of interference is called downlink co-layer
interference. When an HeNB is interfering the users attached to an eNodeB or vice versa,
this is called downlink cross-layer interference. Figures 2.9 and 2.10 depict two scenarios
of downlink co-layer and cross-layer interference respectively.
The scenario of downlink cross-layer interference to MUEs discussed in this thesis is
a result of several reasons. The rst reason is that HeNBs are placed inside the coverage
area of eNodeBs. The next reason is that both eNodeBs and HeNBs operate in the same
frequencies which is also called co-channel deployment. Another cause is that, not only the
HeNB provides coverage inside a house but there is also a leakage of radiation to the outside
which eventually results in interference. This leakage becomes severe if the walls have more
open spaces or glass windows. Another reason for interference is that the HeNBs are more
often congured in CSGs which was explained in section 2.5 under Access Control. This
makes handover of a MUE to a HeNB impossible even if it gets the stronger signal from
the HeNB.
Scenario
Aggressor
Victim
UE attached to Home eNodeB
Macro eNodeB: Uplink
Home eNodeB
Macro eNodeB: Downlink
UE attached to Macro eNodeB
Home eNodeB: Uplink
Macro eNodeB
Home eNodeB: Downlink
UE attached to Home eNodeB A
Home eNodeB B: Uplink
Home eNodeB A
Home eNodeB B: Downlink
UE
attached
to
Home
eNodeB
Other System
and/or Home eNodeB

8
Other System
UE attached to Home eNodeB
and/or
Home
eN-
odeB
Table 2.2: Interference Scenarios [5]
2.8 Intercell Interference Coordination (ICIC)

ICIC is the name used for the methods that are used to control interference in heterogeneous networks. Interference control is performed in both uplink and downlink. But here
the priority is given to downlink interference control as the focus is on mitigating interference from HeNB to macro eNodeB user equipment. Interference control in the downlink
can be basically achieved by two methods, power control and radio resource management.
Downlink interference control methods can further be divided as control channel protection and data channel protection methods. The intention of this work is on data channel
31
Macro
UE
Home
BS
High
Interference
Home
BS
Home
UE
Home
UE
High
Interference
Figure 2.9: Colayer interference
Macro
BS
Home
BS
Home
UE
Figure 2.10: Crosslayer interference
interference control methods.

Before activating any interference mitigating technique a HeNB rst needs to identify
whether a user is interfered by its transmissions. For that purpose there are several types
of measurements that can be collected.
The following section gives some details about
those measurement techniques.
2.8.1 HeNB Measurements

There are several measurements gathered by HeNBs which are important for the
control of their interference and to maintain coverage. Some measurements are collected
by the UEs that are attached to the HeNBs. Some measurement collections are performed
by the downlink receiver of the HeNB. This is also called Network Listen Mode (NLM) of
the HeNB. Other measurements are collected by the HeNB uplink receiver and this mode of
measurement collection is called Radio Environment Measurement(REM) or HeNB snier.
Table 2.3 explains a measurement done by HeNBs, Received Interference Power (RIP)
when they are being congured or during normal operation. This measurement is useful
for interference mitigation by the HeNB. If the RIP is above a certain predetermined level,
this indicates that there's a MUE nearby and the HeNB must lower its power to avoid
interference in the downlink.
Measurement Type
Purpose
Measurement Source
Received
Calculation of UL interfer-
HeNB UL Receiver
Power
Interference
ence towards HeNB (from

MUE)
Table 2.3: Measurements from all cells [6]
Table 2.4 lists two types of measurements done by HeNBs in the downlink which
can be performed during normal operation or self-conguration. These two measurements
help to identify the surrounding cell types such as other HeNBs. Hence the information
collected by these two measurements are important for mobility handling among HeNBs.
32
2.8. Intercell Interference Coordination (ICIC)
Measurement Type
Purpose
Measurement Source
Calculation of co-channel DL interference

towards macro UEs (from HeNB)
Calculation of co-channel UL interference
RSRP
towards macro layer (from HUEs)
HeNB DL Receiver
HUE
towards HeNB (from MUEs) based on
MUE (in case of
estimated MUE Tx powerDetermine
hybrid cell)
coverage of macro cell (for optimization

of hybrid cell conguration)
Co-channel
Determine quality of macro cell (for
HeNB DL Receiver
RSRQ
optimization of hybrid cell conguration)
HUE
MUE (in case of
hybrid cell)
Reference Signal
Estimation of path loss from HUE to
Transmission
MeNB
HeNB DL Receiver
Physical + Global
Allow HeNB to Instruct UEs to
HeNB DL Receiver
Cell ID
measure specic cells.
HUE
Co-channel received
Measurement is used to determine
HeNB DL Receiver
CRS c (measured in
whether HeNB is close to dominant
dBm)
Macro cell, or whether it is close to
Power
macro-cell-edge border
Table 2.5: HeNB Measurements from surrounding macro cells [6]
Measurement Type
Purpose
Measurement Source
Cell reselection pri-
Calculation of UL interfer-
HeNB UL Receiver
ority information
ence towards HeNB (from

MUE)
CSG status and ID
Distinction
between
cell
HeNB DL Receiver
layers based on CSG, and

self-construction of neighbour list,
Table 2.4: HeNB measurements from surrounding cells [6]
Table 2.5 classies 5 measurements collected from the surrounding macro cells, Cochannel Reference Signal Received Power (RSRP), Co-channel Reference Signal Received
Quality (RSRQ), Reference Signal Transmit Power, Physical and Global Cell Id, Cochannel received CRS c.
Co-channel RSRP is dened as the linear average over the
power contributions (in [W]) of the resource elements that carry cell-specic reference signals by 3GPP [26]. Co-channel RSRQ is dened by 3GPP as the ratio NRSRP/(E-UTRA
carrier RSSI), where N is the number of RBs of the E-UTRA carrier RSSI measurement
bandwidth [26].
RSSI here means the Received Signal Strength Indicator.
Co-channel
received Cell specic Reference Signal Received Power per Resource Element (CRS c)
is the reference signal received power per resource element present at the HeNB antenna
connector for the reference signal received on the co-channel [6].
33
Measurement Type
Purpose
Measurement Source
Calculation of co-channel DL interference

Co-channel RSRP
towards neighbour HUEs (from HeNB)
HeNB DL Receiver
HUE
towards HeNBs (from HUEs)

Reference Signal
Estimation of path loss from HUE to
Transmission Power
HeNB
HeNB DL Receiver
Allow HeNB to Instruct UEs to measure

Physical + Global
specic cells
HeNB DL Receiver
Cell ID
Allow UE to report discovered cells to
HUE
HeNB
Table 2.6: HeNB measurements from adjacent HeNBs [6]
Table 2.6 lists three types of measurements performed by the HeNB downlink receiver,
Co-channel RSRP, Reference signal transmit power, Physical and Global Cell ID. These
measurements are collected from adjacent HeNBs and they can be used for interference
mitigation among them.
2.8.2 Information Exchange

Other than the above mentioned measurements, HeNBs also gather information on
interference control through information exchange with eNodeBs and other HeNBs. This
option has the benet of obtaining details about uplink and downlink conditions in nearby
eNodeBs and HeNBs when the HeNB congures its power and frequency resources. There
are several ways to perform this information exchange with other eNodeBs.
Over-the-air information from eNB to HeNB

This scenario involves transfer of vital data among eNodeB and HeNBs directly
through the air interface.
The advantage over direct information exchange is that
it has a low latency. Direct information exchange among eNodeBs and HeNBs can
also be used to coordinate scheduling as well.
This helps in reducing interference
to UEs. But the main disadvantage is that over the air broadcasting can't be used
when the eNodeB needs to send dierent types of data to dierent HeNBs. The eNodeB may also not be visible to HeNBs due to fading. This may result in occasional
interference to the nearby macro users. When the information is read from the air interface downlink transmission is also halted which may aect the data rate of the user.
Over-the-air information, (H)eNB to HeNB via UE

In this method information is exchanged among HeNBs through UEs. This also has
the advantage of low latency and can also be used to reduce interference by sending
scheduling information. This has the added advantage of being able to send dierent
types of information to dierent HeNBs. But for proper operation there should be
good links among HeNBs and UEs. The other drawback is Rel. 8 UEs can't be used
to relay these messages.
X2 based interface between eNB and HeNB, and between HeNBs

The X2 interface that exists among eNodeBs and HeNBs can also be used to transfer control information regarding interference management.
This method is used
currently for the exchange of such information among macro eNodeBs. But for in-
34
terference control among eNodeBs and HeNBs, this might not be suitable because
this link is having a high latency. The other reason is that the macro eNodeB has to
send many messages to a larger number of HeNBs in its coverage area unlike in the
macro-macro information exchange scenario. But information sent through this link
can be accurate than information exchanged over the air interface because information exchanged over the air interface can have more packet drops due to fading. X2
being a wired link this problem does not occur. Hence, to reduce the complexity the
procedures over the X2 interface can be limited to only sending Overload Indicator,
High Interference Indicator and Relative Narrowband Transmit Power signals which
require a higher latency among the eNodeB and HeNBs.
S1 based interface between eNB and HeNB, and between HeNBs

S1 interface exists between the E-UTRAN and the EPC or in other words between
the eNodeBs or HeNBs and the operator core network. This interface can also be used
to exchange messages about interference management among eNodeBs and HeNBs.
This also provides a higher accuracy of data than the air interface similar to the X2
interface. Dierent information can be sent to dierent groups of eNodeBs. But this
can also increase the load at the MME. Interference mitigation schemes that are using
this scheme may also face the adverse eects of high latency.
2.8.3 Interference Control

This section gives an explanation on the functionality of available interference control
methods. As explained in section 2.8 the main interference mitigation methods are divided
to power control and resource partition. The resource partition methods are classied into
two as frequency domain and time domain resource partitioning. There is also a resource
partitioning method with resource block scheduling in the RBs that have less interference.
2.8.3.1 Power Control Methods

All the available power control methods can be classied into four types as based on
HUE measurement, macro eNodeB measurement, HeNB-MUE path loss and GPS based
maximum output adjustment [6]. A brief description about them is given below.
HeNB power control based on HUE measurement

HeNB typically congures its transmit power based on the measurements taken on
the surrounding RF conditions through Network Listen Mode (NLM) at the downlink
receiver in order to provide good indoor coverage and to control interference to macro
users as explained in section 2.8.1. But in some situations the measurements taken by
the HeNB might be dierent from those taken by HUEs or MUEs in the vicinity. This
can be due to the dierence in the indoor environment where the HeNB is situated,
as an example the HeNB might be inside another room while the HUE is nearby an
outer wall. At this situation the HeNB can't rely only on its own measurements to
be similar to HUE measurements on the channel.
Power control based on interference measurement from macro eNodeB

In this method the HeNB adjusts its transmit power based on received power of the
reference signals from the eNodeB that it receives the strongest signal. Cell Specic
Reference Signal per Resource Element (CRS c) which is the reference signal received power of a resource element is an example for a measurement taken from the
air interface. Depending on the strength of the received signal the transmit power of
35
the HeNB can be controlled in situations such as resource partitioning or setting a

xed power is not enough to control interference and also provide sucient coverage
to HeNB users. The path loss between the HeNB and the MUE is determined by the
HeNB depending on the dierence between the estimated uplink transmit power and
the uplink reception power of the MUE.
HeNB power control based on HeNB-MUE path loss

Here the HeNB acquires knowledge of the path loss and the wall penetration loss
between the HeNB and the aected MUE and adjusts its transmit power based on
that. The HeNB can also use RSRP as a guide to adjust its transmit power because
knowing the path loss and wall penetration loss won't be sucient when it's placed
at the edge of a cell. The received signal strength at the MUE is smaller at the cell
boundary and it can be high in the middle.
Hence the transmit power should be
adjusted carefully depending on the location.

