Sample Studies

3rd International Education Conference
May 18 - 20, 2011

Philippines

PROCEEDINGS

International Education Conference ii
Tarlac State University
iii International Education Conference

3rd International Education Conference
Philippines

Copyright 2011 by the 3rd International Education Conference. All rights reserved.

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ISSN: 2243-7150

Publisher: Tarlac State Univeristy
Philippines

Copyright Page
Contents
Copyright page iii
Contents ..... iv
Editorial Board....... vi

LIST OF RESEARCH PAPERS and AUTHORS

A NEW MARKET FOR PHILIPPINE UNIVERSITIES: AMERICAN E-LEARNING
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
Michel PLAISENT, Lassana MAGUIRAGA, and Pros per BERNARD 1

DIRECT ASSESSMENT OF GRADUATE COMPETENCI ES THROUGH COLLABORATION OF CLASSROOM AS-
SESSMENT
TECHNIQUE AS THE BASIC EVIDENCES
Agnes Herawati, M.Hum 6

STUDENT TEACHERS IMPACT ON THEIR BASIC EDUCATION STUDENTS
COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Rufi na C. Rosaroso
Zosima A. Paares 10

AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF TEACHER FACTOR ON
STUDENT PERFORMANCE ACROSS COUNTRIES BASED ON 2003
TIMSS MATHEMATICS SCORES
Imel da C. Montal bo
Angeline M. Pogoy 16

AN ECONOMETRIC MODEL FOR DETERMINING SUSTAINABILITY OF BASIC
EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT
Ferdi nand T. Abocejo, MPP
Roberto N. Padua, Ph.D. 20

CORRELATES OF CREATIVITY OF SCHOOL LEADERS: BASIS FOR CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
Amelia M. Bonotan, Ph.D.
Jeremias T. Leones, Ph.D. 26

CYBER PORTFOLIO: THE INNOVATIVE MENU FOR 21ST CENTURY TECHNOLOGY
Ava Clare Marie O. Robles 32

IMPROVING ENGLISH PROFICIENCY THROUGH PROGRESSIVE ASSESSMENT
Strategy to Inspire Self Motivation and Independent Learning
Alessandra L. De Guzman 39

INSTRUCTIONAL INTERVENTION PROGRAM: BIDLISIW VISION
Isabelo T. Genegaboas
Angeline M. Pogoy & Imel da C. Montal bo 44

International Education Conference iv
Contents
v International Education Conference

TEACHER EDUCATION AND GLOBALISATION IN SOUTH AFRICA AND SOUTH
EAST ASIA SINCE 1990
Andrew Paterson 49

TEACHING PRACTICES IN MATHEMATICS IN SELECTED COOPERATING SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN CAMARINES SUR
Gl oria B. Osea, Ph. D., Eden C. Paz, Ph. D. and Ma. Teresa B. Lirag 54

CAMPUS JOURNALISM IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN REGION III:
IMPLICATIONS TO THE MANAGE MENT OF STUDENT PUBLICATION SERVICES
Mari a Agnes P. Ladia, Ed.D. 58

THE EFFECT OF THE USE OF BRUNERS MODE OF REPRESENTATIONS ON STUDENTS ABILITY
TO FACTOR SECOND-DEGREE POLYNOMIALS
Jerr A. Cabahug 60

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH-BASED EXPERIMENTS
IN TEACHING SELECTED PHYSICS CONCEPTS
Lorelei C. Tabago 64

LEARNING WITH FUN THROUGH SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
THINKER MOTIVATORS (SMTM)
Ramil F. Boli var, Leah A. Boli var,

Joena B. Parco,
Mariel F. Boli var and

Fe T. Apolonio 70

EARLY CHILDHOOD LEARNING CENTERS (ECLC) IN THE RURAL COMMUNITIES OF
MARINDUQUE: BASIS FOR CURRICULUM REVIEW PROGRAM ENHANCEMENT
Dr. Julieta L. Go
Dr. Carlos J. Andam 74

GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS SUB-INDICES AS POTENTIAL DETERMINANTS
OF BASIC EDUCATION QUALITY ACROSS DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
Dexter S. Ontoy
Roberto N. Padua 79

THE STATE OF BIOGASINATION OF COMMUNITIES IN MARINDUQUE:
BASIS FOR TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT FOR ALTERNATIVE
ENERGY IN THE COUNTRYSIDE
Dios dado P. Zulueta, Ph.D.
Carl os J. Andam, Ph.D. 84

DEVELOPMENT OF AN INNOVATIVE ONLINE FACULTY PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
SYSTEM FOR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Jay Noel N. Rojo, Consorcio S. Namoco, Jr., Jocelyn B. Barbosa and Maricel A. Esclamado 89

Contents

RECIPROCAL TEACHING READING STRATEGY: A GREAT HELP FOR CRITICAL
AND CREATIVE THINKING OF STUDENTS ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
TOWARDS LEARNING THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Adelfa C. Silor, Ed. D. 92

COMPETENCY-BASED EVALUATION OF SPCF B.S. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & B.S.
COMPUTER SCIENCE CURRICULA
Juanita M. Cruz 95

International Education Conference vi

CORRELATION BETWEEN PERFORMANCES IN MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY STUDENTS: TOWARDS
AN ACTION PLAN
Ferdi nand L. Marcos 98

READINESS AND ACCEPTABILITY OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN BASIC EDUCATION
Osea, Gl oria B., Foronda, Vl adi mir R.,
Nacario, Charlie P. and Lirag, Ma. Teresa B. 100

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
(BEC) BASED WORKBOOK IN MATHEMATICS FOR GRADE SIX
Agnes F. Val dez 108

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF REINFORCEMENT MODULES IN
GRADE VI MATHEMATICS
Christine Joyce D. Santomin 110

RESEARCH PRODUCTIVITY EXPERIENCES OF MARINDUQUE STATE COLLEGE:
BASIS FOR COLLEGE UNIVERSITYHOOD PROGRAM
Dios dado P. Zulueta, Ph.D. 113

THE EFFECTS OF INTERNET SOCIAL NETWORKING ON THE SOCIABILITY,
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND STUDY HABITS OF SAN ROQUE
NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Michelle L. Miranda 118

INVENTORY OF WORK RELATED STRESS, COPING MECHANISM AMONG
FACULTY AND PERSONNEL OF MARINDUQUE STATE COLLEGE:
BASIS FOR STRESS MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS
Dr. Homer L. Montejo/ Dr. Leodegari o M. Jalos, Jr. 123

vii International Education Conference

EMPOWERMENT OF UPLAND FARMERS THRU PARTICIPATORY RURAL
APPROACH (PRA): MARINDUQUE EXPERIENCE
Dr. Homer L. Montejo/ Dr. Leodegari o M. Jalos, Jr.
Susana P. Arellano 128

COMPUTER-MANAGED EXAM ASSISTANT AND GRADE RECORDER WITH
TEM ANALYSIS
Jo Anne S. Gamalinda - Cura 132

A STUDY ON THE TEACHING MOTIVATION OF SELECTED FACULTY
MEMBERS IN A STATE UNIVERSITY
Dr. Erwi n P. Lacanlale 137

FROM EMOTIONAL FLAME TO MORAL FRAME: A PHENOMENOLOGY OF THE REFLECTIVE
MEDIATION PRACTICE OF THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS OVERSEAS (PSOS)
Alexander S. Acosta 142

A HUMAN INTERVENTION-FREE CLASS SCHEDULING SYSTEM
FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION
Junrie B. Matias, Jay Noel N. Rojo
,
Consorcio S. Namoco, Jr

& Rhoda A. Namoco 149

Contents
International Education Conference viii

EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS

LANGUAGE EDITORS

Dr. Julieta M. Lagasca
Dr. Cecilia L. Calub

EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr. Priscilla C. Viuya
Dr. Lolita V. Sicat Dr. Glenard T. Madriaga
Dr. Maria Elena D. David
EDITOR/LAYOUT
Julie Liezel Calma-Ferrer, M.D.A.
1 International Education Conference

Michel PLAISENT, Lassana MAGUIRAGA, and Prosper BERNARD
Dept. of Management and Technology, University of Quebec in Montreal, Canada
plaisent.michel@uqam.ca
A New Market for Philippine Universities: American E-Learning
Course Requirements
AbstractCanadian and American uni versities are pushing
e-learning development in order to respond to increasing
distance education demands and benefit from cost reduc-
tions. This communication uses the Porter model to suggest
that Philippi ne uni versities could benefit from this situati on
and devel op courses that woul d ful fill this growing demand.
After a short recall of outsourcing devel opments and the
advantages for American uni versities, this communicati on
uses the Porter model to present outsourcing of the Ameri-
can course market as an opportunity for Phili ppine uni ver-
sities. It also describes how i t coul d pl ay a role in the strate-
gic competiti on for online course development, either in
partnership or in assisting a western uni versity: gai n com-
petiti ve advantages, reduce competiti ve disadvantages or
meet other strategic enterprise objecti ves. In order to satisfy
this demand however, Phili ppine uni versities and enter-
prises must prove their ability to produce good quality
courseware wi thin a short period of ti me, along wi th flexi-
bility and quality.

I-Introduction

Over the last decade, the financial performance of
American colleges and universities has become a topic of gen-
eral concern, especially in the publicly funded sector (Conner &
Rabovsky, 2011), and this situation has forced university ad-
ministrations to reassess their policies in order to achieve their
objectives. For example, the budget for Californias higher edu-
cation system will be reduced in fiscal year 2011-2012 by $500
million (Gamberg,2011), due to decreased government funding
Australian universities are facing the same problem (McGill,
2007), and all but 5 universities across England will experience
budget cuts of 12.6%, for a total of 940m (Vasagar, 2011).
The results of these steep budget cuts translates into layoffs, and
frozen enrolment and hiring rates (Mouhammed, 2008). More-
over it has been said that online education and outsourcing will
translate into future reductions in faculty and even removing the
tenure system (Mouhammed, 2008). Meanwhile universities
have been experiencing increased pressure to make higher edu-
cation more accessible (Tucker & Gentry, 2009).

II -Discussion

Clearly, the golden age of universities is over and
higher education institutions must find the money they need to
fulfill their mission (Tucker & Gentry, 2009; Gupta, 2005). At
the same time users are questioning the quality of universities
which in turn generates a competitive climate among universi-
ties, especially a users current ability to compare and to
choose, as facilitated by increased internet use (Liu,
2008).
There is a relatively small number of ap-
proaches to achieving success: increase tuitions fees
(Jones & al, 2009), increase donations from alumni or
other donors (McGill, 2007), and finally improve inter-
nal performance (Conner & Rabovsky, 2011). Given
that many universities have already cut their slack and
must deal with some form of labour union, cost im-
provements can only be achieved through e-learning,
which at the same time leads to a growing clientele
(Tucker & Gentry, 2009; Knight, 2006; DAntoni,
2006). This is why in the U.S. we see many private for
-profit accredited universit ies offering most if not all of
their classes online, and often with standardized and
canned classes, and where instructors are the only
labour running the machines. This situation occurs at
all levels, including doctoral.
As firms cut budgets, online courses within
companies are also increasing (Tims, 2011). According
to Alcock (2008), e-learning is often the only viable
means for training people within the context of highly
decentralized organizations such as retail stores, thus
enabling the production of sophisticated courses.
For many courses, e-learning is seen at least as
a standard component or even a replacement (Pirani,
2004). According to a study by Gartner mentioned by
Ashraf (2009), more than 50% of all courses could be
at least hybrid and more than 80% could use mobile
technology as a learning tool, and given current internet
propagation, the number of virtual programs and virtual
universities has increased rapidly. As shown in Table 1,
e-learning can be declined through many modalities,
with each being associated a given level of abstraction.
TABLE 1: ZANVILLE & MORIHARA (2001)
Given these many possible levels of e-learning,
traditional professors are disappearing from online class-
rooms as distance learning has altered their roles and re-
sponsibilities, as well as their professional status, job se-
curity, workload, rewards, and intellectual freedom
(Sammons & Ruth, 2006) and thus a significant number of
full-time professors are understandably reluctant to par-
ticipate (Naidu, 2007). As the digitalization of knowledge
opens doors to new pedagogy e-learning is not only a
technological issue, it implies a new teaching style fo-
cused on participation (Tucker & Gentry, 2009), a style
that may not fit all.
In response to this opposition university manage-
ment often contracts out course development and admini-
stration. This outsourcing takes place when a company
transfers some or all its activit ies from its original location
to a different geographic zone and then to another national
territory. It consists of separating production or services
from origin or consumption zones to those where qualified
resources are available at lower costs and increased deliv-
ery speeds:

The concept of a purely American product is a
myth; a $20,000 Pontiac is a global production
with only $8,000 ending up in Detroit. The rest is
distributed among contributors in Asia and
Europe: $6,000 goes to South Korea for assem-
bling, $3,500 to Japan for the engine and elec-
tronics, $1,500 to Germany for design, $800 to
Taiwan or Singapore for s mall components and
$100 to Barbados or Ireland for data processing
(Pinchot and Pinchot, 1993).
International Education Conference 2
Type Charact erist ics
Virt ual University degree grant ing, no physical campus
Virt ual University Consor-
t ium
no degree granted, but accredit ed
academic inst it ut ions linked online,
and supplying centralized or coordi-
nat ed services to st udent s with mu-
t ual art iculat ion among consort ia
members
Academic Services Consor-
t ium
no degree granted, but accredit ed
academic inst it ut ions linked online,
and supplying centralized or coordi-
nat ed services t o st udent s with no
art iculat ion among consort ia mem-
bers
Univer sit y Infor mat ion
Consort ium
no degree, no coordinat ed services to
st udent s, accredit ed academic inst it u-
t ions linked electronically
Virt ual Program degree grant ed from unit within ac-
credit ed academic inst it ut ion
Virt ual Commercial Cert ifi-
cat ion Inst it ut ion
cert ificat ion grant ed; no academic
credit
Tradit ional Academic Accre-
dit ed Inst it ut ion with some
Electronic Courses
credit is awarded, no coherence
among electronically offered courses
A survey conducted by Gupta et al (2005) shows
that the main motivations for outsourcing non-
instructional services of 138 presidents and vice-
presidents from three states in USA were: cost savings;
improvement of service quality; lack of capability; and
pressure from peer institutions. According to Thinktank
(Shepherd, 2101), British universities could save 3 billion
pounds a year if they were to outsource many of the on-
campus services they offered (30% of their costs).
This now also applies to universities who apply
the same logic to their academic activit ies, allowing them
to take advantage of a countrys comparative advantages,
even when most scholars are not always in agreement
(Glickman & al, 2007; Bailey & al, 2003). Outsourcing is
widely accepted by both private and public universities
facing reduced governmental funding (Glickman et al,
2007), and supporters of outsourcing assert that it can lead
to more efficient and better quality (Bailey & al, 2003).
An interesting example can also be found in the
case of corporate universities offering an MBA program
to their employees, where outsourcing would be prefer-
able (Bohley, 2010). According to Nassif & Roe (2009),
the outsourcing industry is evolving in both scope and in
scale, including increasing numbers of higher-end func-
tions. Global education can now be produced in East Asia
and sold in USA, allowing the university to make huge
profits (Mouhammed, 2008).

Analyzing the opportunities of Emerging Economy
Countries using Porters model

Porter's Competitive Forces model has proven its
usefulness in business strategy analysis, particularly in
outside-in thinking, i.e. the attractiveness (value) of an
industry structure.

TABLE 2: HIGHER EDUCATION INDUSTRY
(PORTER ADAPTATION BY CALLON, 2006)
Higher Education Industry:
U.S.A. Universities
Intra-Industry Rivalry
Bargaining
Power of Buyers
Bargaining
Power
of Suppliers
Substitute
Products
and Services
Potential
New Entrants
Faculty (bargaining
collective agreement)
Staff (eTeachers)
Equipment and
Service Suppliers
Books, DVD,CD
Computer-Based Training
Training Companies
Consulting Firms
Students
e-Employers
Legislators
Foreign Universities
Distance Learning Universities
In-house Universities
Virtual universities
(Plaisent, 2002)
This model requires and facilitates the identification of
5 fundamental competitive forces, which are described below in
relation to Western universities (Callon, 2006):

Entry of competitors: this force refers to the degree of diffi-
culty for new entrants and to the existence of barriers.
New entrants are foreign universities, distance learning, in
-house programs, etc. It is easy to enter in higher educa-
tion systems except for legal considerations but costly to
exit due to their engagements. For buyers, switching costs
are low. New entrants can sometime obtain subsidies.

Threat of substitutes. Books, videotapes, and DVDs are cheap
substitutes for practical learning, as are the virtual campus
of private training companies. Consultants can also be
seen as more flexible alternatives. It is becoming more
and more effortless to substitute e-learning, especially as
universities themselves accreditate this equivalence.
Buyers can judge whether some substitutes (mainly
DVDs) are better, and life styles can affect buyers' will-
ingness to substitute as the relative price and performance
of substitutes is very low, as are switching costs.

Bargaining power of buyers. Buyers are students and so are
their parents or businesses. Students are more and more
mobile, and when they decide not to cope with e-learning
they can choose a university based on its price or reputa-
tion. For basic courses, buyers are offered a wide variety
of choice.

Bargaining power of suppliers. Suppliers are faculties and
staff plus equipment vendors. Faculties generally have
strong powers in bargaining collect ive agreements and
these protect them; while specialized scientific equipment
vendors are found within a monopolistic environment.
Opposition by full-time faculty can also be a strong bar-
rier (Bailey & al, 2003).

Ri valry among existing pl ayers. Intra-industry rivalry is char-
acterized by low growth rates, and sometimes even an
excess of capacity, particularly for when courses are no
longer relevant. Over time they offer a more and more
standardized products lacing in differentiat ion, at least at
the undergraduate level and for funding they will face
strong competition. The most notable tend to be very
dominant but a greater variety of small universit ies can be
found.

Philippine universities and enterprises can play a role
in this strategic American competit ion by providing online
course development, and be assisted by partnerships formed
with American universities: gain competit ive advantages, re-
duce competitive disadvantages or meet other strategic enter-
prise objectives. The reasons invoked when outsourcing by
community colleges for example are related to specialized and
up-to-date knowledge, fast response to growing demand, the
need to offer new modes of delivery, and the promise of higher
quality and standards (Bailey & al, 2003). Philippine universi-
ties can intervene in five competit ive strategies listed below:

Strategies for Competitive Forces
Figure 1: St rat egies for compet it ive forces (Port er, 1979)
A) Cost Leadership: Help an American university be-
come a low-cost producer and a cost leader for standard
courses or simply help its customers reduce their devel-
opment and/or delivery costs. Indeed, if an American
university does not have the required staff and talents,
or needs to hire consultants or new full-t ime employ-
ees, these may reveal themselves to be very costly
(Tucker & Gentry, 2009). Developing of knowledge
transfer procedures may prove to be very expansive in
terms of money and time (Owens & Price, 2010). Ac-
cording to Lester & al (2010), outsourcing would how-
ever lower labour costs by 30-40%, and as such could
be seen as a competitive weapon.

B) Differentiat ion Strategy: Philippine universities
could help American universities develop ways of dif-
ferentiating their products from competitors, for exam-
ple by producing bilingual products (Asian languages).
They could also help focus on a particular market seg-
ment or niche (Philippine rural areas and its neighbours
(Thailand, Viet Nam, Laos, Cambodia and China).
From the market point of view, universities generally
face important challenges when establishing competi-
tive advantages (Ashraf, 2009).

C) Innovation Strategy: This means finding new ways
of doing business. Philippine universities can produce
unique products or services (example English courses
for Philippine people), or unique markets (not easy).

D) Growth Strategy: Philippine universities can also
help expand the capacity of American universities pro-
duce and deliver e-learning courses, and compete
within global markets by offering lower prices, and
also to diversify by developing new products or ser-
vices (examples: office automation, cert ifications, etc.)

E) Alliance Strategy: Philippine universities can establish
linkages and alliances with Philippine enterprises custom-
ers, American universities or training enterprises, consult-
ants, including joint ventures, virtual companies, etc. Ac-
cording to Price Pat rol (2006), such alliances would allow
the sharing of the resources, costs, infrastructures needed
to deliver e-learning. Note that as stated by Payaro (2008),
there are many possible forms of globalization:

TABLE 2: FORMS OF GLOBALIZATION (PAYARO,
2008), P. 171

Philippine universities can claim many advantages, ac-
cording to CBI (2005):
flexible labour and union rules
more than 75,000 people focusing on IT with 15,000
new entrants each year
a good university system including top ranked univer-
sities
cultural computability, influenced by the American
presence since 1930
English proficiency when compared to Thailand or Viet -
nam

According to Lam & Chua (2009), the knowl-
edge sector is expected to grow at an estimated rate of
46%, reaching US$17 billion in 2010, of which 30%
would go to India and the rest be shared between the Phil-
ippines, Russia, Estonia, China and India. In 2007 the
higher education market experienced rapid growth and,
international trade in educational services accounted for
US$65 billion (Chadee & Naido, 2009). It thus follows
that the Philippines can obtain this part of an important
market as long as it takes appropriate action.
But in order to satisfy the American demand
Philippine universities and enterprises must prove their
ability to produce good quality courseware in a short pe-
riod of time. As identified by Payaro (2008), some poten-
tial problems must also be avoided or overcome within the
manufacturing context, but also in other sectors: language,
work culture, different law systems, relationships with
local institutions, work quality, bureaucracy, cultural mis-
understandings during negotiations (ex: Philippine part-
ners needing to save face). Care must be taken to avoid
disappointment by contractor due to poor or inadequate
services (Wood, 2001). Finally, attention must be given to
the fact that over time outsourcing characteristics have
evolved but the main contracts were awarded as a result of
personal effort (Lee & al, 2010).
One important condition for the rise of e-learning
exports and success in the industry is the role of govern-
ment intervention (Kumar & Joseph, 2005). This is be-
lieved to be related to cumulat ive investments made by the
national government, not only in building a supply base
for qualified manpower but also in building institutional
infrastructures needed for capability developments.

In addition to income growth, other important
advantages of partnership for Philippine people include:

Outsourcing as an opportunity for Philippines to gain
social benefit through increasing quality jobs
(Mahmoud, 2005)

A means of expanding the global e -learning market
for themselves, after certain adaptations to their
own Philippine culture and language as well as
local or national accreditations have been made;
the sharing of costs with Americans can lower
the risk of developing and access neighbouring
markets

III. Conclusion

Can the Filipino people benefit from e-learning
development? Will they get a part of this growing market?
Yes, but depending on vigorous actions and marketing by
Philippine universities, enterprises and government. In
order to satisfy the demand, Filipinos must prove their
ability to produce good quality courseware in a short pe-
riod of t ime. The next step could be the elaboration of an e
-learning stock exchange where both offer and demand
could be matched.

REFERENCES

Alcock, Mike (2008). Bowie Castlebank ltd: a case study in the
implementation of rapid e-learning. Training & Manage-
ment development Methods: Vol 22, no 3, p. 6.17-6.20

Ashraf, Bill (2009). Teaching the Google-eyed YouTube Gen-
eration. Education + Training, Vol 51, nos 5/6, pp 343-
352.
Bailey, Thomas R. , Jacobs, James et Jenkins, Davis (2003). Outsourc-
ing of Instruction at Community Colleges. Second rapport du
National Center for Postsecondary Improvement and the Commu-
nity College Research Center on the relationship between for-
profit higher education and community college.

http ://www.st anford. edu/group /ncp i/document s/pdfs/CCRC%
20pub.pdf

Bohley, Katharine, A. (2010). Universities becoming the outsource
solution. American Journal of Business education. Vol 3, no 6
june, pp1-6.

Callon, Jack (2006) Developing Countries: Lessons from the Indian
Experience. Asia-Pacific Trade and Investment Review, Vol. 1,
No. 1, April 2005.

CBI (Center for the promotion of imports from developing countries)
2005. EU MARKET SURVEY 2005 : Software, IT service and
Outsourcing. May. 155p

ht tp ://www. ct ip . or g. p y /v2/wp -cont ent /up lo ads /eu -mark et -
survey_cbi_2005.pdf

Chadee, Doren & Naido, Vikash (2009). Higher Educational services
exports: sources of growth of Philippines students in Us and UK.
Serv Bus, 3;173-187.

Conner, Thaddieus W. & Rabovsky, Thomas M. (2011). Accountabil-
ity, Affordability, Access: A review of the recent trends in higher
education policy research. Policies Study journal, Apr 2011: 39,
S1.

