1

Mathematical analysis of Nyquist criterion

h
eff
(t) = (t) p(t) h
c
(t) h
r
(t)

p(t) = pulse shape of the symbol
h
c
(t) = channel impulse response
h
r
(t) = receiver impulse response

h
eff
(t) should have fast decay with a small magnitude near
the sample values for n 0
for a ideal channel, h
c
(t) = (t), it should be possible to
realize or closely approximate shaping filters at both
receiver and transmitter to produce the desired H
eff
(f)
2


Example :

h
eff
(t) = sin (t/Ts) (t/Ts)

satisfies equation (1) but the filter is not causal (not buildable)

Alternative filter

h
eff
(t) = sin (t/Ts) . z(t) (t/Ts)

also satisfies the Nyquist criterion (1)

3
Raised Cosine roll-off filter

Most popular pulse shaping filter used in mobile
communications


h
RC
(t) = sin (t/Ts) (t/Ts) [ cos (t/Ts) / {1 (
4t/2Ts)
2
]


As the value of a (rolloff factor) increases, the bandwidth
of the filter also increases


4
As the value of a (rolloff factor) increases, the time
sidelobe levels decrease.

Implementation of raised-cosine filter

Use identical [H
RC
(f)]
1/2
filters at transmitter and receiver


Symbol rate possible through the raised cosine roll off
filter

R
s
= 1/Ts = 2B/ (1 + )



5
Where B is the absolute filter bandwidth


Geometric representation of Digital Modulation Signals

Modulation signal set S = {S
1
(t), S
2
(t),..... S
M
(t)}

Binary M=2 M>2 M-ary

No. Of bits of information possible = log
2
M bits/symbol
6
Types of Digital Modulation

Linear Nonlinear Spread spectrum
Amplitude of
transmitted signal
s(t) varies linearly
with message signal
m(t)
Amplitude of
carrier is
constant
Transmission
bandwidth >>
minimum
required signal
bandwidth
Bandwidth efficient
useful for
accommodating
more users in a
limited spectrum
QPSK (quadrature
PSK)
OQPSK (Offset PSK)
Higher bandwidth
but high
immunity against
random FM noise
FSK
GMSK (Gaussian
min. Shift keying)
MFSK
Inefficient for
single user, but
efficient for
multi-users
7
/4 QPSK
Linear modulation

Quadrature Phase shift keying (QPSK)

T
S
= symbol duration = 2 T
B

E
S
= Energy per symbol = 2 E
B

Constellation diagram Q (Quadrature)

(Es)
1/2

I (in phase)


8

Properties of QPSK

BPSK

BW = 2 R
B
= 2 / T
B

QPSK

BW = R
B
= 1 / T
B

Quadrature Phases = 0, /2, , 3/2

Average probability of bit error is additive white Gaussian
noise
9
P
e,QPSK
= Q[2 E
B
/ N
0
]
Non-linear or envelope modulation

Binary Frequency shift keying

The frequency of a constant amplitude carrier signal is
switched between 2 values ( 1 and 0)

S
FSK
=Vh(t)= (2E
b
/T
b
)
1/2
cos [2 f
c
+2f ]t, 0 t T
b
(1)
S
FSK
=Vl(t) = (2E
b
/T
b
)
1/2
cos [2 f
c
- 2f ]t, 0 t T
b
(0)
10
Properties of QPSK


Transmission Bandwidth
B
T
= 2f + 2B, B = Bandwidth digital baseband signal

If a raised cosine pulse-shaping filter is used
B
T
= 2f + (1 + )R

Probability of error
P
e,FSK
= Q[(E
B
/ N
0
)
1/2
]

11
Spread Spectrum Modulation techniques



Spread spectrum techniques employ a transmission
bandwidth >> minimum required signal bandwidth

The system is inefficient for a single user, but is efficient
for many users

Many users use the same bandwidth without significantly
interfering with one another