The wall penetration loss is estimated using the uplink transmit power of the MUE.
The uplink transmit power of the MUE is estimated based on the assumption that
uplink power control is applied for both MUE and HeNB as a UE. This means that
the HeNB also behaves here similar to a UE that performs uplink power control.
When the wall penetration loss is known, it's easier to estimate the path loss using
the estimated MUE uplink transmit power and the power received at the HeNB.
2.8.3.2 Resource Partitioning

This section gives a brief description of the available resource partitioning techniques in
LTE-A that can be used in interference mitigation algorithms. The main two techniques
are called carrier aggregation and almost blank subframe.
Additionally an interference
mitigation algorithm can also contain resource block allocation of a HeNB to its users
depending on the interference levels in their PRBs.
Frequency domain: Carrier aggregation based ICIC

As explained in section 2.2.1 there are multiple component carriers available in LTEA. An example scenario is explained in gure 2.11where the component carriers can
be separated as primary and secondary in a heterogeneous network consisting of
HeNBs and macro eNodeBs.
f1 and f2 represent two bandwidths in the frequency
spectrum for the primary and secondary component carriers. In gure 2.11areas in
black represent control signals, blue represent data and in white areas nothing is
sent. The macro station will select a separate component carrier as its primary (f1)
and will send its control signals in that carrier during a chosen subframe.
HeNB
species its own primary component carrier to be f2. Hence for the macro eNodeB
the secondary component carrier will be f2 and for the HeNB this will be f1. The
HeNB does not transmit anything during that subframe in component carrier f1 to
avoid any interference and instead use f2 for its transmissions.
Time domain: Almost Blank Subframes
In this approach, if there are HeNBs that are victimized by eNodeBs from severe interference, the eNodeB does not transmit any data during certain subframes. During
that period the victimized HeNB can transmit with high power so that the UEs get
the maximum exposure to the signal. But the eNodeB may transmit some control
signals during the muting stage and hence the name Almost Blank Subframe is used.
The control signals that are sent during this period are Common reference symbols,
36
f1
Macro
f2
f1
Femto
f2
Control
Data
Figure 2.11: An example component carier aggregation scenario
Primary and secondary synchronization signals, Physical broadcast channel (PBCH),

System Information Block (SIB)-1 and paging with their associated Physical Downlink Control Channel PDCCH. Figure 2.12 illustrates such a scenario consisting of
Almost Blank Subframe transmission.
Macrocell
f1
DATA
Femtocell
ABS
DATA
DATA
f1
Control
ABS
DATA
DATA
Data
Figure 2.12: An example ABS scenario
37
38
Scalable and Self-sustained Femtocell
Architecture
his chapter explains in detail two approaches introduced by this thesis that can be
used to mitigate the interference caused by HeNBs on macrocell users. The rst one
is an analytical approach that adjusts HeNB transmit power based on Channel Quality
Indicator (CQI) signals sent by the aected macro UEs. Section 3.1 explains how these
CQI signals are used to get information on the channel conditions and achieve ecient
data transmission by eNodeBs.
The other method is a random PRB selection scheme that the HeNB adopts to transmit only on a chosen set of PRBs so that the macro users can benet good SINRs in the
other PRBs. In this method the HeNB chooses only a subset of random PRBs to allocate
to its user and after a predetermined number of TTIs this subset is again randomized.
This procedure will be followed by the HeNB during the entire duration the aected macro
user is inside the HeNB's interference area.
During the rest of this thesis the rst interference mitigation method will be termed
HeNB Power Control Scheme and the other method, Random PRB Selection Scheme.
Sections 3.2 and 3.3 will exemplify these two approaches in detail.
3.1 CQI Reporting in LTE-A

CQI reports are sent by UEs to eNodeBs through control messages.
CQI reports
indicate the required Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) from the eNodeB and these
messages are used by eNodeBs to determine the current channel quality between the UE
and itself. The CQI values range from 0 to 15 and higher the and the higher the CQI value
is the higher the MCS that can be used. A better channel quality results in a higher CQI,
a higher MCS and hence a higher throughput. Table 3.1 provides the relationship between
the CQI value and the MCS.
In this work the Exponential Eective SINR Mapping (EESM) is used to model the
CQI channel reporting. As LTE-A uses OFDMA for the transmission technology in the
downlink, UEs get data in several PRBs in a single transmission. But dierent PRBs have
dierent SINRs depending on the available channel condition. When these dierent SINR
values are averaged to a single SINR value as explained in section 3.1.1 we get the EESM
SINR. This EESM SINR is determined in every TTI when there is a data transmission.
Once this value is calculated it is checked against the AWGN curves to determine the
appropriate MCS for the chosen set of PRBs. More details on AWGN curves are given in
section 4.6
3.1.1 EESM SINR Calculation

This section explains how EESM SINR value is derived from SINR values of the
selected PRBs to a particular user.
Initially for a correct SINR mapping the following
approximation must be satised.
BLEP ({k }) = BLEP AW GN ({ef f })

Here
and
(3.1)
BLEP ({k }) represents the BLock Error Probability of the state of the channel {k }
BLEP AW GN ({ef f }) is the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) BLock Error
3. Scalable and Self-sustained Femtocell Architecture
CQI
MCS
CQI
Outage
MCS
16QAM
QPSK
16QAM
QPSK
10
64QAM
QPSK
11
64QAM
QPSK
12
64QAM
QPSK
13
64QAM
QPSK
14
64QAM
16QAM
15
64QAM
Table 3.1: CQI vs MCS
Probability. Hence it is very important that the following approximation is valid for every
instantaneous channel realization and not on average for a given channel model [27].
Therefore a scaling factor
is introduced for each MCS to fulll this condition in equation
3.3.
The general formula of Eective SINR is calculated as follows.
SIN Ref f = I 1
N
1 X
I(SIN Rn )
N
!
(3.2)
n=1
I(x)
where,
is called the information measure function and
I 1 (x)
is the inverse of that
function. N denotes the total number of PRBs allocated to a UE and

of
nth
SIN Rn
is the SINR
PRB.
The denition of information measure function of EESM is dened as,
x
I(x) = exp( )
(3.3)
I 1 (x) = ln(x)
(3.4)
and its inverse is,
Substituting equation 3.3 and 3.4 in equation 3.2 the eective SINR calculation can be
performed as,

#
N
1 X
SIN Rn
exp
= ln
N
"
SIN Ref f
(3.5)
n=1
Here
is the MCS dependant scaling factor. Table 3.2 depicts each MCS and its corre-
sponding
values.
MCS
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
1.4
1.44
1.48
1.5
1.62
MCS
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
16QAM
3.10
4.32
5.37
7.71
15.5
MCS
64QAM
64QAM
64QAM
64QAM
19.6
24.7
27.6
28
Table 3.2:
40
values for each MCS [7], [8]
3.2. HeNB Power Control Scheme: The Analytical Approach Based on CQI Signals
3.2 HeNB Power Control Scheme: The Analytical Approach Based on CQI
Signals
Here the summary of the HeNB Power Control scheme will be given and in the next
sections this will be elaborated further. The main feature of HeNB Power Control scheme
is that the HeNB listens to the CQI signals from the macro UEs in its interfering area. If
the CQIs messages by a particular user are constantly reporting a lower value, then this
can be an indication that the HeNB is having an adverse eect on this user. Hence the
HeNB adjusts its transmit power depending on this CQI value.
As highlighted in section 3.1 CQI values and EESM SINR are related to each other.
Therefore the adjustment of the transmit power by the HeNB is only performed to achieve
a certain drop percentage (x%) of the reported EESM SINR. Section 3.2.2 explains how the
relationship of x% and EESM SINR is derived and section 3.2.1 elaborates the assumptions
required to assist this derivation.
3.2.1 Assumptions
3.2.1.1 HeNB Position Estimation
The HeNB determines its position during its initialization process. From the prevalent
backhaul link, through ADSL or ber optic line the HeNB can get information on its
position from the operator. Precise location information with this regard can be obtained
from the operator using the IP address of the HeNB because the operator already knows
where the location of the HeNB is due to the ADSL or ber optics subscription of the user.
So during instantiation and booting of the HeNB it can send requests to the operator
asking about its location and the operator, using the ADSL information about this user in
its registry can give back a relative location for the the location of the ADSL or the ber
optics subscription and therefrom the HeNB location.
The positions and transmit powers of other eNodeBs that the HeNB can interfere with
are also received from the operator during this initialization process.
3.2.1.2 Wall Penetration Loss Estimation by the HeNB

HeNB estimates the wall penetration loss based on the received power,
Prx,eN B
from
the eNodeB. As the HeNB knows the position of the interfering eNodeB through the initialization process information from the Mobile Network Operator, it can calculate the path
loss
P LeN B,H
between HeNB and the eNodeB. It also knows the transmit power
Ptx,eN B
of this eNodeB as it receives this information from the operator during the initialization.
Hence the wall penetration loss
Low
can be calculated easily as follows,
Low = Ptx,eN B Prx,eN B P LeN B,HeN B .
(3.6)
3.2.1.3 Estimation of Path Loss between HeNB and the MUE

HeNB estimates the aected UE's path loss using the estimated uplink transmit power
of the MUE and the uplink received power at the HeNB,
Prx,M U E
according to 3GPP
specications [6]. The estimation of the uplink transmit power of the MUE,
Ptx,M U E
is
based on the assumption that uplink power control is applied for both MUE and the HeNB.
This means that here the HeNB behaves as a UE that uses uplink power control. Here
we can get a relationship between the HeNB uplink transmit power and the MUE uplink
41
transmit power as follows:
Ptx,M U E = Ptx,HeN B,U L P LM U E,HeN B Low
(3.7)
But the HeNB measures the interfering MUE's uplink reception power and a relationship
between MUE uplink transmit power and HeNB reception power in the uplink can be
derived based on the path loss and the wall penetration loss as follows:
Prx,HeN B,U L = Ptx,M U E P LM U E,HeN B Low
(3.8)
Substituting equation 3.7 in 3.8 a value for the path loss between HeNB and the MUE can
be derived.
1
P LM U E,HeN B = (Ptx,HeN B,U L Prx,HeN B,U L ) Low
2
(3.9)
Figure 3.1 further exemplies the uplink power control process that's required for the
calculation of path loss between the HeNB and the MUE. The bottom half of this gure
shows the positions of the eNodeB, MUE, HeNB and the HUE. The top half explains how
the uplink transmit powers of the MUE and the HeNB behave when those two have uplink
power control.
3.2.1.4 Detection of an Aected MUE

HeNB listens to the CQI signals of macro UEs in its vicinity. Because the users are
sending these CQI reports in the uplink direction and since the HeNB also belongs to the
same operator it can be congured to listen to those. HeNB is only capable of listening
to the uplink transmissions of nearby macro users because signal power tends to decrease
as the users go further away. Hence the HeNB can identify which users are in its vicinity.
Moreover a HeNB determines if a UE is aected by HeNB interference when the CQI values
tend to drop for a certain duration. If the aected UE comes in the direction of the HeNB,
then the the UEs CQI value decreases however the Uplink CQI signal strength increases.
Increasing received signal strength in the uplink is a clear indication that a UE is nearby
and the distance between this UE and the HeNB is getting reduced.
3.2.1.5 Estimation of Fading and Noise at the MUE