DAntoni, Susan (2006) The Virtual University: Models & Lessons
From Messages Case Studies. UNESCO 2006, 6 pages.

www. un es co . or g/ i i ep /v irt u a lu ni ve rs it y /med i a/ do cu ment /
Ch4_UNITAR_Alhabshi_update.pdf

Gamberg, Daniel (2011). Financial pressure looms for students.
Posted on January 25, 2011 | Archived in Campus News,

http://www.goldengatexpress.org/2011/01/25/financial-pressure-looms
-for-students/

Abstract: Graduate Competencies are the combinati on
of knowledge, skills or ability that pl ay an i mportant
role in the successful completi on of a task at the job.
As core competencies, graduate competencies are the
results of the discussion between the stakehol der and
the school regardi ng the abilities of how to perform the
acti vi ties within an occupation or functi on to the stan-
dard expected i n employment. However the definiti on
does not mean that graduate competencies are proven
most in the job occupati on. The assessment during
four years of undergraduate program will be an effec-
ti ve way to assess the achievement of graduate compe-
tencies. In the curriculum process, the graduate com-
petencies are broken down into some related learning
outcomes. The learning outcomes here become the
main ai ms of a course. As the main ai ms, the learning
outcomes shoul d pass some assessment to see the
achievement of them and get the feedback. The types
of the assessment are based on the needs, however we
suggest the cl assroom assessment techni ques that are
proven as the effecti ve ways of conti nuous assessment.
The decision of this achievement is based on some
analysis through various ways, including anal ytical
rubric and checklist. The achievement of learning out-
comes will be anal yzed more to see how the graduate
competencies have been achieved. The result of this
analysis will be the basis of direct assessment of the
graduate competencies that will result in the collection
of evi dences as the feedback of the i mprovement of the
whole curriculum.
Keywords: competencies, classroom assessment, feed-
back

I - Introduction

The world nowadays is changing in which the
focus is shifting to the continual production of knowledge
as a commodity, positioning workers as human capital,
virtually immune to obsolescence (Butler, 1999). In this
kind of world, identifying and developing the important
competencies required of graduates is a challenging task
for the curriculum developer. Not only that, the prime
function of education program must be fulfilled, that is to
prepare students for the workplace by developing generic
and specific competencies that educators believe will be
useful to employers (Rainsbury, Hodges, Burchell & Lay,
2001). But, do we have to wait until the employers inform
us that our graduates have enough capabilit ies? It might be
too late. The educators need to conduct assessment regu-
larly to ensure that the students have fulfilled competen-
cies required as well as to have some review on the up-
dated graduate competencies. The suitable ways that we
can do is by having the direct assessment, especially the
one that related to format ive assessment in the classroom.
This study tries to investigate that the collabora-
tion of some formative assessments, in this case, classroom
assessment techniques, play an important role in assessing
the students towards the graduate competencies designed
and also gathering the informat ion about the level of
achievement.
Graduate Competencies
What do we understand by the term
competency? Spencer and Spencer view competency as a
characteristics of an individual, that is causally related to
job performance (1993). Competencies can be accumu-
lated within an individual and represent a capacity to per-
form at some future point (Boam & Sparrow, 1992). Es-
sentially, these definit ions relate to enduring characteris-
tics possessed by individual that should result in an accept-
able job performance. This notion is based on the premise
that competencies are causally linked to individual per-
formance outcomes (Spencer and Spencer, 1993).
In a workplace context, competency is a combina-
tion of cognitive skills (technical knowledge, expert ise and
abilities) and personal or behavioral characteristics
(principles, attitude, values and motivation), which are a
function of an individuals personality. Spencer and
Spencer (1993) suggest that, if people with the right per-
sonal characteristics are recruited initially, then they
should have the capacity to quickly acquire the relevant
technical knowledge and skills in order to attain the em-
ployers performance objectives.
Assessment
Assessment is a familiar term for educators.
They use assessment at least to gather input regarding our
students achievement or the achievement of the learning
outcomes planned. Palomba and Banta (1999) define as-
sessment as the systematic collect ion, review, and use of
informat ion about educational programs undertaken for the
purpose of improving student learning and development.
However, assessment is more than the collection
of data. To make assessment work, educators must be pur-
poseful about the information they collect. As a basis for
data gathering, they must clarify their goals and objectives

Agnes Herawati, M.Hum
Widia Center of Excellence for Teaching and Learning
English Literature Depart ment
Bina Nusantara University
Jakarta, Indonesia
e-mail: aherawati@binus.edu
Direct Assessment of Graduate Competencies through Collaboration of Classroom
Assessment Technique as the Basic Evidences
for learning and be aware of where these goals and objec-
tives are addressed in the curriculum. After data are gath-
ered, educators must examine and use assessment results
to improve educational programs (Hutchings, Marchese &
Wright, 1991).
Hutchings and Marches (1990) suggest that the
meaning of assessment is captured best by its key ques-
tions, what should college graduates know, be able to do,
and value? Have the graduates of our institution acquired
this learning? When individuals involved in assessment
become confused about its purpose, it helps to return to
these key questions.
Assessment is often referred to as student out-
comes assessment. However, Patrick Terenzini (1989)
suggests focusing on progress rather than outcomes. The
graduate competencies are the final outcomes of the stu-
dents, however assessing progress through the application
of classroom assessment techniques can indicate to how
far those competencies are achieved.
Classroom Assessment Techni ques
Classroom assessment is made up of s mall-scale
assessment techniques that provide information to teach-
ers and students about what is going on in the classroom.
Generally, classroom assessment techniques (CATs) can
be administered in a few minutes at the beginning of, end
of, or during the class period. CATs, which are usually
ungraded and anonymous exercise, help teachers get a
sense of how much and how well students are learning
and provide information about the processes students use
to learn. Unlike large-scale assessment activity in which
classroom teachers often must cooperate in assessment
activity that was designed by others, classroom assess-
ment techniques are selected, designed and used by indi-
vidual teachers in specific classes for the benefit of the
class. Teachers make all choices, including how to handle
the result.
Classroom assessment techniques itself falls into
three broad categories (Palomba and Banta, 1999). The
first group are dealing with the assessment of course-
related skills and knowledge, while the second and the
third groups are dealing with the most important thing in
the lesson and assessment of students reaction to specific
aspect of instruction. Without the tendency to hesitate the
second and the third group, just to specify the analysis,
this study deals with the first group, that is the assessment
of course-related skills and knowledge.
In some times during the semester, teachers may
have time to analyze the result of the classroom assess-
ment techniques. This activity will provide them with
enough informat ion regarding students progress, teaching
learning activity and moreover about the achievement of
graduates competencies.
Graduate Competencies to Classroom Assessment
As has been stated before, graduate competencies
are the core competencies of the graduates and will be
proven exactly through the input from the stakeholders.
However, the step by step proofs should be gathered in
order to get some relevant input regarding the achieve-
ment of graduate competencies. The assessment during
four years of undergraduate program will be an effect ive
ways to assess the achievement of graduate competencies.
In the curriculum process, the graduate competencies are
broken down into some related learning outcomes. The
learning outcomes here become the main aims of a course.
As the main aims, the learning outcomes should pass some
assessment to see the achievement of them and get the
feedback. It is better if the assessment conducted is in the
form of continuous assessment, so I suggest the classroom
assessment techniques, the ones that are proven as the ef-
fective ways of continuous assessment.

II. Research Methodology
This study sought to explore how the regular con-
ducted classroom assessment techniques play an important
role in the direct assessment of graduate competencies.
Participants
One graduate competency may be supported by
more than two different but related courses. In this study
the sample of graduate competencies are taken from the
ones belong to English Literature Depart ment of Bina
Nusantara University. 112 students from three classes
participate in this study. Those three classes are English
Syntax (2 classes) and Introduction to Linguistics (1 class).
Although those classes are delivered in the different se-
mesters but they support the same graduate competency,
that is graduates will be able to analyze how language
works and employ this understanding to practical context.
Procedure
First of all, teachers analyze the learning out-
comes of the courses, trying to know the relationship be-
tween the courses and the graduate competency and how
strong the relationship is.
Secondly, the classroom assessment techniques
are conducted four times in each class. The results then are
analyzed to see the achievement of the learning outcomes.
The rubric is used to decide the level of each achievement.
The learning outcomes of one course support only some or
a few part of a graduate competency, that is why the col-
laboration of some classroom assessment techniques are
needed here to see the achievement of graduate compe-
tency holistically.
Data Analysis

TABLE 1. TABLE OF GRADUATE COMPETENCY AND
THE SUPPORTING COURSES.
Course Credi t Semester
Graduate Competency
GC-1 GC-2
GC-
3
Listening 2 1 x
Speaking 2 1 x
Reading 2 1 x
Grammar 4 1 x
Writ ing 2 1 x
Intro t o
linguist ics
2 3 x
English
Syntax
2 5 x
Intro t o
lit erat ure
2 4 x
Prose 2 6 x
Poet ry 4 6 x
Drama 2 6 x
The table above is only an example, part of a
complete graduate competency table. However, it gives us
a picture that the department has three graduate competen-
cies. It means the students must pass those three compe-
tencies during the graduation. Each graduate competency
may be supported by more than 1 different but related
course. The first graduate competency is supported by the
skill related courses, the second is supported by the lin-
guistics related courses, while the third is supported by the
literature related courses.
Because the writer deals with the English Lin-
guistics subjects, so the courses taken as the samples are
the Introduction to Linguistics and English Syntax.

TABLE 2. LEARNING OUTCOMES
Not es: V = low relat ionship
VV = high relat ionship

The above table shows us that one of five learn-
ing outcomes has low relat ionship towards the graduate
competency, however that learning outcome is directly
related to the course (Introduction to Linguistics), so there
is no revision regarding that outcome.

TABLE 3. CRITERIA AND RELATED LO
The above table shows us that one graduate competency is
broken down into two criteria, and then the learning out-
comes of supporting course is grouping into the criterion
related

TABLE 4. RESULT OF THE TEST
The percentage stated in the table above show us
the average percentage of the students who fulfill the
learning outcomes. The teacher conducts 4 times class-
room assessment for each course and the counting of the
result above is based on the test results compare with the
rubric and the checklist prepared for each learning out-
come.

All the percentages in table 5 should be counted
more to get the average of the achievement of each crite-
rion.

TABLE 5. ACHIEVEMENT OF THE CRITERIA

Result

All the tables above show us the steps how the
graduate competency is aligned to the classroom assess-
ment. The results of the classroom assessments, as the di-
rect assessment, provide us with the basic evidences of the
achievement of the graduate competency. After analyzing
the results of all classroom assessment, we can conclude
that the achievement of the criteria is quite low, as shown
in table 5. Regarding the achievement of the graduate com-
Graduate
Compe-
tency
Course Learning outcomes Level
of
Rela-
tionshi
p

Gradu at es
will be able
to analyze
how lan-
g u a g e
works and
employ this
understand-
ing to prac-
tical con-
text.

I n t r o -
duct ion
to
Linguis-
tics
LO -1 : Pronounce the
words correctly
V
LO -2: Apply syntacti-
cal and morphological
rules in analyzing the
words
VV
LO -3: Analyze the
meaning of sentences
according to the context
VV

English
syntax
LO -1: Explain the
syntactical rules
VV
LO -2: Apply the syn-
tactical rules in analyz-
ing sentences
VV
Graduate
Competency
Criteria Course Related LO
Graduates
will be able
to analyze
how lan-
guage works
and employ
this under-
standing to
practical
context.
Key Princi-
ples of Lin-
guistics
Intro to Lin-
guistics
LO-2
English Syn-
tax
LO-1
App licat ion
of Key Prin-
ciples of
Linguistics
Intro to Lin-
guistics
LO-1, LO-2,
LO -3
English Syn-
tax
LO -2
Graduate
Compe-
tency
Criteria Course
Re-
lated
LO
Test re-
sult
Tes
t 1
Te
st 2
Grad uat es
will be able
to analyze
how lan-
g u a g e
works and
employ this
understand-
ing to prac-
tical con-
text.
Key Prin-
ciples of
Linguis-
tics
Intro to
Linguis-
tics
LO-2 44
%

En g l i s h
Syntax
LO-1 43
%
66
%
Ap p lic a-
tion of
Key Prin-
ciples of
Li n gu i s -
tics
Intro to
Lin gu is-
tics
LO-1 60
%
70
%

LO-2 44
%

LO-3 80
%

English
Syntax
LO -2 45
%
55
%
Graduate
Competency
Criteria
% Achieve-
ment
Graduates will be
able to analyze how
language works
and employ this
understanding to
practical context.
Key Principles of
Linguistics
51%
Application of Key
Principles of Lin-
guistics
59%
petency, the percentage is only 55%, it is quite low.

III. Discussion

The result taken from the analysis of the class-
room assessment leads us to the conclusion that the gradu-
ate competency is achieved well. The addit ional effect of
this may lead us to the perception the students are not ca-
pable enough, however this needs further investigation.

Although we can use the result of the classroom
assessment as the basis of assessing the achievement of
graduate competency, actually it is not the only way. Al-
though the continuous assessment is good, we need to
analyze the result of the summat ive assessment, since stu-
dents usually are more ready in taking the summative as-
sessment and this will lead to the better result.

This paper only discuss the direct assessment, the
capability of the students is not merely based on this type
of assessment. The indirect assessment, such as informa-
tion from alumni and stakeholders can help us in analyz-
ing the achievement of graduate competency. So, it is
hoped that this can become the focus of further study.

REFERENCES

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Boam, R., & Sparrow, P. (1992). Designing and achieving com-
petency. London: McGraw-Hill

Brookhart, S. (2002). Development measurement theory for
classroom assessment purposes and uses. Educational
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Chaterine A. Palomba & Trudy W.Banta (1999). Assessment
essential: planning, implementing and improving assess-
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Hafner, J.,& Hafner, P. (2003). Quantitave analysis of the rubric
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Hutchings, P., & Marches, T. (1990) Watching Assessment:
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Hutchings, P., Marches, T., & Wright, B. (1991) Using assess-
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60(6), 644 664.

Abstract The study examined the student teachers influ-
ence on the cognitive, affective and social development of the
basic education students. The findings suggested that the
presence of student teachers in the classroom had greater
impact on the students affective and social dimensions
rather than their cognitive development even with the learn-
ing they had. Student teachers from TEIs of larger popula-
tion were perceived by their students to be more sociable and
affectionate than those from TEIs of fewer student teachers.
But the latter have better attitude towards teaching and
workplace interactions.
Keywords: student teacher, social skills, work values, work
interaction, teaching competency

I. Introduction

Practice teaching is one of the most important under-
graduate experiences and the real test of what students
have learned in their years of study in a teacher-training
institution. Lardizabal and Campos [1] pointed out that it
is in practice teaching where student teachers learn the
realities of teaching and applies the principles, theories,
precepts, methods, information, skills, attitudes and values
that they have learned in their years of schooling. It is in
practice teaching that the students will show if they are
ready to go out into the field.
Moreover, practice teaching is considered as the apex
of all the experiential learning courses in teacher educa-
tion preparation. It is the convergence of theory and prac-
tice since it provides opportunities for hands -on experi-
ence by testing theoretical concepts in real life settings.
Practice teaching enables the prospective teacher/s to
comfortably and gradually assume all the roles and re-
sponsibilities of a professional teacher. As such, practice
teaching demands the very highest levels of moral, per-
sonal and professional commit ment of all those who
choose to serve [2].
Lardizabal and Campos [1] emphasized that aside from
applying what student teachers have learned, practice
teaching also serves as an avenue for the development of
effective human relat ions and communications; two sig-
nificant factors in the field of teaching. The challenge of
prospective teachers is to make their practice teaching
experience meaningful by creating positive effects on the
students.
Several studies have focused on the learning of
student teachers during their practice teaching days, how
teacher mentors/supervisors can improve them physically,
intellectually and socially. However, only a few look into
the effects of the presence of student teachers on their
from their practice teaching? What significant impact is
created by student teachers in the lives of their students?
These are some of the important queries that will be
addressed in this empirical investigation in order to revisit
the practice teaching experiences or activities provided by
the student teaching program. Considering that average
teachers affect 3,000 students over the course of their ca-
reers, the ripple (current) effect of even a single teachers
impact can be astounding [3]. Teachers matter because
there is a significant body of evidence indicat ing that
among all school resources, teachers have the greatest im-
pact on student achievement, and they vary a great deal in
their ability to improve practice teaching [4].
Banduras Social Learning Theory also emphasized the
importance of modelling in social development. Students
learn from observing others, who might not be aware that
their behaviour influenced someone else. They prefer to
imitate models who are socially accepted. Social learning
then requires relatively little, if any, reciprocity. This is
very useful in early childhood where the child still lacks
the social and cognitive skills for collaboration and coop-
eration [5].
Moreover, another assumption lies on the importance
of social environment where interaction with others is evi-
dent. Students receive ideas and opinions or observe prac-
tices that conflict or conform within themselves, thus set-
ting the equilibration process into motion [5]. Such ideas,
opinions or practices may somehow influence or create an
impact on students lives.
Practice teaching is the single most important undergradu-
ate experience and a challenge demanding the very highest
levels of moral, personal and professional commit ment of
all those who choose to serve [6]. Student teaching aims
to provide the quality of instruction where opportunities
for hands-on teaching are provided in real-life classroom
settings under the tutelage of a subject mentor.
Student teachers are in constant interaction with the
students during practice teaching period. This study hy-
pothesized that student teachers cognition, personality,
values and actions can contribute influences on the basic
education students cognitive, affect ive and social devel-
opment. The main objective of this study is to identify the
influences of practice teaching on basic education stu-
dents cognitive, affective and social developments. Ap-
propriate interventions for the improvement of student
teaching program were formulated based on the results of
the study.

STUDENT TEACHERS IMPACT ON THEIR BASIC EDUCATION STUDENTS
COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Rufina C. Rosaroso
Zosima A. Paares
College of Teacher Education
Cebu Normal University
6000 Cebu City, Philippines
raffycoronel@yahoo.com, z_panares@yahoo.com
II. Methodology

This study uses both the quantitative and qualitative
research approaches to come up with a process model for
practice teaching. Content analysis was used to analyze
the verbatim accounts of the basic education students on
their student teachers. The student teachers answered four
rating scales, namely; Social Development Scale which
measured their social skills; Teaching Affective Scale
which assessed their attitudes towards teaching and Work
Values Inventory which provided insights on how they
valued their work. Teaching competency was measured
using the practice teaching grades.
Four Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Cebu
City were included in this study, namely; Cebu Normal
University, Cebu Technological University, University of
San Carlos and University of the Visayas, Main Campus.
These were CHED accredited institutions and had Teacher
Education Colleges with at least 50 student teachers.
One hundred eight student teachers who taught fourth
year high school classes last second semester, Academic
Year 2009-2010 were selected from the four teacher edu-
cation institutions. On the average, these student teachers
taught English, Science and Mathematics during their nine
-week pract ice teaching. At least five basic education
students from each fourth year class were interviewed on
their experiences with student teachers and what signifi-
cant influences had they contributed in their lives.

III. Results and Discussion

This study considered seven characteristics of student
teachers, namely; teaching competence, attitude towards
teaching, social skills and four work values which in-
cluded core values, work environment, work interaction
and work activities as presented in Table 1 (please refer to
the next page).
The 108 student teachers have considerably very high
grades in practice teaching (mean grade=1.4) suggesting
that they have shown very satisfactory teaching skills,
quality classroom management and relevant use of in-
structional materials.
Generally, the student teachers had positive attitude
towards teaching. They considered teaching as a very
important and dignified career. They wanted to be some-
body who would be highly respected someday. However,
they disliked heavy paperwork and non-teaching responsi-
bilities of teachers.

V A R I -
ABLES
M i n i -
mum
Ma x i -
mum
Mean SD
D e -
script
ion
Grade in
Pract ice
Teaching

1.20

2.00

1.43

0.151

Ve ry
High
A t t i t u d e
towards
Teaching

21.00

53.00

41.75

6.94

Good
Social Skills

13.00 60.00 37.84 8.65
Good
Work
Values
Work Core
Values
Work Envi-
ronment
Work Int er-
act ions
Work Ac-
t ivit ies

10.00
6.00
9.00
8.00

20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00

16.06
15.47
16.83
15.70

2.06
2.73
2.04
2.66

VI
I
VI
I
TABLE 1. MEAN SCORE AND STANDARD DEVIA-
TION OF STUDENT TEACHERS CHARACTERIS-
n = 108 VI Very Important
I Important
The student teachers were not so sociable as they sel-
dom attend social gatherings or want to meet new ac-
quaintances. On the other hand, they perceived themselves
as very good team players, sincere friends and supported
well with others. They gave high importance on work
interaction. They considered themselves as good friends
and believed they had positive leadership skills.
The student teachers had high faith in the Almighty
Lord thus they felt that God was always there to protect
them. Thus, they valued honesty, respect and integrity.
They also gave importance to achievement, hence they
worked hard to get high grades and be involved in inten-
sive practice teaching training. The student teachers did
not give high importance to work act ivities particularly
research which required data analysis and interpretation.
They preferred activit ies that would enhance their creativ-
ity and ingenuity.
The work environment was important to student teach-
ers. They opted for an intellectually challenging, organ-
ized environment. On the other hand, a disrupted and/or
very convenient work environment did not matter to them
as long as they had all the freedom to plan and implement
a particular task. Based from their utterances, they found
their work environment as highly structured, fast -paced
and unpredictable.
The learning institution of student teachers had a bear-
ing on their characteristics. Results of the Focus Group
Discussions (FGDs) revealed that the effects of student
teaching on basic education students social and affect ive d
developments were highly observed compared with cogni-
tive development.
Both pedagogy and actual teaching were perceived by
the student teachers as two different concepts for basic
education students cognitive development. For them,
foundation courses in education were prerequisites for
effective student teaching. A vast prior knowledge on
teaching principles and strategies were needed in the ac-
tual classroom implementation.
Further, the student teachers treasured most their prac-
tice teaching experiences. They even rated themselves as
ready and equipped to face the real world. For them,
their teaching abilities were enhanced coupled with crea-
tivity, resourcefulness and innovativeness. Almost all of
them agreed that experience was the best teacher, making
them grow holistically and improved for the better.
As part of their future plans, the student teachers posi-
tively affirmed that taking graduate studies for profes-
sional growth would be their concern in the next few
years. For them, education was a life-long learning proc-
ess where they could pursue higher learning in line with
their fields of interest, update with technological advance-
ment and involve actively in education-related events.
They merely claimed that there would be no room for
stagnation.
In summary, the student teachers were personally fitted
to their teaching career. Their learning environment has
helped them acquire the necessary skills needed to be-
come effective and efficient teachers.
In terms of performance, the student teachers have
very satisfactory teaching skills, quality classroom man-
agement and relevant use of instructional materials. A
positive attitude towards teaching is highly manifested
where they consider teaching as a noble and fulfilling ca-
reer. Paperwork was found to be less motivating for it
was time consuming and demands extra effort. Because
of too much paperwork, socializat ion was not one of the
concerns of student teachers. They have limited time at-
tending social gatherings and meeting new acquaintances.
Despite these limitations, they see themselves as friendly
with good leadership skills.
In terms of readiness to face their future students, the
student teachers excitedly affirmed that they are very
much prepared to go to the real world. They possess
enough skills, experiences, mastery, training and most of
all equipped with theories and pedagogies. Their assur-
ance was positively observed with their smiles and facial
expressions as reflected during the interviews.
When asked of being equipped to teach, the student
teachers revealed:
We are equipped with methodologies, 85%
equipped for me to grow, to become profes-
sional someday. Practice teaching is just a
preparation, we really need more experiences
for us to be better (School Band D).

We are equipped but not that fully equipped.
We have to gather more to become better. We
are not scared unlike before, because we know
ourselves that we are ready (School A and C).
We are not that ready to go to the actual field,
we still need to know different methods, strate-
gies (All).

Yes. I think we are ready but we are not. Its
how our school nurtured us. Within ourselves
we know already the challenges. We are ready
but we are challenged outside. (My friends)
They applied for a job. Products of CNU are
prioritized, better from the others (School A
and D).

Im not yet equipped to teach since my 2
months practicum is not enough because I still
have my weaknesses to improve (School A).

In line with their feelings with being equipped to
teach, the student teachers revealed that they are capable
to teach with methodologies, but still need more experi-
ences to improve their craft. Two of them had their second
thought on whether they are equipped but not fully
equipped. But they made an assurance that there is less
fear in them since they know how they perform. They feel
they are challenged outside especially when they applied
for work.
Student teachers feel that actual teaching is very much
related with their social development. Their utterances are
as follows:

In actual teaching, we really have to teach so
many times in a semester for us to apply what
we have learned. Teaching is a challenge since
we are just starting, we are exposed to different
people, administrators, mentors, students. We
should always be guided by the following: topic
to be taught, how to manage the classroom.
We encounter different kinds of people with
different values, beliefs. We integrate different
strategies (School B).

Teaching is an adventure because we need to
venture on what will be the different strategies
to apply, we seek help from our mentors. There
is a thrill, does not give us boredom situation.
We do not predict what will happen (School A).

Teaching is learning. We learned from our mis-
takes, we improve. Teaching is integration,
learning. Teaching is changing life because we
are not only focusing on the academic improve-
ment of our students, but we look into the val-
ues of our students. We are responsible to
change their bad behaviour, changing for the
better (School C).

Teaching as perceived by the student teachers is so-
cialization since it is an exposure to administrators, stu-
dents, parents and mentors with different values and be-
liefs. Further, one student teacher affirmed that teaching is
an adventure since it is a venture on what strategies to ap-
ply. Such endeavor works effectively through the guid-
ance of the mentor.
One student teacher stressed that teaching is learning
from her mistakes. Such learning provides a room for
improvement. Moreover, teaching is changing life be-
cause it does not only deal with the students academic
performance, but also caters on their values. As teachers,
we are responsible to touch our students lives.

