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DWIRA MARK HAYFORD PRESENTS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT of the REQUIREMENTS for the AWARD BACHELOR of SCIENCE DEGREE in ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH and SANITATION EDUCATION MAY, 2014.
DWIRA MARK HAYFORD PRESENTS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT of the REQUIREMENTS for the AWARD BACHELOR of SCIENCE DEGREE in ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH and SANITATION EDUCATION MAY, 2014.
DWIRA MARK HAYFORD PRESENTS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT of the REQUIREMENTS for the AWARD BACHELOR of SCIENCE DEGREE in ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH and SANITATION EDUCATION MAY, 2014.
FACILITY OF SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
SURVEY ON ERGONOMIC AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND RESEARCHERS IN STATE ACADEMIC INSTITUTION IN GHANAA CASE STUDY OF MAMPONG MUNICIPALITY
BY DWIRA MARK HAYFORD
MAY, 2014
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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA-MAMPONG CAMPUS FACILITY OF SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
SURVEY ON ERGONOMIC AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND RESEARCHERS IN STATE ACADEMIC INSTITUTION IN GHANAA CASE STUDY OF MAMPONG MUNICIPALITY
BY DWIRA MARK HAYFORD (5101930056)
A PROJECT WORK PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION EDUCATION
MAY, 2014
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DECLARATION STUDENTS DECLARATION I, DWIRA MARK HAYFORD, hereby declare that the presentation in this project work is based entirely on my own work except references to other peoples work which have been dully acknowledged. Itherefore declare that this work has never been presented wholly or partially for any other studies anywhere.
STUDENTS NAME: DWIRA MARK HAYFORD SIGNATURE: . DATE:
SUPERVISORS DECLARATION I hereby declare that, I supervised this work in accordance with the guidelines and regulations of the University of Education, Winnebas Supervision of project work.
SUPERVISORS NAME: MR. BENJAMIN TIMUUM SIGNATURE: . DATE:
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Ebenezer, this is where the Lord Almighty has brought me this far. This project would not have been successful if not through his protection and guidance showered on me from level hundred up to this stage of my life in the academic platform. My sincere gratitude goes to my able Supervisor Mr. Benjamin Timuum for his encouragement, constructive criticisms, guidance and suggestions offered during the preparation of this dissertation My heartfelt gratitude goes to Mr. Apau the deputy registrar of the university of Education- Mampong campus, Mr. Oteng Kwadwo Akyina a lecturer of university of Education- Mampong Campus, Madam Comfort of University farms, Portia Manu-boafo of Maakro S.D.A church, Zakiya Yahaya of Buokrom, Alice Dopsey of Buokrom (South Africa) S.DA. Church, Madam Nadia Moro my course mate at the university and GNAAS fellowship member for sharpening my life to be dedicated to Christ Jesus from level hundred up to date. I am equally indebted to all the national executives for their support in hard times and my land ladies Elizabeth Appiah, Mary Appiah and Haggai Donkor all in Mampong. All elders of Mampong New Town S.D.A church and Theresa Donkor also of Mampong New Town S.D.A Church.
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DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Dwira and Mr. Maxwell Afriyie Dwira my brother whose hard work and total commitment has push me to this far in life. May God bless you!!! My other siblings namely Comfort Anokyewaa and her husband, Jermina Dwira, Elizabeth Dwira, Thomas Owusu and Owusu Arhin for their love, physical and spiritual support in prayers, care they showed in my academic carrier. All that l will say to them is that may God replenish anything you have lost about my four University Education in CAGRIC
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ABSTRACT Work-related ailments that emanate from ergonomics and occupational hazards among workers especially teachers and researchers in our academic institutions in the country has been neglected and this is posing certain health impacts on the teachers and researchers in the teaching profession. In view of this problem, the researcher conducted a survey on ergonomics and occupational health hazards and safety of teachers and researchers in our academic institutions in Ghana using Mampong Municipality as case study to find out the gravity of the problem. Questionnaires containing forty-three (43) items with contingencies and matrix questions under the three parts of which the questions made up of thirteen open ended type and 30 close-ended types were used to collect the data for the study. The twelve schools from the tertiary, secondary and basic levels were selected using convenient sampling and respondents from three levels were also selected using simple random sampling.Two hundred (200) respondents were sampled and statistical tool used to analyze data collected was the Statistical Package for Social Science(SPSS) version 16using frequencies, table and Chi-squares to establish relationships between some test items. The recovery rate of questionnaires was 75%. The results reveal that 88% of the teacher and researchers are trained with diploma, degree and master in the respective field of education and have taught for more than two years. However, 98% of the teachers and researchers suffer from certain work-related ailments in the school arising from compounding ergonomics (furniture they use), teaching aids, occupational safety, physical environment and social environment. As many as 62% of the teachers and researchers have been on health issues. Up to 76% of the teachers and researchers attributed their health problems to the furniture they use in their school and 86% of the teachers and researchers generally v
suffer from work-related stress as a result of workload. Up to 82% of the teachers and researchers schools do not have fire extinguishers in place and finally 89% of them lacked training in the operation of the fire-fighting devices. From the findings, I recommend that the teaching profession is associated with some health problems so the government, policy makers, ergonomist and all stakeholders in education should inculcate the health and safety of teachers and researchersinto the occupational health and safety management standards of the country.
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TABLE OF CONTENT CONTENTS PAGES DECLARATION .................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENT ....................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. x
CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................. 6 1.4 General Objective ............................................................................................................ 7 1.5 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 8 1.7 Research Hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 8 1.8 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................ 8 1.9 Limitation ......................................................................................................................... 9 1.10 Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................ 9 1.11 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 10 1.12 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 14 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 14 2.2 Ergonomics and Occupational Health Hazards and Safety of Teachers (EOHHS): Historical perspective ..................................................................................................... 14 2.2.1 Historical Perspectives .................................................................................................. 15 2.3 Ghanaian Case ................................................................................................................ 15 2.4 Occupational safety ......................................................................................................... 16 vii
2.4.1 Office Hazards ............................................................................................................. 18 2.4.2 Ergonomic Hazards ..................................................................................................... 18 2.4.3 Electricity Hazards ........................................................................................................ 19 2.4.4 Slips Trips and Falls Hazards ....................................................................................... 20 2.4.5 Influence of Occupational Safety on Teacher ............................................................. 20 2.5 Occupational Health ........................................................................................................ 21 2.5.1 Chemical Hazards ......................................................................................................... 22 2.5.2 Work Related Stress ..................................................................................................... 23 2.5.3. Influence of Psychological Stress on Teachers ........................................................... 24 2.5.4 Biological hazards ........................................................................................................ 25 2.5.5 Influence of occupational health on teaching ............................................................... 25 2.6 Physical Environment ..................................................................................................... 27 2.6.1 Visual Factors ............................................................................................................... 28 2.6.2 Housekeeping ............................................................................................................... 28 2.6.3 Acoustic Factors ........................................................................................................... 28 2.6.4 Thermal Factors ............................................................................................................ 29 2.6.5 Influence of Physical Environment to Teachers Performance of Duties ...................... 29 2.7. The Schools Social Environment Influence on Teachers Performance ....................... 30
CHAPTER THREE 3.0 RESEARCH METHOLOGY ...................................................................................... 32 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 32 3.2. Location of Study Area ................................................................................................... 32 3.3 Climate and Vegetation .................................................................................................. 32 3.4 Demography of the Study Area ...................................................................................... 33 3.5 Research Design .............................................................................................................. 33 3.6 Target Population ............................................................................................................ 34 3.7 Sample Size and Sample Selection ................................................................................. 34 3.8. Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................ 35 3.9 Research Instruments ...................................................................................................... 36 3.10 Instrument Validity ....................................................................................................... 37 3.11 Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................................. 37 viii
3.12 Operational Definition of Variables ............................................................................. 38
CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION ....................... 42 4.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 42 4.2 Response Rate .................................................................................................................. 42 4:3 Demographic Information .............................................................................................. 43 4.4 Qualified Teachers (Train and Untrained) ...................................................................... 44 4.5 Respondents Subjects Distribution ................................................................................. 47 4.6. Ergonomic Safety ........................................................................................................... 49 4.7 Occupational Safety ......................................................................................................... 55 4.8 Fire Safety Measures ..................................................................................................... 57 4:9 Firefighting Training and Techniques ............................................................................ 58 4.10 The Availability of Emergency Doors ......................................................................... 59 4.11 Safety from Slips and fall .............................................................................................. 60 4.12 Influence of Occupational Health on Teachers Performance ....................................... 60 4.13 Analyses of results on the Person in charge of Health Emergencies in the Schools ..... 62 4.14 Analyses of results on Teachers Dining Area ............................................................... 64 4.15 Analysis of results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers ........................ 65 4.16 Analyses results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving their Appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers .............................................................. 66 4.17 Analyses results on Common Ailments Teachers Suffered since they received their appointment before the Survey and their Percentages ................................................... 67 4.18 Analyses of results on the Influence of Physical Environment on Teachers Performance .................................................................................................................. 68 4.19 Influence of Noise on Performance .............................................................................. 68 4.20 Influence of Social Environment on Teachers Performance of Duties ........................ 69 4.21 Analysis of Data on the Study Hypothesis .................................................................... 70 4.22 Summary of the Chapter .............................................................................................. 73
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CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS ...... 74 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 74 5.2 Summary of the Findings................................................................................................. 74 5.2.1 Influence of Occupational Safety Hazards on Teachers Performance ........................ 75 5.2.2 Influence of Occupational Health Hazards on Teachers Performance Of Duties ...... 76 5.2.3 Influence of Occupational and Environment Hazards on Teachers Performance ....... 78 of Duties ....................................................................................................................... 78 5.3 Conclusions...................................................................................................................... 79 5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 80
LIST OF TABLES PAGES Table 3.1 Showing the Sampling Size of the Target Population ........................................... 35 Table 3.2: Shows the Operationalization of Variables in the Study ...................................... 39 Table 4.1: Return Rate of the Questionnaire Administered .................................................. 42 Table 4.2: Respondents Gender ............................................................................................. 43 Table 4.3: Category of Schools where the Subjects were Pooled to Answer Questionnaires ...................................................................................................... 44 Table 4.4: Trained and Untrained teachersin the sample schools. ........................................ 44 Table 4.5: Professional Qualification of Train Teachers ....................................................... 45 Table 4.6: Teaching Duration of the Subject Teachers Encountered During the Survey ...... 46 Table 4.7: Respondents Subjects Distribution ..................................................................... 47 Table 4.8: Respondents Responsibilities (position held in school) besides Teaching in the Classroom ........................................................................................................ 48 Table 4.10: The Comfort of Office and Classroom Furniture (Chairs and Tables) used by Teachers ........................................................................................................ 49 Table 4.11: Teaching aids used by teachers in school ........................................................... 50 Table 4.12: Ventilated Materials used in Schools ................................................................ 51 Tables 4.13: Nature of Light in Offices and Classroom in Schools ..................................... 52 Tables 4.14: Working Exposure of Respondents ................................................................. 53 Table 4.15: Laboratory Presents in the Schools of the Respondents .................................... 54 Table 4.16: Respondents that uses Computers in Teaching .................................................. 55 Table 4.17: Teachers level of agreement on the safety of school structures in schools ........ 56 Table 4.18: Shows Teachers Level of Agreement on availability of fire Extinguishers in schools.............................................................................................................. 57 Table 4.19: Teachers Level of agreement on Firefighting Training as Needful Exercise .... 58 Table 4.20: Teachers Level of agreement on availability of Emergency Doors in Offices and Laboratories ................................................................................................. 59 Table 4.21: Use of Precautionary Measures against slips and falls in their schools ............. 60 Table 4.22: Analyses on the Number of Teachers Trained on Health Issues ........................ 61 xi
Table 4:23 Analyses on the number of Teachers who have received Vaccination ............... 61 Table 4.24: Analysis of results on Teachers use of Protective Clothing when Handling Chemicals in School............................................................................................ 62 Table 4.25: Teachers Responses on Handling of Emergencies in the School ....................... 62 Table 4.26: Teachers Response on first aid box in the School .............................................. 63 Table 4.27: Shows the results on Teachers Dining Area in the School Contacted ............... 64 Table 4.28: Shows the results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers .............. 65 Table 4.29: Shows the results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving their appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers ............................................ 66 Table 4.30: Shows the results on Common Ailments that has affected Teachers and .......... 67 Researchers in Schools........................................................................................ 67 Table 4.31: Analyses of results on Noise Control in the Staffroom and Classrooms ........... 68 Table 4.32: Results on Management Sensitivity to Teachers Concerns ................................ 69 Table 4.33: Shows chi-square Analysis on Air Quality in Classrooms and Offices and Safety of School Buildings ................................................................................ 71 Table: 4.34: Shows chi square test Analysis on Ergonomics Hazards with regard to comfortability of the Furniture used by Teachers and one of the Work- Related Ailments (low back pain) Complained by Teachers .............................. 72
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CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study The idea of ergonomics as a discipline migrates from the culture of ancient Greece in the 5 th
century B.C. It wasa good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs and workplaces (Wikipedia, 2011). Different bodies and association have come out with various definitions of ergonomics and occupational health hazards and safety among workers. Among them are International Ergonomics Association(IEA,2008) which defined ergonomics as the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance (IEA, 2008). The association has categorized ergonomics into specialization which centers on physical, cognitive, organization and environment for all professions in occupational sectors.
The science of ergonomics and occupational health and safety was adopted and became useful in the United State of America in the late 1960s by occupational health and safety administration (OHSA) after a policy called compensation-safety establishment when workers safety policy has failed in US. However, it was enforced by Occupational safety and health Act, 1970 in America (Judson Maclaury, 1984).