The HeNB is not aware of the amount of fading present at the MUE because fading is
a property inherent to the MUE depending on its signal propagation environment. Hence
the HeNB is not capable of acquiring any information regards to this. Therefore in this
particular interference mitigation scheme it is assumed that the HeNB's estimation of
the reception power at the MUE is only dependent on the transmit power of HeNB and
the estimated path loss plus wall penetration loss between HeNB and MUE which was
explained in section 3.2.1.3.
This assumption is also true for eNodeB received power
estimation at the macro UE. Since the HeNB knows only the transmit power of the eNodeB
and the path loss between eNodeB and the MUE, it is assumed that received power from
eNodeB is only dependent on path loss and eNodeB transmit power.
It is also assumed that thermal noise and the noise oor of the MUEs are known by
the HeNB. These parameters are also required for the HeNB Power Control algorithm to
properly function.
42
Rx Power[dBm]
Ptx_HeNB_UL
UL Rx power of eNodeB
from HeNB
Low
Ptx_MUE
Low
UL Rx power of eNodeB
from MUE
Prx_HeNB_UL
Distance from
MUE
HeNB
eNodeB
MUE
HUE
Figure 3.1: Estimation of MUE path loss
43
3.2.2 Interference Mitigation Methodology

The main intention of this interference mitigation scheme is to achieve a controlled
interference at a MUE depending on the CQI or the EESM SINR values reported by this
user equipment.
This reported SINR includes the interference from the HeNB as well.
Using this received SINR the HeNB estimates the SINR without its interference at the
MUE. Then the HeNB adjusts its transmit power so that the SINR with its interference
remains at a certain percentage of the SINR without its interference.
By setting this
percentage at a higher level the HeNB is able to keep its interference at the MUE to a
minimum. The rest of this section explains how this is achieved in the thesis.
EESM SINR reported by a MUE depends on three main factors: received signal power
from the connected eNodeB, received interference power from other eNodeBs and noise.
The relationship among these factors and EESM SINR can be approximated as follows:
EESM SIN R
where
Prx,eN B
Prx,eN B
I +N
(3.10)
is the received power from the connected eNodeB,
is the interference from
other eNodeBs and N is noise. This interference I contains interference from the HeNB
and also other surrounding eNodeBs. Hence this equation can be rewritten in the following
way:
EESM SIN R = SIN RW I

Here
SIN RW I
Prx.eN B
IeN B,N + Prx,HeN B
is EESM SINR or SINR with HeNB interference,
eNodeB interference plus noise and
Prx,HeN B
IeN B,N
(3.11)
is surrounding
is the received power from the HeNB. If the
interference from HeNB is excluded from this formula we get,
SIN RW OI =
and
SIN RW OI
Prx,eN B
IeN B,N
(3.12)
denotes the SINR without HeNB interference at the MUE.
In this thesis work a relationship between SINR without HeNB interference,
SIN RW OI and
factor x. Hence
SINR with HeNB interference
SIN RW I
is formulated using a sensitivity
this relationship can be stated as follows:
SIN RW I = {SIN RW OI }x
, where
0<x<1
and
(3.13)
SIN RW OI > SIN RW I , SIN RW I > 1.
Rewriting this in dB
scale we get,
SIN RW I [dB] = (x) SIN RW OI [dB]

,where
(3.14)
SIN RW OI [dB] > SIN RW I [dB] , SIN RW I [dB] > 0.
Using the relationship in equation 3.14 the HeNB is capable of estimating the SINR without
the interference of itself at the MUE that it receives the CQI report or the EESM SINR
in this interference mitigation scheme. Hence the HeNB can adjust its transmit power to
achieve an SINR at the MUE that is x times the estimated SINR without its interference.
The following part explains how the HeNB transmit power adjustment occurs depending
on the received EESM SINR.
Substituting values in equation 3.11 and 3.12 in equation 3.13 the following relation
for the HeNB received power at the MUE,
Prx,HeN B
can be achieved,
1
Prx,HeN B = Prx,eN B
44
1 SIN R(1 x )
WI
SIN RW I
(3.15)
As highlighted in section 3.2.1.5 estimated HeNB received power at the MUE is only
dependent on HeNB transmit power
estimated wall penetration loss
Low .
Ptx,HeN B ,
estimated path loss
P LM U E,HeN B
and
This relation can be given as follows:
Prx,HeN B =
Ptx,HeN B
.
P LM U E,HeN B Low
(3.16)
Likewise the estimated eNodeB reception power at the MUE is,
Ptx,eN B
P LM U E,eN B
, where Ptx,eN B is the eNodeB transmit power and P LM U E,eN B is the
eNodeB and the MUE. By substituting values of Prx,HeN B and Prx,eN B
Prx,eN B =
(3.17)
path loss between
in equation 3.15 a
relationship between HeNB transmit power, EESM SINR and the sensitivity factor x can
be derived which can be presented as follows:

Ptx,HeN B = P LM U E,HeN B Low
Ptx,eN B
P LM U E,eN B
(1 1 )
1 SIN RW I x
SIN RW I
(3.18)
Rewriting the formula in dB scale,
Ptx,HeN B [dB] = P LM U E,HeN B [dB] + Low [dB] + Ptx,eN B [dB] P LM U E,eN B [dB]

(1 1 )
+ 1 SIN RW I x [dB] SIN RW I [dB]
(3.19)
SIN RW I [dB] is < 0, to satisfy the

condition SIN RW OI [dB] > SIN RW I [dB], SIN RW I [dB] < 0, the relationship with
SINR without interference, SIN RW OI [dB] and sensitivity factor, x changes as follows,
When the EESM SINR reported by the MUE,
(x) SIN RW I [dB] = SIN RW OI [dB]

Now the transmit power of the HeNB,
Ptx,HeN B
(3.20)
changes to,
Ptx,HeN B [dB] = P LM U,HeN B [dB] + Low [dB] + Ptx,eN B [dB] P LM U E,eN B [dB]

(1x)
+ 1 SIN RW I
[dB] SIN RW I [dB].
Hence the nal expression for HeNB transmit power,
Ptx,HeN B
(3.21)
considering equations 3.19
and 3.21 can be written as follows:
Ptx,HeN B [dB] = P LM U,HeN B [dB] + Low [dB] + Ptx,eN B [dB] P LM U E,eN B [dB]
+ f (SIN RW I , x) SIN RW I [dB]
(3.22)
, where
(
f (SIN RW I ,x) =
When
SIN RW I [dB] = 0
(1 1 )
1 SIN RW I x [dB]
(1x)
(1 SIN RW I [dB]
if
if
SIN RW I [dB]
SIN RW I [dB]
> 0
< 0
the interference mitigation scheme continues using the same
transmit power that it was using before. The derivation of transmit power of the HeNB
depending on the EESM SINR, sensitivity factor x and other estimated values such as
path loss and wall penetration loss is the main outcome of this algorithm. Once a MUE
reports an EESM SINR value the HeNB uses this formula to adjust its transmit power. It
must also be highlighted that this determined transmit power is used in PRB basis. That
means once a transmit power is calculated this applies to all the PRBs that are scheduled
for transmission.
45
3.3 Random PRB Allocation Scheme

LTE-A uses OFDMA as its downlink transmission technology. In OFDMA, the downlink resource allocation is characterized based on the fact that each scheduled UE uses a
number of Physical Resource Blocks (PRBs) while each resource block is assigned only to
one UE at a time. In assigning PRBs to users, usually the best set of PRBs that have the
highest SINR are allocated to achieve a higher MCS and ultimately a higher data rate.
But for HeNB users, almost all the PRBs have a good SINR such that the users can be
scheduled with a high MCS, compared to MUEs. One reason is that HeNB users receive a
very good signal quality from HeNBs because these users are not far away from the HeNB
and wall penetration loss is also not present.
The other advantage the HeNB has is it
serves a fewer number of users compared to the eNodeB. Hence the HeNB can aord to
select a subset of its PRBs to schedule its users and prevent interference to the surrounding
macro UEs.
The main idea of this interference mitigation scheme is to choose a subset from the
set of all PRBs for the HeNB user when a macro user is in the HeNB's coverage area.
The PRBs in this subset are chosen randomly. The usage of the chosen PRBs are kept for
several TTIs and then released for a dierent set which are again chosen randomly. This
scheme does not require the HeNB to have a complex solution to identify when a user
is nearby. The main idea behind this scheme is to have a simple solution that does not
require any prior knowledge, assumptions or any complexity.
The main concern of using random PRBs is deciding on how many TTIs the selected
set of PRBs must be used without reshuing them and how many PRBs must be chosen
randomly for this subset.
In addition to that, this scheme does not guarantee that the
chosen subset will not interfere with the macro users, since the subsets are chosen randomly
so there is still a chance that it might be the same ones the user in the vicinity is using.
Figure 3.2 explains the Random PRB Selection Scheme in a block diagram.
3.4 Conclusions
This chapter focused on the two interference mitigation schemes that were introduced
by this thesis which are unique, simple and novel solutions compared to the state of the
art in this area.
The rst method is an analytical method, HeNB Power Control Scheme and it relies
on the CQI or the EESM SINR values of the macro users.
This method estimates the
SINR without HeNB's interference at the macro UE based on the EESM SINR it receives
and adjusts its transmit power so that EESM SINR is only a certain percentage of SINR
without its interference. Hence the HeNB has full control of interference that it is going
to create at the macro user. The other advantage is that this scheme does not depend on
backhaul information after the initialization process which is delay prone. As it does not
depend on any delay prone communications and does not rely complex algorithms, this
scheme is able to function without substantial delays. Finally it must be mentioned that
the assumptions that are made for this scheme are reasonable and they closely follow the
3GPP specications.
The other method is the Random PRB Selection scheme which chooses a subset of
PRBs in order to minimize interference at the macro UEs. This method has the advantages
of simplicity, it does not rely on other information such as feedbacks from UEs or eNodeBs,
doesn't use the backhaul connection which can have high latency for communications and
it also doesn't rely on so many assumptions. The intention here was to develop a dumb
interference mitigation scheme that relies on randomness to deliver ecient interference
46
3.4. Conclusions
cancellation.
Start
Select the size for the

subset of PRBs
Select a number of
TTIs (num_TTI) to
choose a set of PRBs
yes
Select a new subset of

PRBs randonly
Time duration >

num_TTI
Figure 3.2: Random PRB Selection Scheme in a bloack diagram
47
48
Channel and Mobility Models

he signal propagation environment will be rst examined in this chapter before explaining the channel model which is implemented in the thesis.
Later the mobility
model of the users will be explained followed by the link to system level mapping at the
simulator. As there are two types of UEs which are served by the HeNBs and eNodeBs and
consequently having dierent mobility models, the channel aects them dierently. Hence,
those eects will be explained here separately with respect to HeNBs and eNodeBs.
4.1 Signal Propagation