One positive experience is I was able to touch
the students lives, also inspired them. Im
thankful to my mentors for teaching me appro-
priately and accurately. My perception about
teaching has changed. I consider teaching as
the noblest profession because it really needs
patience and perseverance. If you do not have
this, you will not survive in teaching (School
B).

My positive experiences about my mentor, we
need to give value time, come early than the
students, we serve to be their leaders, mothers,
as managers. Very difficult, no matter how you
plan your lesson plan, its classroom manage-
ment that becomes a problem. You do not know
what will happen.

Regarding my students, I gave them my best in
teaching and see that they all learned and ob-
served them in my evaluations (School C)
.
Student Teaching is such a challenging, tough and
multi tasking experience. The selected student teachers
affirmed that both positive and negative experiences con-
tributed a lot in their practice teaching life. One con-
tended that she was able to apply varied teaching strate-
gies which she feels her students learned a lot. Such ac-
complishment was reflected on her evaluations bearing
good ratings.
Another student teacher affirmed that she was able to
touch the lives of her students. She was also thankful to
her mentors who extended extra time and effort guiding
her. Her mentor served as her inspiration to love teaching,
to persevere more and indulge patience, hardwork, com-
mit ment in everything she does.
With faith in God as their shield, the student teachers
believed that the Almighty Lord would always be there to
protect them. They value honesty, respect and integrity.
Hardwork, patience and commit ment are their secret
weapons to achieve their goals-getting high grades and
involvement in intensive teacher training.

Difference in Student Teachers Characteristics by
Teacher Education Instituti ons

It was hypothesized that the learning institution of the
students had a bearing on their characteristics. The
ANOVA table shows that the student teachers showed
variations in their attitude towards teaching, core values
and interpersonal skills when classified. Student teachers
from TEIs of higher accredited status (School C and D)
have better attitude towards teaching, give more impor-
tance to work interactions and work core values.
Table 2 shows that the kind of TEI has made a vari-
ance in student teachers values, interpersonal skills and
attitude towards teaching. However, the different TEIs
were comparable in providing the student teachers learn-
ing environment and providing opportunities or activities
to develop their social and cognitive skills.

TABLE 2. ANOVA TABLE OF STUDENT TEACH-
ERS CHARACTERISTICS BY TEIS
Basic Students Characteristics and Assessment of Stu-
dent Teachers

Twenty two fourth year high school students were in-
terviewed on their experiences with their student teachers.
Generally, they assessed their student teachers in terms of
teaching competence, attitude, and mastery of subject mat-
ter using the ten-point scale.
Variable School N Mean F-
value
p-
value
Grade in
S t u d e n t
Teaching
A
B
C
D
31
24
17
36
1.49
1.42
1.43
1.38
2.486 .065
A t t i t u d e
t o w a r d s
Teaching
A
B
C
D
31
24
17
36
40.74
39.12
44.64
43.00
2.888* .039*
Social Skills
A
B
C
D
31
24
17
36
36.32
37.42
40.35
38.20
.839 .475
Work Core
Values
A
B
C
D
31
24
17
36
14.87
17.17
16.06
16.33
6.929* .000*
Work Inter-
actions
A
B
C
D
31
24
17
36
16.52
16.00
17.12
17.53
3.285* 0.024*
Work
Activities
A
B
C
D
31
24
17
36
15.77
15.25
15.88
15.86
.302 0.824
Work Envi-
ronment
A
B
C
D
31
24
17
36
15.81
16.25
15.24
14.78
1.654 0.181
TABLE 3. STUDENTS PROFILE AND THEIR PER-
CEIVED ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT TEACHERS

Table 3 shows that the 22 students belonged to
the higher performing group in class with averages of
86.00 and above in the three subject areas (English,. Sci-
ence and Mathematics). The principals in each school
actually selected the top performers in the graduating
class. The basic education students rated their student
teachers highly in terms of attitude or personality. They
disclosed that most of their student teachers were really
helpful, assist them in their tasks, approachable, friendly
and give them t ips or advices. However, the students per-
ceived that their student teachers sometimes do not have
the mastery of the subject matter they are teaching. They
could not answer students questions especially in Mathe-
mat ics and Science. Some student teachers did not have
the confidence in teaching. Most of them were rattled
when standing in front of the students while a few even
stopped teaching in the middle of their discussion.
Based on the basic education students revela-
tions, it was evident that modeling is really the best
teacher in acquiring better attitude or values. Most of
them claimed that they had acquired certain attitudes and
values from their student teachers, namely; hard work,
respect, patience, commit ment and faith in God.

Differences in Students Ratings and Assessment of
their Student Teachers

The students were comparable in their rat ings in
the three subject areas when classified according to the
TEIs of their student teachers. They also perceived their
student teachers to have good attitude, easy to deal with
and friendly. However, their assessments differ in their
student .teachers teaching competence and mastery of the
subject matter.

TABLE 4.
ANOVA TABLE OF BASIC STUDENTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Table 4 shows that the student teachers in a TEI with
high teaching competence were also those with better mas-
tery of the subject matter. Hence, the kind of TEI has in-
fluenced on the student teachers acquisition of instruc-
tional skills.

Student Teachers Impact on the Students

Through the focus group interview per school, students
revealed their significant experiences from their student
teachers. Their experiences were reflective of their cogni-
tive, social, and affective developments.

Cognitive development refers to the influence of
the student teachers on the basic students acquisition of
knowledge and skills in the three subject areas. Students
have different views of their student teachers, but gener-
ally they have learned from the teaching of their student
teachers, but generally they have learned from the teaching
Variables
Mini-
mum
Maxi-
mum
Mean SD
Descrip-
tion
Mathe-
matics
grade
83.00 92.00 86.0909
2.1582
4 High
English
grade
85.00 92.00 87.9545
1.8381
5 High
Science
grade
85.00 90.00 87.8636
1.3556
0 High
ST teach-
ing com-
petence
5.00 9.00 7.0455
1.2527
0 Average
ST atti-
tude/
personal-
ity
7.00 10.00 8.6818 .94548
High
ST mas-
tery of
subject
matter
5.00 8.00 6.2273 .97257
Average

Sum
of
Squar
es df
Mean
Squar
e F Sig.
English
grade
Be-
tween
Groups
10.35
7
3 3.452 1.025 .405
Within
Group
60.59
8
1
8
3.367

Total
70.95
5
2
1

Science
grade
Be-
tween
Groups
10.37
9
3 3.460 2.207 .122
Within
Group
28.21
2
1
8
1.567

Total
38.59
1
2
1

ST teach-
ing com-
petence
Be-
tween
Groups
25.95
7
3 8.652
22.25
6
.000
*
Within
Group
6.998
1
8
.389

Total
32.95
5
2
1

ST atti-
tude/
Personal-
ity
Be-
tween
Groups
3.273 3 1.091 1.267 .316
of their student teachers as they claimed:

The student teachers would usually try their
best to teach well because they are graded by
our teacher. We also help them by listening
and see to it that we get high scores in the
exam so that they would also get high scores
(School D).

But its better if the teacher is the one teaching
because we can ask more questions, and our
teacher can answer (School B).
.
Our teacher in mathematics was good. He can
explain well so we learned from him. But he
only stayed for a month in our class. The next
student teacher was not so good (School C).

Most of the student teachers were teaching us
Technology and Livelihood Education. We
learned how to make leche flan and handicraft
out of folded paper. There was one who was a
very good teacher in journalism. We learned
how to make news items and published our
school newsletter (School A.)

When asked about their most significant learning from
the student teachers, most of the students recalled their
experiences in conducting experiments in Science, the
writing of poems and participating in a drama in English
but none in Mathematics. They had dissatisfying memo-
ries in their Mathematics classes and commented:

The teachers have difficulty in explaining how
the answers were derived or why this process
is used (School A and D)

They could not answer our questions (School B
and D)

They give exams even if we have not under-
stood the lesson (Schools A. B, C and D)

Almost all students expressed their grat itude to student
teachers because they served as the listening ears to their
problems in school. Most often the student teachers be-
came their friends even after their practice teaching as-
signments. Hence, they still continue to see their student
teachers for assistance and encouragement.
But in the school where there are so many student
teachers, the students would only select those that they
think are intelligent and have good attitude.
Five students even disclosed that they are used to the
presence of student teachers in the classroom since their
elementary grades. Thus, they are already used to their
presence and even try to predict their performance.
Social Development refers to how students behave in a
group and how they approach people of all ages and posi-
tion. As observed by the interviewer, all of the students
were ready to answer the questions. Everyone shared
something to every question asked. Not one was shy but
they were all willing to share without inhibit ions, al-
though, one group asked whether the student teachers
would know the interview results.
When asked about their social behaviour,
these were their revelat ions:

I think our student teachers have not influ-
enced our social behaviour because we al-
ready have these behaviour (School C and D).

I think they are not concern of our social be-
haviour but more of what we would learn in
what they teach (School B and D)

Our student teachers were even more shy and
less sociable than us. They are the silent type
(School A and C)

I like our student teachers because they acted
like students also during our Christmas party
(School D)

Although, some student teachers encouraged
us to be respectful to adults and superiors in
school and to greet every teacher we meet
(School B, C and D). But sometimes we could
not do this because there are so many teachers.
We dont know them.

I think they are the ones who learn from us on
how to socialize, di ba? (School C).

With regard to significant learning from their student
teachers, only one student recalled how her student
teacher advised her about fighting. From that time on, she
promised not to fight physically with anybody. She would
never forget that student teacher .

IV. Conclusion

The learning institution of student teachers had a bear-
ing on their att itude towards teaching, work values, and
interaction with peers, but not in their cognitive or social
development. The basic students perceived their student
teachers to be friendly and affectionate especially those
coming from large TEIs. The presence of student teachers
in the classroom has more impact on the basic students
affective and social development rather than on their cog-
nitive development.

REFERENCES

[1] A.S. Lardizabal and M.A. Amparo. 1999. Theory and prac-
tice in student teaching. Quezon City: Katha Publishing
Co., Inc.
[2] Experiential Learning Courses Handbook.. 2007. A Pro-
ject of the Teacher Education Council (TWC), Depart-
ment of Education (DepEd) and Commission on Higher
Education (CHED)
Abstract The study analyzed the i mpact of six (6)
teacher characteristics on the mathematics perform-
ance of students based on the TIMSS (2003) mathe-
matics scores of the top 20 and lowest 20 performing
countries. Data analysis consisted of an ini tial expl ora-
tory procedure via forced cluster anal ysis and a formal
test of statistical hypotheses through t-tests, analysis of
vari ance and regression analysis. Results revealed that
only three (3) of the six (6) characteristics, namel y:
hiring system of the nati ons, percentage of teachers
wi th board certification, and nature of induction pro-
grams have statistically significant bearings on the
overall quality of mathematics educati on i n these coun-
tries.
Keywords- cluster analysis, confirmatory methods,
TIMSS mathematics, teacher characteristics

I. Introduction

Studies on the impact of the teacher (preparation
and qualifications) on the students performance had been
inconsistent. Some studies showed that the teacher factor
significantly influenced student performance but other
studies indicated otherwise. Past studies have been unable
to account for why some teachers are more successful than
others in raising achievement, and they have not been suc-
cessful in identifying any direct links between student
achievement scores and specific teacher characteristics,
such as experience, level of professional development, and
higher-level educational degrees.
RAND which is a contraction for Research and
Development, founded in 1946 by the US Army Air Force
and later supported by the Ford Foundation, is a non-profit
research organization. RAND researchers analyzed the
relationship between teacher quality and student achieve-
ment by looking into five years of math and reading stan-
dards tests and other records from students in elementary,
middle, and high schools in the Los Angeles Unified
School District (LAUSD) in an attempt to establish the
link between teacher characteristics and student perform-
ance. Results suggested that the teacher is an important
determinant of student achievement but again failed to
establish a direct connection between the traditional meas-
ures of teacher effectiveness and student achievement over
time (Buddin, 2009).
To date, no single conclusive nor deciding study
and qualification on student performance. Meanwhile, the
data sets collected and stored by Boston College on the
results of mathemat ics and science tests administered
worldwide through the Trends in Mathemat ics and Science
Study 2003 project contains informat ion on at least six
factors including the Teacher Factor (Student, Community,
Parents etc are the others), with each factor having at least
10 variables collected over 46 participating countries with
8,000 students sampled per country for a total of
22,080,000 bits of information. The sheer volume of data
collected and stored is sufficient reason to embark on a
detailed analysis of the impact of each factor, in this case,
the Teacher Factor, on the scores of the students
The present study focused on the following vari-
ables under Teacher Factor: Hiring of Teachers, Percent-
age of Mathemat ics Education Majors in country, presence
or absence of an induction program, certification of teach-
ers, teaching experience and teachers with mathematics
major (not in education) as they relate with the TIMSS
Mathematics scores of these countries.

II. Short Literature Review

There are a variety of possible reasons why ele-
mentary and secondary classrooms sometimes may not be
staffed by qualified teachers (Ingersoll, 2007). Teacher
training and preparation requirements and government
licensing and cert ification standards are possible sources
of inadequacies of math teachers.
Darling-Hammond (2000) revealed that measures
of teacher preparation and certification correlates student
achievement in mathematics and policies regarding teacher
education, licensing, hiring and professional develop-
ment make an important difference in the qualifications
and capacities that teachers bring to their work. The report
of the Educational Testing Service (2004) stated that
teachers who have majored in the subject they teach are
better teachers. Rice (2003) stated that there is a positive
connection between teachers subject matter preparation
and student achievement in mathemat ics, science and read-
ing. Likewise, content-based pedagogy has a positive im-
pact on student achievement. With a higher proportion off
well-qualified teachers (full certification and a major in
their field), students in grades four and eight had higher
mathematics scores.
Teacher with considerable experience are likely
to make a contribution to student learning. On the other

AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF TEACHER FACTOR ON STU-
DENT PERFORMANCE ACROSS COUNTRIES BASED ON 2003
TIMSS MATHEMATICS SCORES
Imelda C. Montalbo
Cebu City, Philippines
imeldamontalbo@yahoo.com.ph
Angeline M. Pogoy
angelmpogoy@yahoo.com
hand, Teacher Education Study in Mathematics 2010 re-
vealed that differences in middle school teacher certifica-
tion programs have great impact on math teaching
(NRC,2000) capabilities and student achievement.
In Singapore, entry into teaching occupation is
highly selective and preparation is highly rigor-
ous. Another factor behind the difficulties in ensuring that
the teachers meet standards has to do with the adequacy of
the recruitment and hiring process. Several studies have
concluded that the staffing problems afflicting some low-
income districts in part icular are worsen by inadequate
human resource departments and flawed hiring policies
(Odden, Milanowski, & Heneman, 2007).
Based on the study of Wang (2003), top five per-
forming countries in TIMSS , students must exceed
threshold levels on subject area examinations, advanced
level national examinations or university entrance exami-
nations as a requirement to enter teacher education pro-
gram, while the low five performing countries require
only the basic skills test.
In hiring teachers, the high performing countries
require national examination with high cut-score and addi-
tional tests in the local level, while hiring requirements are
up to individual schools in the low five performing coun-
tries (Coley, 2003)
Induction programs are provided and are system-
atically monitored in the high performing counties. How-
ever, in the low performing countries programs are typi-
cally required or provided, but are not monitored (Phelps,
2003).
Teachers who have majored in the subject are
better teachers of that subject than those who have
not. Pedagogy, particularly content-based pedagogy has a
positive impact on students achievement and teachers
with considerable experience are likely to make a greater
contribution to students learning than teachers with few
years of teaching experience. This study showed that more
concentration on mathematics do prepare students better
in aspects warranted in future teachers. Ball and Bass
(2000) asserted that it is not what mathematics teachers
know, but how they know it and what they are able to
mobilize mathematically in the course of teaching as
critical. Research has shown that the number of mathemat-
ics courses taken by teachers does not correlate signifi-
cantly with their effectiveness as measured by student
learning (National Research Council, 2001).
Research shows that students tend to learn more
from teachers with strong rather than weak academic
skills (Ballou, 1996). This supports the study conducted
by Fallon (2003) that teachers who have majored in the
subject they teach are better teachers and has a positive
impact on student achievement. Raudenbush, Fotiu and
Cheong (1999) found teacher education in mathemat ics to
be positively and related to math proficiency in students.

III. Research Design and Analytical Framework

The research design made use of a bipolar analy-
sis where the top 20 performing countries in Mathematics
under TIMSS (2003) were contrasted with the lowest 20
performing countries in terms of the teacher characteris-
tics earlier ment ioned. The measurement of the teacher
characteristics as defined by the Boston College data are
given in table 1.
Table 1: Definition of Variables under Teacher Factor.
Variable Code Measurement

Nature of Teacher Hiring Hiring o f Teachers 1= centralized;
Percentage of Math
Nature of Induction 0= none ;
Program Induction Program 1=voluntary
2 = required

Board Examination Certification of Teachers Percent of every
hundred

Percentage of years of
Teachers having 3 or more
Percentage of Teachers
Having only mathematics majors

Passers Percentage
(no education units) Teachers with Math Majors Percent of every
hundred
Data for this study were obtained mainly from
the published TIMSS (2003) results including the average
Mathematics scores by country.
In order to compare and contrast the teacher
qualifications and preparations of the top performing and
low performing countries, we presented two kinds of
analysis. The exploratory analysis portion (no statistical
testing) consisted of simply finding the profiles of the top
performing and low performing countries in terms of the
teacher factor variables mentioned. For brevity, we re-
ferred to this technique as forced cluster analysis al-
though, technically speaking we have not performed real
cluster analysis. Based on the profile exploration, we pro-
ceeded to compare the two groups in terms of these vari-
ables either by using a simple t-test for independent sam-
ples or by a chi-square contingency analysis. Finally, for
those variables found to be significant as a differentiat ing
characteristic between the top performing countries and
the low performing countries, we proceeded to perform a
regression analysis in order to ascertain their joint relative
contribution in the Mathematics scores of the students in
these countries.

IV. Results and Discussions
IV.1 Results
As a preliminary data exploration, we performed
a cluster analysis in such way that the top performing cou-
ntries are clustered as another. The characteristics of each
cluster were then analyzed and the results are shown in
Table 2.

TABLE 2: CLUSTER ANALYSIS OF LOW AND TOP
PERFORMING COUNTRIES

Tabular values showed that the top performing
countries generally have: greater percentage of mathemat-
ics education majors as teachers, have higher percentage
passing rates in board examinations for teachers, have
more teachers having three or more years of teaching ex-
perience than the countries in the low performing group.
However, both groups have the same percentage of mathe-
mat ics majors (with no Education training) as teachers.
Worth mentioning, likewise, is the fact that the hiring of
teachers in the top 20 performing countries is mainly cen-
tralized as opposed to the decentralized system in the low
20 performing countries. Similarly, there was no teacher
induction program adopted in the lowest 20 performing
countries whilst the same teacher induction was done on a
voluntary basis in the top 20 schools.

Of these variables, we proceeded to perform for-
mal statistical testing on the variables which stand out as
very different between these two groups of countries. Ta-
ble 3 summarizes the results when the TIMSS mathemat-
ics scores were compared in relation to the variables
which appeared to differentiate the two sets of countries.

TABLE 3: COMPARISON OF THE TIMSS MATHE-
MATICS SCORES BASED ON THE TEACHER
FACTOR VARIABLES

Of the six(6) variables considered, only three (3)
were found to be statistically significant in relation to the
Mathematics scores in the TIMSS(2003). These variables
were: hiring of teachers (centralized or decentralized),
percentage of teachers in the field who passed the board
examinations, and nature of their induction programs
(none, voluntary or required).
Table 4 shows the analysis performed to ascertain
the joint effects of these three (3) individually significant
determinants of student performance in Mathemat ics.

TABLE 4: REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH TIMSS
MATHEMATICS
Scores as Dependent Variable.

Of the three (3) teacher characteristics analyzed,
the hiring system turned out to have the highest influence
on the final outcome as measured by the TIMSS mathe-
mat ics scores, followed by the percentage of qualified
(board certified )teachers in the field and last by the nature
of their induction program. Together, these variables ex-
plained about 37.40% of the variance in the mathematics
Variable Cluster
1 (Top
20)
Cluster 2
(Low 20)
Centroid

Hiring of Teach-
ers

00.684
(Central
ized)

00.050
(Decentralized

00.37
Math Education
Major

60.679

46.442

53.56
Certification of
Teachers
94.953

86.266

90.61
Teaching Experi-
ence
91.050

88.394

89.72
Teachers with
Math Majors
69.005

69.884

69.44
Induction
01.050
(Volunt
ary)
00.450
None
00.75
Vari able t-value Interpretation
Hiring of
Teachers
3.44 Very Significant, p
< .01
Mat hemat ics
Ed Majors
1.39 Not Significant, p
> .05
Cert ificat ion
of Teachers
2.37 Significant, p < .05
T e a c h i n g
Experience
1.85 Not Significant, p > .05
Teachers with
Math Major
0.10 Not Significant, p > .05
I n d u c t i o n
Program
f = 3.59 Significant, p < .05
The regression equation is
scores = 270 + 62.7 hiring + 1.62 certification + 26.3 induction

Predi ctor Coef SE Coef T P
Const ant 270.13 70.07 3.85 0.000
hiring 62.73 23.35 2.69 0.011
cert ificat ion 1.6210 0.7705 2.10 0.042
induct ion 26.27 13.46 1.95 0.059

S = 68.60 R-Sq = 37.4% R-Sq(adj) = 32.2%

The researchers developed a predictive model for long run
economic viability of basic education based on statistical
indicators as validated in developed nations where free
basic education is considered economically viable.

II. Literature Review

In the final report of the Basic Education Work-
ing Group, MDG for the Philippine Education Forum, the
efforts of the Department of Education (DepEd) towards
achieving the MDGs of EFA had been highlighted. In the
past decade alone, the DepED has introduced policy ac-
tions to respond to input shortages in textbooks and school
buildings, enhanced the basic education curriculum, insti-
tuted new instructional policies and responded to the con-
cern for achieving a more equitable teacher deployment
(Basic Education Working Group [BEWG)], 2006).
Despite all these, however, these policy actions
have not all produced good outcomes: real per capita gov-
ernment spending on basic education continues to lose
ground to population growth and inflation; DepED has
made only incremental gains in achieving a more equita-
ble deployment of the large teaching force; and the bu-
reaucracy has been slow to implement decentralization in
line with the Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001.
Efforts to make the system efficient and equitable which
are necessary (but not sufficient) to ensure sustainable
basic education development have yet to reach acceptable
marks.
The countrys economic woes led to substantial
under investment in basic education. The impact of the
continuing underinvestment in basic education coupled
with rapid increase in student population and widespread
poverty has resulted in dismal educational performance of
children. In recent years, there has been no significant
improvement in drop-out rates; participation rates are still
declining; cohort survival rates remain below 70 percent
in elementary schools and may be going downhill; reten-
tion rates in secondary school are low; the country is al-
ways at the bottom end of international testing and bench-
marking exercises; and significant and extensive aspects
of educational disadvantage remain.
The urban - rural divide in basic education has
branched out into other types of inequalities and divides
like a bifurcating dynamical system. Growing inequality is
characterizing the education system. Levels of resourcing,
quality of instruction, and student achievement vary
greatly across different regions of the country, between
rural and urban areas, among different ethnic groups, and
among different types of schools. These, unfortunately,
are tell tale signs of a going into an out of - control
mode.
Resource allocations made by the Central Office
of DepEd take no account of the capacity (or the lack of
it) of parents and Local Government Units (LGUs) to sup-
port their schools, or the logistics of staff deployment
across diverse geographic areas. Consequently, there are
wide variances in student-teacher ratios, access to class-
rooms and learning materials, and the quality of education
delivered. These significant variations in inputs result in
marked inequality in outcomes across different provinces/
cities of the country, between rural and urban areas,
among different ethnic groups. Unless budgets become
more sensitive to the differentiated characteristics of
schools in the field, such inequalities will continue to per-
sist.
The underinvestment in Basic Education also
prevents the school system from implementing tested in-
novations that will improve the inclusiveness of education
services for disadvantaged children and those at risk. The
declining levels of part icipation rate and cohort survival
rates in recent years led to a growing number of children
who are unable to part icipate in the school system. As of
SY 2003 there were already an estimated 4.4 million chil-
dren aged 6-15 who were out-of-school. (DepEd, 2010)
and, perversely, despite all efforts, the numbers keep
growing.
Issues on weak governance have been magnified
by a significant fiscal challenge in the education sector.
Although being around 18 percent of the GOP budget, and
an average annual nominal increase of 4.5 percent in the
DepED budget between 2000 and 2004, inflat ion puts the
real spending per student at an average of -3 percent per
annum over that period (DepEd, 2010). The 2004 2010
figures are not significantly different. The total funding
levels provided each year are not sufficient to meet even
the basic input needs for good quality education. Accord-
ing to DepEds ten-year spending plan, completed in
2005, the existing fiscal pressures will worsen over time
and will imperil the countrys ability to progressively
achieve its 2015 Education for All targets. While overall
secondary enrollments grew, migrat ion of students from
the private sector to public schools following the 1997
Asian financial crisis has placed additional strain on pub-
lic resources. If at all, the situation had been aggravated
by the global financial crisis of 2007.
Progress has been further frustrated by continued
rapid growth in the population (around 2 percent per year)
and by the high proportion of the budget given to person-
nel costs (e.g. 89 percent in 2005). By all accounts, the
Philippines basic education development path is set on a
trajectory characterized by a series of bifurcations, the hall
mark of chaos. The main challenge is to locate the
control points in such a system to prevent further down-
ward spiral in quality and further system bifurcations.