However, in Ghana the health and safety of all employees in various occupational sectors and professions are supported by the Ghana Labor Act, 2003, Act 651 is to ensure that employees are not exposed to conditions that would lead them to work related injuries or illnesses. Employees are also required to exhibit their duty of care in ensuring that they work 2
as per the employers standard operating procedures which must incorporate Safety and Health requirements. However, are the Ghanaian workers as especially teachers and researchers in our institutions and the employers aware of their safety and health responsibilities and obligations? The ergonomics and occupational health hazards are common in many occupation and occupational fields and affect numerous numbers of workers. Among them, teaching occupation has got several ergonomics and occupational health hazards. The hazards are commonly met by all teachers and others affect teachers of particular subjects. Consequently, occupational illnesses are not easily identified as injuries and many go unreported especially when the employer or worker is unable to link exposure with the symptoms the employees exhibit (Reese, 2009). This probably explains the low number of reported injuries and illness among teachers. Regrettably, not so much is known about the accident severity and frequency rate among teachers (Litch, 1973) the situation is further aggravated by lack of effective legislation guiding ergonomic and occupational health and safety (E.O.H.S) management in schools, inadequate funds and changing technology. In addition, teachers do not seem yet aware of the importance of reporting near miss incidents.
WHO (1994) writes In the most favorable circumstances work provides the income and quality outcomes and also have positive impact on social, psychological and physical health and well-being. In spite of these the fact that conditions at work and work environment, in many countries still involve distinct and even severe hazards to health that reduces the span of working of individuals (http://www.who.Int/occupationalhealth/publications/globstrateg y/en/print.html)(1994). 3
As stated early in the first paragraph about the categories of ergonomics in major occupations, there are physical hazards, cognitive hazards, organizational hazards and environment hazards which affect workers who operate at the place of work; these hazardous factors can influence occupational health discomforts of teachers and researchers. Aryal (2007) documents that most of the teachers faced numerous physical and psychological problems as a result of work load and stress at the school. Hazards are arising from psychosocial environment as well as working hours and physical agents. In the teaching profession teachers and researchers are exposed to combination of hazards e.g., noise, shift work, stress (Smith, Namara and Wellens, 2004). Work and ergonomic factors may be harmful to health and working capacity, and equal number of working people report psychological overload at work resulting in stress symptoms (Dangol, 2007).
Occupational health hazards can threaten the health of many workers. In some cases, materials involved in a persons job may result to a long terms damage that appears only after many years (http:// www.dore as dezines.com, 2001). Teachers and researchers in our countrys institutions face a series of problems within the school the same at home as a result of school associated causes. Not only in Ghana but in other developed or developing countries too teachers and researchers face numerous health deteriorating incidences. Since teachers are powerful stake holders of the school, many teachers and researchers spend their life in such hazardous work environment, which cause a lot of adverse effect on their health. Even though in Ghana ,there are some strategies that have been adopted by employer(government and private owners) that monitors the increasing performance, such as use of incentive schemes and numerous reform measures like awarding study leaves and other incentives to the deserving teachers and researchers, and better remuneration. 4
However, the health hazard that is associated with the work which ranges from physical to psychosocial has been trampled upon by the employers (Milan, 2011). Therefore, this study seeks to contribute to the development of education in the country by investigating the potential ergonomic and occupational health hazards and safety of teachers and researchers and the need to inform those in the authority to factor it into the national occupational health and safety management standard.
1.2 Statement of the Problem Occupational health has received increasing attention in recent years as a result of mounting concerns over exposure to carcinogens in the workplace (http://www.dore as dezines.com, 2001).
The duties of teachers and researchers in Ghana are not only limited to teaching or lecturing in classes. However, it involves additional work which may requires extra hours in order to discharge the other duties like prepare for lessons, (lesson planning) assess students exercises, prepare teaching/learning resources (such as charts), laboratory work with students, the use of laptops by tertiary institution lecturers to carry on their research work, carry out guidance and counseling of students, perform non-teaching clerical duties and satisfy requests from management. They also head the institution (principals), department and classes, take charge of home science room, computer lab, and workshops (in case of woodwork and metalwork), maintain students discipline both inside and outside classrooms and train students for different sports and games. They too, accompany students to field visits and other trips. As a result, teachers are exposed to many occupational health, safety and environmental hazards, emanating from their variety of job functions (Kuria,2009). 5
(NUT,2012) writes Most teaching staff spend most of their working hours each day on their feet teaching or lecturing and due to the seating arrangement in the classroom, on lifting and handling, working with computers, health and safety when using computers at home and inhaling certain chemicals from laboratory are also at greater risk of health problems including: varicose veins; poor circulation; bunions/corns, painful swelling in the feet and legs; foot problems; joint damage, low back pain, heart and circulatory problems; and specific problems in the case of pregnant women, including pre-term birth, spontaneous abortions and slower foetal growth rates (www.teacher.org.uk, 2008).
The causes of health hazards of teachers and researchers are not fully known. The working environment exposes many teachers to health hazards that lead to injuries in vocal cord, respiratory diseases, cancer, musculoskeletal disorder, reproductive disorders, mental and neurological illness (WHO, 1996). The positive impact of introducing occupational safety, health and environment (O.S.H.E.) management systems at the organizational level, both on the reduction of hazards and risks and on productivity, is now recognized by employers and governments (I.L.O, 2001). In U.K for example, adherence to O.S.H.E. regulations in all workplaces, is enforced by Health and safety executive (H.S.E.) created through an act of parliament (http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk, 2001). In U.S.A the same is done by occupational safety and administration in the department of labor (http://www.OSHA.gov, 1990).
In the case of Ghana, even though the country has different agencies like a the Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Factory Inspectorate, Inspectorate Division of the Ghana Minerals Commission and the Ghana Labor Commission and other 6
agencies under different jurisdictions which monitor different industries for workplace and employee safety, however, there is no national body, policy nor process that govern Occupational Safety & Health management in Ghana (Annan, 2013). So this study aims to bring into light some ergonomic and occupational health hazards that affect teachers and researchers in the teaching profession in our institution ranging from basic schools, second cycle and tertiary schools (colleges of educations, polytechnics, health institutions (nursing training schools) and the universities) in the country using Mampong Municipality as a case study.
1.3 Significance of the Study The study revealed the possible ergonomic and occupational health hazards associated with the teaching profession andwhich normally affect the teachers and researchers who work in such environment. The outcome of this study will be useful to the teachers and researchers in our schools to be sensitized on the need to observe safety, health and the care of social and physical environment, whether at work or at home in order to avoid any consequences that will impede their work efficiency. They would also benefit from the results of the study as this may be used to institute certain intervention measures. It would be useful for safety designers in the educational sector to consider teachers and researchers from different perspective which may include(stature , weight etc.) in their design of equipment like office tables and seats, desks ,cupboard and office book shelf in the schools in Mampong Municipality.
The study would also be beneficial to the public policy makers as they would understand that the teaching profession has a wide range of hazards that need certain consideration when formulating policies so that they can have some compensations due to the ill-health 7
injuries they experience at the work which sometimes seem unreported for the law to take its course as enshrined in the Workmens Compensation Act 1987 (PNDCL 187) section 2. It would also benefit the government to realize the need of establishing a body or an agency to take charge of ergonomic and occupational health and safety issues that exist in our workplaces and workers as a whole especially teachers in Ghana. They would also provide data useful for planning purposes. Finally, it would be useful to the academia and researchers as it will contribute to a new knowledge.
1.4 General Objective The general objective of this study is to establish the fact that teachers and researchers in the countrys institutions encounter certain ergonomic and occupational health hazards in their work.
1.5 Specific Objectives The following are the specific objectives of the research: 1. To find out the physical and psychological occupational health hazards among teachers and researchers in our schools. 2. To determine the causes of ergonomic and occupational health hazards among teachers and researchers in our schools. 3. To examine whether occupational safety has any effect on the performance of the teachers and researcher in their work. 4. To examine the extent to which the seating conditions and other gadgets used affect teachers health either in the classroom or in the office.
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1.6 Research Questions 1) Have you ever experienced any hazards in the course of work before? 2) What were causes of the hazards you encountered? 3) Do the hazards have any influence on your performance as a teacher or researcher? 4) Have you ever been affected by the tables and chairs you use in your office or classroom before?
1.7 Research Hypothesis In order to answer the research questions adequately, the following null hypothesis were formulated; HO1 There is no significant relationship between occupational health hazards of teachers and their performance in Mampong municipality HO2 There is no significant relationship between ergonomic hazards of teachers and their effect in teaching.
1.8 Scope of the Study The study is focused on the ergonomics and occupational health hazards that are associated with the teaching profession in state institutions in Mampong Municipality. The total sample size of teachers and researchers was 50% which ranged from primary to the tertiary institutions. It is organized into five chapters. Chapter one comprises of the background of the study, problem statement, research questions, research objectives, scope of the study and limitations. Chapter two covers related literature under the topic, chapter three covers the methodology of the research. Chapter four 9
covers the data analysis and presentation and finally, chapter five deals with the major findings conclusions and recommendations.
1.9 Limitation A project of such caliber if not time and financial constraints on the part of the researcher, should been given a approach nationwide research in order to obtain the true reflection of the impact of ergonomic and occupational health hazards that exist among teachers and researchers in our state institutions.
1.10 Definition of Terms Occupation: It is the teaching processes that transpire in our various institutions for the purpose of this study. Ergonomic: refers to designing of the workplace furniture, equipment and environments to fit the user and prevent repetitive strains and injuries. Occupational safety: Reduction of school-work related injuries and illnesses among teachers and researchers. Occupational health: It is the promotion and maintenance to the highest degree of physical, mental and social wellbeing of teacher in their profession. Occupational hazards: Any condition at workplace (school) that can cause temporary and permanent injury to the health of the teachers and researchers
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1.11 Theoretical Framework The following is a brief examination of the theories informing this research study.
Social ecology theory This theory is founded on systems theory. It offers a set of theoretical principles for understanding the relationship and complex interactions between diverse personal and ergonomic, social environmental influences on human behavior and health (Stokols, 2000). It is defined as the study of individuals and groups within the context of their various social systems. The theory comprises of several core assumptions, namely interplay between facts of both the physical and social environments in combination with personal attributes such as temperature and behavior patterns. Social ecological theory contends that certain behaviours, social roles and environmental conditions within an individuals life situation can exert a disproportionate influence on his or her well- being (Grzywacz and Faqua, 2000). For example, a persons lifestyle may include several unhealthy sets of circumstances, such as a high stress job which also requires a lengthy commute between home and work. This coupled with factors in workplace, may contribute to unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, alcohol consumption and lack of physical exercise. Social ecology theory is attributed to Murray Bookchin (Stokols, 1992) who was the first person to develop the set of principles used today to describe this field. These principles provide tools for examining health issues in relation to present day to day physical and social environments. It confirms that interpersonal strain in workplace, if the workplace itself fails to provide adequate social support and personal fulfillment; all the properties are in place for negative health outcomes.
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1.12 Conceptual Framework Conceptual framework is a graphical depiction of interrelationship between concepts and constructs. In this survey, five variables were singled out. Ergonomics which constituted sitting postures and working postures. Occupational safety, which constituted electricity hazards, fire hazards and slips and fall .occupational health which constituted chemical hazards, biological hazards and work related stress. Physical environment hazards constituted thermal, lighting, acoustics and ventilation hazards. Social environment hazards included work related violence hostility. Indicators of teachers performance of duties include minimum Absenteeism, lesson attendance, and attendance to staff meetings.
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Diagrammatically the studys conceptual framework is shown in fig 1 Ergonomic safety hazards Sitting posture Working posture
Dependent Variables Teachers outputs in their work in public school in Mampong Municipality
Absenteeism lesson attendance participation in staff meetings Occupational safety hazards Electric hazards Fire hazards
Physical health occupational hazards Chemical hazards Biological hazards Work related stress
Moderating Variables School Leadership
Physical environment hazards
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Teachers performance is important; it is the most crucial input in the education setup in any country, thus it is important that their safety, health and environment at their places of work be promoted. Attainment of this ideal is dependent on control and consequent elimination of a number of hazards namely ergonomics hazards, occupational safety hazards, occupational health hazards, and occupational environment hazards. The dependent variables in this study were tested to find out if they influenced curriculum implementation by teachers through effective performance of their duties. The extent to which performance is dependent on these variables was the gist of the study.
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CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter will evaluate recent research studies that have been carried out on the ergonomic and occupational health hazards and safety of teachers and researchers in our public schools in Mampong municipality. The literature begins with a review on: the historical perspectives of ergonomic and occupational health safety hazards in the teaching profession, Ghanaian perspective, and then goes on to review the literature on ergonomic hazards, occupational safety hazards, occupational health hazards, occupational environment hazards-physical and social environment on teachers.
2.2 Ergonomics and Occupational Health Hazards and Safety of Teachers (EOHHS): Historical perspective According to CRIOP (2010) "Ergonomics is a scientific discipline that applies systematic methods and knowledge about people to evaluate and approve the interaction between individuals, technology and organization. The aim is to create a working environment and the tools in them for maximum work efficiency and maximum worker health and safety. Human factors are a scientific discipline that applies systematic methods and knowledge about people to evaluate and improve the interaction between individuals, technology and organizations. The aim is to create a working environment (that to the largest extent possible) contributes to achieving healthy, effective and safe operations.
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2.2.1 Historical Perspectives The industrial revolution that swept across Europe in the 19th century triggered concerns about health threats posed by dangerous working conditions (W.H.O, 2001). Concerns about occupational safety, health and ergonomics continued into the 20th century and led to the creation of the International labor organization (I.L.O) in 1919. The I.L.O constitution emphasized the global nature of the threats to occupational safety and health, by assessing the existing conditions of labor and calling for urgent improvement. It was developed in USA, to assure safe and healthy conditions for workers, by authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the act and also assist the states by providing research information, education and training in the field of occupational safety, health and for other purposes. In European Union (E.U.), the Health and Safety Act of 1974, resulted from the findings of the Roberns Report published in 1972. It produced conclusions and recommendations upon which the health and Safety Act (1974) was based. In summary, health and safety in the workplaces has been improved in most industrialized countries over the past 20-30 years. The situation in developing countries however, is relatively unclear, largely because of independent accident and disease recognition methods, record keeping and reporting mechanism. However, it is estimated that at least 250 million occupational accidents occur every year worldwide, most of them occurring in developing countries.
2.3 Ghanaian Case Working standards or conditions for all employees in Ghana are being monitored and controlled by the Workmans Compensation Act 1987 (PNDCL 187). This act explains into details what is supposed to be granted to an employee in case of injuries when working in public and private agencies. However, the act does not include employees in the armed 16
forces of the country. Occupational health and safety of employees has been overlooked until the inception of the Ghana labour act 2003 which compelled the employers in the country be it public or private to utilized Act 651of the labour act 2003 to ensure that all their employees are not exposed to conditions that would lead them to free from work related injuries or illnesses. What this act does is that it expels out the health and safety mechanisms that need to be put in place by the employers so that employees will work in an incidence free environment.