The signals that carry information in the mobile wireless propagation environment
are electromagnetic waves. Once these waves are transmitted, they are subjected to many
changes before arriving at the receiver. They go through phases such as attenuation, noise
addition and fading.
Signal attenuation is the reduction of the power or the path loss of an electromagnetic
wave which depends on the distance it travels, the medium and the wavelength. Noise is
also added to the signal along the way due to external interferences such as atmospheric
signals, man made noise from similar frequencies and imperfections inherent in the used
equipment.
Fading is a result of the objects that exist in between the transmitter and the receiver
and also the mobility of the user. The radio wave that leaves the transmitter is subjected
to reection, refraction, diraction, scattering and absorption with the collision of intermediate objects eventually resulting in several signals of dierent amplitudes arriving from
dierent angles at the receiver. The superposition of these signals depending on their amplitude and phase create constructive and destructive interference which is interpreted as
fading in wireless communication theory.
Doppler eect is another cause for the fading that is present in a signal. This is prominent when a relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver is available. Doppler
eect creates a frequency shift in each frequency component of the signal depending on the
relative speed and its angle of arrival. The change in the frequency of the received signal
is called the Doppler shift. But signals from dierent paths that correspond to dierent
path lengths may arrive at the receiver. Those signals have dierent speeds due to varying
path lengths and the dierence of the Doppler shifts of each of these components result in
a Doppler spread [28].
Channel fading can be classied into two main categories such as Large-scale fading
and Small-scale fading depending on the amplitude variation of the received signal [29].
Large-scale fading, also called Shadow Fading or Slow Fading in dierent texts is a result
of motion in a large area. The attenuation here is a result of large objects such as trees
and buildings that span a large area along the path of the receiving signal. The variation
of the mean signal level is an indication of a strong presence of Large-scale fading. This
will be referred to as Slow fading from here on in this thesis.
Changes in the signal amplitude in a short space of time because of a movement of few
wavelengths is called Small-scale fading. It's a direct result of both relative motion and
changes in the signal environment. If the Doppler spread of the received signal which suers
from Small-scale fading is more than the signal bandwidth it's supposed to be having fast
fading. The modeling of slow fading and fast fading in the thesis is explained in sections
4.3 & 4.4 respectively.
4. Channel and Mobility Models
Figure 4.1: Multipath, Shadowing and Path Loss Against Distance [3]
As the signals in the real propagation environment the undergo above mentioned
changes until it arrives at the receiver, it's important that these eects are modeled properly
in a simulation environment. Hence the following sections give a detailed explanation on
the channel model that's implemented in this thesis.
4.2 Path Loss Models

There are several models that are currently available which illustrate the power attenuation of a signal. Free space path loss model is one such example for an analytical model
for path loss. But this can't be used alone in simulations as it models only the power decay of a signal with the distance. In practice several empirical models are popular because
they incorporate measurements taken in various real environments. Okumura model, Hata
model, COST 231 Extension to Hata model, COST 231-Walsh-Ikegami model and Erceg
model are some examples to the empirical models that are accessible in literature.
But
the path loss models that are being used in this thesis are based on the log distance path
loss model specied by 3GPP [30]. Depending on the positions of the eNodeBs and the
HeNBs there are altogether four path loss models deployed here in the thesis, all of which
are specied by [30].
P L1 [dB] = 15.3 + 37.6log10 R
(4.1)
P L2 [dB] = 15.3 + 37.6log10 R + Low
(4.2)
P L3 [dB] = 38.46 + 20log10 R + 0.7d2D,indoor + 18.3n(n+2)/(n+1).46
(4.3)
P L4 [dB] = max(15.3 + 37.6log10 R, 38.46 + 20log10 R) + 0.7d2D,indoor
(4.4)
+ 18.3n
50
(n+2)/(n+1).46
+ Low
4.3. Slow Fading Model
is the distance between the UE and the eNodeB in all the models and it's measured
in meters.
Equation 4.1 is the model used for path loss between an eNodeB and UEs
placed outside houses.
Low
is the wall penetration loss and the value used for that is 20dB
in simulations. Eq. 4.2 is the model for path loss between an eNodeB and a UE that's
inside a house. Eq. 4.3 is for a UE inside a house served by an HeNB placed in the same
house and the nal model is for a UE outside a house but receiving signals from an HeNB.
d2D,indoor
is measured in meters and 0.7dB/m is the the loss due to internal walls modeled
as a log-linear value. n is the number of penetrated oors inside a house.

Because internal walls and multi-oored buildings are not modeled in the thesis, equations 4.3 and 4.4 can be reduced as follows.
P L3 [dB] = 38.46 + 20log10 R
(4.5)
P L4 [dB] = max(15.3 + 37.6log10 R, 38.46 + 20log10 R) + Low
(4.6)
Figure 4.2 is an example for a path loss map generated for a 100m
100m area for the
path loss map equation 4.5. The HeNB is assumed to be placed at the (50, 50) point and
the distance is measured in meters. For the simulations two dimensional arrays of path
loss maps for a 100m
100m area are created for HeNBs with a resolution of 1m. It's
assumed that the interference from HeNBs won't aect substantially beyond 100m.
For eNodeBs a path loss map is used for a
2400m
2080m
area and it's converted to
a two dimensional array having a resolution of 5m between two points. These path loss
maps were created for a 7 cell structure having an inter eNodeB distance of 500m by the
open source Vienna Simulator [31].
4.3 Slow Fading Model

As explained in section 4.1 slow fading is a random behavior.
It depends on the
nature of the environment that the signal travels. Hence an approach based on probability
is required instead of a deterministic model in this situation.
The probability density
function of a signal having Slow fading closely follows the Log-Normal distribution with
zero mean and constant variance. But the correlation in time or space are also factors in
determining a proper model for slow fading of eNodeB and HeNB UEs.
In this section
only the method of deriving a slow fading map is discussed, whereas for an eNodeB it is
already implemented in the simulator.
In [32] a model was proposed for slow fading, a Log-Normal distribution with time
correlation. This was extended in [33] for spatial correlation instead of time. Having a spatially correlated map is better for a simulation because the slow fading value for each point
is calculated prior to the simulation which results in reducing the simulation complexity.
For this work it requires at least a
100m
100m
slow fading map with each point having
1m distant from each other for a HeNB and for eNodeBs a slow fading map of
2080m
2400m
with a distance of 5m between two values is required. The 3GPP specication for
HeNB simulation parameters [30] require the mean of slow fading samples of eNodeBs to
be with zero mean and 8dB standard deviation and for HeNBs they should have 0 mean
and 4dB standard deviation with correaltion distances as 50m and 3m respectively.
In the following sections the derivation of a slow fading map for an HeNB is discussed.
The slow fading map derivation method for an eNodeB is exactly the same to that of a
HeNB as given in the open source Vienna simulator [31]. Instead of calculating the values
the map is obtained from a simulation run for an eNodeB. But for a HeNB, obtaining the
51
Figure 4.2: Path Loss Map for a 100m
100m Area
map from the Vienna simulator is not possible because the correlation distance is dierent
for HeNBs.
The conventional way of creating a slow fading map with spatial correlation is to rst
generate the uncorrelated slow fading matrix
with a Log-Normal distribution [34]. This
matrix is then multiplied by the Cholesky factor
of the correlation matrix
which results in a correlated log normally distributed matrix
s.
e.g. Choose
R
a
of matrix
such that,
E{aaT } = I
(4.7)
According to [33] the correlation function between two points of the map is,
r(x) = ex
where
is the inverse of the correlation distance and
(4.8)
is the distance between two neigh-
boring points in the map that the fading values are calculated. Then for all the points in
the map, a correlation matrix
can be derived.
R = {LLT } = E{ssT }
Hence the matrix
(4.9)
s can be obtained by the multiplication of the Cholesky factor of R with

a,
the uncorrelated slow fading matrix
s = La
(4.10)
But this becomes computationally and memory wise expensive if the matrix
is a
large one. Hence [34] introduced a method that overcomes this barrier. Using this method
52
4.3. Slow Fading Model
the computational complexity can be drastically reduced if the fading values are derived
based only on the neighboring correlated fading values in the map.
As an example, for three slow fading values as illustrated in gure 4.3 each correlated
slow fading value
s1 , s2 , s3
can be calculated using the expressions 4.8 & 4.10 as follows:
s1 = a1
Since
value
(4.11)
s1 is the beginning point of this algorithm it only depends on the uncorrelated fading
a1 .
p
s2 = r(x)s1 + 1 r2 (x) a2
(4.12)
p
s3 = r(x)s2 + r(x) 1 r2 (x) a3
s2
To calculate
and
s3
(4.13)
correlation matrix R and it's Cholesky factor matrix L are used,

R=

1
0
1
r(x)
p
& L=
r(x)
1
r(x)
1 r2 (x)
r(x)
S1
(4.14)
r(x)
S2
S3
r(2x)
Figure 4.3: A Simplied Example of Generating Correlated Slow Fading Values
This idea can be extended to eciently generate a two dimensional map of spatially
correlated shadow fading values by taking only the neighboring values into account for the
correlation operation as observed in [34].
In this method a correlation matrix of
55
th point.
values can be considered at a time to get the correlated slow fading value of the 5
th
Figure 4.4 shows a pattern of four points that is used to derive the 5
correlated slow
fading point.
The correlation matrix
also a
55
R5
for 5 points is used to derive the Cholesky factor
L5 ,
which is
matrix.

1
r()
r(2)
r()
r(
2)
r()
1
r()
r(
2)
r()
R5 = r(2)
r()
r( 5) r( 2)
1
r()
r(
2)
r(
5)
1
r()
r( 2)
r()
r( 2)
r()
1
As the rst four values of the vector s is known already, instead of the matrix multiplication
s = La, s5 can be derived straightaway

L with the vector a as follows.
using the multiplication of the last row of matrix

a1
a2

s5 = Llastrow
a3
a4
a5
53
. . .
m-1
m+1
m+2
m+3
m+4
m+5
. . .
2m-1
2m
2m+1
2m+2
2m+3
2m+4
. . .
.
.
.
Figure 4.4: Generating a correlated 2D slow fading map using 5 neighboring points
This way several iterations have to be done to derive the correlated slow fading values for
all the points in the gure 4.4. Figure 4.5 is an example result for a
100m 100m spatially
correlated slow fading map derived through this method. This map is then converted to
a two dimensional array with each point representing the fading and the resolution of two
points is 1m.
Figure 4.5: A
100m 100m
Correlated Slow Fading Map for a HeNB with mean 0 and
std. dev. 4dB
54
4.4. Fast Fading Model
Tap
Channel A
Doppler Spectrum
Relative Delay
Average Power
(ns)
(dB)
at
1
2
50
-3.0
at
110
-10.0
at
170
-18.0
at
290
-26.0
at
310
-32.0
at
Table 4.1: ITU Channel Model for PedB
4.4 Fast Fading Model

The fast fading model used in this thesis is a Jakes'-like model. Hence the fast fading
attenuation depends on both time and frequency as it considers delay spread for frequency
selectivity and Doppler spread for frequency selectivity.
Similar to the slow fading and
path loss models, here in the thesis the calculation method of the fast fading map for a
HeNB UE is explained.
The HUEs travel at a
3kmph speed inside a house which prompts the Doppler spread.
The power delay prole caused by multipath propagation which is the reason for frequency
selectivity is modeled using the ITU Pedestrian B channel specication [35] which is a very
commonly used medium delay empirical channel model for oce environments. Table 4.1
gives the specied values for the mulitpath power delay prole in the PedB channel model.
Figure 4.6 depicts an example Jakes'-like fast fading model which is similar to the one used
for HeNB UEs in the thesis.
Figure 4.6: Fast Fading Map for a HeNB UE with
3kmph
speed having the PedB channel
model
The MUEs travel at a speed of
120kmph
outside the houses and its channel trace is
modeled according to ITU Vehicular channel specication [35], [4] .
55
As it is evident from gure 4.6, fast fading attenuation aects each users' PRB differently because of the time and frequency selectivity. Unlike in path loss and slow fading
calculations fast fading has to be calculated separately for each PRB.
4.5 Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR)

SINR is the ratio between received signal power to interference and noise power measured at a UE. This is calculated per PRB. Since all the losses are accounted in the previous
sections and the transmit power of an eNodeB is known, the SINR per PRB of a UE can
be calculated. As the transmit powers of eNodeBs and HeNBs are dierent and the way
how the interferences aect the respective UEs are dierent, the SINR calculation is done
for those two separately in sections 4.5.1 and 4.5.2.
4.5.1 SINR Calculation for a HeNB UE

Eq. 4.15 calculates the SINR of a HeNB UE.
th user equipment.
block of the v
Ptx,F
SIN Rr,v
is the SINR of the
rth resource
is the transmit power of the femtocell for that
PRB. NF is the noise oor created by all the unwanted noise sources in the communication
system and
N0
is the thermal noise.
SIN Rr,v [dB] = Ptx,F Lossesr,v N F N0