III. Framework, Design and Methods of the Study

The paper attempts to define an analytical frame-
work for discussing the issue of economic sustainability
for basic education in the hope that within such a frame-
work more rationale approaches can be tried out to ad-
dress the perennial resource limitation problem.
The framework begins with the assertion that
direct government investment in basic education is a di-
rect function of the countrys economic performance (as
measured by its Gross National Product GNP). If I(t) is
the governments basic education budget at time t and G(t)
is the countrys gross national product at the same time t,
then:

I(t) = k G(t) GNP logistic
(1)
where k is a constant that varies from country to country.
If S(t) denotes the basic education school-age population
at time t, then the countrys per capita investment in basic
education is:
PC(t) = . S(t)logistic (2)
It was noted at once that in order for the PC(t) to
increase, it is necessary that the countrys GNP be in-
creased at a rate that exceeds the population growth rate.
Meanwhile, the basic education participation rate PR(t) at
time t, is defined as the number of pupils enrolled E(t)
divided by S(t) or:
PR(t) = (3)
Next examine the movements of PC(t) or the per
capita investment in basic education and PR(t) or the par-
ticipation rate (representing access to basic education)
over a time period was examined as illustrated in Figure 1.

PC (t) PR (t)

Sufficient

time over which sufficiency or insufficiencies are noted.
Suppose that L
S
denotes the maximum length of time over
which a sufficiency is noted and L
I
is the maximum length
of time over which an insufficiency is noted. The ratio :
=
(6)
can also be taken as an indicator of sustainability.
If 1, then the basic education financing is sustainable
but if < 1, then the basic education financing is not sus-
tainable.

Data Requirements

The following data were obtained from available sec-
ondary sources over the last 40 years (1970 to 2010):
GNP G(t)
School-age basic education pupils S(t)
Participation rate PR(t)
Basic Education Budget I(t)
for the Philippines.

Data Analysis Tools

To estimate the PC(t) and PR(t) curves, the study as-
sumed a logistic model of the form:
(7)
was fitted to the data sets. Prior to fitting the model,
the raw observations were standardized in order to put the
PC and PR values on equal footing. The integral in equa-
tion (4) was evaluated from t = 41 to t = 50 or a period of
10 years.
Based on the logistic curves for both PC (t) and
PR(t), the points of intersection were deter-
mine and the intervals ( ), ( ), , ( )
was analyzed whether PC (t) PR (t) or PC (t) < PR (t).
The researchers separated the intervals for which PC (t)
PR (t) from the intervals for which PC (t) < PR (t). Let:

Let and .
Then was computed.

IV. Results, Discussion and Conclusion

Table 1 shows the data on the basic parameters
required for the Philippines from 1980 to 2009.

insufficient
On a certain time interval, say [T1,T2], it was
found that the PC(t) curve or per capita investment curve
exceeds or is higher than the PR(t) curve. This means that
there is sufficient investment for basic education. On the
other hand, the researchers also noted that after T2, the
PC(t) curve is lower than the PR(t) curve, in which case
it can be said that there is under-investment in education
or there is an insufficient basic education investment.
There are two quantities of interest that relate to
sustainability of basic education development relat ive to
this formulation. The first quantity is the extent of insuffi-
ciency or sufficiency of basic education investment which
is represented above by the area between the two curves.
Mathematically, this is represented by the integral:
= S
(4)
the integral equation (4) evaluates the integral
(or the area between PC(t) and PR(t)) from the last ob-
served time t
n
to infinity. If this is non-negative, then the
basic education development for that country is sustain-
able otherwise it is not:
S 0, basic education financing is sustain-
able, (5)
S < 0, basic education financing is not sus-
tainable.
The second quantity relates to the lengths of
TABLE 1. PARTICIPATION RATE, SCHOOL AGE POPU-
LATION, PER CAPITA BUDGET PHILIPPINES: 19802009.
Sources: Department of Education (DepEd), Department of Budget
and Management (DBM), National Statistical Coordina-
tion Board (NSCB), National Statistics Office (NSO).

Per Capita Budget figures show signs of peaking
beginning in 2003 to 2009 whereas enrollment appears to
continue rising with increasing population. Both figures ap-
pear to steadily increase with time following an S-shaped
curve with very small increments from 2003 onwards. These
features, of course, point to a logistic pattern. It is also worth
mentioning that the small participation rate figures are attrib-
uted to the large number of school age students at the secon-
dary level who are not in school. The elementary level par-
ticipation rates are much higher in the 90s level but the sec-
ondary level participation rates are in the low 70s and stead-
ily decreasing with time.
Can participation rates in basic education be en-
hanced using the budget as an instrument? A regression
analysis performed on part icipation rate (as a response vari-
able) and per capita budget (as a predictor) revealed the re-
sults summarized in Table 2.

TABLE 2. INFLUENCE OF PER CAPITA BUDGET ON THE
NUMBER OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN BASIC
EDUCATION
Enrolled = 4170173 + 624* per capit a budget

A unit increase in per capita budget increases enrol-
ment in basic education by 624 students. Analysis also
showed that 97% of the variance in actual enrolment in basic
education can be attributed to the per capita budget allotted
by the government for basic education.
The research proceeded to determine the Participa-
tion Rate and Per Capita Budget curves by logistic regres-
sion. Results are summarized in Table 3:

TABLE 3. LOGISTIC REGRESSION FOR PARTICIPATION
RATES AND PER CAPITA BUDGETS
OVER TIME

(Dependent Variable: Standardized Participation Rate)
Ti me
Parti ci-
pation
rate
School -
Age
En-
rolled
Pupils/
Stu-
dents
Budget
x 1000
Per
Capita
Budget
1980 69.719 7365190 5134937 9290010 1809.2
1981 69.838 7745694 5409438 9295020 1718.3
1982 69.957 8126198 5684844 9300030 1635.9
1983 70.076 8506702 5961156 9415582 1579.5
1984 70.195 8887206 6238374
1565090
7 2508.8
1985 70.314 9267710 6516498
2188623
2 3358.6
1986 70.433 9648214 6795527
2812155
7 4138.2
1987 70.552
1002871
8 7075461
3435688
2 4855.8
1988 70.671
1040922
2 7356301
4059220
7 5518.0
1989 70.790
1078972
6 7638047
4682753
2 6130.8
1990 70.909
1117023
0 7920698
5306285
7 6699.3
1991 71.028
1155073
4 8204255
5929818
2 7227.7
1992 71.147
1193123
8 8488718
6553350
7 7720.1
1993 71.266
1231174
2 8774086
7176883
2 8179.6
1994 71.385
1269224
6 9060360
7800415
7 8609.4
1995 71.504
1307275
0 9347539
8423948
2 9011.9
1996 71.623
1345325
4 9635624
9047480
7 9389.6
1997 71.742
1383375
8 9924615
9671013
2 9744.5
1998 71.861
1421426
2
1021451
1
1029454
57 10078.4
1999 71.980
1459476
6
1050531
3
1091807
82 10392.9
2000 72.099
1497527
0
1079702
0
1154161
07 10689.6
2001 72.218
1535577
4
1108963
3
1216514
32 10969.8
2002 72.337
1573627
8
1138315
1
1278867
57 11234.7
2003 72.456
1611678
2
1167757
6
1341220
82 11485.4
2004 72.575
1649728
6
1197290
5
1500200
85 12530.0
2005 72.694
1687779
0
1226914
1
1615401
05 13166.4
2006 72.813
1725829
4
1256628
2
1715401
06 13650.8
2007 72.932
1763879
8
1286432
8
1715350
00 13334.2
2008 73.051
1801930
2
1316328
0
1715340
50 13031.3
2009 73.170
1839980
6
1346313
8
1755608
00 13040.1
Predictor Coeffi-
cient
SE Coeffi
-cient
T-
Value
P-value
Constant 4170173 187200 22.28 0.000
Per Capita
Budget
624.50 20.77 30.06 0.000
S = 446030, R-squared: 97.0%, R-Sq (adj) = 96.9%
Variable Coefficient T-value P-value
Constant -1.74 -13.980 0.000
Time 0.101 7.9 0.000
R-squared: 36.0%
(Dependent Variable: Per Capita Budget)
From the tabular values it follows that the models are:

(1) Part icipat ion Rat e = exp(-1.74 + 0.101t)/(1 + exp(-1.74 + 0.101t ))
(2) Per Capit a Budget = exp (-1.82 + 0.105t)/(1 + exp (-1.82 + 0.105t))

Meanwhile, the per capita budget figures have
peaked at t = 30 at PhP13,650 per student at which point,
the budget figures have not significantly incremented. On
the other hand, the number of students enrolled continues
to increase. Then the situation for ten years later was ex-
amined i.e. 2020, if the situation persists.
Table 4 shows the comparison between the per
capita budget and participation rates over the period 1980-
2009:

TABLE 4. LOGISTIC MODEL COMPARISON OF THE
STANDARDIZED PARTICIPATION RATES AND PER
CAPITA BUDGETS
Note that while the standardized per capita budget
monotonically majorizes the participation rates, the two
figures are quite close to each other. Moreover, if the per
capita budget stays at the same levels as the 2009 budget
(roughly 0.80 plus or minus 1 percentage point), the seven-
year projections for the two figures are provided below:

TABLE 5. SEVEN-YEAR SCENARIO UP TO 2017

The scenario seven years hence is not ideal. In
fact, beginning 2013, the enrollment in basic education
will overtake the per capita budget by as much as 5-
percentage points. Translated in more practical language,
there will be a real drop in per capita expenditure for basic
education by 2017 (the end of the current administration).
The implications are clear: from the current per capita
budget of P13,400 per student, there will be a 5% increase
by 2017 or P14,070 per student, which by the regression
model earlier, will attract 420,000 more students to basic
education. By that time, however, there will be 22,000,000
school-age children and only 14,163,000 of them will be
participating in schools or more succinctly, there will be
7,837,000 out of school youth from the current 4 million
out-of-school youth! Clearly, the current financing scheme
for basic education by the government will be infeasible.
There are two main drivers in basic education
development: population growth and economics (per cap-
ita GDP). School-age population grows at an amazing rate
of 6% per annum but the countrys GDP (at its best) grows
by a little over 4% per annum. Unless, something is done
to curb the run-away population growth rate, then very
litt le can be done to achieve the millennium development
goal of Education for All.

V. Conclusions

The sustainability of basic education development
lies in the equitable allocation of resources and sound fis-
cal management amidst perennial resource limitation. The
amount of governments per capita budget allocation has
direct bearing on the level of basic education students
enrolment. In effect, substantial investments in basic edu-
cation should be put in place. At the same time, there is a
need to devise policy frameworks for curbing the popula-
tion growth (subsequently school age population) and
Variable Coefficient T-value P-value
Constant -1.82 -15.090 0.000
Time 0.105 8.002 0.000
R-squared: 41.1%
Parti ci pation Rate Per Capita budget
0.162601 0.152516
0.176826 0.166589
0.192010 0.181681
0.208169 0.197816
0.225308 0.215008
0.243424 0.233259
0.262503 0.252561
0.282519 0.272892
0.303434 0.294215
0.325195 0.316479
0.347737 0.339617
0.370983 0.363547
0.394843 0.388173
0.419214 0.413382
0.443986 0.439055
0.469040 0.465057
0.494250 0.491251
0.519490 0.517493
0.544631 0.543639
0.569546 0.569546
0.594114 0.595078
0.618220 0.620106
0.641757 0.644512
0.664631 0.668188
0.686757 0.691043
0.708064 0.713000
0.728495 0.733998
0.748005 0.753989
0.766562 0.772942
0.784147 0.790841
Time (Yr) Standardized
Participation Rate
Standardized Per
Capita Budgets
2011 0.80 0.80
2012 0.81 0.81
2013 0.83 0.82
2014 0.84 0.82
2015 0.86 0.83
2016 0.88 0.83
2017 0.89 0.84
widespread poverty which hamper educational perform-
ance of elementary pupils and high school students.

REFERENCES

Basic Education Working Group [BEWG)]. (2006). Philippine
Development Forum Working Group on Millennium De-
velopment Goals (MDGs) and Social Progress. http: //
pdf.ph/downloads/Annex_1_ FINAL_PDF_Education_v%
5B1%5D.24Mar06.pdf

Bautista, M.C.B. (2005). Ideologically Motivated Conflicts in
the Philippines: Exploring the Possibility of an Early
Warning System. Background Paper for the 2005 Philip-
pine Human Development Report.

Cooperation Internationale Pour le Developement et la Solidarite
[CIDSE]. (2006), The New World Bank/ IMF Debt Sus-
tainability Framework: A Human Development Assess-
ment,

Daguino, D.S. (2004), Secular and Islamic Education in the
ARMM, ARMM Roundtable Series No. 9.

Del Mundo, F. (2006). State of RP Education: Learning Test
Scores Below World Average. Department of Education
(DepEd) Budget Proposal for FY2006.
Department of Education [DepEd]. (2010). School Statistics
Data - Quick Counts Data. Research and Statistics Divi-
sion, Office of the Planning Service. Manila, Philippines.
http://www.deped.gov.ph/ quicklinks/quicklinks2.asp?
id=12

Edillon, R.G. (2005). Ideologically Motivated Conflicts in the
Philippines: in Search of Underlying Causes. Background
paper for the 2005 Philippine Human Development Re-
port.

Fayolle, A. (2006). Debt Swaps in the Paris Club. Powerpoint
Presentation at the Debt Swaps Conference-Madrid. Japan
International Cooperation Agency (2002), Country profile
on environment: Philippines. www.jica.go. jp/ english/
global/env/profiles/pdf/03.pdf.

Manasan, R. (2006). Financing the Millennium Development
Goals: The Philippines, Report Submitted to the National
Economic and Development Authority (NEDA).

Moye, M. (2000). Overview of debt conversion. Debt Relief
International. National Antipoverty Commission, 2005.
Implementing guidelines on the presidents priority pro-
gram on water. http://www.napc.gov.ph/10pt_agenda.htm.
Accessed on June 24, 2006.

(2004) National Economic Development Authority [NEDA].
Manual for Project Monitoring. Manila:

(2004) NEDA. (2006). The Evian approach. Paris Club. http://
www.clubdeparis.org 148

Philippine Education for the 21st Century [1998 Philippine Edu-
cation Sector Study]. (1999). Poverty in the Philippines:
Income, Assets and Access. Asian Development Bank
UNESCO. (2006). Policy Frameworks and Quality Standards for
Gender Equity and Inclusion for the Tenth Meeting of
the Working Group on Education for All (WGEFA).
http://www. unesco.org/education/EFAHLG2010/ Fi-
naldraft_ UNICEF-UNGEI.pdf
AbstractThis study sought to identify some personal
and school attri butes that enhance the creati vity of
directors of technical schools in the National Capi tal
Region.
The directors creati vi ty was measured, among
other things, on their openness to new i deas, enthusi-
asm to try new things, eagerness to learn, grow and
improve. The personal attri butes measured were edu-
cational attainment, length of experience, travel, integ-
rity, political skills, and attitude towards technological
advances. The school attri butes were school location,
school size, quality of faculty members and support
system.
Two parallel Likert-type questionnaires developed
by the researchers subjected to content vali dation by
education experts and to reliability (Cronbach =
0.95) were administered to 159 school directors, faculty
members, admi nistrati ve officers and finance officers
of 40 technical schools in the National Capital Region.
Statistical tests used include frequency, percentage,
mean, standard deviation, Pearson r, Kendalls tau b
and mul ti ple regression anal ysis supplemented wi th
random interviews.
Some of the findings of the study were: (1) The
creati vity of directors is positivel y influenced by their
integrity, political skills, attitude towards technological
advancement, number of full ti me teachers and pres-
ence in school of moral, admi nistration and legal sup-
port system; (2) The most creati ve years of the director
are the first six years in office; (3) The predictors of
creati ve outlook were the directors political skills,
namely, knack in presenti ng ideas in a win-win man-
ner; adeptness to generate funds; taps ci vil organiza-
tions for support; and having a mi nimum of equi p-
ment in school.
The researchers proposed the (1) nurturing and
institutionalization of creati vi ty as the nati ons com-
petiti ve edge i n the global arena, integrating it in the
vision, mission, goals and objecti ves (VMGO) and cul-
ture of the school, (2) to fine-tune the curriculum of
educational administrati on and other academic pro-
grammes to integrate the competencies of political
skills, integrity and values formation, marketing,
entrepreneurial spirit and art of asking for resources ,
to have the competiti ve edge in the global arena.

Keywords: creativity, innovations, globalization, integ-
rity, political skills, support system

I. Introduction

Advances in technology, the breaking of frontiers and
borders, punctuate the reality that the world has become a
global village. Facing the global arena of the 21
st
century
of education, school leaders are challenged to be creative
to reinvent and reinvigorate their curricular programmes in
line with the international labor market demands. Creative
school leaders are crucial to large scale sustainable educa-
tional reforms. Studies attest that best run schools are those
which have creative leaders at the helm (Fulan in Barlis,
2004).
For Philippines to survive and thrive in the worlds
economic playing field, it must be competitive and build
its competitive edge. Moreover, United States, Canada,
Japan, Australia and much of Europe are beginning to feel
the pangs of negative birthrates and increasing aging popu-
lation where they have less and less workers to man their
factories and on the other hand- need more young people
to care for their elderly. They have to offset their shrinking
populations by seeking and recruit ing workers from human
resource rich countries like the Philippines. Overseas
Filipino Workers (OFW) have distinguished themselves in
many countries as generally well-educated, caring and
dedicated, highly skilled and fluent speakers of English.
This is our competit ive edge (Syjuco, 2006).
This research aimed to identify some factors that in-
fluence the creativity of school leaders in facing the chal-
lenges of the time and forging a school. culture that nur-
tures and rewards creativity, innovativeness and continu-
ous improvement.

II. Short Literature Review

What really differentiates human beings from the apes
is their ability to create and innovate (Zaleznick in Bar-
tolome, 1990). If in the education of the young, one wants
to stress the essentially human traits, one can do no better
than develop his creativity (Ibid).

A. Creativity
The word creativity comes from the word create
which means to originate, to be first to introduce some-
thing new in a way that adds value (American Heritage
Dictionary, 2006).
Concepts related to creativity are novelty; diversity;
freshness; originality, innovativeness, flexibility, modifica-
tion, experimentation, unprecedented; ability to make
Correlates of Creativity of School Leaders: Basis for Curriculum Development
Amelia M. Bonotan, Ph.D.
amybonotan26@yahoo.com
Jeremias T. Leones, Ph.D.
College of Education
University of the Philippines
Quezon City, Philippines
jerry_leones@yahoo.com
Discussions

The sheer volume of research conducted to estab-
lish the link between teacher characteristics and student
performance show the importance of this factor in the edu-
cative process. We have demonstrated through the litera-
ture review that the localized studies (with limited respon-
dents and subjects) produced a variety of results: some
confirmed the relat ionship between teacher characteristics
and student performance while others denied the existence
of such links.
1. The hiring of teachers in the field emerged as the
single most important determinant of the performance of
students (at least in Mathematics). This result simply reit-
erates the importance of good teaching inputs into the edu-
cational system. When the system admits only good teach-
ers to teach, the educational process takes care of itself.
As a corollary, when the system admits teachers of dubi-
ous quality into it, then the educational system needs to
establish excellent in-service programs to compensate for
the bad inputs. Moreover, this large scale analysis demon-
strated that centralized hiring systems are, generally, bet-
ter than decentralized ones where the variance of teacher
quality can be potentially difficult to control.
2. The wisdom of having a centrally-focused quality
assurance system is reiterated when the second most sig-
nificant determinant of student performance turned out to
be the percentage of teachers in the field who were board
certified. While , admittedly, passing the board examina-
tion alone is no guarantee for a good teaching perform-
ance, passing it somehow assures the public that the teach-
ers teaching the kids are qualified. Moreover, several stud-
ies also confirm the link between board certification rat-
ings and pre-service teacher education grades of teachers
(see for example, Dubbin (2009), RAND (2007) and oth-
ers). A high passing mark in board cert ification coupled
with a good system for hiring teachers into the system
appears like a good formula for reforming the inputs to the
educational system.
3. Teacher induction program, while largely not com-
prehensive in the Philippine system, turned out to be quite
important in charting the course of quality for basic educa-
tion. Lessons learned from this analysis show that coun-
tries with at least a voluntary Teacher Education Program
produced good teachers (and hence, good students).
4. Finally, our analysis seems to indicate that only
those teacher characteristics which fall under inputs
appear to have any direct bearing on student performance.
Process variables like expertise in both content and
methodology (as measured by the percentage of teachers
with mathemat ics as a major and with mathemat ics educa-
tion as a major) did not register significant impacts on the
ultimate performance of the students. We suspect that
these variables have been subsumed under the either the
hiring system or in their board certification rat ings.

V. Conclusions

Large scale analysis of the impact of teacher
preparation and qualifications on the students mathemat-
ics performance involving 40 countries (20 top performing
and 20 low performing countries under the TIMSS 2003
and over 8,000 mathematics teachers and 320,000 students
revealed that the single most important determinant of the
ultimate quality of basic education (specifically, mathe-
mat ics performance of students) is the hiring system
adopted by the nations coupled with reasonably reliable
board certification processes.

REFERENCES

Ball, D.L., & Bass, H. (2000). Interweaving content and peda-
gogy in teaching and learning to teach: Knowing and
using mathematics. In J.Boaler (Ed.), Multiple perspec-
tives on the teaching and learning of mathematics Westport,
Connecticut, USA.

Ballou, Dale. 2000. Reforming Teacher Preparation and Licens-
ing. Teachers College Record. Nashville, TN.

Coley. 2003. The Impact of State Policy or Entrance into the
Teaching Profession. National Institute of Education.
Princeton, NJ.

Darling-Hammond, Linda. 2000, Teacher Preparation and Pro-
fessional Development in APEC members : A Comparative
Study. Washington DC, USA.

Educational Testing Services. 2004. Princeton, New Jersey,
USA.

Fallon, Daniel .2003. Case Study of a Paradigm Shift (The Value
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Ingersoll, Richard (2007). A Comparative Study of Teacher
Preparation and Qualifications in Six Nations. GSE Publica-
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National Research Council. 2000 Testing Teacher Candidates:
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(March).

Odden, Milanowski, and Heneman, 2007. Policy and Profession-
als: Commentary. The State of Education policy research.
New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Press.

Phelps, Richard. 2003. Bench marking to the Worlds Best in
Mathematics: Quality Control in Curriculum and Instruction
Aiming the Top Performers in the TIMSS.

Raudenbush, S., Fotiu, R., Cheong, Y. 1999. Synthesizing re-
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Rice, J.K., Teacher quality: Understanding the effectiveness of
teacher attributes (Washington, D.C. Economic Policy Insti-
tute), 2003.

Abstract - The paper attempted to define an anal ytical
framework for discussing the issue of economic sus-
tainability for basic educati on in the Philippi nes. Said
framework was summarized in terms of two indices:
one which looks at the degree of insufficiency of basic
education funding and another which considers time
intervals of which sufficiency or i nsufficiency are
noted. A logistic model was fitted on the gathered data
sets where raw observati ons were standardized prior
to performing regression analysis on i dentified vari-
ables. The findi ngs revealed that a unit increase in per
capita budget increases enrol ment by 624 students in
basic educati on. Relatedl y, 97% of the vari ance in ac-
tual basic educati on enrol ment is attri buted to the per
capita budget allocation on basic education by the na-
tional government. The study found that popul ati on
growth rate and economics (GDP per capita) are the
two main dri vers in basic education development.
School-age popul ati on is growing by about 6% annu-
ally whereas the countrys GDP average yearl y growth
just reaches about 4%. Ulti mately, the fast expanding
population has to be curbed if the country has to
achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of
Education For All (EFA).

Keywords - basic education, per capita budget education,
participation rate, school-age population.