In the case of the teaching profession, Ghana national association of teachers in collaboration with the government brought out some monitoring mechanisms which took in consideration the health and safety of teachers. This encompasses the allowances and compensatory policies that need to put in place to care its employees in case of injuries or ill health as a result of work. The Nation has different agencies under different jurisdictions which monitor different industries for workplace and employee safety; however, there is no national body, policy nor process that governs ergonomic, Occupational Safety & Health Management in Ghana. The agencies include; environmental protection agency which is monitored by EPA Act490. There is a Road Safety Commission but with little standards, guidelines and impact on the safety of the transport industry and the pedestrian. The Minerals Commission has the Mining Regulations 1970, which contains some guidelines in Occupational Safety and Health but just for the Mining Industry.
2.4 Occupational safety Safety should be a concern in virtually all workplaces, it is an important element to consider during the design stage of a job, any equipment, or procedures associated with the job (Hughes & ferret, 2003). Safety hazards are associated with numerous accidents and injuries 17
experienced in workplaces. Physically matching the job to the person will ensure that the possibility of human error is minimized. Every organization (school) too, should have a clear policy for the management of safety so that everybody associated with the organization is aware of its safety aims and objectives. A proper prevention of accidents and ill-health through management systems of control should be focused on rather than looking for individuals to blame when an accident occurs. Clear responsibilities and lines of communications for everyone in the organization ought to be maintained (Hughes & ferret 2003).
In USA, approximately 10% of workplace accidents occur because of unsafe conditions, processes or facilities up to 15% of these are due to human error, 75% are due to oversights or omissions in policies, procedures and practices (Meres et al, 2007). Direct safety inspection may also prevent risk and hazard potential in workplaces. Available data from developing countries, indicate that occurrence of occupational injuries, illnesses and accidents, is higher in these countries than in developed countries (I.L.O, 2000). Perhaps due to the fact some organizations (school included) hinder workplace safety efforts by placing a higher emphasis on productivity than on safety measures (Mathew & Krush, 1990). Occupational safety has been cited as an important program to measure teachers (and other workers) well-being (Geyer et al, 1990). In Ghana there is an enormous literature addressing safety promotion and, evaluating various interventions in schools, however few have looked at school setting from the perspective of being a workplace. Therefore, the emphasis is more on students/pupils safety than on teachers. Occupational safety with its focus on teachers as integral part of the school environment includes the dimension of school as a workplace in a framework aimed at 18
enhancing safety of school personnel. This being the case, there are unlimited safety hazards outlined in the O.S.H.E. Act to which teachers (workers) are exposed to generally as a group or individually due to handling of specific subjects deemed risky. Such hazards may be outlined as follows:
2.4.1 Office Hazards Offices are vulnerable to safety hazards generally met by all teachers. They include open doors and drawers, sharp corners of filing cabinets, telephone and computer cables that are crossing is less and, carpets with bulges or broken seams that often cause tripping accidents, cuts, abrasions and sprains. Office design is also linked to ergonomic safety problems such as lifting, climbing and repetitive motions which are associated with backaches and neck aches (Angle, 2005). Working in limited space, and in overcrowded offices though being in a crowd is sometimes good - can become increasingly uncomfortable in other circumstances for teachers (Wanner and Keys, 1988) .The British health and safety executive (1995) showed that, congestion in offices can lead to sick - building syndrome . Where staff complains of illness more commonly than reasonably expected
2.4.2 Ergonomic Hazards The large and increasing number of teachers affected by poor workstations design, make ergonomic issues important (Linus, 2007).An ergonomically designed workstation or office will be designed for the comfort and safety of the operator. In Finland, school ergonomics are widely implemented, supported and extended in education by universities. The goal of ergonomic principle is to look for ways to make the job fit the worker, not vice versa. A comfortable table and chair are essential to teachers, as they spend long hours seated especially when marking student work. For most of the last century, ergonomists widely 19
assumed that we should sit upright (Hooton, et al 1945). This emphasis on what Dainoff (1994) described as the cubist posture (with 90knee, torso and elbow positions) aimed to prevent ergonomic risk factors that lead to discomfort and health disorders.
The late 1980s saw a recognition that office work is more hazardous than had been believed and that constrained sitting postures can cause health disorders, particularly when other risk factors are present (NIOSH, 1997) on the side of teachers. They should be designed to support the back properly throughout the working day. The chair should also allow the worker to change legs and general working position easily (Linus, 2007). In offices, lack of chairs and tables in sizes and shapes appropriate for teachers is an ergonomic problem. And so is the carrying of heavy materials to, and around the school, such as upstairs, downstairs or to classes. The introduction of ICT in schools, means teachers and students spend long hours working with a computer. It is important therefore, to have Constant application of ergonomics in computer laboratories. This has been associated with increasing efficiency of computer teachers, increased performances, reduction of fatigue and retention of skilled staff on the job (Peter and Button, 1992). Proper positioning of computers is crucial to prevent injury and pain. Computers should be placed directly in front of the teacher, perpendicular to light and should have screen protectors to protect eyes from glare.
2.4.3 Electricity Hazards Electricity as a source of power in our schools and/or offices is accepted without much thought to associated hazards (I.L.O, 2006). It is considered safe, clean and a quiet method of transmitting energy. When not well handled, it can lead to safety hazards. These include electric shock, burns, electric fires and explosions (Tylor, 2002). In schools, teachers are exposed to electric accidents, such as those caused by unsafe electric equipment or faulty 20
electricity installations, (Hughes et al, 2005). There is also a tendency in offices to overuse multi-sockets and unfused outlet adapters, which can create overload problems. Lose cable connections are also common and are likely to cause overheating leading to fire outbreaks (Tweedy, 2005).
2.4.4 Slips Trips and Falls Hazards Slip and falls incidents are a significant safety problem in workplaces environments. Same level falls accounted for 20-40% of occupational injuries in developed countries in 2005(Courtney et al, 2006). Liberty mutual workplaces safety index, estimated that, in USA, the direct cost of disabling workplace falls from the same level was 6.9 billion annually. In Taiwan such falls are cited as the leading cause of occupational injuries (Theodore, 2006). Slips hazards are caused by wet or dusty floors and unsuitable footwear or floor coverings or sloping floors. Trips hazards are caused by obstructions, poor housekeeping- obstacles left on walkways, poor lighting levels, uneven floors, cables and trailing leads across walkways.
2.4.5 Influence of Occupational Safety on Teacher Within the school, application of ergonomics result in improved working techniques, reduced human errors and accidents and increased efficiency (Patkin, 1987). Poor ergonomics have been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) and occupational overuse syndrome (OOS). Good ergonomic considerations promote effective lesson delivery and creativity in class. (Moore, 1990) suggests that the skills of good teachers are likely to be stretched to the greatest advantage in buildings designed to provide greatest amount of flexibility that is least hindrance to anything teachers may wish to do. Electric shock in offices can cause cardiac arrest, fibrillation of the heart, asphyxia and burns of the skin. 21
Such burns may be deep, slow to heal and often leave permanent scars, they may also occur inside the body along the path of electric current causing damage to muscle tissue and blood cells. As a result performance of the teacher in terms of mental and physical skills will usually start to fall (Davis et al 1967) Training teachers on electricity safety is therefore required, as a control measure for electrical hazards. Teachers should also be conversant with cardiovascular resuscitation and treatment of electric burns. Working in limited space and in overcrowded offices, can become uncomfortable for teachers (Warner and Keys, 1988).
This can translate to negligence of some duties such as preparation of professional documents like lesson plans, subject scheme of work and lesson notes which are crucial in teaching since they help a teacher manage time in class assess the available resources for teaching plan the content to disseminate in class, therefore boost their confidence. (Sanders & Horn, 1998). The British health and safety executive (1995) also showed that it can lead to sick building syndrome where staff complain of illness more commonly than would reasonably expect. Likewise slips, falls and trips lead to injuries, cuts, abrasions & sprains which lead to absenteeism. This unlike in other professions is a serious problem because the students can cause chaos if left unattended (Bray et al, 1986). Falls are also the leading cause to near-miss incidences. According to research, every 10 near misses at a particular location leads to a minor accident.
2.5 Occupational Health The world health organization (W.H.O, 1948) defines health as a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Occupational health operates within this framework. It is an area concerned with 22
occupational illnesses of worker caused by both long term and short term exposures to health hazards in their work; they are categorized as follows:
2.5.1 Chemical Hazards Chemical hazards arise from excessive airborne concentration of mists, vapours, gases or solids (Gordon and Eric, 1985). They have inhalation hazard which can lead to poisoning. In addition, they may act as skin irritants or may be toxic by absorption through the skin. They can also be ingested, although this is not usually the principal route of entry into the body. Schools as workplaces, expose teachers to enormous chemical hazards (Hughes & ferret, 2003). School laboratories are potentially hazardous places to teachers than normal classrooms because there is presence of chemicals (irritants, corrosives, toxic, harmful and carcinogenetic substances). Science teachers who work daily in these places are at a risk of being exposed to the related hazards (Bray et al 1986).
Classrooms too have their measure of chemical hazards. The indoor air has special pollutants sources such as dust and particles of chalk. (Lowenstein, 1991), Technical / industrial subjects such as metalwork, agriculture, home science and woodwork, expose teachers to chemical hazards. In a study done by Michal and Jolida (2005), it was established that metalwork exposes workers (teachers included) to metal oxides that contain organic compounds injurious to the body. While the noise associated with metal working caused hearing loss; the work itself caused distorted posture over a long period, as well as reproductive problems. Exposure to ultra violet light caused inflammation of the cornea while equipments used in metal work are safety hazards to the teachers if not properly handled. (Frey, 2005) Lozorich (2002) established that woodworking exposes workers (teachers included) to dust, which is associated with several cancers, like those of nasal 23
cavity, lung and gastrointestinal track. Diseases like bronchitis and dermatitis have shown high correlation to wood dust exposure. Pesticides used by agriculture teachers are also hazardous.
2.5.2 Work Related Stress Teachers are subjected to heavy occupational stress that may adversely affect their mental health status and with an impact on professional performance (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1978). The prevalence of workplace stress within the United Kingdom is believed to result in an average of 13 lost working days each year with one in five employees believing their job to be extremely stressful (Smith et al, 2000).
In Ghana, the changes in educational system that have occurred in the past decades, brought about new demands to the teachers and has also increased precarious working conditions. Social transformations coupled with new teaching models have aggravated the problem. They have escalated the teachers activities and social demands for teachers role, on one hand and demands for quality teaching and positive results on the other hand (Zaragoze M, 1999). Growing responsibilities and demands on teachers, and not adapting to the new demands of the profession has certainly exposed them to work related stress. This has consequently resulted to health problems among them: musculoskeletal disorders, voice problems, psychiatric disorders to name a few. Medical and social costs due to these problems have grown increasingly in the past few years, with figures reaching billions of shillings or dollars in various countries (Silvis, 2004). Absenteeism and tirdiness are also greatly influenced by occupational stress, with high economic costs (Hughes&ferret2003). A stress level among teachers is also increasing to a worrying level due to the increasing teachers workload, Student misbehavior, which includes reluctance to follow instruction 24
and handling of problematic students (Abdul, 2005). Others like responsibility for students success in examination, having a large class, difficulty in completing the syllabus in the time available and lack of material resources, coupled with administrative work like managing department, stock and inventory and too much work in one time, have also been cited as stressors (Chin,2006).
Interpersonal relationship issues such as receiving unclear instruction from management, lack of participation in decision making, lack of autonomy, lack of consultation or communication, lack of colleague support and co-operation, and lack of appreciation for work done, have contributory role on teachers work related stress (chan1998, kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978) as quoted by chin 2006.
2.5.3. Influence of Psychological Stress on Teachers Teachers also encounter health problems as a result of some psychological disorders that occur in the teaching profession. This emanate from anxieties towards their work, problem of insufficient month salaries for workers, limited incentive measures, violence among teachers and students and inconsistent flow of information from the administrative level. Dyson (2005) suggests that the purpose of teacher education is to prepare and develop teachers, and that this process is continual throughout a teachers career. Physical complaints such as back pain, chest pain, shortness of breath, heart palpitations, problems with sleep or appetite, and fatigue are commonly used by the general population, rather than psychological complaints, when claiming inability to work (Donaghy, 2004).
Alcohol abuse has also been linked to psychological distress, and may contribute to frequent absence without explanation, lateness, interpersonal conflicts and decreased 25
performance (Baldisseri, 2007). The impact of psychological distress has potentially serious implications (Jorm, et al., 2002) for the community, including teacher education. Thus, understanding psychological distress, and individual coping strategies, has the potential to contribute to teacher education.
2.5.4 Biological hazards Biological hazards are transported through some forms of agent such as fungi, moulds- which grow under dump conditions, bacteria and viruses. They can cause diseases such as athletes foot, asthma attacks H.I.V (aids), ringworms among others. Most studies of airborne bacteria in schools have referred to total bacteria counts, rather than identifications, (Jo and Seo 2005, HESE 2006) or they have separated bacteria according to whether they are Gram- positive and Gram-negative (Scheff et al. 2000b).
Bacteria counts ranged from 577 to 1000 CFU/m3with an average of 785 CFU/m3 (Scheff et al, 2000b, Godwin and Batterman 2007, Viegas et al, 2010). In a study of classrooms in Turkey, the most commonly observed bacteria were Staphylococcus (42.7%), Corynebacterium (20.4%) and Bacillus (6.9%) (Aydogdu et al, 2005). Kim et al. (2007) identified bacteria in 57 classrooms in Swedish schools, with Pseudomonas sp being the most commonly reported (57%), followed by Steptomyce ssp (17%) and Bacillus sp (4%).
2.5.5 Influence of occupational health on teaching Exposure to chemical and biological hazards poses serious health threats to teachers; voice disorders including symptoms of soreness, hoarseness, weak voice and sore throat are occupational illnesses that have been described among teachers and have been shown to emanate from exposure to chemical and biological hazards (Hughes et al., 2003).Many 26
substances used in agriculture are irritants e.g. fungicides and pesticides. Irritant (noncorrosive) substances can cause skin (dermatitis) or lung (bronchial) inflammation (Hughes et al., 2003). Presence of water, gas taps, additional power points, apparatus and chemicals in the laboratories expose science teachers to a huge chunk of health and safety problems (Bray et al., 1986).