Lossesr,v
(4.15)
in the expression 4.16 is the term used to take into account all the losses that
the signal encounters till it reaches the
vth
HUE for the
rth
resource block. As this is a
HeNB UE which is placed indoors, the path loss equation 4.3 has to be used. Fast fading
changes per PRB and
F F r,v
represents the fast fading of the
rth
PRB of the
v th
HUE.
v
Slow fading depends only on the HUE position, hence SF is used.
Lossesr,v [dB] = P Lv3 + F F r,v + SF v + 10 log10 I r,v

I r,v
(4.16)
in 4.17 is the interference that the HUE gets from all the eNodeBs which is further
elaborated in eq. 4.17. Interference from other HeNBs inside other houses is not considered
here because the signal power reduces drastically when it penetrates two walls, therefore
only the interference from eNodeBs are collected.
HeNBs are denoted by
Mint
and
Fint
The set of interfering eNodeBs and
respectively in equations 4.17 & 4.20. The serving
eNodeB or HeNB will not belong to either
Mint
or
Fint . Ptx,M
is the transmit power
of an eNodeB per PRB. Path loss equation 4.2 has to be considered here because the
user equipment is inside a building and the interferer is an eNodeB. The term
to denote the path loss or slow fading at the
v th
vi
is used
UE that receives interference from
ith
eNodeB.
I r,v =

P Lv2i SF vi Ptx,M
(4.17)
iMint
4.5.2 SINR Calculation for a eNodeB UE

The SINR that's observed by the UE u served by an eNodeB for the PRB r in the
expression 4.18 is
SIN R r,u . Ptx,M
is the transmit power of an eNodeB per PRB.
SIN R r,u [dB] = Ptx,M Losses r,u N F N0

56
(4.18)
4.6. Link to System Level Mapping
The losses of that UE,
Losses r,u
in eq. 4.19 is similar to what's explained in the previous
section. The UE receives power from an eNodeB and hence the path loss eq. 4.1 is used.
Losses r,u [dB] = P Lu1 + F F

The interference in eq.
4.20,
I r,u
r,u
+ SF u + 10 log10 I r,u
(4.19)
depends on all the interferences from eNodeBs and
HeNBs in the vicinity. Interference from all HeNBs are counted only if the UE falls within
the
100m 100m
by eNodeBs.
coverage area of a HeNB. Eq. 4.1 is used for UEs which are interfered
4.4 must be used. The terms ui & uk
th
k eNodeB and HeNB respectively by the
For UEs interfered by HeNBs eq.
th &
are used to denote the interferences from i
user equipment u. The term
Fk
is used in
Ptx,Fk
because the transmit powers of dierent
HeNBs can vary as they use power control to reduce interference to user equipment served
by eNodeBs. Equation 4.20 is given here in linear scale and hence path loss and slow fading
terms should multiply with transmit power to get the interference term of each eNodeB.
After that these all these interference terms are added up to get the total interference from
all the eNodeBs and HeNBs.
I r,u =
X

P Lu1 i SF ui Ptx,M +
iMint

P Lu4 k SF uk Ptx,Fk
(4.20)
kFint
4.6 Link to System Level Mapping

Wireless network simulator is used as a tool to predict the performance of cellular
networks.
The type of of simulators that are used for this can be classied into two:
system level simulators and link level simulators. Link level simulators model the physical
link between the UE and the eNodeB that include modulation, channel coding equalization
and MIMO [4]. System level simulators are used to model the whole network which also
includes the link between the eNodeB and the UE. Hence the system level simulators involve
a huge complexity. This complexity can be reduced by mapping techniques between the
system and link level which is known as link to system level mapping. As this thesis relies
on a system level simulator, a link to system level mapping method is required to get the
correct link level characteristics at the system level simulation.
In link to system level mapping, the SINR of each used PRB needs to be mapped to
an average SINR. In the downlink this is done according to the Exponential Eective SINR
Mapping method [36]. The obtained average SINR is rst compared with the target SINR
of the highest Modulation Coding Scheme (MCS). If this SINR can achieve a Block Error
Rate(BLER) less than 10% for the chosen MCS as given in gure 4.7, then this MCS is
chosen. If the BLER is higher, then the next lower MCS is chosen and compared against
the BLER vs SINR curve until a suitable MCS is chosen.
Once the MCS is obtained,
the Transport Block Size (TBS) for the set of chosen PRBs can be determined. For data
transmission choosing a higher MCS is always important as it increases the data rate. But
for that to materialize a good channel is important.
4.7 The Mobility Model

The HeNB UEs and macro UEs have two dierent mobility models. The macro UEs
travel only inside the macrocell area that it is connected to.
The macro users travel at
dierent speeds depending on the chosen simulation scenario either at pedestrian speeds or
vehicular speeds, but the home users only travel at 3 km/h which is the specied pedestrian
speed. When a macro user comes towards the edge of the cell, it changes its direction to
57
Figure 4.7: AWGN Channel BLER vs. SINR Curve [4]
a random direction inside that cell. Macro users do not come inside a house and they also
do not change their direction once they encounter a wall of a house on their way. This
is done to avoid the extreme interference they encounter inside houses. This implies that
when a macro UE from outside enters a house, it belongs to the Closed Subscriber Group
of that house and hence the HeNB doesn't behave as an interference source.
HeNB users on the other hand only travel inside a 15m
15m house. When there
is a wall on its way, they choose a random direction inside that house.
A HeNB can
accompany several HeNB users inside a house and they always stays inside that house.
But the eNodeBs do not serve any of the HUEs placed in their respective coverage areas.
Figure 4.8 illustrates the mobility of a HeNB and a macro user having the above
mentioned behavior. In gure 4.8 the red line marks the eNodeB coverage area,
100m
100m
yellow rectangle represents the HeNB interference area and the light blue rectangle
represents the HeNB coverage area.
The dierence of the HeNB coverage area and the
interference area is that the HeNB doesn't serve any users beyond the blue area although
the macro UEs can receive its power as interference. Hence the path loss and slow fading
maps that were created for the HeNB as explained in previous sections span this entire
yellow area.
58
4.7. The Mobility Model
Figure 4.8: Mobility Model
59
60
Simulation Environment
his chapter explains the simulation environment of the ComNets LTE-A System Level
Simulator [4], [19], [20] and [21] in the OPNET modeler 17.5 software. First a brief
introduction of the simulation structure is given. Then the Node and Process models of the
important objects are explained. Finally the simulation parameters and the justication
for using them is presented.
5.1 Simulator Overview

As mentioned earlier, the LTE-A simulation model used in the thesis work is developed
in OPNET software environment. OPNET Modeler is a hierarchical modeling environment
which is based on C/C++ as the programming tool. It also has an advanced Graphical
User Interface that is can be used for debugging and result analysis. Some of key elements
of the OPNET Modeler are a model library where many protocols and vendor specic
node implementations, Object oriented Programming (OOP) and also a 32-bit and 64bit parallel and serial simulation kernel.
OPNET Modeler is a constitution of several
hierarchical editors such as project editors, node editors, process editors and source code
editors as shown in gure 5.1.
Figure 5.2 illustrates the environment that is used for simulations. There are modules for Application, Application Prole, Global UE List, Remote Server, aGW, Routers,
eNodeBs, HeNBs and UEs. The module Application is used to dene and congure applications of the UEs. As examples there are applications for Voice over IP (VoIP), Email, FTP,
HTTP, video conferencing, Remote Login, peer to peer le sharing, print and database access. The module Prole denes and congures trac models such as simulation operation
modes, start time, simulation duration and repeatability for dierent applications. Remote
Server is the remote application server and aGW is used to route and forward data packets
between the remote server and the radio access network. R1, R2, R3 and R4 are IP based
routers in the transport network. Global UE List gathers users' and eNodeB's information,
collects SNR of each user and manages the mobility of each user in each TTI. UEs are the
mobile users in the network. There are 7 eNodeBs in a 7 cell structure and HeNBs are
only inside the center cell.
5.2 The Node Model

The hierarchy of an OPNET module is separated into three stages such as the Logical
Network where the attributes are set for individual devices, Node Model representing
the protocol stack and Process Model for actual functionality of each device. Figure 5.3
illustrates the node model of both eNodeBs and HeNBs. The node model is similar for
both since the implemented functionality is similar in them. HeNB node model would be
dierent at the EPC interface if a HeNB gateway or local IP access was implemented.
5.3 The Process Model

In each layer of the node model, there exists a process model. Except for Physical,
MAC, PDCP and RLC layers, standard Opnet models are used for process models. The
process models are represented by Finite State Machines (FSMs). Figure 5.4 represents
5. Simulation Environment
Project Editor
Node Editor
Process Editor
Code Editor
Figure 5.1: OPNET Modeler environment
62
5.3. The Process Model
Figure 5.2: Simulation Scenario
the eNodeB and HeNB process model of the MAC layer and gure 5.5 refers to the process
model of Global_UE_List.
In gure 5.4 red and green bubbles represent the unforced and forced states respectively and arrows are used to represent transitions from each state.
Forced states exit
without any additional interrupts whereas unforced states always wait for an external interrupt to exit to another state. State transitions are triggered by interrupts and once a
state gets the execution time all its C or C++ codes in the enter executives are executed.
Enter executives represent the C or C++ codes in the top half of a red or green bubble.
Before exiting that state all the exit executives are also implemented and exit executives
represent the C or C++ codes in the bottom half of a red or green bubble.
The work of this thesis is done at the process model of Global_UE_List and at the
process model of the MAC layer of eNodeBs and HeNBs. At the Global_UE_List, the
channel model and the mobility model for both the HeNB and eNodeB UEs are implemented as explained in Chapter 4.
In each TTI the scheduler at the MAC layer of the
eNodeBs and HeNBs schedule the UEs on PRBs having higher SINR values measured in
the previous TTI. The Mobility state at the Global_UE_List updates the user positions
for the current TTI. Then the control goes back to the MAC layer of both eNodeBs and
HeNBs where transmission of data and HARQ takes place. The SINR at each PRB is also
measured at this instant which will be used for scheduling in the next TTI.
63
Figure 5.3: eNodeB and HeNB Node Model
Figure 5.4: eNodeB and HeNB MAC Layer Process Model
64
5.3. The Process Model
Figure 5.5: Global UE List Process Model
65
66
Simulation Results and Analysis

o far in this work two novel HeNB interference mitigation schemes were developed,
HeNB architecture was analyzed and a model for HeNBs was implemented in the
ComNets LTE-A system level simulator [4], [19], [20] and [21] in OPNET Modeler. The
channel models for HeNB users with path loss, slow fading and fast fading were also implemented in the simulator. The nal task of this work is to simulate a real world situation
where the HeNBs are interfering the mobile macro users to evaluate the performance of
the two interference mitigation schemes.
The main aim of this chapter is to analyze and compare the results of the two interference mitigation schemes, HeNB Power Control Scheme and Random PRB Selection
Scheme. The performance of the two schemes are compared here in terms of the physical aspects such as SINR and also with regards to the performance of users' applications
having dierent Quality of Service (QoS). These comparisons are performed in order to
demonstrate the ability of the two schemes to produce desirable results under dynamic
interference conditions.
This chapter explains the types simulation scenarios that are developed in the thesis,
types of applications that are used to congure users in such scenarios, types of parameters
that are congured in user applications and nally analyzes the results obtained from the
simulations.
6.1 Simulation Parameters

