Running head: SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

Shifting Paradigm in the Hit!r" !f S#e$ia% Edu$ati!n

Ste#hanie &an'en and Ni$!%e Di$(!n
EDPS )*+
Uni,erit" !f Ca%gar"
SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
Shifting Paradigm in the Hit!r" !f S#e$ia% Edu$ati!n
-hen Th!ma .uhn firt $!ined the term /#aradigm0 in hi 12)3 4!!(5 The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions5 he 6a referring t! a $!n$e#tua% frame6!r( !r di$i#%inar" 6!r%d,ie6 that
#re,ai% at a gi,en #!int in time 6ithin the !7$a%%ed mature $ien$e8 A$$!rding t! .uhn5
$ientifi$ #r!gre $!nit !f a erie !f traniti!n fr!m !ne #aradigm t! an!ther5 !r 6hat he
refer t! a /#aradigm hift0 9.uhn5 12)3:8 A #aradigm hift i a ;ua%itati,e and re,!%uti!nar"
$hange in the 4ai$ aum#ti!n !f a di$i#%ine that reu%t in the re<e$ti!n !f the !%d di$i#%inar"
6!r%d,ie6 9.uhn5 12)3:8 De#ite the fa$t that #aradigm and #aradigm hift 6ere initia%%"
meant t! refer t! the mature $ien$e5 thee $!n$e#t ha,e 4e$!me 6e%% eta4%ihed in the !$ia%
$ien$e and $an 4e a##%ied t! the fie%d !f #e$ia% edu$ati!n8 The fie%d !f #e$ia% edu$ati!n ha
een a num4er !f #aradigm hift thr!ugh!ut it hit!r"8
The fie%d !f #e$ia% edu$ati!n firt emerged f!%%!6ing the ena$tment !f $!m#u%!r"
$h!!%ing %a6 during the mid 1=>>? thr!ugh t! the ear%" 12>>?8 Thee $!m#u%!r" $h!!%ing
%a6 $aued $h!!% t! 4e inundated 6ith unanti$i#ated tudent ha,ing /menta%5 #h"i$a%5 and
m!ra%0 im#airment 9Fagan @ -ie5 3>>A5 #8 **:8 Thi unanti$i#ated #hen!men!n f!r$ed
$h!!% t! $!#e 4" ma(ing ad<utment t! the edu$ati!na% "tem in$%uding mandat!r" medi$a%
and #"$h!%!gi$a% eBaminati!n and the de,e%!#ment !f #e$ia% edu$ati!n #r!gram f!r dia4%ed
tudent 9Fagan @ -ie5 3>>A:8 Diffi$u%tie in %earning 6ere $!n$e#tua%i'ed a ariing fr!m
defi$it %!$ated 6ithin indi,idua% 9.a,a%e @ F!rne5 12=+C .i,irauma5 3>>D:8 Student
re$ei,ed a medi$a% diagn!i 4aed !n their #h"i$a% andE!r #"$h!%!gi$a% im#airment and 6ere
u4e;uent%" egregated and edu$ated in fa$i%itie e#arate%" fr!m tudent 6ith!ut dia4i%itie
9.i,irauma5 3>>D:8 Thi 6a ,ie6ed a a rati!na% re#!ne t! an indi,idua%? !4<e$ti,e need f!r
#e$ia%i'ed er,i$e8
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SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
Thi egregati!nit ide!%!g" !r eB$%ui!n m!de% #r!,ed ite%f a4%e t! !%,e man" !f the
#r!4%em !f that era and 6a $!nidered a remar(a4%e a$hie,ement in that it 6a uffi$ient%"
un#re$edented and !#en ended8 A$$!rding t! .uhn5 6hen an a$hie,ement i ignifi$ant en!ugh
t! engage mem4er !f the $ientifi$ $!mmunit" in a ing%e inter#retati!n that er,e a an
integrati,e ,ie65 a fie%d 4e$!me #aradigmati$ 9.a,a%e @ F!rne5 12=+C .uhn5 12)3:8 Thu5