A study about quality life related to teachers voice health problems in Greece revealed that, majority of teachers have a good voice, however, there are job aspects that can have implications on teachers voice and vocal health. Among those mentioned are dirty classrooms, internal and external noise, stressful social relationships, irritation and sound competition and voice abuse or misuse. Stress problems may adversely affect mental and physical health of teachers. It may cause a range of unpleasant mental effects on teachers such as tension, frustration, anxiety, depression and poor concentration. It can lead to lack of interest at work, and reduced job satisfaction which combine to worsen their performance. (England Education Service Advisory Committee, 1998) Self-confidence is an essential for successful teaching may be seriously affected as well (Pithers & Fogarly, 1995).
Stressful situations can contribute to voice misuse generating extra effort and forcing adaptations in phonetic production, making the profession more vulnerable to development of dysphonia. It also leads to burnout which results to relatively impaired teachers in the quality of teaching and commitment (Wiley 2000). Other aspects of teachers work, like increase in tone of voice, speaking frequently and competition with environmental noise also expose them to dysphonia. Lack of vocal health cause physical sensations or discomfort such as burning, cough, infections of the Larynx and hoarseness (England Education Service Advisory Committee, 1998). All these conditions can contribute to increased sickness and 27
absenteeism which can also create stress among other teachers who have to cover for absent colleagues but still do their own work. This ultimately affects the school outcomes (Yin lings, 2006) and poor performance of teachers in their job. Work-related stress contributes to musculoskeletal problems which are associated with high economic costs due to compensating schemes, medical expenses, disability pensions, lost days of work and reduced productivity. Human errors made under the effect of occupational stress may lead to injuries or loss of lives. Work related burn out is also caused by stress and it is linked to emotional exhaustion, depression, irritability and boredom (Schultz & Schultze, 1998).
2.6 Physical Environment The physical environment of the school describes the physical and aesthetic surroundings of the school. The physical environment and the working conditions which it provides have been of interest to industrial and commercial organizations, particularly if they affect health, safety and welfare of employees. The aim of this is to search for those designs and conditions which maximize the efficiency or productivity of factories, offices and other workplaces (Sundstrome, 1987). Although the physical working environment in schools is not as dangerous as those of manufacturing or construction industries, it is not entirely free of occupational hazards. For instance, proper design and maintenance of ventilation system is essential in providing a healthy school environment. In the planning of physical environment of a school therefore, various aspects need to be considered to enhance teachers and other workers performance (Bray et al., 1986). These include:
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2.6.1 Visual Factors This refers to the quality of illumination in a place. Two aspects which need to be considered to achieve this are: first the quality of illumination in different parts of the room, which will be determined by the level of natural and artificial light available and Secondly, the way classrooms and the staffroom (offices) are arranged, such that, there are no unwanted distractions, such as windows overlooking the playing field (Bray et al ,1986) Lighting system should support tasks to be done and also minimize glare from ceilings, walls and floors. Window coverings for workers facing the playing field should be provided to reduce glare in his study on physical settings Glynn (1982) indicated that, visual factors not only influence behavior but also conveys information about people associated with the setting, such as level of effectiveness and efficiency in their work.
2.6.2 Housekeeping Good housekeeping refers to the cleanliness and good order of equipment and facilities in the school. The quality of indoor air may deteriorate when one or more of these processes are inadequate.
2.6.3 Acoustic Factors This refers to level of noise, both internal and external. In schools administrative areas, high speed copiers, telephones, cell phones, fax machines, hallways, back areas and human, can be noisy and distracting, hence become an occupational hazard (Hughes & Ferret 2003). Porteous (1977), clearly shows that the extent to which a classroom or office is affected by noise depends on the organization of the physical environment.
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2.6.4 Thermal Factors This refers to temperature regulation. Temperature per seconds has little effect on mans performance unless it is too low or too high (Walton P, 1980). The effects of temperature especially high temperatures must be considered in relation to humidity. A good school heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC) is important in offices and classes to provide air at comfortable temperature and humidity levels and free of harmful concentrations of air pollutants.
2.6.5 Influence of Physical Environment to Teachers Performance of Duties Teachers who work in a school which is neat, pleasant and has modern facilities are likely to experience a job satisfaction and motivation than those working in an unpleasant school environment (Hayward, 1997). Motivation has a substantial effect on the attribution of teacher efficacy which in turn has a positive effect on learners performance (Enderlin- Lampe, 1997). As Likeje (1991) puts it so succinctly motivation could make a mule dance and when it is absent, teachers are likely to consider their commitment as only a fair days work for a fair days pay. Classroom physical environment presents risk agents such as chalk dust, which can negatively interfere with the teachers voice. Environmental factors are known to influence behavioral outcomes. A school physical environment that promotes orderly behavior by students also encourages interaction between teachers and students and efficient administrative support seen to be critical conditions for teachers to work effectively (Smith, 1989). Noise hazards affect teachers performance in two ways: in short term it can prevent voice communication by the interference with reception of speech, while in the long term, it can lead to the damage of the ear (Davis & Tyler, 1967).
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Noise is a hazard in teaching of music, due to poorly constructed rehearsal halls. Prolonged working in such an environment causes a major hearing loss, the unfortunate part is that, loss of hearing related to acoustics, is never compensated by insurance companies as these cases are very difficult to prove (Douglas,2003).This ironically, makes teachers become victims of the very profession they diligently trained for. Effective teaching requires intensive vocal use, but for it not to harm the teaching profession the voice has to be comfortable for the speaker and correctly projected and noise well controlled (Lillian et al, 2004).
Exposure to indoor contaminants can cause serious health problems to the teacher. The most common include headaches, dizziness, nausea, allergy attacks, respiratory problems and sometimes life threatening conditions such as legionnaires disease. This can lead to increase in absenteeism, poor lesson delivery and attendance or in serious cases death, (USA Environmental Agency, 2010).Due to their occupational environment being characterized by permanent contact with people particularly students, teachers are at a higher risk of contracting infectious diseases such as hepatitis A (Lehman et al., 1999). Excessive exposure to high temperature may lead to disorders such a heat exhaustion and cramps.
2.7. The Schools Social Environment Influence on Teachers Performance The social environment describes any emotional and social conditions that affect the well- being of teachers. Successfully managing a school social environment is necessary and essential educational investment. Research increasingly shows that there is a clear link between social environment, quality of schools and educational performance. Prevention of harassment and interpersonal hostility in workplace is important (Salin, 2008). Harassment 31
may emanate from colleague teachers, principal or from students. Extremely negative consequences are associated with it, such as high costs, in the form of increased absenteeism, high turnover of personnel, decreased commitment and productivity. It also contributes to work related stress (Andrea Russo et al., 2008). Violence and violence threat are becoming more and more frequent in public institutions. In Croatia a survey conducted in E.U member states revealed that 12 % of those employed in education sector in all member states experienced some form of violence making the sector have the second largest percentage of violence just below government and defense. Incidents of bullying at schools arouse much attention locally due to the sudden increase in number of cases of school violence reported by the media. This has put more pressure on teachers. Unfortunately not many teachers are confident enough to handle school violence. A study undertaken by bureau of labour statistics (USA, 1991), showed that assaultive behavior in workplaces often produces injury, psychological distress and economic loss. Hostility is a social hazard that has major health problems and disease end points. It may lead to absence spells, risky behavior, alcohol consumption and even drug abuse (Smith et al., 1985). These consequently have a share of problems such as mental disorders like depression and anxiety disorders (Thomas and Morris, 2003).
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CHAPTER THREE 3.0 RESEARCH METHOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter describes the methodology that was used to conduct the study. This includes location and demography of the study area, climate and vegetation, schools in the study area, research design, target population, sample size, sampling procedure, research instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis techniques and operational definition variables.
3.2. Location of Study Area Mampong Municipal, which is one of the Thirty (30) Administrative Districts in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, is located on the northern part of the region, and shares boundary with Atebubu District, Sekyere East, Afigya-Sekyere, and Ejura-Sekyeredumasi to the north, east, south, and west respectively. The Municipal is located within longitudes 0.05 degrees and 1.30 degrees west and latitudes 6.55 degrees and 7.30 degrees north, covering a total land area of 2346km. It has about 220 settlements with about 70 percent being rural. The rural areas are mostly found in the Afram Plains portion of the District where Communities with less than fifty (50) people are scattered hithertho.
3.3 Climate and Vegetation The municipality has an average annual rainfall of 1270mm and two rainy seasons. The major rainy season starts in March and peaks in May/June. There is a slight dip in July and a peak in August, tapering off in November. The period between December and February is usually dry, hot and dusty. The municipality lies within the wet semi-equatorial forest zone and has a beautiful undulating land forms which ranges from scarps, hills to low laying tropical paradise. The vegetation of parts of the municipality particularly the north, is 33
reduced to a savannah grass land. This phenomenon has therefore considerably changed the flora and fauna in the area thus, reducing the number of streams and springs as well as animal wildlife in the municipality. However there have been constant efforts by the Municipal Assembly, the Forestry Division Unit within the municipality
3.4 Demography of the Study Area The population of the Sekyere South Municipality is currently 88,625 (2008 projection), as against 78,056 as at (Ghana Population and Housing Census 2000). The municipality experienced a marginal increase in population growth. The current projected growth rate is 1.4% as against 1.6% of the 2000 population and housings census.
3.5 Research Design A research design is a plan showing how the problem under investigation can be solved (Orodho, 2003). It functions as the research blue print (Crezwell, 2003). To tackle the questions posed in this study, the researcher used descriptive survey. Mugenda (1999) noted that a survey research attempts to collect data from members of the population and describes the existing phenomena by asking individuals about their perception, attitudes, behavior and values. Descriptive survey research is designed as a method for collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals to collect the information on their attitudes opinions and habits (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). The study also employed qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze the data. A mixed method approach converge findings and extend the breadth of inquiry (Creswell, 1994). Qualitative method was used as a tool, because of its broad approach towards understanding and explaining the meaning of social phenomenon in naturalistic setting (Marshal and Rossman, 34
1999). Quantitative method was employed to analyze Likert- scale data found on the survey questionnaire.
3.6 Target Population Target population as defined by Best and Khan (1999) is the small portion of the population selected for observation and analysis. It is the population to which a researcher wants to generalize the results of a study. Based on this understanding, the target population was teachers and researchers from the 12 public schools ranging from the university to the basic schools in Mampong municipality of Ghana. Public schools were chosen for this study because they form over 90% of all schools in the Municipality. The public schools especially the secondary were either, boarding or day. Other characteristics associated with the schools included boys only or girls only but most of the schools were mixed.
3.7 Sample Size and Sample Selection The study adopted both probability and non-probability sampling methods. Probability sampling is the process where random selection is used to select respondents with each of them having an equal chance of being included in the sample (Singleton, 1988). In non- probability sampling, there is no way of specifying the probability of each unit inclusion in the sample and there is no assurance that every unit has some chance of being included. In this method, a desired number of sample units are selected deliberately or purposively, depending upon the objective of inquiry so that only the important items representing the true characteristics of the population are included in the sample (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996). Convenient sampling was used in selecting the twelve public schools out of 174 public schools and 4 private schools which have been classified into tertiary, secondary and basic schools (See table 3.1 below). The enrollment of teachers in the municipality were 35
thousand three hundred and seventy-eight (1378).Out of this number200 of them were sampled randomly from the three levels of schools but 150 which represent 75% were received after the questionnaire administration from the twelve sampled schools. Purposive sampling technique was used to sample the schools into three main categories, that is: boys only, girls only and mixed schools. This was crucial in order to establish whether the category of the school was significant to the research questions. Simple random sampling was used to select the teachers from the three levels of schools in the municipality as mentioned above.
Table 3.1 Showing the Sampling Size of the Target Population
LEVELS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOLS TOTAL NUMBER OF SCHOOLS IN THE MUNICIPALITY TOTAL NUMBER OF SAMPLE SCHOOLS TERTIARY: Mixed Boys only 3 2 SECONDARY (Mixed and Girl only ) 4 3 BASIC Mixed 167 7 Total 174 12
3.8. Data Collection Procedures The data was collected from 200 teachers from the sampled schools using self-administered questionnaires. According to kotler (1998), the advantage of using self-administered questionnaire is to ensure the respondents privacy. In this sense, the researcher dropped the questionnaires personally to keep such level of confidentiality. This is important as it helped the researcher establish a rapport with respondents while introducing the survey. The 36
researcher used pick and dropped approach (i.e. where the researcher submits the questionnaire to the respondents and return for the questionnaires after it has being answered within the stipulated period). Some of the questions were responded instantly and the researcher collected them back on that same today. However, to some respondents, one (1) week was given to them to respond to the questions after which the researcher picked them. This was done to allow respondents to have enough time to respond positively to the questions.
3.9 Research Instruments The instrument used for the study was Questionnaire. It was prepared for teachers who perform dual functions in the school settings (that is those in classroom and administrative setting). A questionnaire is a carefully designed instruction for collecting data direct from the people (Kasomo, 2006). It has an advantage of achieving rapid contact with a large number of people (Krathwohl, 1998). It was divided into three parts namely part 1, part 2 and part 3. Part 1 consist of questions aimed at obtaining information on the profile of the teacher (i, .e Biodata), part 2 also consist of questions aimed at getting information on ergonomic in the teaching profession and finally,thepart 3 was sub-divided into four sections labeled A, B, C, D. These sections consisted of questions aimed at getting information on occupational safety, occupational health and occupational environment of teachers respectively. The researcher used questionnaires which consist of both open- ended/unstructured and closed-ended/structured questions. Contingency questions and matrix questions were also used. The aim of using the open-ended questions was for the researcher to allow respondents to freely discuss issues without limiting the score. The close ended questions were utilized because they are quicker and easier to complete therefore 37
touching on a wider range of information. The contingency questions were used because follow up questions were needed to get further information. Matrix questions were used to get information from questions which share the same set of responses.
