Subordinate subject clause: What you say is stupid.

Subordinate object clause: I did not know that you were here.
Subordinate complement clause: Your first job is learning this grammar.
Subordinate adverbial clause: Come round when you're ready.
Clauses that function as subject, object or complement replace noun phrases, so they are
called nominal clauses. Those that function as adverbs/adjectives are adverbial/adjectival
clauses.
Some other kinds of nominal clauses are shown below. For clarity, they are all shown in
object position. This is
not the only place where they may occur, but is the most common.
That clause: I think (that) you know each other. (That may be omitted if understood.)
Wh- clause: I know what you did last summer. (Clause introduced by who, when, what,
why, whether.)
-ing clause: I don't recall seeing her there. (Clause introduced by present participle.)
inf. clause: I wish to confess to my crimes. (Clause introduced by to + infinitive.)
Adjectival clauses
A familiar type is the relative clause, introduced by a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose,
that, which), as in
these examples:
Here is the woman (whom) I married.
This is the book (which) I am reading.
The drink (that) I most like is orange-juice.
Two minor types of adjectival clause are -ing and -ed clauses.
-ing clause: The train now standing at platform four is the 5.30 to Leeds.
-ed clause: She is the celebrity pursued by the press.
Since past participles do not all end in -ed we may find other verb forms in such clauses: The
tea drunk by the
students or the exam taken by the pupils.

ENGLISH SYNTAX. THE COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCE
In point of status or degree of grammatical dependence, sentences are classified
into:
(isolated);



more levels of subordination);
Clauses (as part of Complex sentences).
Copulative coordination is achieved by means of the following conjunctions:
and, as well as, nor, neither, not only...but also, both...and, neither...nor. When two or
more clauses are coordinated, repeated elements, which are therefore redundant, are
ellipted (deleted) from all but one of the clauses:
- if two ore more coordinated sentences have identical subjects, the subject of the
second (third, etc.) sentence is usually deleted, e.g.
He1 went into the shop (he1) bought a tie and (he1) paid for it at the cash desk.
Disjunctive coordination presupposes a choice or an alternative between two
clauses. It is achieved by means of the conjunctions or, else, or else, otherwise,
either...or.
Or allows ellipsis of the subject if, in the clause it introduces, the subject is coreferential
with that of the preceding linked clause:
I may see you tomorrow or (I) may phone later in the day.
Adversative coordination combines two opposing or contrasting statements. It is
achieved mainly through the conjunctions but, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless, only,
still, however, all the same, none the less or nonetheless, on the other hand.
e.g. The engine is very old; still it works very well.
Consecutive coordination introduces an inference, conclusion, consequence,
result of the previous part. It is achieved mainly with the help of the conjunctions so,
therefore, hence, thus.
There was no one there, so I went away.
Causal / Explanatory coordination adds an independent clause explaining the
preceding statement. It is represented only by the conjunction for. The causative meaning
is not felt as strong as that of its subordinating counterparts (because, etc.).
e.g. The days were short for it was September.
non-finite clauses:
i. infinitive:
- without subject:
e.g. The best thing would be to tell everybody;
- with subject:
e.g. The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
ii. -ing participle:
- without subject:
e.g. Leaving the room he tripped over the mat;
- with subject:
e.g. His aunt having left the room, Tom declared his love for Celia.
iii. -ed participle:
- without subject:
e.g. Covered with confusion, I left the room
Subject Clauses
The Subject Clause discharges the same role in the complex sentence as that of a
subject in a simple sentence or in a clause, i.e. the subject clause performs the function of
a subject of the main clause. Compare:
Your talk was interesting.
What you said was interesting.
2.2. Predicative Clauses
The predicative clause discharges the same function in the complex sentence as that
of the predicative in a simple sentence.
2.3. Object Clauses
The object clause has the function of an object to the predicate of the main clause.
There are three types of object clauses: Direct Object Clauses, Indirect Object Clauses,
Prepositional Object Clauses.
2.3.3. Prepositional Object Clauses
Prepositional Object Clauses discharge the same function as prepositional objects
in simple sentences, therefore occurring after a number of prepositions which are required
by certain verbs.
2.3.3.1. Introductory elements:
- conjunctions: that, whether
e.g. It all depends on whether he will come or not
Three types of sentence:
simple (consists of one clause)
compound (consists of two co-ordinated main clauses)
complex (contains at least one subordinate clause)
Compound sentence
|---------main clause----------| c |------main clause-----|
I studied English grammar and found it fascinating.
Complex sentence (main clause)
|-----matrix clause---| |--------------subordinate clause-----------------|
Kevin has told me that he finds English grammar fascinating.
Simple sentences (from Hemingways The snows of Kilimanjaro)
1. It was evening now.
2. He had been asleep.
3. We could have stayed in Paris.
4. We could have gone anywhere.