This section illustrates the type of parameters and there values that are congured for
the simulations. Simulations are done with a seven cell structure. The center cell consists
of ten macro UEs and the surrounding cells have 5 macro UEs each. Figure 5.2 illustrates
a scenario in the simulations which shows how the UEs, eNodeBs and HeNBs are arranged
inside the cells. All the macro users are placed randomly inside their respective cell areas.
These macro UEs are congured to travel only within their eNB coverage and not outside,
since the focus of the analysis is of the eect of the HeNB on the macro users and the
handover scenario is not of interest in this analysis.
HeNBs in the simulator are placed inside small indoor apartments and the apartments
are modeled with an area of
15m 15m.
The walls of the apartments are modeled to have
a 20 dB wall penetration loss. HeNBs and there apartments are placed only in the center
cell and there are four apartments in this cell.
Inside each apartment there is a HeNB
and a HUE. Each apartment is 150m away from the center eNodeB and gure 6.2 shows
the placement of these apartments inside the cell area. All the HeNB users are placed at
a random point inside the apartment that they belong to. All HeNBs are congured to
have only one home user and hence there are four home UEs altogether in the center cell.
However, realistically the number of HeNB users inside an apartment is limited depending
on the the type of households and for the simulations of this work one HeNB user is chosen
to simplify the scenario.
Table 6.1 depicts all the general parameters used in the simulation scenarios.
As mentioned earlier here are in total ten macro users in the center cell. Five of them
are congured with Voice over IP (VoIP), another three UEs use FTP and another two
are congured as Video users to compare the behavior of Guaranteed Bit Rate and Non
Guaranteed Bit Rate users under the two interference mitigation schemes.
6. Simulation Results and Analysis
Figure 6.1: Simulation Scenario
Figure 6.2: HenB Positions
68
6.1. Simulation Parameters
Parameter
Value
Downlink operating frequency
2.0 GHz
Number of cells
Inter eNodeB distance
500m
MUEs in the center cell
10
MUEs in each surrounding cell
Apartment size
15
HeNBs in the center cell
HUEs per HeNB
Total number of PRBs
25
eNodeB transmit power per PRB
-4 dBm
HeNB total transmit power (without power control)
0 dBm
Noise per PRB
-120.447 dBm
Noise oor
9 dB
Wall penetration loss
20 dB
UE speed
3 kmph
15 m
Table 6.1: Simulation Parameters
The HeNB users are congured as video users having a speed of 18 Mbps.
The
motivation for conguring them with such a data rate is, since there is only one HUE
that is associated with a HeNB, in order to provide a very high interference in all the
PRBs for the macro users, the user application must have a very high throughput. Having
interference in all the PRBs is vital for the result analysis because this will provide a clear
picture of the performance of the interference mitigation schemes under worst conditions
for the macro UEs. Following sections illustrate further on the conguration parameters
of VoIP, video and FTP applications.
6.1.1 FTP Trac Model

Table 6.2 shows the parameters congured for FTP users. Parameter `Command Mix'
denotes the percentage of FTP download to FTP uploads.
Setting this to 100% means
that the application performs only FTP downloads. Inter-request time here denotes the
time taken for the next le request once a le download is completed. Request for the next
le download is sent only after the current download is completed.
The simulator consists of eight types of quality of service classes and each class has
a dierent QoS characteristic and this means that each has dierent priority over the air
interface. The types of quality of service classes arranged in the order of lowest priority to
highest are Best Eort, Background, Standard, Excellent Eort, Streaming Multimedia,
Interactive Multimedia, Interactive Voice and Reserved.
VoIP application users require the highest priority and they are congured with Interactive Multimedia in the simulator. Video streaming users are congured with Excellent
Eort and FTP that requires the lowest priority of the three are congured with Best
Eort trac in the simulation scenarios.
6.1.2 VoIP Trac Model

Table 6.3 lists the parameters used by VoIP users. VoIP application's data rate for
the encoder scheme GSM EFR is 12.2 kbps and it belongs to the Adaptive Multi-Rate
codecs family which is an audio data compression scheme optimized for speech coding.
69
Parameter
Value
Command Mix (Get/Total)
100%
Inter-request Time (seconds)
Type of Service
Best Eort
File Size
1 MB
Table 6.2: FTP Trac Model Parameters
The Type of Service (TOS) parameter is congured as `EF' which corresponds to Interactive Multimedia trac. The Type of Service of VoIP is chosen to be higher than Video
(Excellent Eort) and FTP (Best Eort).
The parameter `Trac Mix' species if the
trac is generated as pure discrete or pure background or part discrete/part background

trac.
Parameter
Value
Encoder Scheme
GSM EFR
Voice Frames per Packet
Type of Service
AF33
Trac mix (%)
All discrete
Conversation environment
Land phone - Quiet room
Table 6.3: VoIP Trac Model Parameters
6.1.3 Video Trac Model

Table 6.4 shows the parameters used by Video users. A Frame inter-arrival time of
15 frames/s and a Frame size of 2133 Bytes contribute to a bit rate of 256 kbps. Type of
Service of Video is AF31 which corresponds to the quality of service class Excellent Eort.
Trac mix parameter is congured as All Discrete similar to VoIP users.
Parameter
Value
Frame inter-arrival time
15 frames/s
Frame size
2133 Bytes
Type of Service
EF
Trac mix
All discrete
Table 6.4: Video Streaming Model Parameters
6.2 Simulation Scenarios

Simulations are done to compare results of the two interference mitigation schemes
introduced in chapter 3, HeNB Power Control scheme and Random PRB Selection scheme.
The performance of the HeNB Power Control scheme is examined using three scenarios
95%, 90% and 85%. These percentages reect the amount of SINR reduction that is expected at the macro UE due to these three scenarios. The results of these are also compared
with the results of the other interference mitigation scheme, Random PRB Selection. To
compare the impact of HeNBs at the macro UEs two reference scenarios are required, a
scenario having no interference from HeNBs, `No HeNB' which is the ideal situation and a
70
6.3. Statistical Evaluation of Simulation Results
Scenario
Used term
HeNB Power Control: 95% SINR reduction
`95%'
`90%'
`85%'
Random PRB Selection
`Random'
HeNB with no interference
`No HeNB'
HeNB with xed transmit power
`Fixed'
Table 6.5: Scenarios types used in the simulations and the terms used for them
scenario having maximum interference from the HeNBs with xed transmit power, `Fixed'
which is the worst possible situation. Hence there are altogether six scenarios to collect results here and they are listed in table together with the terms used for them in simulations
6.5.
Random PRB Selection Scheme implemented in the simulations is congured to choose
5 random PRBs within every 10 TTIs. It must be highlighted that the values for the number
of PRBs and TTIs are chosen randomly here and these are not the optimum values. A
more detailed analysis is required to ne tune these parameters.
The two interference mitigation schemes are activated at the HeNB when a UE enters
the interfering area. Otherwise normal scheduling with a xed transmit power is used for
the HeNB users.
The type of results collected from the mentioned six scenarios are as follows. For FTP
users the EESM SINRs and the download response times are compared during the periods
where there's interference from HeNBs. For VoIP users, the Mean Opinion Scores (MOS),
end-to-end delays and EESM SINRs are compared. Finally for Video users the end-to-end
delays and EESM SINRs are compared.
MOS measures the subjective quality of a voice call and returns a scalar one digit score
to express the status of the call quality [4]. The MOS values range from 1 to 5 with 5 being
the best quality and 1 the worst quality.
MOS values are dependent on the end-to-end
delays and jitter of the delay of VoIP users and this relationship is given in the gure 6.3.
6.3 Statistical Evaluation of Simulation Results

Results of the simulations performed with several runs and dierent seeds in this
thesis are presented as mean values together with a condence interval. Condence interval
method is a commonly used statistical method to denote the amount of error introduced
by the sample mean from the expected value of a population. Hence a brief explanation
on the calculation of the condence interval is given here.
Let
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,...xK
be an observed set of numbers from a population that's contin-
uously distributed with expected value
then the mean
of the observed set of samples
of that population can be calculated as:
K
1 X
x
=
xi
K
(6.1)
i=1
The variance
s2
of those samples are calculated as,
s2 =
1 X
(xi x
)2
K 1
(6.2)
i=1
71
Figure 6.3: MOS values vs End to end delay of VoIP users [4]
72
6.4. Results Analysis
If the condence level is decided to be

be derived as {
x Z/2 . sK ,
100(1 )%, then the condence interval can

Z/2 is the upper /2 critical value of the
x
+Z/2 . sK } where
standard normal distribution which can be read from a standard distribution table. When
the number of samples that are used to determine the sample mean is < 30, Student's
t-distribution is used to calculate the condence interval.
can be determined from: {
x t/2 . sK ,
Hence the condence interval
x
+ t/2 . sK } where t/2 is the upper critical value
of Student's t-distribution and can be read from a Student's t-distribution table. Figure
6.4 shows the PDF of a Student's t distribution with condence interval and condence
level.
100(1 - )%
Figure 6.4: PDF of the Student's t distribution with condence interval and condence
level
6.4 Results Analysis

Results in this section are obtained after ten simulation runs with ten dierent seeds
for six dierent scenarios. Three scenarios have HeNB Power Control scheme enabled with
95%, 90% and 85% SINR senitivity factors, one scenario is with HeNBs disabled which is
denoted as `No HeNB' in the results, one scenario is with xed transmit power and normal
scheduling which is referenced in the results as `Fixed' and one scenario is with Random
PRB Selection scheme enabled which is referenced in the results as `Random'. Once the
ten simulations for the above six scenarios are performed, mean values of the results are
calculated and a 95% condence interval is calculated using Student's t-distribution. This
distribution is used for condence interval calculation because the number of degrees of
73
freedom are nine here.

As illustrated in chapter 4 macro UEs have the liberty to travel inside the entire
cell that it's associated to. Hence they can be inside the HeNB interference area during a
certain period and it can be outside this area at other times. All the results in the following
sections are analyzed during the time the macro UEs are inside HeNB interference premises
because it's only during that time a better conclusion on performance of the interference
mitigation schemes can be derived.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows: Sections 6.4.1, 6.4.2 and 6.4.3 analyze
the results of VoIP, FTP and Video users respectively.
Section 6.4.4 analyzes the per-
formance of HeNB users under the two interference mitigation schemes and section 6.4.5
analyzes the performance of HeNB Power Control scheme's performance when the HeNBs
are placed near to the eNodeB.
6.4.1 VoIP User Results

