1

MOBILE RADIO PROPAGATION

Mobile radio channel is an important controlling factor in wireless
communication systems.

Transmission path between transmitter and receiver can vary in
complexity.

LOS (Line Of Sight) Simplest.

Eg. , buildings, mountains, Foliage (trees, bushes), Speed of mobile

Wired channels are stationary and predictable, radio channels are
extremely random and have complex models.

Modeling of radio channels is done in statistical fashion based on
measurements for each individual communication system or frequency
spectrum.
2



PROPAGATION MODELS

Aim: -

To predict the average received signal strength at a given distance from
the transmitter - large scale propagation models, hundreds or
thousands of meters

To predict the variability of the signal strength, at close spatial
proximity to a particular location -Small scale or fading models


3

4
Units of Received Signal Strength

Electrical Field
Magnitude E = IEI units Volt/m
E - Vector
Direction E = x E
x
+ y E
y
+ z E
z
Power

P Watts or dBm

P (dBm) = 10 log
10
[ P (mW)]

P (mW) P (dBm)

10 10
1 0
10
-1
-10
10
-2
-20
5
PROPAGATION MODELS

Free Space Propagation
Transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed LOS path between
them.

Reflection
From the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls. Usually
dimensions of reflecting object are much greater than wavelength.

Diffraction
Bending of electromagnetic waves around sharp edges such as, sharp
towers or peaks.

Scattering
Due to objects in the medium that are small compared to wavelength and
the number of objects is many. Ex., foliage, street signs, lampposts, rain,
shower.
6
Free Space Propagation

Transmitter/receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS path between them.


T d R

P
t
G
t
G
r

2
P
r
= [Valid if d >> 2D
2
/ ]
(4)
2
d
2
L

D = Max dimension of Transmitting antenna.
P
t =
Transmitted Power, P
r =
Received Power
G
t
= Transmitter antenna gain, G
r
= Receiver antenna gain
L = System loss factor ( L 1, transmission lines etc, but not due to
propagation)
Gain of antenna G = 4A
e
/
2
, where A
e
is effective aperture of antenna

= c / f (Hz) = 3 * 10
8
/ f (Hz) meters
7
Electric Field- Power relation

In free space, the power density is given by

P
t
G
t
|E|
2
P
d
= =
(4) d
2


Where, = Intrinsic impedance of free space.

=
0
/
0

For air, = (4 * 10
7
) / 8.85 * 10
-12
) = 377

P
r
= P
d
A
e =
I E
r
I
2
A
e
I E
r
I
2

2
G
r

=
(4)

8

Example

If the received power at a receiving antenna is P
r
= 7 * 10
-10
W,
antenna gain G
r
= 2 and transmitting frequency is 900 MHz,
determine the electric field strength at the receiver.

Solution:

f = 900 MHz => = (3 * 10
8
) / (900 * 10
6
) = 0.33

I E I = (Pr * 377 * 4) / [(0.33 * 0.33) * 2]

= 0.0039 V/m
9
Example
Given a transmitter produces 50 W of power. If this power is applied
to a unity gain antenna with 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the
received power at a free space distance of 100 m from the antenna.
What is Pr (10 km). Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.

Solution:

P
t
G
t
G
r

2
P
r
=
(4)
2
d
2
L

Pt = 50 W
Gt = 1
Gr = 1
= (3 * 10
8
) / (900 * 10
6
) = 0.33
L = 1
d = 100 m
10

Pr = 3.5 * 10
-3
mW

Pr (10 km) = Pr (100 m) * (100m/10km)
2


= 3.5 * 10
-3
mW * 1/100

= 3.5 * 10
-6
mW







11
Relating received power level to receiver input voltage

For matched receiver, R = R
ant


I = V
ant
/ (2 * R
ant
)

Power Received = V
2
/ R = V
2
/ R
ant
= V
ant
2
/ (4 * R
ant
)