thi a$hie,ement mar(ed the 4eginning !f the eB$%ui!n m!de% !r 6hat ha $!me t! 4e $a%%ed the
#"$h!7medi$a% #aradigm8 Thi #"$h!7medi$a% #aradigm 6a re,!%uti!nar" in that it attem#ted
t! $ater edu$ati!n t! the uni;ue need !f dia4%ed indi,idua% rather than #er$ei,ing dia4%ed
indi,idua% a inferi!r5 unedu$a4%e5 and a a %ia4i%it" t! !$iet" 9-in'er5 3>>):8 The #"$h!7
medi$a% #aradigm %arge%" d!minated the fie%d !f #e$ia% edu$ati!n unti% the 12)>?8
Feginning in the 12)>?5 there 6a an in$reaing em#hai !n a m!re !$i!%!gi$a%%"
4aed a##r!a$h5 6hi$h em#hai'ed that #e$ia% edu$ati!n 6a a !$ia% #r!du$t 4" nature and
thu5 $hange in the en,ir!nment 9e8g85 $urri$u%um $hange5 e$!n!mi$ diad,antage: $!u%d %ead
t! $hange in the need f!r #e$ia% edu$ati!na% er,i$e 9.i,irauma5 3>>D:8 At the ame time5
there 6a a%! a gr!6ing em#hai !n tru$tura% ine;ua%itie5 #re<udi$e t!6ard dia4%ed
$hi%dren5 and the ue !f a m!re h!%iti$ a##r!a$h t! undertanding #hen!mena8 S#e$ifi$a%%"5 the
#"$h!7medi$a% #aradigm 6a $riti$i'ed f!r 4eing %imited and in$a#a4%e !f eB#%aining a%% a#e$t
!f dia4i%it" and a 4eing inade;uate at de$ri4ing di!rder in 6hi$h e,iden$e !f a neur!%!gi$a%
4ai 6ere %a$(ing 9.i,irauma5 3>>D:8 Thee $riti$im %ed #arent and edu$at!r t! ;ueti!n the
e,a%uati!n5 $%aifi$ati!n5 and #%a$ement #r!$edure !f dia4%ed $hi%dren int! i!%ated $h!!%
9Hi%%5 12=): and a m!,ement f!r ref!rm 6a initiated thr!ugh g!,ernment agen$ie and !utide
!rgani'ati!n 9e8g85 Penn"%,ania A!$iati!n f!r Retarded Chi%dren5 C!un$i% f!r EB$e#ti!na%
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SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
Chi%dren:8 Thee an!ma%ie 4egan t! #r!du$e fragmentati!n 6ithin the fie%d !f #e$ia% edu$ati!n5
and e,entua%%" %ed t! 6hat .uhn referred t! a a $rii8
Thi $rii %!!ened the the!reti$a% tere!t"#e !f the #"$h!7medi$a% #aradigm and
#r!,ided the a$ti!n ne$ear" f!r a #aradigm hift 9.uhn5 12)3:8 The #"$h!7medi$a% #aradigm
6ith it em#hai !n egregati!n 4e$ame %e a4%e t! fun$ti!n a an effe$ti,e guide in the fie%d !f
#e$ia% edu$ati!n and #r!fei!na% 4egan %!!(ing f!r a%ternati,e $!n$e#tua% frame6!r(8 A ne6
$andidate #aradigm G the in$%ui!n #aradigm G emerged a an a%ternati,e8 Thi #aradigm
in,!%,ed a hift a6a" fr!m egregated edu$ati!n and $ateg!ri'ing indi,idua% in term !f their
dia4i%itie t! a m!re in$%ui,e m!de% and $!n$ern f!r e$!%!gi$a% fa$t!r8 The in$%ui!n m!de%
6a 4aed !n the #remie that a%% indi,idua%5 regard%e !f a4i%it"5 h!u%d %earn in the ame
en,ir!nment 6ith indi,idua%i'ed er,i$e a ne$ear" 9Fagan @ -ie5 3>>A:8 Rather than
,ie6ing indi,idua% 6ith dia4i%itie a different5 f!%%!6er !f the in$%ui!n #aradigm !ught t!