I. Introduction

Worldwide, the problem of financing basic edu-
cation has become increasingly more pronounced as popu-
lation pressure on national resources has correspondingly
increased. In the Philippines, access to basic education has
greatly expanded in the past two decades as enrolment
growth in both the elementary and secondary school sys-
tems swelled posting an average annual growth rate of
6.7%. However, while access widened, it is alleged that
the quality of basic education has deteriorated and contin-
ues to do so. The clamor to improve the quality of basic
education and at the same time meet the ever -growing
demand for more places in the basic education system,
within a severely limited government budget has thus be-
come even more pronounced (United Nations Educa-
tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO],
2010). This situation, however, is not unique to the Philip-
pines.
In a policy paper by Manasan (2006) of the Phil-
ippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS), it is con-
tended that the most strategic way to address the problem
An Econometric Model for Determining Sustainability of Basic
Education Development

Ferdi nand T. Abocejo, MPP
Center for Research and Development
fertesabo1127@gmail.com

Roberto N. Padua, PhD
Research Consultant
rnpadua@yahoo.com

is to determine how money should be spent rather than on
how much money there is.
For instance, one of the policy recommendations
in that paper was to shift financing away from secondary
and tertiary education towards elementary education be-
cause of greater positive externalit ies associated with the
latter. In short, the policy paper sidesteps the main issue of
financial shortage to support basic education by arguing
that the main problem stems from poor fiscal management
and governance in basic education. While evidences of
gross inefficiencies and inequitable allocation of resources
to basic education do exist (and succinctly summarized in
that paper), it is believed that any solution along this line
of approach will be short term whereas the problem of
financing basic education amidst a geometrically growing
population will remain a long term concern.
The rapid expansion of basic education, as well as
the achievement of Education for All (EFA) goals, re-
quires more financial resources to education systems
worldwide. In developing and underdeveloped countries,
public funding for basic education development is severely
insufficient as these compete with even more basic social
services. As such, government resources are often comple-
mented by development partner funding, household and
community contributions, and publicprivate partnerships.
Including private entities in efforts to support education
development is not a new idea. But where should this pri-
vate support come from? Parents contributions, tradition-
ally viewed as a useful complement to public funding, are
now considered more as a barrier to reaching the poorest
segments of society. Furthermore, marshalling up private
sector efforts on broader policy frameworks and strategies
is becoming a challenge for many governments
(UNESCO, 2010).
Much progress has been made since global lead-
ers agreed in the year 2000 to provide basic education for
every child in the world. Globally, primary enrolment has
risen by over 40 million children. However, despite these
impressive results, external financing for basic education
has not grown fast enough to put most countries on track
for reaching the EFA goals and the MDGs. There are sev-
eral developments that may offer opportunities from 2010
to mobilize substantial new resources but unless the core
problem of poverty is addressed, the basic education de-
velopment problem will persist.
The main thesis of this paper is this: State financ-
ing of basic education, even with the infusion of new re-
sources, will need to address an ever-growing population
and for it to become sustainable, the core issue of poverty
and income-inequalities will need to be addressed first.
changes, to make do; courage to be different; ability to
make improvements of something that already exists; op-
posite to being traditional, stale, old (www.sls.org, 2007).

B. Creativity Index
In this study the directors creativity is defined in terms
of the spirit, the mindset, the way of looking at reality
characterized by freshness, imagination, inventiveness,
cleverness, thinking out of the box, novelty, resourceful-
ness. Specifically, it measures their level of creativity in
the facets shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1. CREATIVITY INDEX OF DIRECTORS

C. Creative Leadership and Teaching
Vicencio (1991) conducted a study of the effect of
creative teaching in Science and Health on the pupils
achievement and creativity. She found out that creative
teaching breeds creative pupils whose achievement is
higher. There is a seed of creativity in each one which
should be nurtured through deliberate training, practice
and encouragement (Ibid).
Barlis (2004) in a study on the impact and predictors of
innovativeness of school administrators in selected Philip-
pine public secondary schools surveyed the innovative
interventions and init iatives of principals as they kept
pace with new researches, trends, theories and changes
taking place in the 21
st
century.
Built on from the previous studies conducted, the pre-
sent research ventured into other factors that have been
left unexplored to expand the knowledge base on develop-
ing the creativity of the school leaders, teachers and learn-
ers.
In this study the following constructs are defined as
follows: (a) political skills refer to the adeptness of the
director to use power to achieve school objectives which
include the art of negotiating and establishing the right
connections and winning the right people; and (b) integ-
rity as the directors uprightness, honesty and trustworthi-
ness or virtue.
1. Enthusiasm to experiment on new ways
2. Open to novel ideas
3. Focused on continuous improvement of the school
4. Open to suggestions on the running of the school.
5. Considers failure as a learning experience
6. Eagerness to learn more and improve
7. Ensures that curriculum is modified to meet current needs.
8. Involves teachers and staff in the decision making.
9. Ensures that in-service training is conducted to introduce
new teaching strategies
10. Encourages the conduct of research to enrich the curricu-
lum
D. Theoretical Underpinnings

This study is anchored on the Whole Brain The-
ory of Ned Herrman (1976) who affirmed that everyone
has a creative potential (www.kheper, retrieved 19 April
2011).

Hermann discovered that there are four (4) patterns in
terms of how brain perceives and processes information.
The model divides the brain into 4 quadrants A, B, C and
D. Upper Right (D) focuses on synthesis/ big picture,
creative, intuitive, causing change, strategic planning;
visionary and open. (Ibid).
Fig. 1 Hermanns Model

Based on this theory, creativity is present in everyone
which was corroborated by a study conducted by Vicencio
(1991). The constant challenge, thus, is to know how to
tap, unleash, nurture, develop and harvest these great po-
tential concentrated in the upper right quadrant of the hu-
man brain.
Moreover, honing the right brain is developing more
creative and visionary people and leaders. The educational
curricula and training programs should gear to the devel-
opment of the whole brain learning, assisting students to
integrate the strengths in each quadrant thereby develop-
ing the whole person.
This research is built on the previous studies thus far
conducted about creativity. It is focused on identifying
some factors that can stimulate creativity of leaders and
professionals as a strategy to win in the contest of global-
ization.
Indeed, it is very apt to include as one of the aims of
education for national development the nurturing, honing
and harnessing of the students creativity and innovative-
ness, the nations cutting edge in facing the challenges of
life and changing workplace.

E. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the study in light of
the theory, concepts and related studies is presented as
follows:

Fig. 2. Conceptual Framework of the Study

III. Research Design and Methodology

This is a descriptive-correlational study which sought
to identify some of the personal and school attributes that
enhance the creativity of directors of technical schools in
the National Capital Region. The personal attributes meas-
ured were educational attainment, experience, travel, in-
tegrity, political skills and attitude towards technological
advances. The school attributes were school location,
school size, quality of faculty members and support sys-
tem.

Two parallel Likert-type questionnaires developed by
the researchers subjected to content validation by educa-
tion experts and to reliability (Cronbach = 0.95) were
administered to 159 school directors, faculty members,
administrative officers and finance officers of 40 technical
schools in the National Capital Region.
The data were encoded on the MS Excel Program and
analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) version 14.

Frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation were
used to profile the directors personal attributes and school
attributes. Pearson r and Kendalls tau b, were used in the
correlation analysis, while ANOVA, t -test and chi-square
for the test of significant difference in the means of vari-
ous respondent groups. The mult iple regression analysis
served to identify the predictors of creativity of school
directors. Random interviews were also conducted to sup-
plement the quantitative data collected.

IV. Results and Discussions

The findings reveal that the creativity of directors is
positively related to integrity, their attitude towards tech-
nological advances, as shown in Table 2. This is corrobo-
rated by Bumatays (2004) findings that personal integrity
and good moral character are important strength of a
leader; by Kouzes and Posner (1993) that key characteris-
tics of admired leaders are honesty and integrity beyond
reproach: they walk their talk; they measure congruence;
and validated by Flor Go, a De La Salle University-Manila
Board of Trustee who remarked that the secret of fund-
raising is integrity. It also concurs with Sodipes (2006)
findings that creative leaders procure tools and equipment
that support innovations and of Maxwells claim (1993)
that creative people are early adopters of new technology.

TABLE 2. CORRELATION OF DIRECTORS INTEG-
RITY, ATTITUDE TOWARDS TECHNOLOGI -
CAL ADVANCES, LENGTH OF EXPE
RIENCE AND THEIR CREATIVITY

(* significant at 0.05 level; ** significant at 0.01 level)
Correlation is low if r is 0.1 to 0.3; moderate if r is 0.31to
0.50
strong if r is 0.51to1.0

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE
PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES
OF DIRECTORS
Educational attainment
Experience, Travel, Atten-
dance to Seminars, Member-
ship in Professional Organiza-
tions;
Attitude towards
technological advances
Political skills, Integrity

SCHOOL ATTRIBUTES
Location, School size
Quality of faculty
Support System
CREATIVITY
Of DIRECTORS
Openness to new ideas
Enthusiasm to try new
things; out of the box
ideas; eagerness to learn,
advance and improve
VARIABLES Pearson
r
Correlation

Integrity
(Count Base n=159)

Decides on the common
good
0.579** Strong
Utilizes funds in line with
school priorities and needs
0.529** Strong
In decision making, consid-
ers the good of subordinates
over ones own.
0.451** Moderate
Credible 0.434** Moderate
Trustworthy. 0.432** Moderate
Does not play favoritism 0.417** Moderate
Has moral ascendancy or
good moral character.
0.404** Moderate
Is fare in assessing the staff
and teachers performance
0.397** Moderate
Transparent in financial
deals.
0.329* Moderate
2. Length of experience as
Director
-0.361* Mo d e r a t e;
negative
3. Attitude towards techno-
logical advances: ensures
sufficient no. of computers
for students
0.236** Low
Creat ivity is found to be negatively related to his
length of experience as director. The most creative years
of the director are the first six years in office; after which
there is observed backsliding in his creativity. This con-
curs with Danaos (1992) study that directors with less
years of experience have higher performance than those
who have served more years. This implies that the young
blood director may start his career with enthusiasm and
energy, charged with novel ideas and drive to do some-
thing great; but through the years, the experience of obsta-
cles and frustrations may cause him to be more passive
and less dynamic; or complacency may creep in and the
director may just settle for the minimum.

TABLE 3. CORRELATION OF POLITICAL SKILL
AND CREATIVITY OF DIRECTORS
Correlation is low if r is 0.1 to 0.3; moderate if r is 0.31to 0.50

The cluster above that defines political skills was
found to be positively related to the directors creativity.
This corroborates with Bilangels (2006) study that the
appropriate leadership style is transformat ional-political.
The creative leader has to have strong political will which
can come from ones personality, rapport, affection, re-
spect, deference, liking and admirat ion which make others
want to cooperate. He has to be politically savvy and see
power as ability to influence, to bring about change in
behavior or attitude. It connotes the knack to get people to
cooperate because they found the leader especially attrac-
tive. Political skills are social skills of likeability, amiabil-
ity, friendliness, approachability; in knowing how to pre-
sent changes in a win-win way.
The directors educational attainment, extent of
travel, attendance to seminars, and membership to profes-
sional organizations were found to be not significantly
related to their creat ivity. These may be due to the fact
that directors should be at least masters degree holders,
hence, theres not much difference among them in terms
of educational attainment. Benefits of travel, attendance to
seminars, and membership in professional organizat ions
may also be a commonality for them as Chief Executive
Officers of their technical schools. Thus, the difference in
their level of creativity is not significantly related to these
factors.
As with the school attributes, findings reveal that the
creativity of directors is positively related to the number
of full-time faculty members (Table 4). This implies that
the more the director can count on full-t ime faculty mem-
bers, the more creative he can be. This is logical since
fruits of creativity or innovations cannot be done without
people.
It also reveals that the presence of administrative,
legal and moral support system in the school positively
influence the directors creativity. This shows that the
administrative staff assists the directors in the internal
running of the school. With strong support in this area, the
directors are not to be overburdened by these seemingly
routine yet important managerial tasks and so have more
time to explore, think creatively and plan innovations for
school improvement.

TABLE 4. SCHOOL ATTRIBUTES AND DIREC-
TORS CREATIVITY
Correlat ion is low if r is 0.1 to 0.3; moderat e if r is 0.31t o 0.50

Findings further show that the presence of legal sup-
port is positively related to the directors creativity. This
implies that when the director can count on a good legal
counsel bureau, experts in the laws governing the school,
employer-employee relat ions - draining legal complica-
tions would be avoided. Hence, the director can be more
relaxed to think of novel ways to enrich the curricular
programmes, etc.
Furthermore, the presence of moral support in terms of
harmonious relationship among colleagues positively in-
fluences the creativity of the directors. If there is good
camaraderie and directors have trusted friends to count on
in the school, then in difficult undertakings, he can draw
strength, encouragement and push from them to persevere
heroically until the very end.
The mult iple regression analysis shows that of all the
various independent variables, only the four items of po-
lit ical skills shown in Table 5 emerged as a predictor of
Political Skills Pearson
r
Correlation
Presents ideas in a win-win per-
spective
0.52** Strong
Enjoys a strong support from peo-
ple in the school organization.
0.51** Strong
Sets sufficient budget for activities
and projects.
0.462** Moderate
Competent in the job 0.432** Moderate
Has effective linkages with key
sectors in the community
0.404** Moderate
Gets people to support his proposal,
plans, new ideas
0.372** Moderate
Listens to people who are against
his proposals or ideas.
0.362** Moderate
Ensures that school has adequate
quality and quantity of tools, equip-
ment, materials.
0.362** Moderate
Approachable 0.221* Low
VARIABLES r Correlation
1. No. Full-time Faculty 0.356* Moderate
2. In School Support System
Administration 0.315* Moderate
Legal 0.460** Moderate
Moral Support 0.356* Moderate
the creativity of the directors. This shows that nurturing
the creativity of school leaders means nurturing also their
political skills; specifically in the following skills: gener-
ating funds to supplement school budget; in presenting
changes/new ideas in a win-win perspective; seeking mu-
tually beneficial and satisfying reasons for the changes/
new ideas. asking assistance from civic agencies for spe-
cial projects and having the minimum desired quality and
quantity of materials, tools and equipment.

TABLE 5. MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH
DIRECTORS CREATIVITY AS DEPENDENT VARIABLE
This is in consonance with the findings of Santos
(1979) who asserts that to be creative, one needs to count
on logistics/financial resources. But even if confronted
with limited financial resources, the creative leader can
transcend this obstacle with his integrity and polit ical
knack to sell his dreams to people who can support or
connect him to people who can help. In the long run, prob-
lems are turned into occasions of greatness. Problems
sharpen the leaders wits and raise his standards. One side
stresses the limited material resources while the other,
stresses the intellectual and creative resources of the hu-
man spirit which can always push further and overcome
all obstacles.
V. Conclusions and Recommendations

In light of the findings, the following are some con-
clusions: (1) The directors of technical schools in order to
be creative and to forge a culture of creativity and innova-
tiveness have to nurture their creative spirit and its corre-
lates, namely, their political skills, integrity and positive
attitude towards technological advances; (2) Considering
that the length of experience as director is negatively re-
lated to creativity, directors should foster the desire to con-
stantly improve and grow professionally and personally, to
prevent stagnation or backsliding in creativity; (3) The
school attributes positively related to the directors creativ-
ity are: presence of the right number of full-t ime faculty
members, and of administrative, legal, moral support sys-
tem.
The researcher proposed the (1) institutionalization of
creativity, the nations competitive edge in the global
scene, integrating it in the vision, mission, goals and objec-
tives (VMGO) of the school, in the reward/promotion/
tenure structure and performance appraisal system; (2) peg
to a maximum of six years the term of office of the direc-
tor to prevent backsliding in creat ivity. A rotation or re-
shuffling scheme can also be used to sustain directors in
their zest to improve and innovate (3) incorporation of the
items in the cluster of integrity in a Code of Ethics for
School Administrators and Professionals; (4) to put pre-
mium on integrity and values formation as well as modules
on marketing; art of asking for resources and entrepre-
neurial spirit in the curriculum of all academic pro-
grammes; and (5) to fine-tune the curriculum of educa-
tional administration and other academic programmes to
integrate, based on the findings of the study, the competen-
cies of political skills, integrity, attitude towards techno-
logical advancement

Acknowledgement

The main researcher, Amy M. Bonotan, Ph.D., thanks
the UP Education Alumni Association, Inc. for the J.R.
CORTES Doctoral Scholarship; the UP Presidential
Scholarship Committee for the scholarship grant; and the
Cebu Normal University Administration for the sponsor-
ship of her participation to the 3
rd
International Education
Conference, Tarlac State University, Philippines, May 18-
20, 2011.

REFERENCES

American Heritage Dictionary, 2006.

Barlis, L. (2004). Predictors and impact of innovativeness of
school administrators in selected public secondary schools.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, UP Diliman, QC.

Bartolome, C. (1990) Psychological characteristics of
innovativeness. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, UP
Diliman, QC.

Bilangel, N. (2006). TESDA Schools: Management in rural ar-
eas.
Predictor Regression Coeffi-
cients
t P
Political Skills
B Beta
Constant 67.93 12.444 0
Directors can/have
-

(a) readily gener-
ate funds to sup-
plement school
budget
0.82 0.304 2.103 0.045
(b) present
changes/new ideas
in a win-win per-
spective; seeking
mutually benefi-
cial and satisfying
reasons for the
changes/new
ideas.
3.193 0.378 3.196 0.004
(c) ask assistance
from civic agen-
cies for special
projects
1.141 0.358 2.917 0.007
(d) the desired
quality and quan-
tity of materials,
tools and equip-
ment
1.235 0.36 2.58 .016
R=0.806 F-value for ANOVA = 12.015
R Square =0.649 Sig=.000
Adjusted R Square = 0.596
Creativity= 67.93 +0.82(a) + 3.193(b) + 1.141(c) +
1.235(d)

Unpublished masteral thesis, UP Diliman, QC.

Bumatay, L (2004). Determinants of quality higher education.

Dictionary at www.sls.org, 2007.

Herrman, N. (1976). Whole Brain Theory at www.hbdi.com.
& www. kh epe r.n et / t op ics / int e l l igenc e/
Herrmann.htm. Retrieved 19 Apr 2011.

Santos, C. (1979). Correlates of innovative behavior in school
administrators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, UP
Diliman, QC.

Sodipe, R. (2006). Competencies of school heads, teachers
performance and students academic achievement.

Syjuco, A. Empowerment today. Speech on the launching of
Ladderized Education (2004) at tesda.gov.ph/news.asp.
Retrieved in January 2007.

Vicencio, E. (1991). Creative teaching in science and health:
Effect on pupil creativity and achievement. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation. UP, Quezon City.
Abstract Cyber portfolio is a valuable innovati ve
menu for teachers who are seeking for strategies or
methods when integrating technol ogy in their lessons.
This paper presents a straightforward preparation on
how to innovate a menu that addresses the 21st cen-
tury skills which are blended with higher order think-
ing skills, multi ple intelligence, technology and multi-
medi a.
Specifically, this cyber portfolio is an admi nistra-
ti ve tool that manages, organizes, displ ays and eval u-
ates the electronic portfolio of students. Additi onally,
through cyber portfolio, these e-portfolios or the digi-
tized collection of students outputs (e.g. text-based,
word processed documents, graphics, vi deos or multi-
medi a elements, and other e-resources) are easily ar-
chi ved on a Website or on other electronic medi a such
as a CD-ROM or DVD. With cyber portfolio, teachers
can control and easily navigate vari ous works of their
students as well as track students e-portfolio. In short,
this cyber portfolio enable teachers to have a menu or
set of choices to i ncrease teachers own capability to
integrate technol ogy while i mprovi ng the students
ability in communicating the value of their work.
Moreover, this paper, discusses the hows in develop-
ing a cyber portfolio as an innovati ve menu to speed-
up the teaching-learni ng process and blend classroom
acti vi ties with latest technology available in the inter-
net. Finally, some conclusions on effecti ve utilization of
cyber portfolio as a public table in showcasing stu-
dents personal achievements are also presented.
Keywords: cyber portfolio; e-portfolio; innovative menu
I. Introduction

Technology is often considered as time idler for
students but continues to become a necessity to for both
teachers, and students in making the classroom a con-
nected educational place. As teachers and students get
interconnected via global networks, there is an increasing
number of universit ies and teachers within Philippines as
well as global in the progression of the utilization of e-
portfolio as one of the means of students learning and
assessment. In fact, the University of Georgia (UG) was
making extensive use of e-portfolios in the International
Technology Masters program. Students from the univer-
sity were encouraged to present publicly a comprehensive
e-portfolio of their design work as the culminating assess-
ment in their programme (Depart ment of Instructional
Technology, 1999). Apparently, there is an increasing
importance in the use of e-portfolios. As a consequence,
there is a decrease in the number of paper-pencil examina-
advancing Multiple Intelligences (MI), Higher Order
Thinking Skills (HOTS) and integration of technology.
Recognizing the transition from paper-based as-
sessment to the utilizat ion of e-portfolio as means to inte-
grate MI, HOTS and technology, it is vital that teachers
must learn how to design their cyber portfolio that scales
beyond traditional boundaries to execute seamlessly across
these networks. Corollary to this, teachers ought to have a
solid foundation on how to successfully integrate technol-
ogy into their teaching. This know-how is now considered
as the highlights in the sphere of 21st century learning.
Thus, in enhancing the 21st century skills of the students, e
-portfolio is gradually used but in facilitating the e-
portfolio, the employment of cyber-portfolio should be the
pre-requisite to every educator.
Electronic Portfolio
Students today are exposed to technology and teachers
utilize this skill to their benefit. By being vigilant of the
latest technology, educators add new modalities to make
their craft more effective. One of this is the making of e-
portfolio. An electronic portfolio, also known as an e-
portfolio or digital portfolio, is a collect ion of electronic
evidence assembled and managed by a user, usually on the
Web. The electronic portfolio allows learners to articulate
their work and take ownership over their own ability to
plan and assess and reflect upon their learning during a
specific period of time. Specifically, the e-portfolio is em-
ployed to store informat ion, present personal proficiency
matrix, learning strategies and proof of growth, accom-
plishment and reflect ion. It contains artifacts as proof of
learning performance and attainment of objectives. This
proof can be in the form of word, power point files or links
to other web sources. Many teachers require electronic
portfolios to develop students' technology skills acquaint
students on how to better use technologies at the same time
learn form in their subject. Additionally, e-portfolio is util-
ized by teachers as primary tools to enhance students edu-
cational experience that go beyond the four corners of the
classroom and is bound within the objectives and standards
set by the teacher. Irrespective of the reasons for adoption,
there is a need to assess students' ability to make electronic
portfolios, as well as explore the benefits and challenges in
using e- portfolios. Accordingly, many studies had shown
the numerous functions of e-portfolio. Some of them are
presented in Table 1.

Ava Clare Marie O. Robles
Mindanao State University
General Santos City, Philippines
ching08robles@gmail.com
Cyber Portfolio: The Innovative Menu for 21st Century Technology
TABLE 1: DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS OF E-PORTFOLIO
Additionally, the e-portfolio may be in the form of
students activity that permits students to reflect. This
reflection activity is geared towards the achievement of
the learning objectives. At the same t ime paves the course
that holds lifelong learning. For familiarity purposes, the
following are the different examples of online portfolios
given by Larry Johnson & Annette Lamb (2007):
Teaching Portfolios - Carnegie Foundation - great
examples!
Student Portfolios - Mt. Edgecumbe High School
Kathleen Fischer - elementary teacher
Mrs. Silverman's Webfolio - primary teacher
(personal page)
Kelly's Teaching Portfolio - middle school teacher
Amy Moseman - teacher using Web Wizard
Stephenie Hauschild - teacher using Web Wizard
Cris Crissman - teacher using Web Wizard
- college English faculty
- college Education faculty
- web developer's portfo-
lio
- artist
- student portfolio
-Bondar - doctoral student

Cyber-Portfolio

The increasing number of students e-portfolio
amplifies teachers need to design a management tool to
track students e-portfolio with accuracy. As mentioned,
the increasing demand for e-portfolio as an approach ig-
nites the faculty of Mindanao State University (MSU)
College of Education to develop their cyber-portfolio to
enable them to be effective in the conduct of students e-
portfolio. In this context, cyber-portfolio is defined as an
administrative tool that manages, organizes displays and
evaluates the electronic portfolio of students. This can be a
dashboard, a blog of a class website for linking students e
-portfolio. This however, facilitates the implementation of
flexible, inter-operable and scalable workflow system
available on the web. Cyber portfolios are essential to edu-
cators who need to speed-up their teaching-learning proc-
esses. The attraction of this is that it helps teachers specify,
execute, and monitor their teaching-learning processes in
an efficient manner over web networks. Likewise, cyber
portfolio provides improved output and tracking of proc-
esses for better utilization of teaching- learning resources.
As an administrative tool, cyber portfolio enables the
teacher to arrange and organize menu for students elec-
tronic portfolio, after which, this is used in showcasing
students learning achievements. In creating a cyber port-
folio, teachers can upload files, pictures, video, and links
to other websites. Additionally, cyber portfolio can be
shared with others and publish to the Web for efficiency
purposes. All students must have an account in the teach-
ers cyber portfolio that has been customized to meet the
requirements of the students e- portfolio. With the formu-
lation of cyber portfolio, students and teachers are with
cutting edge technology required for an effect ive teaching-
learning process. This was used by selected teachers to
assess student learning for students in the College of Edu-
cation.
Cyber portfolio enables teachers to efficiently design a
learning environment, where teachers and students col-
laborate. Eventually, this will result to an effective deliv-
ery of learning blended with HOTS, MI and technology.
To support this kind of learning mode, educators are en-
couraged to design his cyber portfolio that provides origi-
nal content, link documents to download and share it with
other teachers and students. Besides, this cyber portfolio
will not only meet the needs of educators, but also provide
authentic evidence of students learning outcomes and
performance.
Accordingly, cyber-portfolio has specific menu func-
tionality designed to link students portfolio and showcase
different menu blended with HOTS, MI and technology/
multimedia. This menu allows teacher to monitor and
manage students e-portfolio which are generated and dis-
played on the web. The advantage of this system is that the
menu content can be easily changed, managed, organized
and displayed as well as archived from the Internet.
With cyber portfolio, teachers can easily determine
whether their students are going into the core of the
courses, because these menu found in the teacher s cyber-
portfolio ensure these students basic skills which are ap-
plied to higher levels of learning. Moreover, the displayed
menus will serve as a natural motivator for the students
because these students are able to navigate to different
Sources Functions of E-portfolio

Lancaster University
(Lancaster University, 2008)
Plan; Record; Review ;
Complete record of work;
Demonstrate skills; Insight
into ways of learning;
Confidence; Self aware-
ness and Identity

Liverpool University
(The Centre for Lifelong
Learning, 2008)
Sharing Evidence ; Plan-
ning; Monitoring; Review
of Evidence; Review of
Literature; Statement of
Outcomes; and Target

Windesheim University
(Wijnand, 2004)
Planning ; Registration;
Representation; and Per-
sonal Record of Progress;
and Reflection

EPPI
(Gough, Kiwan, Sutcliffe et
al., 2003)
Planning; Doing; Re-
cording; Reviewing; and
Evaluating

Individual Research
(Barrett, 2000)
Presentation , Collection;
Selection; Reflection; and
Direction

courses, because these menu found in the teacher s cyber-
portfolio ensure these students basic skills which are ap-
plied to higher levels of learning. Moreover, the displayed
menus will serve as a natural mot ivator for the students
because these students are able to navigate to different
resources which are linked in the menu. The menu items
that appear in the teachers cyber portfolio are hyperlinked
which open in separate pages or websites. It also allows
students to either write directly on the page and/or attach
other files.
However, to operationalize the use of e-
portfolios, specific guidance is issued to students of what
is expected. In addition, the teacher has the option and
opportunity to personalize this. Below is a sample of
teachers cyber portfolio is displayed in Fig.1.