3.10 Instrument Validity According to Borg and Gall (1998) validity is defined as the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) also define it as the accuracy or meaningfulness of inferences which are based on research results. To ensure the validity of the questionnaire the researcher in collecting the data, a pre-test was conducted using the various principals from the tertiary institutions, headmasters from the secondary schools the researcher sampled since they were not used as part of target group and their experiences they have had due to their long services in the profession as teachers and now principals and headmasters of their institutions. This helped to check the appropriateness of the language used in constructing each item, construct validity and content validity of the questionnaire. The researcher also consulted further with the study supervisor for further insight into the validity of the instruments and then made the appropriate modifications.
3.11 Data Analysis Procedures Kerlinger (1986) defines data analysis as the process of categorizing, manipulating and summarizing data in order to obtain answers to research questions, once data was collected it was edited by carefully inspecting it in order to identify the mistakes and any wrongly answered and not responded to items, it was then coded. The quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics to describe, summarize and explain or make sense of a given data.
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The chi-square test of independence of attributes was used to test whether there was any association or relationship between the identified occupational and ergonomic hazards on questionnaire sections A, B, C .D and part 2 and to access the teachers performance of duties in the Mampong Municipality. The test was done at 0.05 level of significance and appropriate degrees of freedom on the formulated hypothesis.
According to (Vaughan D, 1998) Ch.-square test of independence is a statistical technique used to compare the difference between categorical frequencies when data is categorical and drawn from a population with uniform distribution in which alternative responses are equally likely. Other statistics such as percentages, frequencies of distribution were used to give face values of the influence of occupational safety, health and environment on teachers. Correlation coefficient(r) test was done at a significance level of 0.05 to analyze the degree of relationships between the variables measured in sections A,B.C.D. of questionnaire with teachers work related ailments as measured in section 2, B of the questionnaire. There searcher used statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 16 software to analyze the qualitative data. The quantitative data was then presented using tables and graphs while qualitative data was presented in prose.
3.12 Operational Definition of Variables Kerlinger (1973) says that an operational definition assign meaning to a concept or construct by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure it. He continues to say that, it gives meaning to variables by spelling out what the investigators must do to measure it.
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Table 3.2: Shows the Operationalization of Variables in the Study Objective Variables Indicators Measures Scale Influence of physical health occupational hazards Independent variable Chemical hazards
Dependent variables Teachers performance of duties Safe use of chemicals by preventing them from exposure. Execution of control measures. Are Training opportunities available to acquire information Are there Personal protective clothing and equipment Is there a School nurse available all the times Maintenance of cleanliness in the School. Eating arrangements Proper ventilation Ordinal
Nominal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal Influence of ergonomic and safety hazards to teachers performance of duties Independent variable Ergonomic hazards Safe use of work equipments/facilities Availability of Computer antiglare Computer desk in proper size for the user and space available. Are the Chairs & Tables comfortable? Is there enough space in the office Number of furniture per Nominal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal 40
teacher Independent variable Electricity hazards Safe use of electricity appliances in the school
Maintenance of electric appliances
Fire safety measures Number of sockets in the staffroom. Safe installation of electric equipment. Rules for operating and switching off electrical appliances Fire fighting equipment Fire safety drills/training Nominal
ordinal
Ordinal
Nominal
Ordinal Falls and slips Cleaning Sufficient lightning Permanent stairs have guard rails Regular cleaning of floors Nominal
Ordinal Influence of psychological stress on teachers performance. Independent variable Psychological hazards Better policies on salaries and incentives. Compensatory policies for workers
Is there any good policies on the salaries, Good Incentive packages Flexible compensate for workers Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal Influence of physical environment on teacher Physical conditions Facilities for rest and eating meals. Drinking water Sanitary Where meals are taken in. Are there Facilities
Ordinal 41
performance conveniences Sufficient Ventilation for rest and eating meals? Availability of clean drinking water Availability of Sanitary facilities, Separate for man and woman
Nominal
Nominal Lighting Adequate level Must be suitable and sufficient. Emergency lighting system If there is glare from sunlight, are there suitable blinds for protection? Ordinal
Nominal
Nominal Noise hazards Reaction to exposure Control measures loss of concentration
Fatigue Ordinal
Ordinal Social environment Physical assaults Frequency Ordinal Violence occurrence Cases of harassment. Communication channels Frequency Frequency efficiency Ordinal
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CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION 4.1. Introduction This chapter presents the results of the data collected and further discusses the findings. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were used to analyze responses to various questionnaire items. An inferential statistic the chi- square (X) test of independence was also used to analyze responses to various items on the questionnaire and to test the study hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and appropriate degrees of freedom.
4.2 Response Rate A total of 200 questionnaires were issued to the respondents from the sampled schools. One hundred and fifty (150) out of the two hundred (200) questionnaires given were answered. The analysis was therefore done using the seventy seven questionnaires received from the respondents. The results are presented as shown below.
Table 4.1: Return Rate of the Questionnaire Administered VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%) Response 150 75% Non-Response 50 25% Total 200 100
The research targeted 200 respondents with 150 respondents answering the questionnaires which constituted 75% and the remaining 50 respondents constituted 25% of which the questionnaires were either not answered or had been displaced by respondents
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4:3 Demographic Information The following information was sought from the respondents on their occupation: gender, category of schools, qualified teachers in the sample schools, level of professional training, teaching experience and responsibilities, the respondents have in their school besides classroom teaching. Table 4.2 indicates gender distribution of the teachers interviewed. Table 4.2: Respondents Gender
The teaching as an occupation has become competitive among genders and my study conducted in Mampong municipality on teachers from table 4.2 indicates that 69.3% were males while 30.7% were also females. When you critically observe the table well, there was a significant difference between gender in the responses; the male teachers were twice more than female teachers because the promotion of girl child education in the municipality is low, Ghana Education service branch in the municipality do not often post female teachers to the various schools and finally, even the tutors in the two girl schools namely (Saint Monicas Senior High and Saint Monicas College of Education) all in the study area were mostly males. This research is in line with Abakisis (2009) findings when he worked on the employment satisfaction of teachers in Junior High School in the Ejisu-Juaben District Assembly whichunveiled that the maleteachers dominated femaleswith 64% of males and 36% of females.
Gender Frequency Percentage (%)
MALE 104 69.3 FEMALE 46 30.7
Total 150 100.0 44
Table 4.3: Category of Schools where the Subjects were Pooled to Answer Questionnaires
Categories of Schools Frequency Percentage (%) BASIC LEVEL 76 50.7 SECONDARY LEVEL 48 32.0 TERTIARY 26 17.3 Total 150 100.0
Table 4.3: shows the category of schools covered by the respondents and indicates that 51% (76) respondents were teaching at the basic level, 32% (48) respondents were teaching at the secondary level while 17% (26) respondents were teaching at tertiary level. This showsthat majority of the respondents were from the basic level due to the large number of basic schools that are found in the Municipality.
4.4 Qualified Teachers (Train and Untrained) Table 4.4: Trained and Untrained teachersin the sample schools. Qualify Teachers Frequency Percentage (%) TRAINED 132 88.0 UNTRAINED 18 12.0 Total 150 100.0
Training is very important in the field of life of which the educational sector specifically the teaching profession which is more sensitive in behavioral aspect of life of students in various schools. Training is way of guiding, educating and instructing one to keep up to the demand ofhis or her master. In view of this, table 4.4 shows that teachers trained are represented by 88% and those that are untrained constitute 12%. Information on trained and untrained teachers was sought because the systematic and logical nature of delivery of 45
lesson is found to be paramount in teaching profession to bring out the total change in the students or pupils in the schools. From the analysis, it is seen that the number of trained teachers far out weight the untrained ones. This means that the level of competence in performance of teacher and systematic delivery of lessons to the pupils or studentsin various schools ranged from primary to tertiaryin the municipality.
Table 4.5: Professional Qualification of Train Teachers Professional Qualification Frequency Percentage CERTIFICATE,O AND A' LEVEL 10 6.7 DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION 35 23.3 DEGREE IN EDUCATION 75 50.0 MASTER IN EDUCATION 17 11.3 OTHERS LIKE BSC,BA,MSC 13 8.7 Total 150 100.0
Table 4.5 shows the various qualifications of the respondents who are trained and untrained and are teaching in the sampled school. From the analysis we can deduce that 87% of the respondents have being trained with 50% of teachers having degree in education, 23% of the teachers having diploma in education, 11% of them having master in education and remaining respondents were 7% and 9% for respondents with certificate O and A level and others like Bachelor Science (BSC), Bachelor of Art (BA), Master of Science (MSC). The information on professional training was sought to monitor the kind of qualifications the teachers who are teaching and lecturing in the sampled schools have and verify whether they 46
really qualify to be working at their stations and from the analysis it shows that the teachers qualified to teach at the various schools.
Table 4.6: Teaching Duration of the Subject Teachers Encountered During the Survey Years of Teaching Frequency Percentage (%) LESS THAN 1 YEAR 22 14.7 1-5 YEARS 47 31.3 6-10 YEARS 31 20.7 11-15 YEARS 21 14.0 16-20 YEARS 17 11.3 ABOVE 20 YEARS 12 8.0 Total 150 100.0
From table 4.6: The findings indicate that teachers had varied teaching experience, 31% had teaching experience of between 1 to 5 years, 21% had teaching experience of 6 to 10 years, 15% had teaching experience below one(1) year, 14% had the experience of 11 to 15 years, teachers who had teaching experience of 16 to 20 years recorded11% while 8% had teaching experience above 20 years. This implies that 53% of the respondents had experience of more than 5 years which translate to a good performance, building on the premise that performance improve with experience.
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4.5 Respondents Subjects Distribution
The distribution of teachers according to the subjects groups is shown on table 4.8.2 below. Table 4.7: Respondents Subjects Distribution
The finding from table 4.7 above indicates that 60 teachers (40%) taught science subjects which include biology, chemistry and physics and other related science courses that were taught in the tertiary institutions namely histology, entomology and crop science, 29 teachers (19%) were teaching all subjects, 24 teachers (16%) taught technical applied subjects namely technical skill, Information Communication Technology (I.C.T), Home Science, Agricultures, 21 teachers (14%) taught languages namely English, Twi, Hausa while 16 teachers (11%) taught humanities subjects namely geography, history, social studies, Christian Religious Studies (C.R.S). This indicates that all the subjects taught in various levels of schools are fairly represented in the sample. This would enable relevant information to be obtained as different subjects expose teachers to different occupational risks and hazards differently.
Subject Distribution to Respondents Frequency Percentage( %)
SCIENCES 60 40 TECHNICAL APPLIED 24 16 HUMANITIES 16 10.7 ALL SUBJECTS 29 19.3 LANGUAGES 21 14.0
Total 150 100.0 48
Table 4.8: Respondents Responsibilities (position held in school) besides Teaching in the Classroom Positions Frequency Percentage (%) ADMINISTRATOR 2 1.3 REGISTRAR 1 .7 EXAM OFFICER 15 10.0 DEAN OF STUDENTS 2 1.3 HEADMASTER/HEADMISTRESS 8 5.3 HEAD OF DEPARTMENT 20 13.3 SPORTS/MASTER/MISTRESS 17 11.3 OTHER POSITIONS (FORM MASTER, ACADEMIC COUNSELERS,WELFARE, GHNATOC OFFICIAL,ETC) 85 56.7 Total 150 100.0
To check the other responsibilities of teachers apart from the normal teaching done in the classroom, the findings from table 4.8indicates that, 57% respondents were having or holding other responsibilities or positions such as Form Masters, Academic counselors, Welfare and GNAT Official in the school as teachers, 13% respondents were head of department, 11% respondents are sport masters and mistresses, 10% respondents were exam officers while 5%, 1%, 1% and 1% were respondents who were teachers and the same time as Headmaster/ Headmistress, Dean of students, Administrators and registrar respectively. This information was sought to investigate whether there were other responsibilities that 49
teachers perform aside their teaching and also monitor how they combine the respective duties in the school to ensure efficient and effective teaching and learning. From table 4.9 it proves that teachers perform different duties part from the already known duties in schools as subjects of academic delivery.
4.6. Ergonomic Safety This section presents data of findings on the ergonomic materials that are used by teachers in their schools. These encompass the comfortability of the furniture the teacher used in various offices and classroom, teaching aid, means of ventilation, nature of light in the classroom and offices, working exposure and computers used by teacher in teaching or lecturing.
Table 4.10: The Comfort of Office and Classroom Furniture (Chairs and Tables) used by Teachers
The comfort of using materials like chairs, table etc at workplace is very important to every worker because it keeps him or her healthy and also prevents them from any health complications. From the data on table 4.10 above, it indicates that 76% (114) of theteachers said No which means they were uncomfortable about the furniture they used in their work while 24% (36) of the teachers responded yes in the affirmative that their level of comfort actually depend on the quality of the furniture they use for either storing of books or sitting Variables Frequency Percentage (%) YES 36 24.0 NO 114 76.0 Total 150 100.0 50
when marking exercises or for relaxation in the school. The information was sought to cross examine whether the furniture the teachers use has some associated adverse health effects on them and from the analysis it indicates clearly that more than twice of the teachers expressed their discomfort about the furniture when using them and have had certain health complications such as backaches. It could be that the design of the furniture did not favour the teachers height (i.,e be it longer and shorter). This research is in line with Beach, (2005) from findings which affirmed that furniture used by teachers has reflected many impacts on their health in schools.
Table 4.11: Teaching aids used by teachers in school Teaching aids Frequency Percentage (%) CHALK 92 62.0 MARKER 57 38.0 Total 150 100.0
From table 4.11 the data there indicates that 62% (92) of the respondents were using chalk for teaching in the classrooms while 38% (57) of them depended on markers when teaching in the respective classroom. From the study the researcher realized that most of the basic and few secondary schools teachers were using chalk and tertiary schools mostly used the markers. The information was sought to investigate teachers level of comfort in the aids that they used in teaching. We could deduce that the majority (62%) of the teachers who used chalk complained so much about the health problems they had since they started using it and being soiled everyday by dust particles of the chalk.
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Tsable 4.12: Ventilated Materials used in Schools Ventilated materials Frequency Percent WINDOWS,GLASS LOUVERS AND DOORS OPENED INTERMITTENTLY 119 79.3 FAN 18 12.0 AIR CONDITION 6 4.0 OTHERS 7 4.7 Total 150 100.0
Table 4.12 shows the means of ventilation at the various offices and classrooms in the sampled schools in municipality. It is clear form above that the main source of most ventilation in the schools were windows, glass louvers and doors which could be opened intermittently and represents 79% which constituted 119 respondents, 12% (18) respondents use fans in the classrooms and offices while 5% (7) depended on others source such as like block moldings while 4% (6) of the respondents were using air conditioners in their offices. From the research, it was deduced that almost all the tertiary schools like the University and Colleges of Education were using fans in the classrooms and air conditions were used in some of the offices of the lecturers. It could be concluded from the above that in terms of modernized ventilation, the tertiary schools in the municipality were better than those at the basic and secondary levels.