Co-ordination of main clauses by means of a co-ordinating conjunction (and,
but, or, nor, for)
S V sP A c S |----V----| sP
It was evening now, and he had been asleep.
S |----------V----------| |---A---| c V A
We could have stayed in Paris or gone anywhere.


5. The sun was gone behind the hill and there was a shadow all across the
plain and the small animals were feeding close to camp.
6. Presidents and princes wear jeans as easily as robes of state, supermodels practically
live in them when they're not supermodelling, and Hollywood stars can barely be
forced out of them for Oscars night.



Subordinate clauses = dependent clauses: they have a syntactic function within a
phrase or within a clause, and do not function as complete, independent sentences.

Functions of finite subordinate clauses
(finite clauses have a finite verb)
Adjectival: functioning as a modifier of a noun
Adverbial: usually functioning as an adverbial (when, where, how, why)
Nominal: having the same kinds of functions as a noun phrase (S, dO, iO,
sP, oP, complement of preposition)

7. You meant nothing that you said. (postmodifier, part of dO)
8. I was alright when we started talking (A).
9. If he lived by a lie (A) he should try to die by it.
10. It is fun to do this : To do this is fun (S).
11. Do you think that it is fun to do this (dO)?
12. How could a woman know that you meant nothing that you said (dO)?
13. He no longer meant what he said (dO).
14. Africa was where he had been happiest (sP).

Analysis:
S V sP |----------A---------------| main clause level
c S |--------V------| subordinate clause level
I was alright when we started talking.

S |-----A----| V |-----dO-----| main clause level
dO S V subordinate clause level
He no longer meant what he said.

v S V |----------dO-------------|
c aS V sP |----S------|
Do you think that it is fun to do this?


Read about the clause hierarchy in the Internet Grammar of English



ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES = RELATIVE CLAUSES

Some terms: relative pronoun
antecedent
restrictive (defining)
non-restrictive (non-defining)

A relative clause is introduced by a relative pronoun, who, whom, whose, which,
that (or Zero). The choice of pronoun depends on its syntactic function in the
relative clause, and on its antecedent (see EGTU p 341).
Being adjectival, relative clauses typically function as postmodifiers within a
noun phrase (or as disjunct adverbials in the case of sentential relatives).

15. Matilda had taught herself to read by studying newspapers and
magazines that lay around the house. (restrictive relative clause)
16. Matilda slipped into the cloakroom and got hold of the hat he wore each
day to work.
17. Mrs Wormwood, who was hooked on bingo, played it five afternoons a
week. (non-restrictive relative clause)
18. Mrs Wormwood was hooked on bingo and played it five afternoons a
week. (co-ordination)
19. Within a week, Matilda had finished Great Expectations which in that
edition contained four hundred and eleven pages. (non-restrictive)
20. Mr Hemingway says a lot of things I don't understand. (restrictive)
21. Pursewarden stammered when he spoke of his wife, which is hardly
surprising in view of their disastrous relationship. (sentential)
22. The government is destroying its own taxpayers, which is obviously a silly
thing for any government to do. (sentential)

23. The students who have read chapter 12 know what an antecedent is. (The
relative clause is restrictive and indicates thatonly those
students who have read chapter 12 have this information.)
24. The students, who have read chapter 12, know what an antecedent is. (The
relative clause is non-restrictive, indicating thatall the
students have done the reading, and they all know what an
antecedent is.)

25. I want a book in a language which I can read.
26. I want a book in English, which I can read.

27. They invited us to a dinner which was delicious.
28. They invited us to dinner, which was delightful.

Use of relative pronouns
Antecedent Syntactic function in relative clause
who personal subject, object, predicative
whom personal object, complement of preposition
whose personal
non-personal
determiner (expressing a possessive
relationship)
which non-personal subject, object, complement of preposition
that personal
non-personal
subject, object, predicative
personal
non-personal
object, predicative
Note: That/Zero only in restrictive relative clauses!
Nominal subordinate clauses
typically associated with nominal functions (S, dO, iO, sP, oP, complement of
preposition)
Three kinds:
that-clause (I saw that the bus was leaving.)
nominal relative clause (Ill give you what you want.)
indirect question (I asked him if he was happy.)