Figure 6.5a shows the bar graph of the VoIP users' mean SINR value with 95% condence interval calculated over 10 simulations runs. The macro users of the `No HeNB'
scenario have the highest mean EESM SINR as there's no interference from the HeNBs
at the macro UEs. The Random PRB selection scheme using 5 PRBs has the next highest SINR. The performances for the `95%', `90%' and `85%' of the HeNB Power Control
scheme are in the middle range and the `Fixed' transmit power scheme which receives the
maximum interference from the HeNB has the poorest performance as expected.
Figure 6.5b shows the relative SINR performance of the two interference mitigation
schemes (`95%', `90%', `85%' and `Random') and the `Fixed' transmit power scheme `Fixed'
in comparison to the `No HeNB' scenario which is the ideal scenario. This graph is derived
from graph 6.5a by dividing the SINRs of all other scenarios by the SINR of the `No
HeNB' scenario, since it's the one with the highest SINR and behaves as the benchmark
for other schemes.
Here the random scheme has achieved 96% of relative SINR. `95%',
`90%', `85%' and `Fixed' schemes have achieved percentages of 89.52%, 82.62%, 77.29%
and 46.77% respectively.
Out of these 5 schemes, clearly the Random PRB Selection
scheme has performed better compared to `95%', `90%' and `85%' power control schemes.
In relative SINR comparisons of `95%', `90%' and `85%' power control schemes with
`Fixed' transmit power, three power control scenarios have outperformed the `Fixed' power
scenario with margins of 42.75%, 35.85% and 30.52% which shows a clear improvement
over the worst case scenario.
This justies the ability of the power control scheme to
mitigate interference. Although the Random PRB selection scheme performs even better
in this regard, the throughput of the HUE might get hampered because this scheme only
allocates 5 PRBs to HeNB users.
Ideally the three power control schemes should have had relative SINRs of 95%, 90%
and 85%.
It can be observed here that `95%', `90%' and `85%' power control schemes
have performed below than they are supposed to by margins of -5.48%, -7.38% and 7.71% respectively from the ideal relative SINR. The reason for this ineciency can be
attributed to the presence of fading.
For the estimation of received power at the MUE
(from the HeNB and the eNodeB), HeNB considers only the eect of transmit power and
path loss as elaborated in section 3.2.1.5. Hence it should be mentioned that fading plays
a vital part on the reduced eciency of the power controlling algorithm.
There's a guaranteed rate that the GBR user applications must satisfy, otherwise there
will be extra delays which deteriorates user satisfaction. VoIP is an example for such a
GBR service which is a real time application that is sensitive to such delays. Usually an
application end-to-end delay of more than 150 ms results in bad call quality [4]. Graph 6.5c
74
presents the mean end-to-end delays of VoIP macro UEs in six simulation scenarios. The
signicant fact is that all the interference mitigation schemes have values less than 150 ms
while the `Fixed' transmit power scenario shows macro users having very bad call quality
which is much higher than 150 ms. This clearly indicates the performance enhancement
in the VoIP application of the macro users due to interference alleviation.
As shown in gure 6.3 Mean Opinion Score values depend on the end-to-end delays and
the delay jitter of VoIP users. Hence MOS is also an important metric on the performance
of the VoIP application.
The mean values of MOS scores are presented in graph 6.5d.
Graph 6.5e represents the the relative MOS percentages compared to the ideal case, `No
HeNB' scenario. Any improvement of SINR at the macro UEs due to the mitigation of
interference should nally reect on the performance of the user's application. MOS values
also give a clear indication on the performance enhancement of the VoIP application under
the two interference mitigation schemes over 'Fixed' scenario.
Here, the Random PRB
Selection scheme is closer to the ideal scenario with 99.5% relative MOS percentage with
'95%' power control scheme having the next best value.
75
100
12
80
SINR (%)
10
SINR (dB)
8
6
4
60
40
20
2
0
0
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
Random
95
90
85
Fixed
85% Fixed
(a) Mean values of SINR of VoIP users
(b) Percentage of SINR of VoIP users compared

to `No HeNB'
0.35
Endtoend delay (s)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
85% Fixed
(c) Mean values of end to end delay of VoIP users

100
80
60
MOS
MOS (%)
20
40
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
85% Fixed
Random
95
90
85
Fixed
(d) Mean values of Mean Opinion Score of VoIP (e) Percentage of MOS of VoIP users compared
users
to `No HeNB'
Figure 6.5: SINR, end-to-end delay and MOS values of VoIP users
76
6.4.2 FTP User Results

Results collected for FTP users are SINR and download response time. These values
are collected across ten simulations for six scenarios and mean values of these results are
plotted here with a 95% condence interval.
Graph 6.6a represents mean SINR values of FTP users for the six simulation scenarios
namely, `No HeNB', `Random', 95%, 90% and 85% sensitivity power control and nally
`Fixed' transmit power scheme. Graph 6.6b gives the percentages of mean SINR for FTP
users of other ve scenarios compared to the `No HeNB' scenario.
Here Random PRB
Selection scheme achieves 97.17% and the three power control scenarios with sensitivities
of 95%, 90% and 85% achieve 90.25%, 81.44% and 76.19% respectively while the xed
transmit power scheme achieves 58.25%. This clearly shows the two interference mitigation
schemes perform better compared to `Fixed' transmit power in terms of SINR.
The HeNB Power Control scheme shows reductions than the theoretical maximums,
95%, 90% and 85% for the relative SINR values of macro users.
This is because of the
presence of fading at the macro UE. HeNB does not include fading in the calculation of
reception powers from HeNB and other eNodeBs. Although the Random PRB Selection
scheme gives a very high relative SINR, the HeNB users of that scheme are only allocated
5 PRBs. Therefore the HUEs of that scheme have a lower throughput compared to the
HUEs of other schemes.
The non-GBR bearers usually carry non real time or best eort kind of services and
FTP is an example for such a service. Hence FTP does not have high delay requirements
in contrast to real time or GBR services. Figure 6.6c depicts the mean download response
times of FTP users across the six scenarios. As expected, the download response time of
the scheme `Fixed' transmit power has the highest delay with 8.31s delay and the ideal
scenario `No HeNB' has the lowest with 6.19s delay.
HeNB Power Controlling schemes'
and Random PRB Selection scheme's download response times lie between those of `No
HeNB' and `Fixed' scenarios.
Download response time for a certain le represents the time taken for a download to
complete since the request for that le is sent. Hence download response time is a metric
that measures the total delay of a le download in an FTP application.
As the results
show this delay depends on the SINR of the user. Since the two interference mitigation
schemes have reported lower download response times, than the 'Fixed' transmit power
scheme, this shows that the two interference mitigation schemes have done well to increase
the SINR and as a result the response time of the application has improved.
77
100
12
80
SINR (%)
10
SINR (dB)
8
6
4
60
40
20
2
0
0
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
Random
95
90
85
Fixed
85% Fixed
(b) Percentage of mean SINR for FTP users compared to `No HeNB'
(a) Mean values of SINR of FTP users
Download response time (s)
10
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
85% Fixed
(c) Mean values of download response time of

FTP users
Figure 6.6: SINR and download response time values of FTP users
6.4.3 Video User Results

Results that are collected for Video users are SINR and end-to-end delay which are
collected across 10 simulations for 6 scenarios, `No HeNB', `85%', `90%', `95%', `Random'
and `Fixed'. Mean values of these results are plotted here with a 95% condence interval.
Bar Graph 6.7a depicts mean SINR values of video users for the six scenarios mentioned above. From this, graph 6.7b is derived by dividing values of last ve columns from
the values of the rst column.
The reason is that the rst column consists of values of
the ideal scenario `No HeNB' and the derived values can be used to make a comparison
of the two interference mitigation schemes against `Fixed' transmit power scheme. Graph
6.7b shows that HeNB Power Control scheme with sensitivities 95%, 90% and 85% provide
relative SINR percentages of 82.49%, 73.52%, 67.74% and `Fixed' transmit power only has
54.15% SINR compared to `No HeNB'. Hence there's clearly an SINR gain of HeNB power
control scheme over `Fixed' transmit power.
`Random' PRB selection scheme performs
best with 97.42% SINR percentage which is closer to the ideal 'No HeNB' scenario.
The relative SINR values of the HeNB Power Control scheme show reductions than
their theoretical maximums, 95%, 90% and 85%. This is again due to fading present at
the macro UE which is not estimated by the HeNB in HeNB and eNodeB reception power
calculations. Although the Random PRB Selection scheme gives a very high relative SINR
78
the HeNB users suer because they are only allocated 5 PRBs. Hence they have a lower
throughput compared to the HUEs of other schemes.
Figure 6.7c illustrates mean end-to-end delays of video users. As seen in the gure
`Fixed' transmit power scheme has the highest delay of 1s and the condence interval is
also higher suggesting a higher variation of delays. Mean end-to-end delays of all other
scenarios are less than 0.2s and a much lower delay variation suggesting a clear improvement
over `Fixed' transmit power. This indicates how a relative SINR around 54% aects the
end-to-end delays pretty badly for 'Fixed' scenario's macro users again emphasizing the
importance of the interference mitigation schemes.
100
12
10
80
SINR (%)
SINR (dB)
8
6
60
40
20
2
0
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
85% Fixed
(a) Mean SINR values of video users
Random
95
90
85
Fixed
(b) Mean relative SINR values of video users

1.4
2.5
Endtoend delay (s)
1.2
Endtoend delay (s)
1.5
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
0
0
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
85% Fixed
No Random 95%
HeNB
90%
85% Fixed
(d) Mean values of end to end delay of video users

(c) Mean values of end to end delay of video users (without condence interval)
Figure 6.7: SINR and end-to-end delay values of video users
6.4.4 Throughput comparison of HeNB users

This section focuses on the performance of the HeNB users in terms of Uu throughput,
the throughput of the air interface between the HeNB and its user and the number of PRBs
used under the two interference mitigation schemes.
The motivation for this analysis is
that although the Random PRB Selection scheme provides very good results for the macro
users inside the HeNB interference area, the number of PRB allocations for the HeNB users
are restricted to only ve random PRBs. Hence the throughput of those HUEs might get
aected.
This section analyzes this aspect of the Random PRB Selection scheme while
making comparisons to the HUE throughput of the HeNB Power Control Scheme.
79
20
HUE 1
HUE 2
HUE 3
HUE 4
25
16
Throughput (Mbps)
No. of PRBs
20
15
10
HUE 1
HUE 2
HUE 3
HUE 4
18
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
95%
90%
85%
Random
95%
90%
85%
Random
(a) PRB comparison of HUEs for '95%', (b) Throughput comparison of HUEs for '95%',
'90%','85%' and 'Random' scenarios
'90%','85%' and 'Random' scenarios
Figure 6.8: g:HUE's PRB usage and throughput comparison
There are in total four scenarios chosen for comparisons, three from the HeNB Power
Control scheme, with 95%, 90% and 85% SINR reduction and one scenario from Random
PRB selection scheme congured to have a subset of ve random PRBs for user allocations
and an interval of ten TTIs for randomizing the PRBs again.
As mentioned in section 6.1, there are four HeNB users in all the scenarios, all congured with the video application having a data rate of 18 Mbps. As mentioned earlier,
the motivation for conguring the HUEs with a high data rate is to provide maximum
interference on the macro UEs in all the PRBs. All the parameters used for the scenarios
mentioned here are congured with similar values to what's used in section 6.1.
Figures 6.8a and 6.8b represent respectively the no. of used PRBs and the throughput
of four HUEs for the four scenarios mentioned here. As expected the no. of PRBs and
throughputs of the Random PRB Selection scheme are less than the others in the four
scenarios. The other signicant fact is the throughputs and the no. of used PRBs of the
HeNB Power Control scheme have similar values in all four scenarios.
Hence it is evident that the performance of HUEs are limited in the Random PRB
Selection scheme due to the limited number of PRB usage.
On the other hand HeNB
Power Control scheme is a much balanced scheme that mitigates macro UE interference
while being able to provide a better service to the HeNB users.
6.4.5 Behavior of HeNB Power Control Scheme near to the eNodeB