Or V
ant
= Pr (d) * 4 * R
ant


Vant = - ?E . dl where E is the electric field V/m

R ant


Pr
V To matched Receiver R
V ant I




12

Reflections from ground and buildings

Electric Properties of Material Bodies

Permittivity F/m Farads/m

Permeability H/m Henries/m

Conductivity S/m Siemens/m

=
0

0
= Permittivity of free space = 8.85 * 10
-12
F/m

r
= Relative permittivity


13
Laws of Reflection at the boundary between two dielectrics





i

r





i
=
r

Er
= Reflection coefficient
Ei

Et
= T = 1 + Transmission coefficient
Ei












Ei Er
Et
14
VERTICAL PROPAGATION (OR PARALLEL POLARIZATION)

||
= -
r
sin
i
+ (
r
- cos
2

i
)
1/2
=
2
sin
t
-
1
sin
i



r
sin
i
+(
r
- cos
2

i
)
1/2

2
sin
t
+
1
sin
i

15
HORIZONTAL PROPAGATION (OR PERPENDICULAR
POLARIZATION)

= sin
i
- (
r
- cos
2

i
)
1/2
=
2
sin
i
-
1
sin
t


sin
i
+ (
r
- cos
2

i
)
1/2

2
sin
i
+
1
sin
t


16

Brewster Angle: No reflected wave

||
= 0

r
sin
B
= (
r
- cos
2

B
)
1/2



r
2
sin
2

B
=
r
- cos
2

B

=
r
1 + sin
2

B


2 cases

sin
B
= [(
r
1)/(
r
2
1)]
1/2
[ First medium is air
1
=
0
,
2
=
0

r
]

sin
B
= [(
r
2

r
)/(
r
2
1)]
1/2
[ Second medium is air
2
=
0
,
1
=
0

r
]

17

Reflection from perfect conductor




I

r





Perfect Conductor
Parallel / vertical polarization Perpendicular / horizontal
polarization


i
=
r

i
=
r

E
i
= E
r
E
i
= - E
r













E
i
E
r

E
t

18
GROUND REFLECTION (2-RAY MODEL)





19
FIELD EQUATIONS



d = several kms

h
t
= 50-100m


E
TOT
= E
LOS
+ E
g


E
TOT
(d) = (2 E
o
d
o
2 h
t
h
r
)/ ( d
2
) For d > 20h
t
h
r
/

Received power P
r
= P
t
G
t
G
r
h
t
2
h
r
2
/ d
4
20

Example

A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station. and uses a
vertical /4 monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB to receive
cellular radio signals. The E field at 1 km from the transmitter is
measured to be 10
-3
V/m. The carrier frequency used is 900 MHz.

(a) Find the length and gain of the receiving antenna
(b) Find the received power at the mobile using the 2-way ground
model assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is 50 m and
receiving antenna is 1.5 m above the ground.






21
Solution:

d
0
= 1 km

E
0
= 10
-3
V/m




h
t
= 50 m
h
r
= 1.5 m


d= 5 km




22
(a)
f = 900 MHz

= (3 * 10
8
) / (900 * 10
6
) = 0.33 m

Length of receiving antenna,

L = / 4 = 0.33/4 = 0.0833 m = 8.33 cm


(b) Gain of antenna = 2.55 dB => 1.8

E
r
(d) = (2 * E
0
* d
0
* 2 * h
t
* h
r
) / ( * d
2
)

= 2 * 10
-3
* 1 * 10
3
* 2 * 50 * 1.5
= 113.1 * 10
-6
V/m
(5 * 10
3
)
2
* 0.333

23

P
r
(d) = I E
r
I
2

2
G
r

4

= (113.1 * 10
-6
)
2
* (0.333)
2
* 1.8

377 4

= 5.4 * 10
-13
W

= -92.68 dBm





24





DIFFRACTION


Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface
or propagate behind obstructions.