find 6a" in 6hi$h indi,idua% 6ith dia4i%it" 6ere the ame a indi,idua% 6ith!ut dia4i%itie8
Thi i $!nitent 6ith .uhn? ,ie6 that the emergen$e !f a ne6 #aradigm 4rea( 6ith !ne
traditi!n !f #ra$ti$e that i #er$ei,ed t! ha,e g!ne atra" and intr!du$e a ne6 traditi!n8
O,er time5 the in$%ui!n #aradigm gained m!re u##!rt a e,iden$ed 4" %egi%ated right
u$h a the Edu$ati!n f!r A%% Handi$a##ed Chi%dren A$t #aed 4" $!ngre in 12A+8 Thi a$t
enured that e,er" tudent ha a$$e t! free #u4%i$ edu$ati!n 6ithin a %eat retri$ti,e
en,ir!nment 9Fagan @ -ie5 3>>A:8 Eentia%%"5 the in$%ui!n #aradigm re$!ntru$ted the fie%d
!f #e$ia% edu$ati!n 4" $hanging the fie%d? f!undati!na% the!reti$a% genera%i'ati!n5 meth!d
and a##%i$ati!n5 and ru%e8
A .uhn ha tated5 !ne !f the #rere;uiite f!r a #aradigm hift i a diagreement !r
de4ate regarding the $urrent meth!d !r tatu ;u! 912)3:8 Thi i a%! re%e,ant f!r #e$ia%
D
SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
edu$ati!n in regard t! the IH a$hie,ement di$re#an$" m!de% f!r determining a Learning
Dia4i%it" 9LD:8 The di$re#an$" m!de% $ame a4!ut in 12AA in a rather ar4itrar" fahi!n a a
mean !f determining 6h! might re$ei,e #e$ia% edu$ati!n er,i$e8 The #r!$e in,!%,e
e%e$ting th!e tudent 6h! ha,e fa%%en 4ehind a$ademi$a%%" and then adminitering 4!th a
$!gniti,e and a$ademi$ aement t! determine if a %arge di$re#an$" eBit 4et6een the t6!8 If
there i a di$re#an$"5 then that $hi%d might 4e e%igi4%e f!r #e$ia% edu$ati!n er,i$e and a LD
deignati!n 9Ret!ri et a%8 3>>2:8 A%th!ugh thi m!de% ha 4een ued f!r de$ade5 man"
reear$her and #r!fei!na% ha,e ta(en iue 6ith it ,a%idit"5 re%ia4i%it" and it effe$ti,ene in
he%#ing th!e tudent 6h! ha,e fa%%en 4ehind5 thu %eading t! a /$rii0 and e,entua% #aradigm
hift t! 6hat 6e n!6 (n!6 a the Re#!ne t! Inter,enti!n 9RTI: m!de%8
The firt iue that man" ta(e 6ith the di$re#an$" m!de% i that it i n!t e$!n!mi$a%%"
,ia4%e in that it 4e$ame t!! u$$efu% f!r it !6n g!!d8 In 12AA h!rt%" after LD 4e$ame
%egitimi'ed a a $ateg!r"5 the #r!#!rti!n !f tudent 6ith an LD r!e fr!m 3I t! )I 4" the "ear
3>>>8 Thi i tri#%e the !rigina% am!unt5 thu it 4e$ame ,er" eB#eni,e f!r $h!!% t! #r!,ide
er,i$e f!r thi #!#u%ati!n a it $!t t6! t! three time m!re t! tea$h tudent 6ith dia4i%itie
9Fu$h @ Fu$(5 3>>):8 A m!re tudent $!ntinue t! 4e %a4e%ed a ha,ing an LD5 $h!!%
ditri$t are f!r$ed t! di,ert m!re m!ne" t! #e$ia% edu$ati!n t! the #!int 6here it ma" n!t 4e
e$!n!mi$a%%" ,ia4%e in the future8
An!ther iue man" ta(e 6ith thi m!de% i that it i athe!reti$a% and $!ne;uent%" i
a##%ied in an in$!nitent manner8 Auth!r Fu$h and Fu$h 93>>): $%aim that 4e$aue the IH
a$hie,ement di$re#an$" m!de% i n!t 4aed !n !und the!r"5 it ha a%%!6ed tate and ditri$t
t! define di$re#an$" different%"8 T!da" it ,arie in: h!6 thi di$re#an$" i $!m#uted5 the i'e
91 tandard de,iati!n ,eru 3:5 and 6hi$h IH tet t! ue8 A a reu%t5 thi ha $reated %arge
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SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
in$!niten$ie in the #re,a%en$e !f LD 6ithin tate and #r!,in$e5 and e,en 6ithin ditri$t8 In