33. I had almost forgotten how good a glass of whole milk tastes. (dO)
34. Peter wants to give whoever he meets a bunch of flowers. (iO)
35. It is possible that she said those things. (S) [That she said those things is
possible]
36. That is not what I meant. (sP)
37. You can call me whatever names you like. (oP)
38. I alone am responsible for whatever happens to me. (compl. of prep.)

That-clause: introduced by the conjunction that (or Zero)
39. He said that fat is healthy. (dO)
40. Their view is that last-minute changes the Mayor is proposing to make only
emphasize the weakness of his performance as Mayor. (sP)
41. I am sure (that) Castro was happy about that support. (complement of
adjective, part of sP)
42. It was a good thing that Freud emphasized this aspect of human nature.
(Subject in extraposition).
43. I am taking the position that the contract was clearly violated (apposition,
part of dO).
44. Some viewed this attempt as evidence that Mr Wagner regarded himself as
bigger than the party. (apposition, part of Adverbial)

Note: A that-clause cannot follow a preposition:
45. I was quite sure that Susanne was standing right next to me.
46. Jeg var helt sikker p at Susanne stod rett ved siden av meg.
47. to agree that vre enig i at
Exception: in that = 'to the extent that'
48. They differ from ordinary genes in that they can move from one site to
another in the chromosome.

Nominal relative: introduced by a wh-pronoun, what(ever), who(ever), where(ever) etc.
49. What she did in the end was call the police. (S)
50. That was what she did in the end. (sP)
51. Whoever talks with me, is speaking to a Gentleman born. (S)
52. That's how he first won the Masters. (sP)
53. But Stravinsky was swayed by the attitudes of whatever culture he
was reflecting. (complement of preposition in postmodifying phrase)
54. They will probably believe in what you tell them.
55. They will probably believe in whatever you tell them.

Indirect question: introduced by an interrogative pronoun, adverb, or
determiner where, when, why, how, what, who(m), whose, which; if, whether
56. He didn't know what we expected of him (dO).
57. Who I choose to go out with is none of your business. (S)
58. I don't know if this is the situation in other parts of the country. (dO)
59. It is difficult to be certain how the administration views that $28 million.
(complement of adjective, part of sP)

Nominal vs. relative clauses introduced by that
60.There was the added problem that the whole process was publicly known.
61.It was an additional problem that the whole process was publicly known.
62.There was an additional problem that was publicly known.
63. I found that the book was missing.
64. I found the book that was missing.

Comment clauses
65. You can come too, I suppose.
66. I suppose that you can come too.
67. Its very difficult, you know/you see.
68. Im a grammarian, as you know.

Clause types and meaning
69. I asked the girls who were here last night
70. I asked the girls who was here last night.
71. I asked the man who was calling.

72. He finally found a wife who made him very happy.
73. He finally found a wife, which made him very happy.

74. Anthony made a speech which pleased everyone.
75. Anthony made a speech, which pleased everyone.

76. They found nothing that was suspicious.
77. They found nothing, which was suspicious.

78. They had accepted that Monica told the truth.
79. They had accepted Monica, who told the truth.

80. The argument that they will react too strongly is common.
81. The argument that they reacted so strongly to was the following.

Multifunctionality of words
82. However, it may be awful for them to do it. conjunct
83. However awful it may be, they have to do it. conjunction

84. I just remembered that I cant.
85. That I just cant remember.
86. Thats a pity.
87. Its a pity that you cant come.
88. It was so late that they had to leave.


Complex embedding Subclauses within subclauses
S V |---------------dO--------------------| sentence level
c S |---V---| dO|----A------| level of a nominal subordinate clause
c S V level of an adverbial subordinate
clause
I think that you can do it if you try.

|----S------| |--A--| V |-----------------------dO-------------------------------|
(sentence)
c |---------S-------|V|--------------sP--------------| (nominal
subclause)
dO S V S V |--------sP----------|(nominal
subclauses)
Politicians always think that what they want is what is best for the country.

|-----------------A-------------------------------------| |-S--| |----V----| (sentence)
c S V |-----------dO---------------| (adverbial subclause)
A aS V S (relative clause)
When sunlight enters a room where there is fire, the fire goes out.

He was still standing at the truck [when he heard the whistle [that meant [that they
were turning off the arc lights]]].
Four walls of glass with a glass door [that let you into [where there was a covered
well and shelves of dead plants [that at one time must have flourished in the heated
room]]].