Based on Huygens principle of wave propagation.
25
26
Assumptions

h << d
1
, d
2

h >>

Excess path length
[h
2
(d
1
+ d
2
) ]/[ 2 (d
1
d
2
)]

[h (d
1
+ d
2
)] / [d
1
d
2
]

Phase difference

= 2 /

= 2 h
2
(d
1
+ d
2
)

2 d
1
d
2


27

Diffraction parameter

v = [2 /]
1/2




= h [2 (d
1
+ d
2
) / (d
1
d
2
)]
1/2






28
3 cases:



Case I: h > 0


29
Case II: h = 0





30
Case III: h < 0

31




The electric field strength of the diffracted wave is given by

E
d
= F(v) * E
o


= E
o
[(1 + j ) / 2]

v
/ t j
e
2
2

dt


where E
o
is the free space field strength in the absence of both ground
and knife edge.
32
Approximate value of Fresnel Integral F(v):


G
d
(dB) = 20 log I F(v) I


Range of V Gd (dB)

V -1 0

-1 V 0 20 log (0.5 0.62 v)

0 V 1 20 log (0.5 e
-0.95v
)

1 V 2.4 20 log (0.4 [0.1184-(0.38-0.1 V)
2
]
1/2
)

V > 2.4 20 log (0.225/V)

33
Example

Compute the diffraction loss between the transmitter and receiver
assuming, = 1/3 m, d
1
= 1 km, d
2
= 1 km and h = 25m

Solution:

Given , = 1/3 m,
d
1
= 1 km,
d
2
= 1 km and
h = 25m

V = h [2(d
1
+ d
2
) / ( d
1
d
2
)]
1/2


= 25 [2 (1000 + 1000) / (0.33 x 1000 x 1000)]
1/2

= 2.74
34

Using the table,

F(v) = 20 log (0.225/2.74)

=>

20 log (Ed/ E0) = 20 log (0.225/2.74)

= -22 dB

Loss = 22 dB.






35



Scattering

When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy
is spread out or diffused in all directions.

Ex., lampposts and foliage

The scattered field increases the strength of the signal at the receiver


36
Radar Cross Section (RCS) Model

RCS (Radar Cross Section)

= Power density of scattered wave in direction of receiver

Power density of radio wave incident on the scattering object

P
R
= P
T
*G
T
*
2
* RCS
(4)
3
* d
T
* d
R

Where,
P
T
= transmitted power

G
T
= Gain of Transmitting antenna

d
T
= Distance of scattering object from transmitter

d
R
= Distance of scattering object from receiver
37
Practical Link Budget

Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of
analytical and empirical models.

Empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical expressions
that recreate a set of measured data.

Advantages
Takes into account all propagation factors, both known and
unknown.
Disadvantages
New models need to be measured for different environment or
frequency.

Over many years, some classical propagation models have been
developed, which are used to predict large-scale coverage for mobile
communication system design.
38


Log Distance Path Model

T d
0
R

P
T
P
R
(d
0
) P
R
(d)

_____
Path loss at d
0
= P
T
/ P(d
o
) = K (d
0
)
n
= PL(d
0
)
_____
Path loss at d = P
T
/ P (d) = K (d)
n
= PL(d)
__ __
PL (d) / PL (d
0
) = (d / d
0
)
n

__ ___
PL (d) [dB] = PL (d
o
) [dB] + 10n log
10
(d / d
0
)

39
Received power in log-normal model



---
P
R
(d) [dbm] = P
t
[dbm] PL (d) [db]

n -> path loss exponent
d
0
-> reference distance close to transmitter

Environment n

Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 3.5
LOS in building 1.6 1.8

40
Log-normal Shadowing

Log-distance path loss normal gives only the average value of path
loss.

Surrounding environment may be vastly different at two locations
having the same T R separation d.

More accurate model includes a random variable to account for
change in environment.
---
PL (d) [db] = PL(d) + X


---
= PL (d
0
) + 10n log (d / d
0
) + X

-> Zero mean Gaussian random variable (dB)

-> Standard deviation (dB)
41
Received power in log-normal shadowing model



P
R
(d) [dbm] = P
T
[dbm] PL(d) [db]

Values of n and are computed from measured data, using linear
regression such that the difference between measured and estimated
path losses is minimized in a mean square error sense over a wide
range of measurement locations and T R separations
_____
Probability [ P
R
(d) > ] = Q [ ( - (P
R
(d) ) / ]

_____
Probability [ P
R
(d) < ] = Q [ (P
R
(d) - ) / ]



42


Calculation of Q function

Q(z) = Q function = (1 / 2)

z
/ x
e
2
2
dx
Q (-z) = 1- Q(z)