fa$t5 !ne tud" f!und that !,er !n ha%f !f tudent in,!%,ed did n!t meet the tate? e%igi4i%it"
$riteria5 and man" 6h! did meet the $riteria 6ere n!t identified 9Ret!ri et a%8 3>>2:8 Fe$aue !f
u$h in$!niten$ie man" #r!fei!na% !ften identif" LD 4aed !n need rather than !n
aement reu%t5 e,en t! the eBtent that man" ,ie6 the LD deignati!n a 4eing 6hate,er
#arent and tea$her 6ant it t! 4e8
Tea$her and reear$her a%i(e a%! ta(e iue 6ith the di$re#an$" m!de%? %a$( !f
!##!rtunit" f!r ear%" inter,enti!n8 The #remie and intent !f the di$re#an$" m!de% i t! 6ait
unti% the tudent fa%% 6a" 4ehind their #eer in the $%ar!!m8 Then aement 6i%% 4e
$!ndu$ted t! determine if a u4tantia% di$re#an$" eBit 4et6een their a$ademi$ and $!gniti,e
$!re8 The #r!4%em 6ith thi a##r!a$h i that "!ung tudent d! n!t dem!ntrate the
di$re#an$" ne$ear" t! meet the e%igi4i%it" !f an LD 9the #ea( f!r $%aifi$ati!n uua%%" !$$ur
ar!und grade three !r f!ur:8 Thu the" mut fa%% dramati$a%%" 4ehind their #eer 4ef!re their
a$hie,ement $!re are uffi$ient%" %!6er than that IH $!re 9Ret!ri et a%8 3>>2:8 Thi /6ait7
t!7fai%0 a##r!a$h !n%" er,e t! harm the tudent a the" are eentia%%" %!!ing e,era% "ear !f
intru$ti!na% time that $!u%d f!$u !n their area !f need8 Thi ear%" inter,enti!n i $riti$a%5 f!r
6hen 6e meet the a$ademi$ need !f tudent ear%" !nC the %i(e%ih!!d !f #!iti,e !ut$!me i
great%" in$reaed8 Ear%" inter,enti!n a%! redu$e $h!!% dr!#7!ut5 de%in;uen$"5 and e,en future
unem#%!"ment 9Ret!ri et a%8 3>>2:8
-hi%e !me tudent 6!n?t meet the $riteria unti% the" are !%der5 !ther 6h! d! need he%#
ma" n!t meet the $riteria at a%%8 F!r intan$e5 if a tudent a$hie,e an IH $!re !f =+5 and a
De$!ding $!re !f A>5 thi di$re#an$" i n!t %arge en!ugh f!r them t! ;ua%if" f!r an LD Jet thi
tudent 6!u%d ti%% 4enefit fr!m #e$ia% edu$ati!n u##!rt 9Ret!ri et a%8 3>>2:8 Thi $reate an
)
SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
ethi$a% di%emma f!r tea$her and $h!!% #"$h!%!git8 D! the" engage in ;ueti!na4%e #ra$ti$e
4" ;ua%if"ing !me tudent f!r an LD 6ith!ut the $riteria5 (n!6ing that the" 6!u%d 4enefit fr!m
the u##!rt5 !r d! the" n!t ;ua%if" them and ri( them fa%%ing farther 4ehindK Thi i an
un$!mf!rta4%e and un#r!fei!na% ituati!n f!r thee #r!fei!na% t! 4e in5 "et it ha##en m!re
and m!re !ften 4e$aue the di$re#an$" m!de% d!e n!t $!nider th!e 6ith 4e%!6 a,erage
inte%%e$tua% a4i%it"8 Thu thi m!de% ha fai%ed in that a%th!ugh it i ued t! determine 6h!
;ua%ifie f!r u##!rtC th!e 6h! #r!m!te it ue fai% t! remem4er that the m!t im#!rtant g!a% i
t! he%# tudent 6h! are trugg%ing8
A%th!ugh thee #ra$ti$a% iue are !f a great $!n$ern5 it h!u%d a%! 4e n!ted that there i
a%! %itt%e $ientifi$ 4ai f!r thi m!de% a 6e%% 9a !##!ed t! the RTI m!de% 6hi$h i
em#iri$a%%" u##!rted:8 The e,iden$e a4!ut it re%ia4i%it" and ,a%idit" i ,irtua%%" n!neBitent5 t!
the #!int that reear$h ha h!6n that thi m!de% a$tua%%" d!e n!t a$$urate%" identif" an LD
9Fagan @ -ie5 3>>A:8 F!r intan$e it i n!t !und #ra$ti$e t! ma(e a de$ii!n regarding
!me!ne? a4i%it" at a ing%e #!int in time5 6ith a ing%e tet $!re5 and 6ith intrument that
ha,e meaurement err!r8 Rather5 #r!#er #ra$ti$e 6!u%d re;uire re#eated meaure due t!