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Tables 4.13: Nature of Light in Offices and Classroom in Schools Nature of light in classroom and offices Frequency Percentage (%) NORMAL BRIGHTNESS 121 80.7 BRIGHTER THAN EXPECTED 4 2.7 DIM 7 4.6 DO NOT HAVE ALL 18 12.0 Total 150 100.0
Table 4.13 shows the nature of light in the classrooms and offices of the teachers in the schools and it indicated that 81% (121) of the respondents expressed that the light in the classroom and offices had normal brightness, 12% (18) had no access to electricity in their school while 5% (7) depended on dimlights in classroom while 3% (4) of the subject were utilizing brighter lighting system. This information was sought to check the glare of the light used in the classrooms and offices of the teachers since light could also have detrimental effect on the health of the teachers when it becomes dim and brighter than expected in the classroom. From the analysis, it could be concluded that light used in the classrooms are normal and may not bring any health complications to teachers if it is uninterruptedly available
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Tables 4.14: Working Exposure of Respondents Indicative response factor Frequency Percentage(%) STANDING WHEN TEACHING OR LECTURING 129 86.0 SITTING WHEN TEACHING OR LECTURING 2 1.3 STANDING, SITTING AND WRITTING ON BOARD WHEN TEACHING 19 12.7 Total 150 100.0
The kind of postures workers undertake to discharge his duties is important and even determines how productive the worker will be in the working environment. Therefore, this information was sought to survey the working posture of the teachers and researchers in the schools. From table 4.14 the data shows that 86% (129) teachers teach or lecturewhile standing, 13% (19) teachers also teach while standing and writing on the board in the course of delivery of lessons, sitting while marking or relaxing during break hours and even sitting during delivering hours. Only 1% of teachers sit when teaching or lecturing in the classroom and lecture halls. From the analysis, there may be certain potential health risks to teachers since standing postures are associated with greater pelvic tilt and lumbar lordosis (De Carvalho et al, 2010). This clearly show that most teachers stand while teaching in the classrooms.
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Table 4.15: Laboratory Presents in the Schools of the Respondents Variables Frequency Percentage (%) YES 61 40.7 NO 89 59.3 Total 150 100.0
The purpose of the laboratory in schools is to bring abstract sciences into practical setting for the understanding of students. In view of this, table 4.15 shows the number of laboratories available for the respondents work. About 89 teachers representing 59% said no which means that their schools were not having it in place while 61 teachers representing 41% yes which also indicate that they have it in place. From the analysis, we can say that the study of science in our schools is not as effective as wanted because the schools do have needed facilities to practicalzed the subject for the understanding of the students. Even the 41% of teachers who were having laboratories in their schools, about 39% of them practice proper laboratory safety cautions which means they have some of personal protective clothing in place which protect some of the students when they attend their practical lessons in the laboratory. Since we have less than half of the laboratories having the personal protective clothing in place, the students will be exposed to many health risks that could either be through inhalation or skin contacts.
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Table 4.16: Respondents that uses Computers in Teaching Variables Frequency Percentages (%) YES 40 26.7 NO 110 73.3 Total 150 100.0
Presentation of lessons in the classroom takes different format which includes the use of PowerPoint which normally goes with the use of computer in the classroom. In view of this, table 4.16 shows teachers who were using computers (laptops) when teaching and 100 teachers representing 73% responded No while 40 teachers representing 27% responded yes which means they use computers in teaching. The information was sought to check whether they have some protective covers at screens of the computers the individual teachers used and those that were found in the computer labs of the schools in the Municipality. From the study, it was observed that even the 27% of teachers who were using computers were not having the screen filters and other protective gadgets in place.
4.7 Occupational Safety This section presents data on teachers level of agreement on implementation of occupational safety in their schools.
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Table 4.17: Teachers level of agreement on the safety of school structures in schools Response Frequency Percentage (%) STRONGLY DISAGREE 18 12.0 DISAGREE 19 12.7 NEUTRAL 22 14.7 AGREE 62 41.3 STRONGLY AGREE 29 19.3 Total 150 100.0
The findings from table 4.17 indicate that 37 (25%) teachers, disagreed that their school buildings were safe enough to work in. 22(15%) teachers were neutral while 91(60%) of the teachers agreed the buildings were safe and secure and therefore did not hinder their performance and do not threaten them when they are teaching in the various classrooms. Safe structures /buildings promote use of skills by teachers since they do not hinder anything a teacher may wish to do to ensure effective lesson delivery such as displaying charts on the wall.
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4.8 Fire Safety Measures Table 4.18: Shows Teachers Level of Agreement on availability of fire Extinguishers in schools Response Frequency Percentage (%) STRONGLY DISAGREE 85 56.7 DISAGREE 39 26.0 NEUTRAL 13 8.7 AGREE 9 6.0 STRONGLY AGREE 4 2.7 Total 150 100.0
The data on table 4.18 reveal that 124 (83%) teachers disagreed that their school had fire extinguishers that are in perfect working conditions to use in case of fire outbreak.13 (9%) teachers were neutral and 4 (3%) teachers agreed they had fire extinguishers that are in working state. Majority of teachers therefore confirmed their schools do not have firefighting preparedness. Having such preparedness is a control measure for fire hazards. Fire accidents lead to injuries that hinder teachers mental and physical skills. This may also cause the stationary of the teachers used for references burnt up, which may affect them psychologically.
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4:9 Firefighting Training and Techniques Table 4.19: Teachers Level of agreement on Firefighting Training as Needful Exercise Response Frequency Percentage (%) STRONGLY DISAGREE 103 68.7 DISAGREE 32 21.3 NEUTRAL 15 10.0 AGREE 0 STRONGLY AGREE 0 Total 150 100.0
The data from table 4.19 indicate that 135 (90%) of the teachers disagreed on having received firefighting training and techniques since their appointed before the survey. 9 (6%) teachers were neutral. This shows that teachers are not aware of what to do in case of fire incidence either in class or in the offices. Science teachers, whose work in the laboratory puts them at a higher risk of fire hazards were indeed concerned about this, one of them commented that I avoid performing some experiments for fear of fire outbreak, and instead emphasized the claim on basis of theoretical explanations a factor that he attributes to poor performance of questions set from that particular area of the curriculum.
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4.10 The Availability of Emergency Doors Table 4:20: Teachers Level of agreement on availability of Emergency Doors in Offices and Laboratories Response Frequency Percentage (%) STRONGLY DISAGREE 63 42.0 DISAGREE 27 18.0 NEUTRAL 15 10.0 AGREE 26 17.3 STRONGLY AGREE 19 12.7 Total 150 100.0
From table 4:20 the findings indicate that 60% of the respondents disagreed with the view on having emergency doors in their offices and laboratories, 10% were neutral, while 29% agreed. Those in agreement however, specified that, such doors did not open from outside. This poses a great danger of trapping victims inside a room in case there is fire, as there is always a tendency to crowd behind the door in attempt to escape. They also reported most of the windows have been covered with metal nets which makes it impossible for them to escape in case of fire outbreak in the classroom and offices.
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4.11 Safety from Slips and fall Table 4.21: Use of Precautionary Measures against slips and falls in their schools Response Frequency Percentage (%) STRONGLY DISAGREE 11 7.3 DISAGREE 14 9.3 NEUTRAL 21 14.0 AGREE 60 40.0 STRONGLY AGREE 44 29.3 Total 150 100.0
The results above indicate that 17% of teachers felt that the floors of their offices and the classrooms including the staircases are not kept dry enough to avoid slips and falls, 14% were neutral while 69% were in agreement that indeed precautions are taken to protect them from slips and falls in their schools. The respondents admitted that the floors and staircase were kept dry all the time so most of the teachers avoided slips and falls in the various classroom and offices. These findings established is in line with the findings of the British health and safety executive that slips and falls lead to injuries, cuts and abrasions which lead to absenteeism of workers.
4.12 Influence of Occupational Health on Teachers Performance The study further investigated whether occupational health hazards have any influence on public school teachers performance of duties in the survey. This section presents data on teachers responses on occupational health in their respective schools, and the influence these have on the performance of their duties. 61
Table 4.22: Analyses on the Number of Teachers Trained on Health Issues Response Frequency Percentage (%) YES 57 38.0 NO 93 62.0 Total 150 100.0
Table 4.22 reveals that 62 percent of the interviewed teachers had not been trained on any health issues, 38 percent had been trained, most of them on general health issues which includes (sex education and sanitation related diseases) and the current pandemic disease HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis. The findings of the study are that most of the respondents had little information on health hazards related to their work. This implied that most of the teachers were in danger of passive exposure to work related health hazards.
Table 4:23 Analyses on the number of Teachers who have received Vaccination Variable Frequency Percentage (%) YES 69 46.0 NO 81 54.0 Total 150 100.0
From analysis above, it indicated that 54% of the respondents had not received vaccination to protect themselves against infectious diseases, 46% of them had received vaccination against infectious diseases. This can be attributed partly to lack of strictness by the authorities in charge of recruitment section of the Ghana Education Services in receiving such vaccination and partly due to lack of information.
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Table 4.24: Analysis of results on Teachers use of Protective Clothing when Handling Chemicals in School Response Frequency Percentage (%) YES 14 9.3 NO 106 70.7 NOT APPLICABLE 30 20.0 Total 150 100.0
Table 4.24 reveals that 20% (30) of teachers- who are required to wear protective clothing due to the subjects they teach do not wear them, only 9%(14) teachers wore such clothing while 71% (106) teachers did not .This findings reveal that majority of the teachers are in danger of being exposed to chemical hazards which include concentration of mists vapor gases, acids and alkaline and solids especially for most sciences and other teachers in the respective schools. These are associated with voice disorders, soreness and hoarseness which interfere with lesson delivery.
4.13 Analyses of results on the Person in charge of Health Emergencies in the Schools Table 4.25: Teachers Responses on Handling of Emergencies in the School Response Frequency Percentage (%) SCHOOL NURSE 38 25.3 COLLEAGUE TEACHER 85 56.7 DON'T KNOW 27 18.0 Total 150 100.0
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The results from the table 4.25 above reveals that 25 percent of teachers agreed with having a school nurse to take care of health emergencies in their school, 57 percent of the teachers revealed that such emergencies are handled by colleague teachers, regardless of their knowledge on health problems of the patients. These findings reveal that teachers may be exposed to chemical hazards and biological hazards such as infectious diseases which can inflict them in the course of administering first aid either to students or colleague teachers since they have little knowledge on the precaution to be taken first before the treatment.
Table 4.26: Teachers Response on first aid box in the School Response Frequency Percentage (%) YES 123 82.0 NO 18 12.0 I DON'T KNOW 9 6.0 Total 150 100.0
From analysis of the data on table 4.26 above it reveal that, 82% (123) of the teacher have first aid box in the schools. However, most of the teachers commented that the first aid box was not well-equipped and they also commented that the boxes were stored in open places in the staff common room and which affected the efficacy of the drugs since most of them are not to be exposed to the sun and other conditions, 12% (18) of the teachers admitted having no first aid kit in their schools. Only 6% (9) of the teachers could not specify whether the school has first aid kit in place. Even most of the teachers admitted having the first aid box in their school but it was not useful to either the teachers or students in terms of sickness. Those who are in charge of administering the drugs to a sick teacher or student when not 64
available all the time there will be chaos as to who is supposed to be performing such duties in the school. 4.14 Analyses of results on Teachers Dining Area Table 4.27: Shows the results on Teachers Dining Area in the School Contacted Response Frequency Percent STAFF COMMON ROOM 100 66.7 CLASSROOM 20 13.3 CAFETERIA 11 7.3 DINING AREA 6 4.0 UNDER TREES 13 8.7 Total 150 100.0
From table 4.27 the results reveal that, majority of the respondents 100(67%) expressed that they take their meals in the staffroom, 20 (13%) stated other areas like classroom, 13 (9%) expressed that they take meals under trees, 11(7%) of teachers were patronizing the school cafeteria while 6 (4%) took meals from a dining hall. These findings indicated that most schools do not have dining facilities for teachers, this poses a danger of Biological hazards which include rodents, virus, bacteria which are attracted by food particles left behind especially when thorough cleaning is not done regularly. Some of respondents stated they sometime take snacks when they are in the laboratory, this does not only expose them to biological hazards but chemical hazards as well.
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4.15 Analysis of results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers Table 4.28: Shows the results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers Response Frequency Percentage (%) YES 129 86.0 NO 21 14.0
Total 150 100.0
The findings from table 4.28 above reveal that majority of the respondents 86% (129) of teachers suffered from work related stress in the preceding of the first year as a teacher before the survey while 14 % (21) expressed that they did not suffer from any work related stress in the preceding of the first year as a teacher before the survey. From the analysis, majority of teachers who complained aboutwork-related stress attributed it to workload on teachers in their various schools. This is because from the study it was realized that most of the basic and secondary schools teachers handle more than one subject with enrolment of about 60 in each class and the teachers need to discharge their duties bygiven the students exercises to all the classes he taught that very day for assessment sake and this put a lot of stress on the teachers especially the marking of the exercises. Stress contributes to burnout and low motivation to work. Human errors made under the effect of occupational stress can reduce productivity in teachers. This trickles down to the students hence affecting their performance.
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4.16 Analyses results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving their Appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers Table 4.29: Shows the results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving their appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers Response Frequency Percentage (%) YES 19 12.7 NO 131 87.3 Total 150 100.0
The findings on table 4.29 indicates 87% (131) of teachers admitted that they did not receive any pre-medical screening before given their appointment letters to them while only 13% (19) of teachers agreed to have received pre-medical screening before they were given their appointment letter as teachers. The information was sought to investigate the teachers health status before they start working so that health problems that may occur as a result of their work could easily be identified by health experts and the teachers themselves. From the analysis, it indicates that most of our teachers in the educational sector do not receive any pre-medical screening before ushering them to the work as teachers and this may bring untimely death to teachers who are asthmatic which may occur as a result of their frequent exposure to the dust produced by chalk in the classrooms.