Q (0) = 1/ 2


Q(z) obtained from Table D.1 in Appendix D.(page 596)
43
Gaussian random variable

44
Gaussian pdf-Q function relation

P
R
(x x
O
) =

O
x
2
2
1

e
(x m)
2
/ 2
2
dx

Putting y = (x m )/

Pr (x > (x-m) / ) =

/ ) m x (
O
2
1
e
y
2
/ 2
dy

= Q [(x
O
-m )/ ] = Q (z)


45
Example

Four received power measurements were taken at the distances of
100m, 200m, 1 km and 3 km from a transmitter. These measured
values are given in the following table.

The path loss equation model for other measurements follows log
normal shadowing model where d
0
= 100 m.

a. Find the minimum mean square error (MMSE) estimate for the
path loss exponent n.
b. Calculate the standard deviation about the mean value
c. Estimate the received power at d = 2 km using the resulting
model
d. Predict the likelihood that the received signal at 2 km will be
greater than 60 dBm.


46
Solution:
Distance from transmitter Received power

100 m 0 dBm

200 m - 20 dBm

1 km - 35 dBm

3 km - 70 dBm

Let P
i
' be the average received power at distance d
i


P
i
' = P
i
(d0) 10n log (d
i
/ 100 m)

d = d
0
= 100 m => P
1
'

= 0 dBm.

d = d
1
= 200 m , P
2
' = -3n, P
3
' = -10n, P
4
' = -14.77n
47

Mean square error J = (P
i
P
i
')
2

= (0 0)
2
+ [ -20 (-3n)]
2
+ [ -35 (-10n) ]
2
+ [-35 (-10n)]
2


= 6525 2887.8n + 327.153n
2

Minimum value => dJ(n) / dn

= 654.306n 2887.8 = 0

n = 4.4

b) Variance = J / 4 =

=
4
1 i
( P
i
P
i
')
2
/ 4

= (0 + 0) + (-20 + 13.2)
2
+ (-35 + 44)
2
+ (-70 + 64.988)
2


4
48

= 152.36 / 4

= 6.17 dB

c) P
i
' (d = 2 km) = 0 10(4.4) log (2000/700)

= -57.24 dBm

d) Probability that the received signal will be greater than 60 dBm is:

P
R
= [P
R
(d) > -60 dBm] = Q [(- P
R
(d)) / ]

= Q [(-60 + 57.24) / 6.17]
= Q [- 0.4473]
= 1 Q [0.4473]
= 1 0.326
= 0.674 => 67.4%
49

Percentage of Coverage Area

Given a circular coverage area of radius R.





Area A





In the area A, the received power P
R


The area A is defined as U( )





r R

50
Calculation of coverage area U( )
U () = (1 / R
2
)

Prob [P
R
(R) > ] dA
= (1 / R
2
)


R
0
2
0

Prob[P
R
(R ) > ] R dR d

Prob [P
R
(R ) > = Q [ - P
R
(R ) / ]
51
Final equation for U( )


U ( ) = { (1 erf(a) + e
(1-2ab/ b
2
)
[1 erf (1-ab/ b) ]}

a = { r Pt + PL (do) + 10n log (R / do ) } r / 2

b = (10n log e ) / ( 2)

erf (z) = (2 / )

z
0
e
x
2
dx
= 1 2 Q ( 2 Z )

Alternate method Use Table 3.18 (page 108)
52
Example

For the previous problem, predict the percentage of area with a 2
km radius cell that receives signals greater than 60 dBm.

Solution

From solution to previous example,

Prob [P
R
(R) > ] = 0.674,

= -60 dBm

( / n) = 6.17 / 4.4

= 1.402

From table 3.18, Fraction of total area = 0.92 => 92%
53


Other propagation models

Outdoor propagation models

Longley Rice model: Point-to-point communication systems, (40MHz
100MHz)

Okumaras model: widely used in urban areas (150 MHz 300 MHz)

Hata model:graphical path loss (150 MHz 1500 MHz)

Indoor propagation models

Log-distance path loss model

Ericsson multiple breakdown model
54