So far in the previous sections result comparisons for the two interference mitigation
schemes were done for a specic situation where the HeNBs are 150 m away from the
central eNodeB. The HeNB Power Control scheme relies on the estimated reception power
from the eNodeB and the HeNB at the MUE to mitigate interference. The inuence of
fading is also not considered on this estimation. Hence it should be mentioned here that
the actual eNodeB reception power at the MUE is a deciding factor on an accurate power
controlling specially when the MUE is closer to the eNodeB. In this section an analysis on
the SINR of the MUE is performed with the HeNB Power Control Scheme in a scenario
where the HeNBs are placed near to the eNodeB.
A HeNB to be placed at a distance of 150m can be considered as a mid distance from
an eNodeB on a scenario where the inter cell distance is 500m, hence a question remains
how the HeNB Power Control scheme would behave when HeNBs are placed much closer
80
to the eNodeB. To analyze that, four HeNBs are chosen to be 85m away from the eNodeB.
The minimum distance of a HeNB to an eNodeB is specied as 35m by 3GPP [30]. The
distance 85m is chosen here so that all four HeNBs are closer to the eNodeB and the
interference areas of the HeNBs are not overlapping with each other.
Chapter 4 explained how the interference areas of the HeNBs were generated in this
thesis. They are
100m 100m
square maps and the center point of a map lies where a
HeNB is placed. For a better analysis of the SINR results it is important that the HeNB
interferences are not overlapping with each other.
Figure 6.9 shows how the HeNBs are placed around the eNodeB. eNodeB in the gure
is marked with a black dot in the center and a blue line marks the path of the MUE. There
are four HeNBs, HeNB 1, HeNB 2, HeNB 3 and HeNB 4. There are ve scenarios used for
the simulations, 'No HeNB', '95%', '90%', '85%' and 'Fixed'. Out of all these scenarios a
macro user which gets really close to the eNodeB is chosen to see how the SINR behaves.
The chosen macro user's path is shown in the blue line in gure 6.9. The area where the
macro UE's path intersects with the interference of HeNB 1 is chosen as the area to analyze
the behavior of the user's SINR.
Figure 6.10a depicts the mean SINR values of the ve chosen scenarios at the intersection point of the macro UE's path with HeNB 1 in gure 6.9. Figure 6.10b shows the
relative mean SINRs of the four scenarios '95%', '90%', '85%' and 'Fixed'. These relative
values are obtained with respect to the SINR of the `No HeNB' scenario.
The results
indicate that the mean relative SINR of the 'Fixed' scenario is better than the other three.
This means that the HeNB power control scheme has failed to reduce interference at the
MUE at this instance. There are several factors that inuence this behavior. One reason is
the presence of fading which is not estimated by the HeNB in received power calculation.
Figure 6.9: Macro UE path plot
This behavior can be further explained using three expressions that were used to derive
81
the HeNB transmit power in the HeNB Power Control scheme in chapter 3 as follows:
Expression 3.11 in chapter 3 gives the relationship of received SINR from the MUE
SIN RW I , estimated eNodeB reception

power Prx,HeN B at the macro UE,
SIN RW I
where,
IeN B,N
power
Prx.eN B
and estimated HeNB reception
Prx.eN B
IeN B,N + Prx,HeN B
is the interference from other eNodeBs plus noise at the macro UE. Ex-
pression 3.12 shows the relationship of SINR without HeNB interference
SIN RW OI
to the
eNodeB received power,
SIN RW OI =
and expression 3.13 depicts the relationship of
Prx,eN B
IeN B,N
SIN RW I
and
SIN RW OI
3.13
(x)
SIN RW I = SIN RW OI
where, x is the SINR reduction factor.
Based on these three equations two expressions for
Prx,HeN B =
IeN B,N =
When the estimation of
Prx.eN B
Prx,HeN B
and
IeN B,N
can be derived.
Prx.eN B
(6.3)
1/x
SIN RW I
Prx.eN B
1 1
(1 SIN RW Ix )
SIN RW I
(6.4)
by the HeNB is higher than the actual eNodeB reception
power at the MUE (this is because of fading as it makes the received power from the
eNodeB to be considerably lower than the estimated value), the estimation of
and
IeN B,N
Prx,HeN B
also become higher than the actual values according to expressions 6.3 and
6.4. Now the
Prx,HeN B
value, the estimated reception power from the HeNB at the MUE
determines the transmit power of the HeNB according to equation 3.16,
Prx,HeN B =
where,
P LM U E,HeN B
Ptx,HeN B
P LM U E,HeN B Low
is the path loss between HeNB and macro UE and
Low
is the wall
penetration loss. As the reception power is over estimated, the transmit power also becomes
higher. This generates additional interference at the MUE. Because of this, the next SINR
report from the MUE will be further lower. This time the reason for lower SINR is the over
estimation of HeNB transmit power. Hence the SINR reports from the MUE will continue
to get lower as a cycle until
Prx,HeN B
gets less or equal than the actual HeNB reception
power at the MUE.

This phenomena is more prominent when the UE and the HeNB are closer to the
eNodeB which can be termed as a special case which the HeNB Power Control Scheme
has not considered and a special solution in handling this is required to overcome this
limitation.
82
6.5. Conclusions
100
35
90
30
80
70
SINR (%)
SINR (dB)
25
20
15
60
50
40
30
10
20
5
0
10
No HeNB
95
90
85
fixed
95
90
85
fixed
(a) SINR of HeNB Power Control scheme com- (b) Relative SINR of HeNB Power Control
pared
scheme compared
6.5 Conclusions
In this chapter results of two novel interference mitigation schemes that were introduced by this work were analyzed, (HeNB Power Control with 95%,90% and 85% SINR
reduction and Random PRB Selection).
Results of these two schemes were compared
against an ideal case, where there's no interference from HeNBs and a worst case where
there's maximum interference from HeNBs.
For the analysis, macro users were congured with three types of applications, VoIP,
video and FTP. Under the two interference mitigation schemes it is observed that as the
SINR of the macro users improve, performance of the user applications have also improved
compared to the worst case situation.
Although Random PRB Selection Scheme performs better than HeNB Power Control
Scheme regards to MUE SINR and the performance of user applications, HeNB users suer
because the HeNB allocates only a subset of PRBs to its users. On the other hand it can
be mentioned that HeNB Power Control Scheme provides a balanced performance to both
MUEs and HUEs as it not only eciently alleviates interference from MUEs but also
provides a good service to the HeNB users. The main issue with the HeNB Power Control
scheme is, as it's not able to estimate the amount of fading at the MUEs, the eciency of
interference mitigation diminishes. The inuence of fading to the accuracy of the HeNB
Power Control Scheme is more prominent when the HeNB is closer to the macro eNodeB.
Finally it can be concluded according to the results that the two introduced interference mitigation schemes have been able to successfully mitigate interference at macro UEs.
However both of them also have a few issues that require further attention.
83
84
Conclusions and Future Work
7.1 Outlook and Conclusions

The main contributions of this work are two novel interference mitigation schemes for
femtocell interference on macro users in LTE Advanced. First one, an analytical method,
HeNB Power Control Scheme which is a simple yet eective scheme relies on CQI signals from MUEs to alleviated interference. The second one, a PRB randomizing method,
Random PRB Selection Scheme which is also a quite simple scheme that selects only a
subset of random PRBs to allocate to HeNB users in order to create interference on the
macro users only on that chosen subset of PRBs.
As the rst task of this thesis, an extensive literature survey was conducted to search
for the current state of the art on HeNB interference mitigation. The next phase in the
thesis was the familiarization process of the OPNET simulation environment and ComNets
LTE-A system level simulator. The HeNB architecture was studied in the 3GPP specications and based on that a new model for HeNBs was implemented in the simulator including
a node model and a process model in the OPNET Modeler software. A path loss model, a
slow fading model and a fast fading model was also implemented for HeNB users according
to the 3GPP specications in the simulator and the accuracy of these models were veried
using simulations. Then the two interference mitigation schemes were implemented in the
simulator and the accuracy of their functionality was veried using simulations as well.
Finally the performance of these two schemes were analyzed with an ideal scheme without
HeNB interference and a worst case scenario of maximum HeNB interference.
Results indicate that the two interference mitigation schemes perform eciently compared to the worst case situation.
Although Random PRB Selection Scheme performs
better than HeNB Power Control Scheme with regards to MUE SINR and performance of
the users' applications, the HeNB users suer because the HeNB allocates only a subset of
PRBs to its users. In addition, in real life situations the cells can get more and more loaded
with MUEs and as a result when choosing a subset of PRBs, there might still be a high
probability that this subset would interfere with certain MUEs. On the other hand HeNB
Power Control Scheme gives a balanced performance as it eciently alleviates interference
on MUEs while providing a good service to the HeNB users.
The main issue with the
HeNB Power Control scheme is, as it's not able to estimate the amount of fading at the
MUEs, the eciency of interference mitigation diminishes. The inuence of fading to the
accuracy of the HeNB Power Control Scheme is more prominent when the HeNB is nearer
to the macro eNodeB. This has to be further studied and a solution on how to deal with
these situations must be devised.
The two interference mitigation schemes have several novelties compared to the current
state of the art with regards to the simplicity, less hardware intensiveness and no reliance
on backhaul communication. As mentioned earlier most state of the art solutions focus on
inband or out of band signaling and exchange of information, however these schemes do
not require any of this which is a major plus since additional signaling has delay issues as
well as waste of time. HeNB Power Control Scheme in particular has more control over the
amount of interference it should generate at the macro UE due to its analytical approach.
As this method relies on UE measurements it is also capable of dynamically adapting
to changing interference conditions at random places. Comparatively the Random PRB
Selection Scheme is a much simpler approach which provides very ecient interference
mitigation with a slight reduction of performance at the HeNB users.
7. Conclusions and Future Work
7.2 Future Work

The work presented in this thesis can be extended and enhanced in some specic
areas. Random PRB Selection scheme requires an optimum combination for the number
of PRBs and TTIs using an additional sensitivity analysis and this can be performed to
study the impact of the two parameters on the performance of the macro UEs so as to
nd the optimum settings for them. This optimum combination should be able to reduce
interference eciently at the macro users and also to provide a better service to home
users. At the moment this scheme mitigates interference almost perfectly but the home
users suer with lack of PRB allocation.
HeNB Power Control scheme requires a solution for the SINR drop in the macro UEs
when the HeNBs are placed near to the eNodeB. It is also required to nd a better solution
for the estimation of the macro users' fading so as to enhance the accuracy of the scheme,
especially when the HeNBs are closer to the eNodeBs.
86
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Communication Networks

A Scalable and Self-Sustained Femtocell

Matriculation Number: 2581426

Bremen, January 16th, 2014

This publication is meant for internal use only.

All rights reserved.

Bremen, January 16th, 2014

I would also give my thanks to Dr.

Dhanapala M.S. Palipana

method utilizes an analytical approach to mitigate interference based on Channel Quality

Der Zweck von Femtozellen ist, eine bessere Abdeckung im Innenbe-

Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output (MIMO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heterogeneous networks (HetNets)

Coordinated multipoint (CoMP)

Self-organizing networks (SONs)

HeNB Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Requirements for the Functionality of HeNBs

Benets and Challenges for Femtocells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Advantages for users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Advantages for operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Disadvantages of having femtocells

The Interference Problem

Intercell Interference Coordination (ICIC)

Power Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Scalable and Self-sustained Femtocell Architecture

CQI Reporting in LTE-A

EESM SINR Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

HeNB Position Estimation

Wall Penetration Loss Estimation by the HeNB . . . . . . .

Estimation of Path Loss between HeNB and the MUE . . .

Detection of an Aected MUE

Estimation of Fading and Noise at the MUE

Interference Mitigation Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Random PRB Allocation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Channel and Mobility Models

Path Loss Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Slow Fading Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fast Fading Model

Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SINR Calculation for a HeNB UE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SINR Calculation for a eNodeB UE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Link to System Level Mapping

The Mobility Model

The Node Model

The Process Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 Simulation Results and Analysis

FTP Trac Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VoIP Trac Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Video Trac Model

Statistical Evaluation of Simulation Results

VoIP User Results

FTP User Results

Video User Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Throughput comparison of HeNB users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Behavior of HeNB Power Control Scheme near to the eNodeB

7 Conclusions and Future Work

Outlook and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Overview of LTE-Advanced (3GPP Release 10) main features [1]

Component carrier aggregation (i) Intra-band contiguous (ii) Intra-band no-

contiguous (iii) Inter-band non-contiguous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

An overview of a heterogeneous network [2]

3GPP relay architecture and interfaces [1]

3GPP femtocell architecture overview

Benets and Challenges for Femtocells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Detection of an Aected MUE

FTP Trac Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VoIP Trac Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Video Trac Model

A Simplied Example of Generating Correlated Slow Fading Values . . . . .

PDF of the Student's t distribution with condence interval and condence

g:HUE's PRB usage and throughput comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FTP Trac Model Parameters

VoIP Trac Model Parameters

Exponential Eective SINR