12
Principle of spread spectrum technique

Spread spectrum signals are pseudo random, and
spreading waveform is controlled by a PN (pseudo
noise) sequence or code


Spread spectrum signals are demodulated at the receiver
by cross correlation (matching) with the correct PN
sequence

13


Advantages of spread spectrum techniques

PN codes are approximately orthogonal, and the receiver
can separate each user based on their codes


Resistance to multipath fading, because of large
bandwidths and narrow time widths

14
PN Sequences

Pseudo Noise or Pseudo random sequence in a binary
sequence that resembles the autocorrelation of a random
binary sequence


PN sequence generated by using sequential logic circuits


Very low cross correlation between any two sequences


Very low correlation between shifted versions of the
sequence
15
Frequency Hopped Spread spectrum (FH-SS)

A frequency hopping signal periodically changes the
carrier frequency in a pseudo-random fashion. The set of
possible carrier frequencies is called a hopset.
Bandwidth of channel used in hopset Instantaneous
bandwidth B
Bandwidth of spectrum over which the hopping occurs
total hopping bandwidth Wss
Time duration between hops hopping period Ts
Data is sent by hopping the transmitter carrier to
seemingly random channels, small bursts of data are sent
using conventional narrow band modulation before T/R
hops again.

16

Frequency Hopping Modulator



Frequency hopping
Data signal



Oscillator




Modulato
r
Frequency
Synchronizer
PN code
generator
Code
Block
17
Frequency hopping demodulator

Frequency
hopping Data
signal









Hit => Two users using the same frequency band at the
same time
Properties of FH-SS
Wideband
Filter
Frequency
synthesizer
PN code
generator
B P filter Demodulation
Synchronization
system
18

Fast frequency hopping
More than one frequency hop during each transmitted
symbol =>Hopping rate >= symbol rate
Slow frequency hopping
Hopping rate < symbol rate
Probability of error for BPSK
P
e
= 0.5exp(-E
b
/ 2N
0
)(1 p
h
) + 0.5 p
h

p
h
= probability of hit = 1 (1 1/M)
k-1
(k-1) / M

M possible hopping channels exists (slots)
If there are K 1 interfering users

Processing gain = W
ss
/ B
19
Modulation performance in fading and multipath
channels

Slow, flat fading channels

s(t) r(t)


r(t) = (t) e
-j(t)
s(t) + n(t)
(t) = gain of the channel
(t) = phase shift of the channel
n(t) = additive gaussian noise

Average signal to noise ratio at receiver
= (E
B
/ N
0
)
2
, E
B
/ N
0
= bit energy to noise ratio
Slow flat fading
channel
20
Probability of error in slow flat fading channels

Probability of error

P
e
=
0
P
e
(X) p(X) dX
P
e
(X) = Probability of error for an arbitrary modulation at a
specific value of signal to noise ratio

p(X) = pdf of X due to fading channel

= (1 / )exp(-x / ) , x>=0 (for Rayleigh channel
__
=
2
E
b
/ N
0

21
Comparison of P
e
(X) and P
e
for different systems

Coherent Binary PSK P
e
(x) = Q[(2E
B
/ N
0
)
1/2
]
P
e
= 0.5 [1 / (1+)]

Coherent binary FSk P
e
(x) = Q[(E
B
/ N
0
)
1/2
]
P
e
= 0.5 [1 / (2+)]

Differential Binary PSK P
e
(x) = 0.5exp[(-E
B
/ N
0
)]
P
e
= [0.5 / (1+)]

Non-coherent orthogonal binary FSK
P
e
(x) = 0.5exp[(-E
B
/ 2N
0
)]
P
e
= [1 / (2+)]

22



Coherent GMSK P
e
(x) = Q{(2E
b
)}
P
e
= 0.5 {1 [/( + 1)]
1/2
1/ 4

=0.68, B
T
= 0.25, = 0.68
=0.85, B
T
= , = 0.85
B
T
= Bandwidth bit duration product for GMSK