Fig 1 Sample of Teachers Cyber Port folio

Using a qualitative research design, this paper
explored how cyber-portfolio and e-portfolio meet the
21st century skills to ensure that students are gaining the
maximum benefits from the use of electronic portfolios in
their study. For better understanding, a conceptual frame-
work is constructed in Fig.2.

Furthermore, it must be understood that it is the
teachers responsibility to link cyber portfolio into stu-
dents e-portfolio. The linked e-portfolio then helps teach-
ers in tracking or monitoring students work as it provides
first hand evidence of progression, and coherence towards
course completion. This proof is reflective in nature which
may contain hypermedia links to students e-files.
Completed outputs from students are structured
and linked to specify that they have sought guidance to the
teacher on how content and structure of their e -portfolios
are formulated. None of them, either during their first de-
gree or subsequent modes of service, experience personal
development planning or e-portfolio construction. While
students are in the process of complet ing their portfolio,
they link it with their peer learning group for evaluation
and comments. This encourages social networking, a proc-
ess that is repetitive in nature and provides feedback about
learning.
As the course ends, the e-portfolio evolves from a
formative assessment instrument to one that is summative
in nature. At this period, students share their e-portfolios
with the other groups who then cross -referenced the e-
portfolio with the course objectives ensuring that students
have evidenced in the attainment of targets. It may also be
used to determine the academic quality of the course, as
defined in the assessment criteria of the course syllabus.
Three weeks before the end of the first module, a
sample of t wenty-five (25) education students were issued
an online assessment survey to complete. This evaluation
was deliberately positioned in the distance education part
of the first module because it ascertains whether students
were aggressively engaged in the procedure associated
with the building of their e-portfolios. The objective of the
assessment survey was to determine which procedures
they were comfortable with and which would necessitate
extra support during approaching faculty based coaching
blocks.
Eighteen (18) out of twenty-five (25) students
responded to the assessment survey. Those seven students
who did not respond stated time as the factor for non-
complet ion. Those students who have responded men-
tioned that it was their first time with this kind of e-
portfolios for collect ing artifacts. This is justified because
students have been undertaking a transition from the tradi-
tional mode of course delivery to a blended learning strat-
egy. Ten (10) out of eighteen (18) students find the teach-
ers cyber portfolio as a manageable tool, for instance,
they are able to navigate with its links and add artifacts to
their e-portfolios and they were excited with their e-
portfolios. For example, a student commented that:

I am researching for more concepts and illustra-
tions for my e-portfolio and was able to place some of
these important documents into my e-portfolio. Im excited
as always to explore for more

Nonetheless, corrective support has been inte-
grated into the lessons at the beginning stage for those who
are finding it complex and hard. This is quite challenging,
after this prologue, selected students are working in a dis-
Fig. 2. Conceptual Frame-

Cyber Portfo-
lio
(Teachers
Menu
Wiki Spaces
Bubbleshare
Slideshare/ Blogs/
Facebook
Innertoob
TeacherTube
Meebo Me / News-
Map
LibriVox / Class-

E-Portfolio
( blended with
HOTS,
MI, Technology &
Mult imedia
tance learning mode.

Furthermore, most of the students have reported
that they appreciate the variety of links found in the
teachers cyber portfolio to support the content of their e-
portfolios. This indicates that they are able to navigate to a
variety of enriched activities which are blended with MI,
HOTS and technology/ multimedia. This further implies
that students are able to select from the different menu
prepared by the teacher on his cyber portfolio. As the stu-
dents select from these menu which are hyperlinked from
other sources, they are able to gain sufficient informat ion
which are pre-requisites to the development of their e-
portfolio. Those who failed to create e-portfolio within the
guidelines set by the teacher, require further remediation.
Interestingly, it was found that more than 65% of students
were able to successfully build their e-portfolio. Based
from the guidelines found in the teachers cyber portfolio,
they have also linked their individual files and other arti-
facts in developing the content of their e-portfolio. The
process of linking to different files is a subsequent skill
that would be required in the final stage of building an e-
portfolio. This process of linking artifacts into their e-
portfolios is inspiring, and that, students have demon-
strated proficiency before going further to the final stage
in using the e-portfolio as evidence of having achieved the
course objective.
Fifteen (15) out of eighteen (18) students said
that they have shared their e-portfolios with their peers.
But, only four (4) out of fifteen (15) have really com-
mented in the development of e-portfolios. These feed-
backs via Comments section in the students e-portfolio
are related to time. Although students have shared their
e-portfolios, they have not, as a whole, given comments to
each other, relative to the contents of their respective e-
portfolios. There are propositions here for the initial set of
lecture inputs for future group of students. The signifi-
cance of HOTS, MI and technology integration as strategy
to learning will have to be highlighted at the introductory
stage of the course and teachers. In particular, teachers
have to be proactive in cheering students at this early
phase. For example, it was reported that although feed-
back was emailed to ensure access to the students, the
design of teachers cyber portfolio needs to be carefully
planned. As pointed out, stressing the importance of
HOTS, MI and technology integration as strategy at the
beginning of the course is one of its longer term implica-
tions.

II. Results and Analysis

Instead of simply summarizing the use of cyber
portfolio, students e-portfolios as well as how teachers
perceive the whole process, we may conclude by examin-
ing this kind of innovation.
The findings of this paper indicate that the crea-
tion of cyber portfolio as teachers administrative tool in
helping students e-portfolio is feasible in the College of
Education. However, the implementation of cyber portfo-
lio and e-portfolios suggests that such usage would oblige
the college culture change, on students, teachers and staff.
If students are more familiar with conventional evaluation
then moving to a more outcome based assessment model
will have to be init iated with prudence. It may be possible
to implement this innovative strategy on graduate courses,
over a relat ively short timescale, but for a conventional
four (4) year degree course, it will be more challenging. If
such course is modularized and each module is assessed
independently, then employing an outcome based assess-
ment module would need to be considered on an individ-
ual module basis. The teacher implicat ions are also con-
sidered. Not only will the teachers have to accept the im-
portance of designing a cyber portfolio, but they will also
have to spend extra t ime tailoring their existing courses.
Indeed, the realization of cyber portfolio for students e-
portfolio will necessitate an extensive course re-
alignment.
The emerging cyber portfolio available either as
sub-system or modified tool in their own possession, pro-
vide scope for significant optimism. For students, this
cyber portfolio is needed to guide them in the complet ion
of their e-portfolio. In the case of Newcastle University,
Cottrell (2003) describes how a home-grown e-portfolio
was developed and its successful application with medical
students as well as in the study of Nursing, Medicine, and
Professional Education (Wijnand, 2004). Even so, the use
of cyber portfolio in integrating MI, and HOTS to stu-
dents e-portfolio creates certain issues such as time fac-
tor.
In Mindanao State University (MSU) of General
Santos City, the chosen alternative learning mode is to
adopt cyber portfolio for students e-portfolio. Although
this is an integrated resolution, with the first application of
cyber portfolio for students e-portfolio, it has encoun-
tered challenges and finally overcome certain technologi-
cal issues, such as downloading e-portfolios to compact
discs (CDs). Nevertheless, there is a big potential for exe-
cution of cyber portfolio in an online format. It is believed
that as technology progresses, cyber portfolio would be-
come healthier as it has been the case of MSU.
The choice of online implementation of cyber
portfolio and e-portfolios require certain technological
proficiency of both teachers and students. What may be
more difficult is to modify the conservative assessment of
university where the teacher is predominantly in control,
with that; students have to take more accountability for the
development of their e-portfolios. With this innovation, it
is proposed that teachers must learn how to effectively
design his cyber portfolio while students must develop
HOTS in the processes of collection, selection, and
evaluation for their e-portfolio. Other than that, it is also
suggested that teachers need to develop their own assess-
ment skills and styles where the responsibility may be on
quality of cyber portfolio to guarantee 21st century skills
which are blended with HOTS, MI and technology and
multimedia rather than grading of conventional students
assignments.
To demonstrate the achievement of the objectives
set in the course syllabus, it is suggested that collection of
artifacts or evidence be carried further than just a number
number of word-processed assignments, power point pres-
entations, spreadsheets and video files. For instance, the
collection of artifacts, such as lesson plans, feedbacks and
reflection must take place in appropriate online forums.
These artifacts have to be relevant to the course.
The results from this study also show that major-
ity of students have managed to complete their e-
portfolios to a satisfactory level even though they are at
the premature phase of using e-portfolios. Furthermore,
the results of the study shown that the construction of cy-
ber portfolio for e-portfolios is achievable, that can pro-
mote quality assessment. Later, it was found out that it can
and speed-up the teaching-learning process if and only if
both students and teachers are convinced about the impor-
tance of cyber portfolio and e-portfolio into the course.
Finally, teacher must become skilled in preparing an inno-
vative menu on his cyber portfolio. With this, the author is
soliciting for a change in teaching and learning modes as
well as encourages further research in this innovation. The
following are the innovative menu that addresses the 21st
century skills coated with the latest technology or mult i-
media available in the internet.

Innovating Menu Blended with HOTS

When preparing a menu for students e-portfolio,
it is necessary that these key questions are answered to
verify the level and extent to which higher order skills are
integrated: (1) are students encouraged to externalize ideas
or knowledge in their own ways? (2) Does the menu ad-
dress analysis, synthesis or evaluation appropriately and
extensively enough? (3) Does the activity found in the
menu pose questions that are focused on higher order
thinking skills? (4) Does the web tool when used to sup-
port the activity at a higher order thinking skills level?
In anal ysis level, menus are prepared to provide
access to sources which can be used for comparison of
content or evidence with sources which are web based.
With this, students need to be given clear instructions in
creating their e-portfolio which are web-based data.
When trying to find responses to analytical questions,
students e-portfolio will serve as an effective technique to
support students analytical understanding.
In synthesis level, teachers must efficiently ar-
range menus and linking it with search engines or sites
that appropriately undertake activities involving synthesis.
Students should become familiar with a wide range of
sources that are web-based, and are able to access those
resources that integrate synthesis. At this stage, students e
-portfolio should involved activities in which they can
select pertinent material from within sources, putting
source evidence into an order and prioritizing it according
to selected criteria. Using web-based frameworks for syn-
thesis (such as mind mapping techniques to link ideas
from students e-portfolio) can be priceless methods to
investigate techniques involved in synthesis. Using frame-
works as guidelines (such as opinion Blogs, Link sharing
and commenting) set out an argument in terms of descrip-
tion, pros, cons, personal views, teachers views and con-
clusions) can also support synthesis.
In eval uation level, cyber-portfolio is utilized by
letting others see the outcomes of their work via email/face
book/blogs and letting others comment on the work can
enable students to gain evaluative feedback. Incorporating
comments and giving of feedback should be encouraged,
and can be undertaken more easily when a web medium is
used. Creating formats to gather comments from others,
and identifying those targeted for feedback, may be neces-
sary as a preparatory exercise for students to become in-
volved in seeking evaluative feedback. If students are
working at an evaluative level, they need to specify criteria
for evaluation prior to undertaking judgments. Contacting
experts and specialists via email/face book/blogs to gain
ideas and feedback on specific aspects when evaluation is
being undertaken can also be a useful technique. Work
which is modified as a result of evaluative feedback and
web tools may aid this process.
As mentioned, teachers were responsible for pre-
paring menu which designs students e-portfolio and
teaching material that incorporates technologies into their
lessons. The focus of menu preparation making should not
be on technology but rather on how technology are used to
promote higher order thinking by using it on tasks that
required, like problem solving, reflection, and coopera-
tion. The suggested menus that incorporate technologies to
promote higher order thinking are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2. SUGGESTED MENUS FOR HOTS
HOTS Sample Learning Acti vi ties Menu

Analy-
sis

1. Design a questionnaire to gather
informat ion about cyber sex.
2. Conduct an invest igat ion to pro-
duce informat ion to support a view
on Corrupt ion.
3. Make a flow chart t o show t he
crit ical st ages of life
4. Construct a bar graph to illustrat e
select ed informat ion on birt h rate.
5. Make a jigsaw puzzle.
6. Make a family tree showing dif-
ferent relationships.
7. Put on a play about Peace.
8. Writ e a biography of President
Benigno Aquino
Blog post
quest ion on
concept s,
Wiki,
Phot os on
voice thread
wit h response,
classtools.net
Innertoob
Grazr
Classblog-
meist er
Synthe-
sis
1. Invent a machine to do a specific
t ask.
2. Design a building t o house your
st udy.
3. Creat e a new product. Give it a
name and plan a market ing cam-
paign.
4. Writ e about your feelings in rela-
t ion t o Hell is Real.
5. Writ e a TV show, play, puppet
show, role play, song or pantomime
about addict ion.
6. Design a record, or magazine
cover for JS Prom
7. Make up a new language code
Microblogging
Twitt er
Group back-
channel
Blogs for
reflect ions on
science project
Making of
Group Wikis
on class-
tools.net
LibriVox
Innovating Menu Blended with MI, Technology & Multi-
media

Technology has changed the face and function of
modern society. Our world has become technologically
advanced, and our classrooms are gradually following the
same advancements. Moreover, today's mult imedia which
is a cautiously woven combination of text, graphic art,
sound, animation, and video elements are now very inter-
active .This makes learning more engaging, enjoyable and
effective.
Multimedia is may be defined as the excit ing
combination of computer hardware and software that al-
lows you to integrate video, animation, audio, graphics,
and test resources to develop effective presentations on an
affordable desktop computer (Fenrich, 1997). Addition-
ally, mult imedia is a term recurrently heard and discussed
among educational technologists today. It is a potent tool
for making presentations. In essence, multimedia com-
bines multiple levels of learning into an educational tool
that allocates for multiplicity in curricula management.
Teachers, who aspire to prepare students for the
21st century, must learn how to effectively integrate tech-
nology and multimedia into the curriculum. Integration is
simply incorporating technology in a manner that en-
hances student learning. Moreover, technology integration
is simply using software so that students learn to use com-
puters flexibly, purposefully and creatively. This is real-
ized by having the curriculum drive technology usage, not
having technology drive the curriculum.
As technology becomes more inexpensive, acces-
sible, and user-friendly, teachers are also learning how
HOTS Sample Learning Acti vi ties Menu

Anal
ysi s

1. Design a questionnaire to gather
informat ion about cyber sex.
2. Conduct an invest igat ion to pro-
duce informat ion to support a view
on Corrupt ion.
3. Make a flow chart t o show t he
crit ical st ages of life
4. Construct a bar graph to illustrat e
select ed informat ion on birt h rate.
5. Make a jigsaw puzzle.
6. Make a family tree showing differ-
ent relat ionships.
7. Put on a play about Peace.
8. Writ e a biography of President
Benigno Aquino
Blog post
quest ion on
concept s, Wiki,
Phot os on
voice thread
wit h response,
classtools.net
Innertoob
Grazr
Classblogmeis-
t er
Syn-
thesis
1. Invent a machine to do a specific
t ask.
2. Design a building t o house your
st udy.
3. Creat e a new product. Give it a
name and plan a market ing cam-
paign.
4. Writ e about your feelings in rela-
t ion t o Hell is Real.
5. Writ e a TV show, play, puppet
show, role play, song or pantomime
about addict ion.
6. Design a record, or magazine
cover for JS Prom
7. Make up a new language code
Microblogging
Twitt er
Group back-
channel
Blogs for re-
flect ions on
science project
Making of
Group Wikis
on class-
tools.net
LibriVox
technology and mult imedia applications can be used as
a dominant instructional tool. Commencing a construc-
tivist learning approach, the integration of multiple in-
telligences and technology and mult imedia is an excel-
lent way to actively engage a student in quality learning.
As such, multimedia must be outstandingly well de-
signed and sophisticated enough to mimic the best ...

Table 3. SUGGESTED MENUS FOR MI
MI Multimedia/ Technology Menu

Verbal
(Word
Smart)
Word processors with voice annotations.
Desktop publishing programs.
Programs that allow children to create stories,
poems,
Word processing programs (Word)
Typing tutors (Mavis Beacon)
Desktop publishing (MicroSoft Publisher)
Electronic libraries (World Library)
Word games (Missing Links)
Story Writing Programs (Imagination Express; The
Amazing Writing Machine; StorybookWeaver
Blogging
Forums
Wiki Compositions
Grazr
Writing Newletter
Google Notebook
Classblogmeister
Logical
(Numbe
r
Smart)
Problem solving software
Computer Aided design programs
Strategy game software
Critical thinking programs
Lost Mind of Dr. Brain (Sierra)
Linking Sharer
Widget Finding
Crea t ingTimel inei n
slideshare

Evalua-
tion
1. Prepare a list of criteria to j udge a singing
completion.
2. Critique the motives of people.
3. Conduct a debate about an issue of special
interest.
4. Make a booklet about 5 rules you see as impor-
tant.
5. Form a panel to discuss views on "Pre-Marital
Sex."
6. Prepare a case to present
your view about Mercy killing
Digital photos,
Digital Storytelling,
E-mail, blogs,
Facebook,
Flickr
Teaching wiki
Meebo Me
Kines-
thetic
(Body
Smart)
Software games that allow contact with the
keyboard, mouse, j oystickand other devices.
Tetris game (Alexey Pazhitnov) - fast decision
making + hands-eye coordination
http://vadim.www.media.mit.edu/Tetris.htm
StarLogo (MITs Media Lab)
http://www.media.mit.edu/starlogo
Personal Science Lab (Broderbund)
Jason Proj ect (electronic field trips)
http://www.j asonproj ect.org
TPR software
Acting
Creating video clips
Simulate
Body Graphs
Scavenger Hunt
Musical
(Music
Smart)
Music composing software
Videodisc player / CD-Roms/ Audio CDs
Band-in-a-Box (PG software)
Singing software (Transforms voice input into
synthesizer sounds)
Tone recognition and melody enhancers (Arnold;
SimTunes)
Musical instrument digital interfaces (Midi)
Musical Problem Solving (Making Music; Music
Ace; Dr.Brain)
Animoto
LibriVox
Recording audio files
Audio Editing
Evoca / Elluminate
Ode o (r ec or ding
podcast)
Music Selection
In-
trapers
onal
(Self-
Smart)
Games involving only one person.
Brainstorming or problem solving software.
Personal choice software (Decisions, Decisions)
Career counseling software (The Perfect Career)
Inspiration or kidspiration (www.inspiration.com)
Any self-paced program (Foreign Languages;
Personal finances)
Decisions, Decisions
Graphic Organizer Index (www.graphic.org)
Intelligent Tutoring Systems (Dave ESL by MIT)
Debates
Reading & Opinion
Reporting on Issues
Status Reporting
Reflecting Activity
Journal
Inter-
persona
l
(People
Smart)

Computer games which requires two or more
persons
PowerPoint
Telecommunication programs
CUseeMe, ICQ (web.icq.com)
MSN messinger, Net Meeting (Yahoo)
Electronic bulletin boards (Kidsnet)
Simulation games (Sim City)
E-mail programs (Outlook, Eudora)
iEARN website http://iearn/org.about/index.htm
Online pen-pal programs (http://keypals.com)
Surfaquarium (http://surfaquarium.com)
Multiuser virtual envornments: Tapped In
Forums / Discussions
Blogging
Vision Casting
Directing
Acting
Cha t t i ng / Ema i l /
Facebook
Natu-
ralist
(Nature
Smart)

Nature composing programs (image composer)
Paint programs (Photopaint, Microsoft paint)
Web page programs
3D software that portrays nature
Software games
Spreadsheet programs which allow children to see
charts, maps or diagrams
Multimedia authoring programs
Photography
Gcast
Maps
E n v i r o n me n t a l
Research
Scene Scout
Storyboarding
teacher, by combining in its design the various elements
of the cognitive processes and the best quality of the tech-
nology.
The purpose of innovating menu blended with
multiple intelligence, technology and multimedia is to
explore its combined principles creating a recipe with lat-
est web tools available on the net. However, it must be
noted that each menu has to be hyperlinked with its
specified step-by-step-activity. Also, teachers need to in-
dicate specific content to be addressed for each menu. The
suggested menus that incorporate technologies to promote
MI are shown in Table 3.

III. Conclusion

The increasing number of students e-portfolio
amplifies teachers need to design a management tool to
track students e-portfolio with accuracy. The paper pre-
sented cyber portfolio as an administrative tool for moni-
toring students e-portfolio. This can be a dashboard, a
blog of a class website for linking students e-portfolio
and has specific menu functionality designed to link stu-
dents portfolio and showcase different menu blended
with HOTS, MI and technology and multimedia.
Furthermore, the results of the study shown that
the construction of cyber portfolio for e-portfolios is
achievable, and can promote quality assessment. Later, it
was also found out that it speeds-up the teaching-learning
process if and only if both students and teachers are con-
vinced about the importance of cyber portfolio and e-
portfolio into the course.
In view of the findings of this study, suggested
samples on how to innovate menu blended with HOTS,
MI and Technology were given. It is hoped that this proc-
ess will not only improve cyber portfolio itself, it will also
change and enhance the teachers and students way of
life.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank her husband for
his patience and understanding. Above all, she would like
to thank our Almighty God for giving her wisdom and
strength in finishing this study.

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ton, N. (2003) A systematic map and synthesis
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_portfolio

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http://www.lancs.ac.uk/celt/celtweb/students_myplace

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IMPROVING ENGLISH PROFICIENCY THROUGH
PROGRESSIVE ASSESSMENT
Strategy to Inspire Self Motivation and Independent Learning

Alessandra L. De Guzman
Vice-President for Administration/HRD
Good Samaritan Colleges
Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija
alessandra_gsc@yahoo.com
AbstractThe pri mary goal for the i mplementati on of
Progressive Assessment programs at Good Samaritan
Colleges (GSC) was to find new pedagogical tools to en-
hance lesson deli very and promote efficient assessment
making use of both advanced technology and sound
teaching methodol ogy. Although the basic processes of
student learning have not changed, the circumstances,
context and physical environment have. Based on the
observations of GSC faculty members, several factors
have been i dentified as contri bute to the di fficul ty of
English Language Teaching in GSCs particul ar situa-
tion including the l ack of foundati onal skills in English,
lack of reinforcement i n the use of the English language
outside the classroom and a l ack of resources, among
others. There is a need to adapt educati onal concepts
and methods so as to empower and enable the teachers
and students that enter the system. This is where Pro-
gressive Assessment comes in, as it consists of several
complementary programs and their supplementary ac-
ti vities which enable teachers to avail of the benefits of
technology in diagnosing and res ponding to the uni que
needs of students. At its core Progressive Assessments
greatest value is its strategic use to ins pire self moti va-
tion and independent learning among students though
the generation of need-specific interventions for the i m-
provement of English Proficiency. This session ai ms to
present the experience of Good Samaritan Colleges in its
use of Progressive Assessment programs from the per-
specti ves of admi nistrators, teachers, parents and stu-
dents. It likewise provi des an overview of the results of
implementation as well as the feedback of the various
stakehol ders who have partici pated in the use of Pro-
gressive Assessment.