eBaminee $hara$teriti$5 eBaminer $hara$teriti$5 a 6e%% a ituati!na% $!nditi!n8 -e h!u%d
a%! n!t ue u4tet $!re t! ma(e de$ii!n a the" ha,e %!6 re%ia4i%it" and #e$ifi$it"8 There
i a%! the fau%t" #remie that IH $!re and a$ademi$ a$hie,ement are #erfe$t%" $!rre%ated5 4ut
in rea%it" it rare%" eB$eed >8)>5 and ! theref!re i n!t #arti$u%ar%" uefu% 9Ret!ri et a%8 3>>2:8
Lat%"5 meeting the LD $riteria #reume t! ref%e$t a dia4i%it" "et it $an !ften a%! ref%e$t a #!!r
$%ar!!m fit !r e,en #!!r tea$hing 9Fagan @ -ie5 3>>A:8
F!r a%% !f thee rea!n5 the aum#ti!n regarding the #re,i!u #aradigm !f the IH
a$hie,ement di$re#an$" m!de% ha,e 4een $ha%%enged and de4ated unti% .uhn? idea !f a /$rii0
A
SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
!$$urred8 -hat reu%ted then 6a #aradigm hift t! the m!de% n!6 $!mm!n%" referred t! a the
Re#!ne t! Inter,enti!n 6hi$h !$$urred in 3>>D thr!ugh IDEA 9Indi,idua% 6ith Dia4i%itie
Edu$ati!n A$t: 6hi$h tated that the" n! %!nger re;uired an IH di$re#an$" t! determine a
#e$ifi$ %earning dia4i%it" 9Ret!ri et a%8 3>>2:8 Thi hift 6a a ;ua%itati,e and rather dramati$
m!,e a6a" fr!m the aement and $riteria 4aed a##r!a$h t! !ne that f!$ue m!re !n ear%"
inter$ei!n and em#iri$a%%" 4aed inter,enti!n trategie that might #re,ent an LD diagn!i in
the %ater grade8 A%th!ugh man" ditri$t ti%% ue the di$re#an$" m!de% in $!n<un$ti!n 6ith
RTI5 the t6! a##r!a$he are di#arate en!ugh that in .uhn? e"e it 6!u%d ;ua%if" a a #aradigm
hift8 Hua%ified $hange ta(e time5 e#e$ia%%" f!r th!e 6h! reit $hange5 theref!re
unf!rtunate%" it ma" ti%% ta(e e,era% m!re "ear f!r RTI t! tru%" 4e$!me the m!de% !f $h!i$e
and im#%emented in it intended 6a"8
Thee t6! re,!%uti!n in #e$ia% edu$ati!n eBem#%if" that .uhn? n!ti!n !f /#aradigm
hift0 ha,e !$$urred a !##!ed t! mere e,!%uti!n in th!ught and #r!$e8 Thee t6! $hange
in #ra$ti$e !$$urred n!t 4e$aue it 6a a gradua% hift in thin(ing 4ut 4e$aue the tatu ;u! 6a
$ha%%enged5 de4ated and then #r!,en t! 4e ineffe$ti,e f!r it #ur#!e8 Jet thi #aradigm hift
6!u%d n!t ha,e !$$urred 6ith!ut a uita4%e a%ternati,e5 that 4eing in$%ui,e edu$ati!n and RTI8
De#ite their im#erfe$ti!n5 thee a%ternati,e eem t! !%,e the ma<!rit" !f the $riti$a% ear%ier
#r!4%em and a%read" eem m!re a##r!#riate than the #re,i!u "tem8 A%th!ugh a $!m#%ete
traniti!n t! thee ne6 #aradigm ma" n!t ha,e 4een made "et5 a hift ha und!u4ted%" !$$urred
6i%% $!ntinue t! ta(e h!%d unti% an!ther future $rii ine,ita4%" !$$ur8
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SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
Referen$e
F!$ian5 .8 M85 Fee4e5 M8 E85 Ma$Mi%%an5 D8 L85 @ Greham5 F8 M8 91222:8 C!m#eting
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1D8
Fagan5 T8 .85 @ -ie5 P8 S8 93>>A:8 School psychology: Past, present, and future 9*
rd
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Ret!ri5 A8 F85 .at'5 G8 S85 @ Lee5 H8 F8 93>>2:8 A Criti;ue !f the IHEA$hie,ement di$re#an$"
m!de% f!r identif"ing #e$ifi$ %earning dia4i%itie8%urope)s &ournal of Psychology5 *9D:5
13=71D+8
2
SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
-in'er5 M8 A8 93>>):8 C!nfr!nting differen$e: An eB$uri!n thr!ugh the hit!r" !f #e$ia%
edu$ati!n8 In L8 F%!rian 9Ed8:5 The S+,% handboo- of special education. 9##8 337*+:8
L!nd!n: SAGE Pu4%i$ati!n Ltd8 d!i: 1>8D1*+E2A=1=D=)>A2=28n*
1>