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4.17 Analyses results on Common Ailments Teachers Suffered since they received their appointment before the Survey and their Percentages Table 4.30: Shows the results on Common Ailments that has affected Teachers and Researchers in Schools Variables Frequency Percentages (%) Neck pain Chest pain Itchy eyes Allergy Flu Low back pain Skin dermatitis Anxiety Heart burn Voice disorder Joint pain 15 9 15 7 20 25 10 9 5 30 5 10.0 6.0 10.0 4.7 13.3 16.7 6.7 6.0 3.3 20.0 3.3 Total 150 100.0
Table 4.30 shows work related ailments that teachers have been suffering from since their appointment as teacher in the educational sector. Apart from voice disorders which recorded a little higher percentage of 20 with 30 teachers, the rest of them have suffered from a significant work-related ailment which originated from the work they do as teachers. Among the work-related ailments, the one the teachers complained as severe was flu, low back pain and voice disorders of which they attributed to frequent talking, frequent exposure of dust 68
for chalk and the problems associated with the furniture they use in school. Even though these illnesses are considered minor, however, it may become chronic when it persists for a longer period of time in the teachers life in teaching.
4.18 Analyses of results on the Influence of Physical Environment on Teachers Performance In this section the researcher wanted to establish whether there was any influence of physical environment on teachers performance of duties .To achieves this objective the respondents were asked their opinions on physical environment in their schools and their responses were tabulated as shown below.
4.19 Influence of Noise on Performance Table 4.31: Analyses of results on Noise Control in the Staffroom and Classrooms Response Frequency Percentage (%) STRONGLY DISAGREE 65 43.3 DISAGREE 24 16.0 NEUTRAL 29 19.3 AGREE 10 6.7 STRONGLY AGREE 22 14.7 Total 150 100.0
Results from table 4.31, indicates that 89 (59%) teachers found the noise levels in the staffroom uncomfortable to work in. About 29 (19%) teachers, were Neutral, while 32 (21%) of them indicated that noise in their staffrooms were controlled, therefore not a 69
hindrance to their performance .This indicated that majority of the respondents did not work comfortably in their respective staffroom or offices and in classrooms due to noise hazard. Control of noise enhances concentration and proper utilization of time. Noise in classes can prevent communication through its interference with reception of speech. It can also cause ear damage. Noise control can encourage teachers to work in their offices when doing lesson preparation and when marking students work.
4.20 Influence of Social Environment on Teachers Performance of Duties In this section the researcher wanted to establish whether social environment in public school teachers had any influence on their performance of duties. The pooled responses were tabulated as follows.
Table 4.32: Results on Management Sensitivity to Teachers Concerns Response Frequency Percentage (%) STRONGLY DISAGREE 37 24.7 DISAGREE 36 24.0 NEUTRAL 18 12.0 AGRRE 38 25.3 STRONGLY AGREE 21 14.0 Total 150 100.0
The resultson table 4.32 indicate that 73 teachers, (49 percent) felt the management staffs in their school are not sensitive to teachers concerns, 18 teachers, (12%) were neutral, 59 teachers, (39%), felt the management staff listened to teachers concerns. This findings reveal that majority of the respondents felt the management was insensitive to their concerns. This 70
can also affect the teachers psychologically because they may feel inferior in the management of the school.
4.21 Analysis of Data on the Study Hypothesis This aspect of the study aimed to assess the influence of each independent variable on the dependent variable and was tested using the chi square test. According to (Kelinger 1993) hypothesis will be considered to be significant, if the calculated chi- square statistic exceeds a critical value at alpha 0.05 level of significance and at appropriate degrees of freedom after the analysis. One of the objectives of the study was to find out whether there was any influence of occupational safety on teachers performance of duties in selected public schools in Mampong Municipality.
To establish thischi square test of independence was used to test the hypothesis. HO1: There is no significant relationship between occupational health hazards of teachers and their performance in the Mampong Municipality. The hypothesis was analyzed by assessing if there was a relationship between, clean air quality in offices and classrooms that is motivating to work, and safety and maintenance of the school buildings.
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Table 4.33: Shows chi-square Analysis on Air Quality in Classrooms and Offices and Safety of School Buildings
LEVEL OF AIR QUALITY IN THE OFFICE AND CLASSROOM Total MEASURES SD D N AG S AG SCHOOL BUILDING AREN SAFE AND WELL MAINTAIN SD 4 4 2 5 3 18
D 7 5 1 5 1 19 N 3 7 6 3 3 22
AG 6 12 13 23 8 62 SAG 4 7 3 9 6 29
TOTAL 24 35 25 45 21 150
KEY: SD: strongly disagree. D: Disagree A: Agree, SAG: Strongly agree, N: Neutral N= 150 Pearson Chi-Square= 18.422 Degree of freedom = 16 Critical Value= 0.310 P>0.05 From the chi- square (X) computation, the calculated value was 18.422, which was greater than the critical value of 0.310 at 5% confidence level and 16 degrees of freedom. In this case of the judgment, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted. There is therefore significant relationship between provision of safe maintained school buildings and teachers motivation to work. The findings further imply that there is a 72
significant relationship between occupational safety and teachers performance of duties in public schools in Mampong Municipality. HO2 There is no significant relationship between ergonomic hazards of teachers and its influence on teaching. The hypothesis was analyzed to find if there was a relationship between ergonomics hazards with regard to the type of furniture used by teachers and one of the work-related ailments (low back pain) that teachers complained during the study.
Table: 4.34: Shows chi square test Analysis on Ergonomics Hazards with regard to comfortability of the Furniture used by Teachers and one of the Work- Related Ailments (low back pain) Complained by Teachers MEASURE LOWBACKPAIN Total COMPLAI N NOT COMPLAIN FEELCOMFORTUSIN GFURNITURE YES 30 6 36 NO 78 36 114 Total 108 42 150
Pearson Chi-square = 3.018 Degree of freedom= 1 Critical value= 0.08 P>0.05 From the chi square test computation the calculated value was 3.018 which was greater than the critical value of 0.08 at 5% confidence level and the degree of freedom. In this case the judgment made was to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. 73
This implies that there is a significant relationship between the level of comfortability of teachers using the furniture in schools and the low back pain they have experienced since they used them.
4.22 Summary of the Chapter In the survey, the researcher grouped the variables into two namely Independent variables which includes ergonomics hazards, occupational hazards, physical health occupational hazards physical environment hazards and social environment hazards were analyzed using SPSS so as to identify their effect on the dependent variable influences on teachers performance of duties in Mampong Municipality. From the analysis, presentation and interpretation of the data collected, it is crucial to note that ergonomics, occupational safety, health and environment immensely contribute to the teachers performance of duties in schools within the Municipality. The researcher came up with ergonomics hazards which attributed to furniture used by teachers, occupational safety hazards, physical health occupational hazards, physical environment hazards and social environment hazards as pertinent factors that affect teachers performance of duties in public schools.
Therefore, the ministry of education should adapt this report to assist in setting up the relevant policies and procedures which will help correct the situation, so as to help them achieve the set goals and objectives and inculcate it into the occupational health and safety management standard that is not given recognition in the country.
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CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This chapter presents the analysis of the data collected so as to make informed conclusions through interpretation and presentation. The overall objective of the researcher was to find out whether teachers and researchers in our institutions encounter some ergonomics and occupational health hazards that are related to their work. The researcher had four major objectives; to find out the influence of occupational safety, whether there are physical and psychological occupational health hazards among teachers and researchers in schools, the cause of causes of the ergonomics and occupational health hazards among teachers and researcher in our schools and to examine the extent to which the seating conditions and other gadgets used affect teachers health either in the classroom or in the office. The findings have been analyzed above and the researcher comes up with the following summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations to the research conducted in Mampong Municipality.
5.2 Summary of the Findings The study sought to establish whether teachers and researchers in the countrys institutions encounter certain ergonomics and occupational health hazards in their work places. Chapter 4 presented the results of the data collected and further discussed these findings. Entirely, 150 (100%) respondents were interviewed. Out of these, 69 % were male and 31 % were female. 88% of them were trained in education course either at diploma level or degree and masters level while 12% were untrained with Bachelor of Science, Art and Master of 75
Science from courses that qualify them to handle subjects at the basic, secondary and tertiary school level. The third objective of the study was to determine the relationship between occupational safety and teachers performance of duties. The data analysis and interpretation of responses from the respondents revealed the following major findings under the objectives.
5.2.1 Influence of Occupational Safety Hazards on Teachers Performance The data showed that, most school buildings in Mampong Municipality are safe and well maintained,(91) 60 percent of the interviewed teachers felt the building , were safe and well maintained enough for use by both teachers and students.. However, 24percent of the respondents felt the buildings were not safe in terms of structural designs. Fire-fighting tools like fire extinguishers were not available in most schools, 124 (83%) teachers disagreed with having a fire extinguisher in their schools. Out of 11 teachers who agreed with having a fire extinguisher, only 3 teachers knew the location of the gadget. Further analyses showed that where fire extinguishers were available they were either inadequate for all the buildings, or they were not accessible to teachers and most of them were out of order due to lack of regular servicing.
The survey also revealed that all the respondents did not know how to operate a fire extinguisher, including those from schools where such gadgets were available. These findings were further supported by self-reports from respondents in which 135 (89 %) of the teachers disagreed with receiving fire-fighting training and safety including those teachers that taught science and computer subjects which require them to work in fire prone areas such as science and computer laboratories. Sixty (60%) teachers strongly disagreed to 76
having emergency doors in their offices and laboratories which opens from outside, to serve as a precautionary measure against suffocation in case of fire incident.
Electrical installation in the offices and classrooms in most schools were reported to be properly located. About 92 respondents representing (61%) of the teachers agreed that electrical wires are located properly in their respective schools and that there was no chance of accident from them. The responding teachers felt, precautions were not taken to ensure that, no accidents occurred from such installation for instance provision of enough sockets to avoid overloading.
On slips and falls the data analysis indicated that 104 (69%) teachers agreed with having precautionary measures taken in their schools to prevent slips and falls, both in offices, laboratories and classrooms. These findings were further supported by data that showed that most offices, laboratories and classrooms of the schools contacted were regularly cleaned to keep the floors dry and free from such dangers. The survey also revealed that the furniture (tables and chairs) used by teachers in their offices and classrooms were unsuitable. About 114 (76%) of the teachers disagreed with having comfortable furniture in offices and classrooms in their respective schools.
5.2.2 Influence of Occupational Health Hazards on Teachers Performance Of Duties Work related ailments have been associated with increased absenteeism among teachers, as outlined in the literature review of this study. Table 4.30 shows the work related ailments suffered by teachers since their appointment even before the interview and the percentage of teachers who experienced such ailments. Only work related complaints were included for the figures shown.From the survey, the duration of health complaints since their 77
appointment among the sufferers was also investigated, 8 out of 10 single health complaints showed an average duration of one year or longer. These findings indicated that teachers suffered from health problems in the long term. The average duration of anxiety was longest among the 10 health complaints. Anxiety is mostly associated with work related stress, which has been shown to be a result of heavy workload and affect the teachers psychologically.While itchy eyes ranked third. prolonged reading of teaching materials, assessing assignments or doing computer work, and insufficient sleep could be the cause of the itchy eyes due to eyestrain, while use of poor quality chalk could be the cause of the high rate of skin dermatitis. The study further revealed that, most of the teachers 62% were not trained on how to deal with health issues, including the need to receive vaccination against infectious diseases, despite the fact that their work involved interacting with people from different areas. Other findings indicate that most of them 105(69%) teachers did not wear protective clothing when handling chemicals at their schools which could cause skin dermatitis to teachers at the laboratories. First aid box was also available to most schools but they were inadequate for both teachers and students. However, there was no training for teachers on how to provide appropriate first aid.
The study also revealed that most teachers handle health emergency cases in their respective schools, since most schools do not have qualified school nurses , this exposes teachers to both biological and chemical hazards since, they lack health training to cater for such cases. Biological hazards have been cited in the study as causes of occupational health ailments among teachers. However, from the survey table 4.27 reveals that, 66.7% of the interviewed teachers took their meals in the staffroom and other areas. This could attract rodents like 78
rats, moulds and fungi and can cause odour in the staffroom due to the food particles that may be left in these places especially if they are not regularly cleaned.
5.2.3 Influence of Occupational and Environment Hazards on Teachers Performance of Duties From the study the responding teachers reported that social environment influenced their performance. Most of the teachers, 42 percent felt the management was insensitive to the teachers concerns. The study further revealed that decisions made in schools are not clearly communicated to all teachers. Other findings revealed that most of the responding teachers did not feel comfortable when interacting with their colleagues in their school especially those in management.
The physical environment has been cited in this studys literature review as influencing teachers performance. This is in relation to factors such as acoustic levels, ventilation in building, proper housekeeping and thermal factors. From the survey, it was reported that noise levels in the staffroom were uncomfortable to work in, for most teachers, noise from humans increase if they work in limited space. This interferes with concentration and also proper time utilization. The survey further revealed that most teachers felt the premises they work in are not clean enough, which was demotivating to work. Sanitary fixtures like toilet, hand wash basin were reported not to be well maintained and even in some schools they were using the public latrine because they were not available in the schools for the teachers. Additionally, healthy drinking water was also not available to most of the respondents in their offices. 79
5.3 Conclusions The study is to establish the fact that teachers and researchers in the countrys institutions encounter certain ergonomic and occupational health hazards in their work places which needs to inform those in the authority to incorporate it into the national occupational health and safety management standard to consider that teaching as a profession is also associated with some health implications. In view of this, the researcher concluded based on the results obtained from chapter four using the objectives of the study. The study sought to establish whether there were some physical and psychological occupational health hazards among teachers and researchers in schools. The results indicated that there were some dermatitical effect and the anxieties of teachers as a result of work- related stress in their work.
The study sought to examine whether seating conditions and other gadgets used by teachers has any effect on their health. The study showed that most of the furniture used in school by the teachers is given them certain health complications since they expressed their level of displeasure in using the furniture. The teachers complained of backaches anytime they used them for longer period.