Introduction to Progressive Assessment at Good Sa-
maritan Colleges

The primary goal for the implementation of Pro-
gressive Assessment programs at Good Samaritan Col-
leges (GSC) was to find new pedagogical tools to enhance
lesson delivery and promote efficient assessment making
use of both advanced technology and sound teaching meth-
odology.

Although the basic processes of student learning
have not changed, the circumstances, context and physical
environment have. Based on the observations of GSC fac-
ulty members, several factors contribute to the difficulty of
English Language Teaching in GSCs particular situation
including the following:

There is a lack of recognition of the importance of
learning the English language among learners, espe-
cially given the fact that in the province, an individ-
ual can get by both personally and professionally
even without a high degree of English proficiency.
This lack of recognition in turn translates into stu-
dents who are not engaged learners of the language
even if a minimal level of understanding exists.

There is lack of reinforcement to speak English out-
side the classroom and at home. Also, most house-
holds and the outside environment do not provide
sufficient exposure to the English language.

A majority of students have poor foundational skills
in English, as evidenced by limited vocabulary skills,
poor reading comprehension and insufficient under-
standing of grammatical rules.

Most students lack the self confidence to pursue Eng-
lish language learning on their own. There is a ten-
dency to become overly dependent on the teacher
while at the same time viewing the learning of Eng-
lish merely as a grueling academic requirement that
is undertaken without interest or self motivation.

There is a need to adapt educational concepts and
methods so as to empower and enable the teachers and
students that enter the system. This is where Progressive
Assessment comes in, as it consists of several comple-
mentary programs and their supplementary activities
which enable teachers to avail of the benefits of technol-
ogy in diagnosing and responding to the unique needs of
students.
At its core Progressive Assessments greatest
value is its strategic use to inspire self motivation and in-
dependent learning among students though the generation
of need-specific interventions for the improvement of
English Proficiency.

Progressive Assessment as an Innovation in English
Language Teachi ng: The Administrators Perspecti ve

The program implementation constituted a con-
ceptual shift within GSC for administrators, teachers and
students alike. But in spite of the initial reluctance, persis-
tent efforts to introduce and integrate the Progressive As-
sessment program bore fruit with the eventual acceptance
of GSC towards the program, given the awareness of the
need for a new paradigm of learning to enable effective
education in the 21
st
century.
As Alvin Toffler put it, The illiterate of the 21
st

century will not be those who cannot read or write, but
those who cannot learn, relearn and unlearn.
For administrators, the most significant gain from
Progressive Assessment has been awareness and empow-
erment. GSC slowly proceeds along a path of directed
evolution making use of the input derived from Progres-
sive Assessment which provides awareness of our current
status, as well as the capability of direct ing resources and
policies towards specific goals.
Awareness of the needs of the school and knowl-
edge of the possible solutions has been one of the gifts of
Progressive Assessment to GSC. Accurate knowledge of
the unique situation of the school gives the opportunity to
be proactive and responsive in the quest for improving
educational quality and delivery. In so doing, students are
able to have not only improvement in basic curriculum
competencies but also a love for education and a fostering
of their innate curiosity.

The Link Between Progressive Assessment and
Learner Centered Instructi on: The Users Perspecti ve
(Teachers and Students)

Assessment should be an integral part of instruc-
tion and should contribute significantly to students learn-
ing. Learners should be given time to think about and do
their tasks, and likewise be given the opportunity to re-
flect, revise, rethink and regulate their own learning. As-
sessment techniques must then be enabling and should be
constructed to support students learning in a contextual-
ized, meaningful manner and not in terms of atomized
tasks corresponding to isolated outcomes (Alarcon-
Limjap, 2004).
From the point of view of the teacher, assessment
tools are sample challenges that focus on student habits
and repertoires and not mere recall or rote learning skills.
They should be designed in a way that promotes equity by
giving appropriate room for students learning styles, apti-
tudes and interests. Effective assessment allows the
teacher to have accuracy and flexibility by giving an
teacher to have accuracy and flexibility by giving an
awareness of the unique skill level of each individual and
then enable improved responses to their remedial or en-
richment needs.
The tools of Progressive Assessment have en-
abled GSC to modify the learning experience so as to shift
the focus to a learner-centered paradigm, wherein the
learning process is not only enhanced but also individual-
ized to maximize each learners potential.
Joseph Seidlin has said To teachers, students are
the end products, all else is a means. Hence there is but
one interpretation of high standards in teaching: standards
are highest where the maximum number of students slow
learners and fast learners alike develop to their maximal
capacity.
For students, Progressive Assessment gives stu-
dents the freedom to take part in their own learning, to
have the independence and self-motivation to see their
education as a self-investment. Through Progressive As-
sessment, students are given timely and accurate feedback
on their competency level, as well as the relevant recom-
mendations on how to proceed along a course of improve-
ment.
In so doing, the role of the teacher has evolved
from the all powerful sole source of learning to that of
facilitator and mentor providing students with the tools and
competencies to undertake learning on their own. Teachers
are now better able to inspire independence in students by
encouraging them to take an act ive role in their own devel-
opment and have the opportunity to gain knowledge
through their own efforts.

Educational Technology Integrati on

Progressive Assessment aims to promote active
and participative learner-centered educational methodolo-
gies in English language teaching making use of modern
technology and individualized instruction.
This approach to educational technological inte-
gration is premised on the belief that recognition of all
forms of knowledge, when properly organized and ren-
dered accessible for interaction, is at the heart of how tech-
nology can be made to serve the objectives of educational
administration, instruction and classroom management.
Aware of GSCs active initiatives and in develop-
ing and enhancing teaching learning processes, the ad-
ministration has sought the assistance of the EduQuest,
Inc., an educational technology institution whose vision is
to promote teacher professional practice of contemporary
educational technology and exclusively distributes Renais-
sance Learning Programs in the Philippines; and an affili-
ate of Asia Pacific College, an institution founded by IBM
Philippines and the SM (Shoemart) Foundation.
GSC takes pride in acknowledging that it is the
only private academic institution in the province of Nueva
Ecija that utilizes contemporary assessment technology in
improving the English proficiency of students in the pri-
mary, secondary and tertiary levels of education.

Student Profiling: The Reading Literacy Di agnosis

According to the EduQuest, Inc. Training Manual
(2004), the Reading Literacy Diagnosis Program is a
learning management system which makes use of com-
puter-adaptive test that aims to provide reliable data and
immediate feedback on the competency profile and base-
line skills of individuals and groups.
Students are diagnosed at the start, middle and
end of the school year (end of the semester for the College
Level) using the Star Reading software. Star Reading is a
computer adaptive test and database that allows teachers
to assess students reading abilit ies accurately in 20 min-
utes or less.

Figure 2. Star Reading sample test items

After the test, a report is generated by the system
to identify the strengths and weaknesses of individual stu-
dents, enabling teachers to focus attention to those who
require special remediat ion. From the generated report
teachers can adapt individualized mentoring and coaching
models as they assume responsibility over specific student
cases.
Star Reading generates scores pertinent to track-
ing of students growth over a period of time. These are
as follows:

1. Grade Equivalent (GE). GE scores range from
0.0 to 12.9+. They represent how a students test perform-
ance compares with that of other students.
2. Instructional Reading Level (IRL). The IRL is
the grade level at which a student is at least 80% profi-
cient at recognizing words and comprehending materials

Figure 1. Reading Literacy Diagnosis Process Flow

Star Reading combines brief, vocabulary in-
context items with new authentic text passage items to
help teachers pinpoint students reading levels more accu-
rately and efficiently.

STEP 1
The teacher enrolls the stu-
STEP 2
Student takes a 15-20 minute
STEP 3
System generates a report
STEP 4
Teacher makes data-driven
with assistance. IRL scores are Pre-Primer (PP), Primer
(P), 1 through 12, Post-High School (PHS).
3. Scaled Score (SS). The SS is the most funda-
mental score produced by Star Reading tests. It ranges
from 0 to 1400 and spans grades 1 through 12. It is calcu-
lated based on the difficulty of the questions and the num-
ber of correct responses. SS are useful for comparing stu-
dent performance over time and across grades. In Star
Reading tests, all other norm-referenced scores are de-
rived from the Scaled Score.
4. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The
ZPD defines the reading level range from which a student
should be selecting books for optimal growth in reading
without frustration. The ZPD, however, is an approxi-
mate. Success at any reading level also depends on the
students interest and prior knowledge of a books content.
Teachers should use their professional judgment to adjust
the level of books read to match an individual students
needs and interests.
Figure 3. Sample Star Reading Report

In general, Star Reading tests repeatability and
flexible administration provide specific advantages for
everyone responsible for the education process:
Students. Star Reading software provides a chal-
lenging, interactive and brief test that builds con-
fidence in their reading ability.
Teachers. Star Reading test facilitates individualized
instruction by identifying students who need
remediation or enrichment most
School Administrators. Star Reading Management
program provides regular, accurate reports on
performance at a class, grade as well as year-to-
year comparisons.

Need Specific Interventi on

Using the results of the diagnosis (Star Reading),
the students set goals for their reading practice with their
teacher and utilize Accelerated Reader to improve stu-
dents reading literacy competencies by motivating them
to read more and better quality books.
Accelerated Reader is a learning informat ion sys-
tem that provides teachers with quality informat ion needed
to develop appropriate intervention strategies to improve
students reading abilit ies. This feedback allows teachers
to determine how much students are reading, whether they
are reading books at the appropriate level of difficulty, and
if they understand what they are reading. The quality and
quantity of the data provided by Accelerated Reader over-
come one of the most significant problems in education a
lack of meaningful informat ion.
The types of assessment that are part of Acceler-
ated Reader are educationally sound and provide teachers
with relevant informat ion that can guide instruction.
Reading Pract ice Quizzes contain a fixed number of ques-
tions and determine if a student has read a book. They
also motivate additional reading. These quizzes consist of
literal questions that measure a students comprehension of
a book. Literacy Skills Tests contain questions that have
been drawn from an item bank and are meant to assess a
broad range of comprehension skills. These assessments
are ideal for diagnosing students strengths or weaknesses
and for determining mast

Figure 4. Accelerated Readers Process Flow
Diagnosis
St udent s t ake a 25-it em diagnosis. The init ial
diagnosis det ermines:
Inst ruct ional Reading Level
Appropriat e book levels for reading pract ice
Demonstrat ed reading skills
Suggest ed int erventions
Reading Pract ice
St udent chooses from books appropriat e to his
abilit ies and reads them at his own pace.
St udent get s to choose books that appeal to his/
her interest.
Reading Pract ice Quizzing

Reading Practice Quizzes serve as a mot ivat ional
tool t hat ensures a successful, posit ive
experience.

Lit eracy Skills Assessment

Lit eracy Skills Test s provide a follow up to
Reading Pract ice Quizzes. They may be t aken
aft er t he reading pract ice quiz on t he same book
has been passed by the st udent.

Conversion of Data into Acti on

To deepen and sustain the Accelerated Reader
program, the following interventions are undertaken by
the teachers of the GSC Integrated School both in Elemen-
tary and High School Levels.
Teachers and students have a weekly reading
experience or DEAR TIME (Drop Everything and Read)
centered on reading fiction and non-fiction books, text-
books, or magazines, throughout the duration of every
grading period.
A summer reading activity called the Reading
Together Club (RTC) is also placed to provide students
with various engaging and fun reading experiences to mo-
tivate them to read and improve their reading and sociali-
zation skills.
The Integrated School English Depart ment, like-
wise, celebrates English Week with an array of activities
that showcase the students' talents and provide a sustain-
able activity to raise the level of proficiency among stu-
dents. English Week events include poem delivery, Read-
ers Theater, and story telling for the Grade School Level;
and spelling bee, film viewing, speech choir, declamat ion
and oration contests, stage plays, essay writing and extem-
poraneous speech for the High School Level.
Though primarily targeted for use at the Inte-
grated School level, our experience at GSC has shown that
the technology of Progressive Assessment and Need Spe-
cific Intervention is still as effective at the Tertiary Level.
This is perhaps due to the profile of our students wherein
even incoming College freshmen test out at below average
reading competencies.
At the College level, despite the technological
innovations that are being adopted by GSC, more and
more school-based programs are also drawn in to motivate
the students to improve and eventually achieve fluency
and proficiency. Among these are the Individualized
Book Presentation, Vocabulary/ Grammar Quest Project,
stage plays, cocktail parties, mock job interview. These
activities are incorporated into the English Laboratory
subject which aims to enhance English proficiency
through constant exposure and practice in simulated real
world situations.

Conclusion

Progressive Assessment has provided GSC with
the tools and technology which enable is to better pursue
the goal of quality education for students, not only in
terms of content, but in terms of the disposition or will to
learn on their own. The poet Ralph Waldo Emerson has
said The man who can make hard things easy is the edu-
cator. With the help of Progressive Assessment, GSC has
been able to make the difficult process of English Lan-
guage learning easier and more effective for student -
learners and teacher-mentors alike.

REFERENCES

EduQuest Training Manual. (2004). Makati City. EduQuest ,
Inc.

Limjap, A. (2004). Assessing Thinking and Reasoning Skills of
Students. Manila: De La Salle University
AbstractThis paper attempts to determine the effects
of instructi onal intervention conducted by the student
teachers of Cebu Normal Uni versity on the academic
achievement, Phili ppine Educational Pl acement Test
(PEPT) and Accredi tation and Equi valency Test
(A&E) of the commercially, sexually expl oited chil dren
(CSEC) and other chil dren-at-risk (OCAR) of Bi dlisiw
Foundati on, Inc. li ving in depressed areas of Cebu.
Results revealed that instructional intervention i m-
proves their academic achievement in English, Science,
Math, Fili pino and Social Studies. It equi pped them
wi th the necessary competencies and skills needed in
taking the PEPT and A & E test. Thus, they will be
prepared for the formal system in school .

Keywords- Instructional intervention, academic achieve-
ment, PEPT, A & E

I. Introduction

Studies indicate that Asian Pacific region har-
bors the largest number of child workers in the 5-14 age
category with a total of 127.3 million (ILO, 2004). The
Philippines is likewise faced with the problem of a large
and rapidly growing out-of-school youth. In 1999 the
numbers of Philippine out-of-school children and youth
was estimated to have reached 8.9 million mainly as a
result of family poverty, lack of interest and mot ivation to
study and the high cost of schooling. Visayas has the larg-
est numbers of out-of-school youth in the 7-14 age group.
Region VII, in particular has 8.9% out-of-school youth
and 15.4% families with working children (OSCY, 1999).
These data indicate that the youth sector is most at risk
(ADB, 2002). Designing an Alternative Learning System
that focuses on the needs of the out-of-school youth is a
response to encourage them to return to formal school
system and become productive members of the society.
Bidlisiw Foundation Incorporated, a social devel-
opment non-government organizat ion based in Cebu City
is established with a vision to improve the quality of fam-
ily and community life among Filipino children and their
families and a mission to help the most disadvantaged
children and families among the urban poor communit ies.
Cebu Normal University, a reputable institution
dedicated to the formation of teachers in the elementary,
high school and tertiary education and recently the Center
of Development in Region VII, entered a partnership with
the Bidlisiw Foundation Inc. The objective of the project
is to provide instructional intervention program among the
out-of-school youth specifically the commercially, sexu-
out-of-school youth specifically the commercially, sexu-
ally exploited children (CSEC) and other children-at-risk
(OCAR) who are interested to go back to formal school
setting. It aims to strengthen the attainment of their basic
competencies in order to prepare them for the Philippine
Education Placement Test (PEPT) and Accreditation and
Equivalency (A & E) Test. It serves as an alternative
learning system which is highly flexible with learning ses-
sions based on specific educational needs of the out -of-
school youth. Likewise, it aims to strengthen their self-
esteem and self-trust and to think critically and creatively.
The integration of both academic and character formation
of the out-of-school youth is the overall goal of the pro-
gram.
The Philippine Education Placement Test (PEPT)
is the principal instrument used in the Accreditation and
Equivalency Program with the main objective to retrieve
out-of-school youth and place them in the formal school
system, if they so desire, and to place over-aged in-school
youth in the grade level corresponding to their ages. On
the other hand, Accreditation and Equivalency Test (A and
E) offers the successful test takers certification of learning
achievements at two learning levels elementary and sec-
ondary- that is comparable to the formal school system.
Both the PEPT and A & E test the competencies gained
through formal, informal and non-formal education which
are equivalent to those developed in five subject areas
English, Filipino, Science, Mathematics and Social Stud-
ies. (DepEd. 2001)
The main objective of this study is to determine
the effects of instructional intervention conducted by the
student teachers of Cebu Normal University 2005-2006 on
the academic achievement, Philippine Educational Place-
ment Test (PEPT) and Accreditation and Equivalency Test
(A&E) of the commercially, sexually exploited children
(CSEC) and other children-at-risk (OCAR) of Bidlisiw
Foundation, Inc.
Selected and trained student teachers of Cebu
Normal University were sent to the different centers of
Bidlisiw Foundation, Inc.: Cebu City, Mandaue City and
Talisay City. They conducted the validated 40-item test on
the academic performance of the out-of-school youth in
English, Filipino, Math, Science and Social Studies. In-
structional intervention of the basic competencies and
skills were conducted based on the results of the pre-test
which are needed for PEPT and A & E. Sessions related to
character format ion were also administered during the in-
structional intervention program. Academic achievement,
PEPT and A & E test results were used in the study. The

INSTRUCTIONAL INTERVENTION PROGRAM: BIDLISIW VISION
Isabelo T. Genegaboas
Osmena Blvd., Cebu City, Philippines
yoleb@hotmail.com

Angeline M. Pogoy & Imel da C. Montal bo
Osmena Blvd., Cebu City, Philippines
angelmpogoy@yahoo.com & imel-
damontalbo@yahoo.com
qualitative quantitative methods of research was used in
the study.

II. Results and Discussions

A. Personal and Demographic Profile
This study involved fifty-six (56) out-of-school
youth of the Bidlisiw Foundation Inc., thirty-four (34) of
them were male and twenty-two (22) were female who
were between 15 to 19 years old. Of the total respondents,
twenty-seven (37) were commercially sexually exploited
children (CSEC) and nineteen (19) were other children-at-
risk. (OCAR). The CSEC worked and hang out at night-
clubs, restaurants, videoke and disco bars. They engaged
themselves in commercial, unprotected sex with a boy-
friend, old men, gay, and lesbian partners. Most of them
had poor personal hygiene and no regular health consulta-
tions. Similar with their parents, they have vices like
smoking, gambling, drinking of liquor and are drug users.
The OCAR had parents who were previously freelance
sex workers (FSW). Their peers were gay, lesbian and
pimp that exposed them to prostitution.
The respondents became out-of-school youth
because they had no money to support their school ex-
penses. Their parents who were dropouts were unsuppor-
tive for their education, thus, they lacked interest and mo-
tivation to study. They were ashamed to continue their
formal schooling due to their age and peer pressure.
They had menial and part time jobs as laborers (porter,
tricycle driver, baker, magbubuwad) to augment their
family income but most often their source of income is
seasonal. Commonly, they were not currently in school
because they cannot afford to lose an earning.
Just like any ordinary youth, the CSEC and
OCAR had simple aspirat ions in life: know how to read
and write, count money, finish schooling, pass the PEPT
test, have a decent job, be a policeman, teacher, OFW,
engineer, basketball player, businessman, nurse, architect
or a doctor someday. They viewed education as a tool to
attain their dreams to become professionals in the future.
Consequently, they considered education as a passport to
white-collar jobs, which are seen as better paying com-
pared with manual jobs. They had a strong desire to be
needed and to feel useful, and many aspire to have a better
and happy life.These out of school youths are coerced into
prostitution because of peer pressure or certain damaging
events that make it difficult for them to live a normal life
due to trauma or stigma which is also cited in ILO (2002).
On the other hand, poverty is the main reason
why children work. They have to supplement an inade-
quate family income, there is no one to support them, and
their parents cannot provide for their own education and
experienced mistreatment at home ILO (2004).

B. Academic Achievement

A forty-item test in each subject areas namely:
English, Math, Science, Filipino and Social Studies were
administered before and after the instructional interven-
tion. The table below shows the profile of their academic
achievement.

TABLE 1. PROFILE OF THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Ranges for Percentage of Achievement
76 100 Above Average
50 75 Average
0 - 49 Below Average

As presented in the table, none of the commer-
cially sexually exploited children and other children at
risk has above average level of performance in the five
subjects tested in the pretest. They have below average
performance in English, Math and Science. However, in
Social Studies and Filipino they have average level of
performance. This result shows that the out of school
youth are not prepared for formal education for they lack
the necessary skills and competence in the basic subjects
mentioned. They have stopped in their basic education and
busy earning for a living and thus learning and school may
not be highly valued. According to Amarasinghe (2002) as
cited in Child Labor (ILO, 2004), the low level of educa-
tion and skills of parents also has negative effects on chil-
dren and their future. If the parents have received little
education, it means their children are exposed to limited
family education at home and to low aspirations to obtain
it. This is also observed in the profile of the respondents.
According to Machionis (2000) as cited by Kauchach
(2003) socio- economic status consistently affects aca-
demic performance which conforms with achievement
profile of the respondents.
After the instructional intervention, the commer-
cially sexually exploited children and other children at
risk showed improvement in their academic performance
as shown in the post-test results. 55% to 73% performed
in the average level while 5%
Subject Level Pre-test Post-test
( f ) ( %) Mean ( f )( % ) Mean
English Above Average 0 0 9 16.07
Average 7 12.5 15.00 39 69.64 25.48
Below Average 4987.5 8 14.29
Math Above Average 0 0 3 5.36
Average 1 1.79 11.50 41 73.21 24.43
Below Average 55 98.21 12 21.43
Science Above Average 0 0 8 14.28
Average 10 17.85 14.04 31 55.35 24.38
Below Average 4682.14 23 41.07
Filipino Above Average 0 0 24 42.86
Average 32 57.14 20.79 31 55.35 29.27
Below Average 24 42.86 1 1.79
Social Above Average 0 0 23 41.07
Studies Average 32 57.14 20.75 31 55.36 29.14
Below Average24 42.86 2 3.57
above average level. Only 3% to 41 % performed below
average level in the five subjects. The increase of their
academic performance as indicated in the mean scores and
the percentage level of performance indicates the positive
response and effects of the instructional intervention.
Based on ILO Child Labor report (2004) functional liter-
acy and numeracy skills are pre-requisites to any form of
education. At the same time, practical skills training that
requires the correct manipulation of materials and objects
in the environment or learning by doing is often applied
in most progressive schools. Thus, students active in-
volvement in pract ical learning experiences such as arts,
constructing models, workshops in different subject areas
tested help the commercially sexually exploited children
and other children at risk improve their academic per-
formance and attitude towards learning.
On the other hand, the commercially sexually
exploited children and other children at risk had per-
formed well in Social Studies and Filipino compared to
English, Math and Science in both pre-test and post-test.
They found the subjects easier for them for they can hear
current events from radios and watch televisions or hear
people talking certain issues or events in the Filipino lan-
guage. Unlike Social Studies and Filipino as the second
language of the respondents, the three subjects; English,
Math and Science are skill subjects. The irregular atten-
dance during review, tutorial and other differentiated ac-
tivities given to them affect the development and mastery
of their skills. For Math and Science subjects the mean
scores are 24.43 and 24.38 respectively. This means that
the respondents still need the basic numeracy skills and
scientific concepts, processes and skills. This finding also
conforms the study done by Heady (2000) and Sanchez, et
al (2003) as cited in Education and Child Labor (ILO,
2004) that Mathematics learning achievement is lower
than it should have been possibly because of exhaustion of
their work or possibly because they lack focus and moti-
vation.
In totality, 82.14% to 98.21% of the out of
school youth academic performance is bel ow average in
English, Science and Math except in Filipino and Social
Studies which is 41.07% to 42.86% with a mean that
ranges from 11.50 to 20.79. In the post test, 55.35% to
73.21% of commercially sexually exploited children and
other children at risk performed in the average level with
a mean that ranges from 24.38 to 29.27. The respondents
had performed in the above average level that ranges from
5.36% to 42.86% with Math as the lowest percentage
while Filipino as the highest percentage.
Table 3 presents the mean gain of the academic
achievement of the commercially sexually exploited chil-
dren and other children at risk.
TABLE 3. MEAN GAIN OF THE ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT
Significant at 0.05 level (2tailed) n= 56

In view of the pre-test and post-test, the commer-
cially sexually exploited children and other children at risk
have a mean gain that range from 8.4 to 12.9. The p -value
of 0.000 implies that the result of the pre-test and post test
is highly significant at 0.01 level of confidence. This
means that the instructional intervention is effective and
that students skills in the subjects tested had improved.
The respondents found the instructional intervention mean-
ingful. According to Brophy (1998), if students are moti-
vated to learn, they have the tendency to find academic
activities meaningful and worthwhile and try to get the
intended learning benefits from them.