The study also sought to establish whether occupational environment influenced teachers performance. Results from the study established that, lighting systems in most schools supported the tasks teachers were doing in offices and classrooms, Acoustic hazards were however found to dominate most offices probably due to congestion. This can lower motivation and job satisfaction. Noise was seen to prevent voice communication and also contributed to improper utilization of time. Air quality in offices and classrooms was found to be uncomfortable by most teachers due to inadequate ventilation. 80
The study further established that welfare arrangements which included provision of drinking water and facilities for rest and eating meals, proportional to size of workforce, were not available to most of the teachers. Sanitary fixtures like hand wash basins, soap and hand drying materials were not available for teachers use in many schools hence posing the danger of spreading germs. The study further established that teachers lacked training in fire-fighting techniques, most schools, consequently lacked fire-fighting preparedness which was clearly shown, by lack of fire-fighting tools like fire extinguishers and horse reel. Fire control measures to some schools were found to be missing in most schools. However, the tertiary institutions within the Municipality have them but are not effective. Such measures include: fire alarms and emergency doors in offices, classrooms and laboratories.
5.4 Recommendations I urged in this document that teachers and researchers in our state institutions really encounter certain ergonomics and occupational health hazard that affect their health and performances as well in school within the Mampong Municipality. It is against this background that the recommendations below are made: The ministry of education should collaborate with ministry of health to have pre- medical screening for any teacher before he or she begins to work as a teacher. Since the research brought out some work-related ailments about teaching, the government and policy makers should inculcate it into the existing policies about government workers so that incentive should also be given to teachers and researchers in our institutions in Ghana 81
Designers of furniture used by teachers and researchers in classrooms and offices to discharge their duties should be made considering all sizes, height and weight of users before distributing them to the various schools. Teachers should report any problem they encounter that emanate from the teaching to the appropriate authority for them to be aware that there are some health risks associated with the teaching profession. With regard to occupational health, it is recommended that teachers wear protective clothings when handling chemicals to avoid ailments related to such exposures. The schools should ensure that there are facilities for rest and eating meals for teachers, as this will ensure reduction in exposure to both chemical and biological hazards. There is the need to provide a good occupational environment for teachers by ensuring unnecessary noise is controlled in and around the school buildings. Such buildings should also be well ventilated, and proper housekeeping maintained. Proper records regarding accidents and injuries sustained and suffered by teachers, and their causes should be kept in schools to provide information to teachers, as well as serving as measures to control reoccurrence of similar incidences.
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Fleer, P. and Gauther, E.(2010).Ergonomics: A commonsense activity that can save schools money. International Journal of education Vol. 130(4) Pp. 674-675. Gay L.N. (1992) Educational research: New York. Macmillan publishing company. Gugluemi, R. & Tatrow, (1998).Occupational stress, burn out and health in teachers. A methodological and Theoretical Analysis: Review of educational research Journal. Vol. 68 (3) .Pp. 61-99. Hess, F. (2004).Teacher quality, teacher pay: Journal of policy review. Vol. 2 (124). Pp 345-346. I.L.O.(2001).Guidelines on occupational safety and health management systems. ILOOSH (Geneva international labor office) International Ergonomics Association, (2010).What is Ergonomics.www.IEA.htm Retrieved on 6/12/2010. James S. A. (1995) Occupational safety and health in the emergency services 2 nd edition. James, T. (2009). Health care hazard control and safety management, 2nd edition. Janice, N. (1999). Employment law for business students. Pp.333 Jing, S. and Mehta, A. (2010).The chronic lung function decline on cotton textile workers: Roles of historical and recent exposures to endotoxin: Journal for environmental health perspectives Vol. 118(11) Pp. 1620-1624. Jo, W.K. and Seo, Y.J. (2005).Indoor and outdoor bioaerosol levels at recreation facilities, elementary schools, and homes. Chemosphere. Vol. 61 (11), Pp.15701579 John A Low (1995). Occupational health and safety for school counselors AGCA paper. Judson, M. (1984).The Occupational Safety and Health Administration: A History of its First Thirteen Years, 1971-1984. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1984 84
Julie Wakefield (2002). Learning the hard way: The poor environment of Americas schools: Journal on environmental health perspectives Vol. 110, Pp. 161-163. Kasomo, D.(2006). Research methods in Humanities and education Kerlinger F.N (1983). Foundation of behavioural research (second edition).New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston Kim, J.L.(2007). Indoor molds, bacteria, microbial volatile organic compounds and plasticizers in schools associations with asthma and respiratory symptoms in pupils. Indoor Air.Vol17 (2), Pp.153156. Kothari C.R (2004) Research methodology methods and techniques, New Delhi new age. International (p) ltd Logad, D and Cetanese, S. (2007). Chronic pain in the classroom: teachers attributions about causes of chronic pain. Journal of school health Vol. 77, (5). Pp.78-84 Marita, M. (2010). Health and safety hazards in schools environment: Bibliographies in education. No. 81. Mark, B and Peter, C. (1986).Education and society in Africa,: New york Hutchinson & Co. Ltd. Marshalls, C and Rossman, G. (eds) (2006). Designing qualitative research: California sage publications. Mugenda O and Mugenda, A. (2003). Research methods quantitative and qualitative approaches, Nairobi, Acts press. Murray, L. R. (2010). Now is the time to strengthen our occupational health protections: Journal of Nations health Vol. 41(3) .Pp. 3-13. 85
Myburgh, C and Poggenpoel, M. (2008).Teachers experience of their school environmental implications for health promotion. Education winter Vol. 123(2).Pp. 2-10 Niliama N. D. (2010). Biochemical effects of occupational lead exposure to workers in small scale Automobile workshops. Journal of environmental health research Vol. 10(1) Pp.103. Orodho A. J. & Kombo D.K (2002).Research methods .Nairobi Kenyatta University institute of open learning. Orodho A.J. (2003) Essential of educational and social sciences Research method, Nairobi masola publishers Phil Hughes & Ed Ferret (2003). Introduction to health and safety at work 2nd edition. Public Health reports.US A Elsevier Ltd. Vol. 24 (1).Pp 74-83 Saaranen, T. (2005).School staff members and occupational health nurses: Evaluation of the promotion of occupational well being a good planning to better practice: Journal of inter professional care. Vol. 19 (5). Sarah, L. J. (2009). Improving the school violence. A review of the literature: Journal of school health Vol. 79 (10) Pp. 451-465 Scheff, P.A. (2000a). Indoor air quality in a middle school, Part I: use of CO2as a tracer for effective ventilation. Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene.Vol 15 (11) Pp. 824834 Scheff, P.A. (2000b). Indoor air quality in a middle school, Part II: development of emission factors for particulate matter and bioaerosols. Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, Vol. 15 (11) Pp.835842 86
Shendel, D and Hemminger, (2009).Supervising structured teaching experiences for students in school based occupational health: Health reports supplement 1 Vol. 124. Shirley, L. Bull and Jonathan, E. (1987).Classroom management: Principles and practices.: USA Elsevier ltd Silver Sharon and Whelan E (2009).Occupational exposure to polychlorinated Biphenyls and risk of breast cancer.Environmental health perspectives Vol. 117 (2) Pp. 276-282. Singleton R.A (1993) Approach to social research.. New York.UOP Wu, S. (2011).Warranty claims analysis considering human factors, Reliability Engineering and System Safety, Vol. 96 (11, 201,) Pp. 131-138.
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APPENDIX TEACHERS QUESTIONNAIRE DATA GATHERING QUESTIONNAIRE FOR RESEARCH ON ERGONOMIC AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND RESEARCHERS IN STATE INSTITUTIONS This questionnaire will be used in gathering data for the purpose of an academic research and full confidentiality will be maintained. It is my hope that the recommendations that will come out from the research findings will be useful to reduce employees accident and the improvement working conditions in workplaces. It will assist the ergonomists and safety planners in the educational sectors to consider all factors in the design of equipment (tables and chairs) that are used by the teachers and researchers in the offices and classroom which can pose some health threat to their life in school. It will bring into light some hazards that are associated with the teaching profession which will draw the attention of the government and other policy makers to factor it into occupational health and management standards of the country. The response and complete of this questionnaire is purely voluntary. However, your participation completing the questionnaire will highly be appreciated. Please kindly respond to the following questions. BIODATA 1) What is your gender? A) Male B) Female 2) What is the name of your school? 3) Category of the school you work. A) Primary level B) Secondary C) Tertiary 4) Teacher training A) Trained B) Untrained 88
5) Highest Professional training attained A) Certificate A B) diploma in education C)Degree in education d) Masters in education e) any other specify 6) Teaching experience (tick ) where applicable Less than 1 year 1-5 years 6- 10 years11-15 years 16-20 years above 20 years 7) Category of school you teach Boy only Girl only Mixed school Others 8) Which subject do you teach? Please specify.. 9) How many teachers teach subject with you in the school? Please specify the number .. 10) Are you member of discipline or guidance team? Yes No Please specify which. 11) Position held in the school (tick where appropriate) Principal Administrator Registrar Examine Officer Dean of students Headmaster /HeadmistressHead of Department Sport Master/mistress others, please specify.
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PART 2 ERGONOMIC I. Do you have a place of work? Yes No If yes, where is it? a) In an organized school b) In church as school c) In a house as school d) Community Centre as school e) School under trees II. You have light in your classroom or lecture halls and the respective offices for staff? Yes NO III. Are you having offices for each teacher at these places of work? Yes No If yes, how is the nature of room? a) Roofed and sealed with doors and windows b) Roofed and not sealed but with doors and windows c) Roofed but without doors and windows d) Furnished with all the above.
IV. Is the room furnished with which kinds of furniture? a) Ordinary table and chair without backrest b) Table and Cushion chair with backrest c) Stuffing table and swerving chair d) Table and cushion beach e) Plastic table and plastic chair 90
f) Ordinary table and chair with backrest. V. Do you feel comfortable using the furniture? Yes No If no, why? a) I have been experiencing backache any time l used it b) I had backache because of it c) The chair is longer than the table d) The chair is smaller than table e) The table is longer than the chair f) The table is smaller than the chair g) Both table and chair are longer than my height h) Both table and chair are smaller than my height VI. Which of the teaching aids do you use in writing on the board? a) Chalk b) Marker Other, please specify VII. What are means of ventilation found in your classroom? a) Windows, glass rovers and doors opened intermittently. b) Fan c) Air condition d) Others specify VIII Source of light in the classroom apart from sunlight for both day and night studies. a) Generator b) VRA c) ECG d) Lantern e) Absent of light IX). Is the source of power available all the time? a) Yes b) No X). How is the nature of the light you use in your classroom and office? a) Normal Brightness (b) Brighter than expected c) Dim d) Do not have at all
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XI). Working Exposure a) Standing when teaching or lecturing b) Sitting when teaching or lecturing c) Standing, Sitting and writing on the board when teaching. XII). Do you have laboratory in your school? a) Yes b) No XII). If yes, which are some of the personal protective equipment do you use when teaching or lecturing? a) Gloves b) Goggles c) Lab coat and boot d) Nose mask e) All the above XIII). Do you use computer (laptop) in your teaching or lecturing? a) Yes b) No XIV). If yes, what do you use reduce the glare of the computer rays? a) Screen filter b) Transparency white robber c) Other, specify
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PART 3 SECTION (A) Occupational Health 1. Have you ever been trained on health issues? a) Yes b) No If the answer is yes, which issues? Please specify 2. Have you ever been vaccinated against infectious diseases 3 Do your wear protective clothing when using chemicals in the school? a)Yes b) No c) not applicable 4) Who takes care of health emergencies in the school? Please tick where appropriate) a) School nurse b) Colleague teacher c) Dont know 5) Do you have a first aid box in the school? a) Yes b) No c) I dont know 6) If the answer above is yes, where is it kept? Please specify. 7) Where do you take your meals in school? Please specify the area 8) Do you suffer from work-related stress? a) Yes b) No 9) The stress that you mentioned in the last question mainly comes from? (Tick all that apply) a) Heavy workload b) Guidance work c) Getting along with colleagues d) Lack of enough time to cover the syllabus others, specify 10) In the last 12 months, how many days of sick leave have you taken due to work-related health problems? a) No time off work b) less than 1 day c) 1 5 days d) 6-10 days e) 10days plus 11) Did you go through any pre- medical screening prior to your current job appointment? Yes No 12. For what approximate period after job appointment did you suffer from the following health problems or illnesses? Please tick () the appropriate boxes to indicate the severity as well as the cause and fill in the last column to indicate the duration (within years) of the corresponding health problem or illness. 93
ordinary health problem and complains (please tick appropriate box) SEVERITY Cause In your opinion was the health problems caused or worsened by the job? Duration of the health problems (within) in years Not at all A little Some Serious Yes No 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Neck pain 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Low back pain 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Anxiety 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Heartburns 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Nasal disorders 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Voice hoarseness 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Skin-dermatitis due to the use of chalk and chemical.
1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Allergy 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Chest pain 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Flu 1-56-10 11-20 , after 20years Itchy eyes 1-56-10 11-20 ( ),after 20years Joint pain 1-56-10 ( )11-2( ),after 20years ()
Other, specify
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SECTION B OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY 13. Please provide your opinions for the following statements. Your response to the statement will be based on a 5 point scale ranging from 1 to 5. Your response can be any number between 1 & 5 depending on how much you agree with the statement. The more you agree the higher the score. Please bear in mind that there are no right or wrong answers. The scale mean 1) strongly disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 The school buildings are safe and well maintained
2 There is ample number of fire extinguishers in the school and all of them are in working condition
3 Fire drills take place once in every month
4 Everyone in the school is aware of dos and do nots in case of an emergency
5 The floors especially the staircase are always kept dry to avoid slips & falls
6 The electrical wires are located in the proper way and there is no chance of accident from them
7 There are emergency doors opening from outside, in the offices & laboratories
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SECTION C 14: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 A I find the level of temperature in my office comfortable to work in
B I find the level of air quality in the office and classroom very clean and motivating to work
C I find the noise levels in the staffroom well Controlled.
D I find the lighting of the classrooms and office to be excellent when I am working
E I find the external physical appearance of the school very appearing
F Sanitary fixtures (toilets, hand wash basin) in the school are very well maintained and enough for all.
15 SECTIONS D SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 1 2 3 4 5 A Decision are clearly communicated to all teachers B I find the management sensitive to the teachers concerns.
C I am comfortable when interacting with colleagues in the school, including those in management