C. PEPT and A and E Tests Results

The table below presents the profile of the com-
mercially sexually exploited children and other children at
risk of Bidlisiw Foundation Inc., Cebu who passed the
Philippine Educational Placement Test ( PEPT) and Ac-
creditation and Equivalency test (A&E) .

TABLE 2. PROFILE OF PEPT AND A AND E TESTS RE-
SULTS
As can be gleaned, 17 or 30.36% passed the Phil-
ippine Educational Placement Test (PEPT) while 21 or
37.5% passed the Accreditation and Equivalency Test (A
and E). This shows that with the exposure of the commer-
cially sexually exploited children and other children at risk
to the instructional intervention would prepare them to be
in the formal school. Many passed in other subject areas
but failed in some which cause a failing mark in the test
results. This conforms to the findings of Beder (1999),
Alamprese et al. (2003) and Greenberg (2007) as cited by
Comings (2007) that attendance patterns are inconsistent
which affect their performance.

Subject Mean Gain St andard Deviat ion t - value Sig.
of Mean Gain (p value )
English 10.482 2.904 27.007 .000
Mat h 12.920 3.818 25.341 .000
Science 10.339 3.965 19.515 .000
Filipino 8.48 2.841 22.341 .000
Social 8.393 3.155 19.909 .000
St udies

Test Passed (f) (%)

Philippine Educat ional
Placement Test ( PEPT ) 17 30.36

Accreditat ion and Equivalency
Test ( A and E ) 21 37.5

D. Correl ations between academic achievement, PEPT
and a and E

As contained in table 6, the hypotheses of no
significant correlation between the academic achievement
of the commercially sexually exploited children and other
children at risk, PEPT and A and E are rejected . The p-
value 0.000 in academic achievement and PEPT is highly
correlated at 0.01 level of confidence. This shows that the
improvement of their academic achievement had helped in
their performance in PEPT. Those who passed the PEPT
are those who performed well in their academic achieve-
ment.

TABLE 4. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT, PEPT AND A AND E
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The p-value of 0.002 in academic achievement
and A and E of the respondents is highly significant at
0.01 level of confidence. This means that there is high
correlation between the academic achievement and A and
E. This indicates that those who passed the A and E test
are also those performed better in their academic achieve-
ment. These respondents had the mastery of the basic
knowledge and skills in English, Math, Science, Filipino
and Social Studies.
The result of PEPT and A and E has a p-value of
0.003 which is also significant at 0.01 level of confidence.
This means that there is high correlation between the
PEPT and A and E test results. This indicates that those
who passed the PEPT are also those who passed in A and
E. This also shows that for those who really had aspira-
tions to have better life viewed education as a tool to at-
tain their dreams to become professionals in the future.
This conforms to the study made by Beder (1999) on adult
literacy education.

D. Instructional Interventi on Protocol

In order to provide opportunities to learn and de-
velop, guidance in making constructive choices, and help
with specific problems or situations, an instructional inter-
vention protocol is prepared. This may contribute the com-
mercially sexually exploited children and other children at
risk their experiences of failure to low self-efficacy and
limit their aspirations and hopes about future life and
work. Thus, this alternative learning program is a holistic
approach that encompasses physical, social, academic,
psychological, and career-related needs. This instructional
intervention protocol will adequately prepare and provide
on-going assistance to the student teachers for their differ-
ent work assignment in the various centers of Bidlisiw
Foundation Inc. Moreover, this will help avoid problems
related to work load, unclear expectations, isolation, role-
conflict, and reality shock as the student teachers conduct
the instructional intervention program.

Instructional Intervention Protocol

Phase 1: Student Teachers Orientation
Seminar on the What, Why and How of Multi -Grade
instruction
Lecture on Alternative Learning Sessions , PEPT and
A and E Tests
Lecture on the Vision, Mission of Bidlisiw Founda-
tion Inc.
Seminars on Child Rights, Issues about Child labor
and Corporal Punishment.
Exposure to the different Bidlisiw Centers

Phase 2: Loadi ng of Instructi onal Information
Reinforcement Input with reference to Multi-Grade
Instruction;
Preparation of topic outline and multi-level instruc-
tional materials
Sessions on Lesson Plan for Specific Purposes and
Evaluative Materials Preparations
Structuring of the different centers

Phase 3: Learning Engagement
Conducting Pretest to establish the clienteles present
needs
Establishing classroom routines and commit ment to
learn.
Daily Preparat ions of the Needs - Based Lesson de-
signs
Actualizat ion of the Daily Prepared Needs - Based
Lesson designs
Character Formation Sessions with the focus on peer
support and creative workshops
Implementation of the 4-Module Parent Education
Sessions
Conduct family action planning through home visits
scheme

Pairwise Vari ables Mean Computed r p-
value
Achievement and 132.70
PEPT 0.560** 0.000
75.48
(Phili ppine Educational Placement Test )
Achievement and 132.70
0.41** 0.002
A and E
63.86
(Accreditati on and Equi valency Test)
PEPT (Phili ppi ne 75.48
Educational
Placement Test and 0.394*** 0.003
A and E (Accredi ta-
tion and Equi valency
Test) 63.86
Phase 4: Learning Verificati on

Learners Orientation on the dos and donts of taking
the PEPT and A & E tests Regular weekly meet-
ings and conferences with the Bidlisiw staff
every Friday;
Conduct authentic learning assessment
Conduct post test in five major subject areas; Math,
English, Science, Filipino and Social Studies
PEPT and A and E tests
Documentation of the collated clienteles learning
data
Submission of the documented reports to the con-
cerned agencies

III. Conclusion and Recommendations

The Instructional intervention conducted by the
CNU student teachers is an effective alternative learning
scheme that helped the commercially sexually exploited
children and other children at risk in their academic per-
formance, PEPT and A&E. Thus, they would gain better
perception and direction in life. Personal and demographic
profile of the commercially sexually exploited children
and other children at risk of Bidlisiw Foundation Inc.,
Cebu affect their performance in academic achievement,
PEPT and A&E.
It is recommended that the CNU CTE-ILS exten-
sion program that focuses on instructional intervention
must be intensified. Community action should be strength-
ened by re-orientation of community values, conducting
community-wide advocacy to sustain efforts to fight com-
mercial sexual exploitation of children and other children
at risk.

REFERENCES

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79. UNICEF, (Florence, Innocenti Research Center)

AbstractThis paper is based on the premise that the
global competi ti veness of a nati onal education system
is influenced by the quality of its teachi ng corps, which
in turn is profoundl y shaped by its teacher educati on
institutions. Teachers and teacher education are be-
coming a central focus of strategic nati onal attenti on
because they are recognized as crucial contri butors in
the creation of a globall y competiti ve nati onal work-
force, This paper asks two questions: (1) How well has
South Africa managed teacher educati on to maxi mise
its role in preparing school leavers to take up positions
in a globally competiti ve labour market? (2) Have
countries in South Eas t Asia formulated similar policy
and i mplementation plans to maximise the impact of
teacher educati on in preparing school leavers to find
work opportuni ties in globalised industries?
Keywords-teacher education, globalisation, South Af-
rica, Asia
I. Introduction

The status of teacher education graduate produc-
tion and also of continuing teacher professional develop-
ment is a central point of interest for many countries that
must all respond to global economic competit ion by im-
proving the quality of teaching and of school graduate
cohorts who are the future workforce. This common
goal opens up the opportunity for comparative analysis of
teacher education challenges and country strategies in
quite different contexts.

TEACHER EDUCATION AND GLOBAL COMPETI-
TIVENESS

This paper is based on the premise that the
global competitiveness of a national education system is
influenced by the quality of its teaching corps, which in
turn is profoundly shaped by its teacher education institu-
tions. In countries across the globe, teachers and teacher
education are becoming a central focus of strategic na-
tional attention because they are recognized as crucial
contributors in the creation of a globally competitive
national workforce that can innovatively leverage local
economic growth and attract inflows of foreign invest-
ment. Therefore, policy makers are looking further up-
stream in the education-skills value chain to teacher edu-
cation to find ways of improving national education and
training outcomes.

There are three central requirements: (i) a cur-
riculum that emphasizes the skills most valued in global-
ised workplaces (eg: that are technology rich, information
rich, and require strong teamwork and communication
competencies, problem solving and critical thinking skills
etc.), (ii) teacher education that equips teachers with the
capacity to transfer the appropriate skills and knowledge,
and (iii) sufficient supply of trained teachers to ensure that
as far as possible, no school or learner is denied access to
teaching which captures curriculum ideals

TEACHER IMPACT ON QUALITY OF SCHOOL
LEAVERS

This paper acknowledges that the positive impact
of teachers on school quality, and in turn on learner per-
formance and graduate employability is conditional on
many factors including the presence of textbooks
(including other learning materials) and the exposure over
time of students to teaching (acceptable length of time on
task).
Also, this paper will not claim that teacher educa-
tion directly impacts or raises the likelihood that school
leavers will find employment in industries that directly
serve global markets or that are linked into global value
chains. There are too many intervening influences or de-
pendencies such as: the local economy may be poorly inte-
grated into the global economy requiring economic policy
intervention, or labour policy may price the local work-
force out of global labour markets. In these scenarios,
there will be low levels of opportunity for employment in
globally dispersed industries.
Consequently, there are large populations of peo-
ple in many countries who are linked to global commodity
chains as low wage, low skills workers in low value add-
ing jobs found in resource based industries such as agricul-
ture or mining. In addit ion, there are also large populations
of people who are entirely marginalised from the global
economy and who produce for local or household con-
sumption.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The first question that this paper seeks to answer
is: Has South Africa managed teacher education to maxi-
mise its role in preparing school leavers to take up posi-
tions in a globally competitive labour market that are in-
creasingly segmented according to generic and specific
skills needs of product markets, commodity value chains,
and niche industry specialisation?
Teacher education and Globalisation in South Africa and South East Asia since 1990

Andrew Paterson
Graduate Studies
Udon Thani Rajabhat University
Udon Thani, Thailand
e-mail: Paterson.com@gmail.com
The second comparative question is: How have
countries in South East Asia formulated policy and imple-
mentation plans to maximise the impact of teacher educa-
tion in preparing school leavers to find work opportunities
in globalised industries?

ANALYSIS OF THE SOUTH AFRICA CASE STUDY
The following three sections, will address cur-
riculum reform after South Africa became a constitutional
democracy in 1994, then analyse the sources of changing
demand for teachers in the South African schooling sys-
tem in relation to the capacity of the supply institutions,
and finally consider the critical question of teacher qual-
ity.

CURRICULUM REFORM
In the immediate aftermath of apartheid, the cur-
riculum and teaching materials had to be cleared of offen-
sive racial and discriminatory reference and rid of obvious
bias. In the meantime a new curriculum Curriculum
2005 (C2005) was designed to replace the predominant
conservative pedagogical mode of apartheid education
which emphasised the student as a tabula raza, rote learn-
ing, and authoritarian teaching styles. Grounded on out-
comes-based education (OBE) principles and informed by
progressivist education theory, C2005 privileged a con-
structivist vision of learner centred education, reflecting
the values of the new Constitution and supported by con-
tinuous assessment (OECD,2008,79-80).
Government statements about the curriculum
reveal deep concerns with the nature of knowledge, clos-
ing up the dichotomy between theory and practise, and the
need for reconciliation and nation building in South Af-
rica, eg: The curriculum will begin to integrate education
and training incorporating a view of learning which re-
jects rigid divisions between academic and applied knowl-
edge, theory and practice, and knowledge and skills. It
will foster learning which encompasses a culture of hu-
man rights, mult ilingualism and multi-culturalis m and a
sensitivity to the values of reconciliation and nation build-
ing (Depart ment of Education, 1997). This led to obser-
vations regarding the implementation problems created
through direct insertion of polit ical symbolism into cur-
riculum policy (Jansen, 2001). The statement above also
strongly demonstrates that a shared epistemology and rec-
onciliat ion were the central preoccupations of curriculum
reform in South Africa rather than the skills demands of
globalisation.
The majority of teachers in the country were not
familiar with the conception, or practices implied in the
C2005 policy. An unintended outcome of the innovation
was that teachers in disadvantaged schools struggled while
those at historically advantaged schools had greater suc-
cess in implementing the curriculum, which widened the
performance gaps between schools. Moreover, teachers
began to find themselves under severe time pressure with
the rising workloads in preparation and continuous assess-
ment. Some felt themselves to be disempowered by the
emphasis of the function of facilitation and corresponding
de-emphasis of teaching
In 2000 a ministerial committee was appointed to
review Curriculum 2005 finding that implementation had
been: confounded by a skewed curriculum structure
and design; lack of alignment between curriculum and
assessment policy; inadequate orientation, training and
development of educators; learning support materials that
are variable in quality, often unavailable and not suffi-
ciently used in classrooms; policy overload and limited
transfer of learning into classrooms; shortages of person-
nel and resources to implement and support C2005; and
inadequate recognition of curriculum as the core business
of education departments (OECD,2008,80 citing Chis-
holm, et al., 2000a, pp. vi-vii). It is quite clear that the
ministerial review committee identified implementation as
a critical problem with the new curriculum, irrespective of
any other shortcomings.
The report made a number of recommendations
and a Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS)
was adopted which combines a learner-centred curricu-
lum requiring critical thought and democratic practice
with an appreciation of the importance of content and sup-
port for educators. It aims to develop the full potential of
all learners as citizens of a democratic South Africa. It
seeks to create a lifelong learner who is confident and
independent , lit erat e, numerat e and mult i -
skilled.(OECD,2008,41) The RNCS was introduced
more slowly than its forebear, and was finally extended to
grade 12 (the final year of schooling) in 2008.

Notwithstanding the timely adaptations to the
original plan, a recent OECD report reported ongoing
concern that disparities in resources and educator prepar-
edness make this modern, high knowledge, resource in-
tense curriculum an inappropriate model in the South Af-
rican context ( OECD,2008,81).
So far, the analysis has revealed two key features
of curriculum development between 1990 and 2010: that
so soon after the demise of Apartheid national social cohe-
sion rather than labour absorbtion was a priority and that
implementation problems were central to the failure of the
curriculum campaign. The South African experience has
demonstrated that national exigencies do not necessarily
allow for the adaptation of curriculum to secure greater
labour market competitiveness.

TEACHER DEMAND AND SUPPLY
The analysis will now turn to consider circum-
stances in the field of teacher demand and supply.

A. Demand for teachers, and supply from teacher educa-
tion institutions
Since 1990, conditions have emerged: that sway
the employment of teachers towards urban rather than
rural schools and towards affluent rather than poor
schools, that increase the costs of studying to become a
teacher, and that can reduce the availability of South Afri-
can graduates to teach in the country (eg: migration over-
seas, illness and alternative employment opportunities).

B. A single teacher employment system
After 1994, educators from eighteen different
racially and ethnically divided education departments un-
der apartheid were amalgamated. Thereafter, negotiation
of new post provisioning with benchmarked learner-
teacher ratios linked to curriculum object ives and Grade
levels took place, followed a drawn out and union sanc-
tioned but rancorous personnel rightsizing process - ra-
tionalisation, retrenchment and redeployment. Many sen-
ior educators and school managers took early exits while
schools serving remote and poor communities in most dire
need of personnel hardly benefited because teachers
shunned vacant posts in those localities (OECD,2008,82-
83). Schools serving more affluent communities which
could bear higher school fee charges were able to employ
additional educators in compensation for loss of posts and
could select better qualified educators.

C. Rationalisation of teacher training facilities in colleges
and universities
A tremendous proliferat ion of teacher training
colleges took place under the independent authority of
different racial and ethnic education departments so that
by 1994, 150 colleges operated in the country, with about
200 000-300 000 registered students. Educators were pro-
duced more or less without regard to demand require-
ments of the country as a whole. Measures to close or
amalgamate colleges were applied, followed by incorpora-
tion of colleges of education into the higher education
system, which was promoted as a vital init iative to im-
prove the efficiency and quality of the teacher education
system.
By 1994, the apartheid regime had created 36
higher education institutions with unequal financial sup-
port for different race groups. To cut down on costly du-
plication and improve quality, government restructured
higher education through mergers and incorporations. The
outcome was a system of 22 universit ies some of which
incorporated former teacher training colleges. Currently
18 universities offer teacher professional education.
This radical rationalisation exercise did not stabi-
lise imbalances of educator supply and demand. Instead,
the steady decline in graduate production of educators
continued well beyond the millennium. Further, the spatial
footprint of teacher education institutions on the South
African landscape has been greatly diminished making
distance to the nearest teacher education institution a con-
straint on access especially for poor households.
The declining numbers of applicants for places in
university teacher education programmes was cause for
alarm for the Depart ment of Education which moved to
establish a national bursary scheme, called Fundza
Lushaka (Educating the Nation), specifically for stu-
dents studying to be teachers. (OECD, 2008, 84). Whether
this strategy sufficiently addresses the need for higher
numbers of student entrants into teacher education re-
mains to be seen.

D. Educator migration
Opportunities now available to black potential
student teachers and many white student teachers intend-
ing to teach overseas, the decline in new educator numbers
has impacted particularly on the training of grade R, Foun-
dation Phase (grades 1-3) and Intermediate Phase (grades 4
-7) educators.

E. HIVAIDS and teacher mortality
In a 2005 epidemiological study of the teaching
profession, a methodologically sound study by a South
African science council revealed that 12.7% of all educa-
tors were HIV positive with much higher rates among
among young (aged 25-34), African females in rural areas
(Shisana et al. 2005, Ch.4 cited in OECD,2008,85 ). The
impact of sero-prevalence on teacher shortages and supply
is hotly debated, but is likely to be felt more sharply in
rural areas and in the earlier phases of schooling which
require teaching in the mother tongue. (Depart ment of
Education, 2006i, p. 10 cited in OECD,2008,85)

F. Alternative career opportunities
Anecdotally it has been reported that qualified
teachers leave the profession because their salaries are
low, but a recent study of over 17 000 educators revealed
that they earn, on average, a higher income than most other
employed persons (Shisana et al. 2005, p. 46). Further-
more, Paterson and Arends (2009) confirm a decline in the
number of African women, aged 30 and younger, entering
teacher-training programmes. Given that African women
constitute the majority of South Africas teachers, this de-
cline is matter of serious concern.
In particular there are very low numbers of stu-
dents with mother-tongue competence in African official
languages enrolling in for training in the Foundation
Phase. Paterson and Arends suggest that identified new
social and economic conditions that seem to be encourag-
ing previously disadvantaged women to break into new
study or occupational fields. Numbers of young African
women who might have enrolled for teacher training are
electing to pursue careers other than teaching and to that
end are enrolling for higher education qualificat ions in
other fields of study. Alternatively, young African women
of the social groups that might otherwise have enrolled for
teaching find themselves unable to access these opportuni-
ties. These young women may be from urban unemployed,
urban working-class or rural poor households. Their en-
forced withdrawal is impacted by low or unstable house-
hold income levels, which may or may not be associated
with the impact of HIV/AIDS. Under the general condi-
tions described above, reduced accessibility of educator
institutions to black students from rural areas probably
reduced participation of rural African women in teacher
training. After the closure of the colleges, no other suffi-
ciently powerful policy or accessible mechanis m was put
in place to secure the link between graduate production
and rural teacher supply.

TEACHER QUALITY, ACCREDITATION AND PER-
FORMANCE ASSESSMENT
After 1994 government moved quickly to reduce
the number of unqualified and underqualified educators in
the system through inservice upgrading programmes pro-
vided by government and through students registering for
qualifications at higher education institutions. .Whereas in
1994, 36% (122 459) of educators were considered un-
qualified or under qualified, by 2004, this percentage had
declined to 8.3%. Through this period unqualified and
underqualified teachers were more concentrated in rural
schools and in junior schools.
In recognition of the importance of monitoring
and assessing educator performance, the Depart ment of
Education introduced an Integrated Quality Management
System, provided for educators to be periodically re-
accredited by upgrading and earning professional devel-
opment points by completing approved modules. How-
ever, the success of this intervention will depend on
teacher union acceptance, and it may encounter levels of
resistance in this regard. Further buttressing this renewed
emphasis on assessment of performance, the Depart ment
negotiated with union assent the opportunity for teachers
to qualify for substantial wage progression is possible in
the education system, subject to positive assessments.
(OECD, 2008 p.87)
Nevertheless, in a range of internationally bench-
marked studies (PIRLS, TIMMSS, SACQMEC) and on
the basis of national systemic assessments, the perform-
ance of the South African education system is poor and
large responsibility lies at the door of the teaching profes-
sion. A 2008 OECD report recently observed that the
majority of (South African) educators are not yet suffi-
ciently equipped to meet the needs of a 21st century envi-
ronment and their poor conceptual and content knowledge
is a direct contributor to low levels of learner achievement
(Depart ment of Education, 2006i, p. 6 cited in
OECD,2008,85).
Perhaps this is because a very large proportion of
currently serving teachers were themselves schooled,
received their professional education and began teaching
when education was still part of the Apartheid project.
(OECD,2008,82 cit ing Depart ment of Education, 2006i,
p.6). What this observation confirms is that initial teacher
education can only support a revised curriculum through
moving new teachers moving into the system. National
education reforms that target changes in the style of teach-
ing and learning are by nature large in scale and long in
duration, because changing teaching methodology embed-
ded practising teachers takes a long time.

SUMMARY OF SOUTH AFRICAN ANALYSIS
The analysis supports the following conclusions
regarding the extent to which teacher education in South
Africa has taken account the demands of the global labour
market :
Spatial distribution of teachers: Schools that service
poor communit ies and or communities that are lo-
cated in more remote rural areas struggle to fill teach-
ing posts. This disadvantages rural and poor learners.

Teacher graduate supply: Over a period of some
years, teacher graduate supply declined and there re-
main problems in the primary Foundation Phase.
The national curriculum focus: curriculum and policy
documents reveal that in the early years of the new
South African democracy, the preoccupation of cur-
riculum designers emphasised shaping social harmony
and new pedagogical relationships rather than skills for
the labour market.

Curriculum implementation: The quality of implemen-
tation was found to be deficient in several dimensions

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF KEY THEMES AD-
DRESSED BY TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITU-
TIONS IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
A guiding question in the following discussion is
whether the curriculum and teacher education responses
and innovations coming out of South East Asia in the
same period share similarit ies with the South African
case?
As with South Africa, in all countries represented
in the UNESCO (2008) report, the link between the qual-
ity of the education workforce and improving education
outcomes was affirmed, though there were differences
between countries concerning what constitutes an appro-
priately qualified teacher. Also, all countries including
South Africa had pre-service teacher education pro-
grammes though these varied widely in intensity and dura-
tion. In most countries in-service training was more ad-
hoc with perhaps the exception of Malaysia which uses
its system of Institutes (UNESCO,2008,77-82) - giving
some reason to understand why there were severe weak-
nesses in South Africas in-service programmes.
The UNESCO (2008,7-8) report also observes
that countries in the South East Asian region increasingly
appreciate that the task confronting teacher education
institutions is not simply to prepare more teachers but to
prepare radically new types of teachers... And the need to
prepare a citizenry able to compete in the global economy
are demanding radically new types of teachers and teacher
education structures. Nevertheless, the South African
experience reminds us that we should not underestimate
the challenges involved in systemic curriculum change
which require a mindset change among almost all teach-
ers. Indeed it seems that a country like Thailand would
face a similarly onerous challenge in attempting to shift
conservative teacher mindsets.
Similarly to South Africa, many countries strug-
gle with attracting and retaining qualified teachers. For
example countries, like Malaysia and the Philippines,
male applicants to join the teacher profession declined
leading to the feminisation of the profession so more
scholarships were offered to prospective male teachers.
The South African bursary scheme will hopefully increase
the number of young Black female applicants to begin
their teacher education.
South Africa and some countries in the region
from time to time find themselves in the unenviable para-
doxical situation where an apparent surplus of teachers co-
exists in time with a demonstrable shortage of teachers.
But the teacher labour market is quite complex. In some
instances this is because of a mis match between subjects
teachers required (eg; maths science and foreign lan-
guages) and those offered. In other instances the coexis-
tence of shortages and surpluses cannot easily be resolved
because teachers have quite strong preferences about
where they are willing to teach.
Though teaching remains a low paying levels
of indebtedness among Thai teachers are apparently quite
high - and low prestige occupation in the South East Asia
region, South African teachers appear to be relatively bet-
ter remunerated but dont seem to deliver better bang for
the buck and the various incentive and monitoring sys-
tems recently put in place have yet to bear fruit ion. The
fact that South African teachers are highly organised -
88% are members of a trade union (Shisana et al. 2005,
Ch.4 cited by OECD,2008,82) clearly plays a role in the
somewhat adversarial relationship between teachers and
their employer. In contrast professional associations and
unions do not play a significant role in teacher education
in the South East Asian region.
The South African analysis identified teacher
deployment as a key challenge to generating equitable
access to qualified teachers for all schools. Equally in the
region, there are disparities in quality between rural and
urban teachers and education ministries use a variety of
mechanis ms or incentives (eg: forced deployment, teacher
rotations, wage differences) to address these disparities
but local conditions remain critical (OECD,2008)
Lastly, we refer to the inclination of South Africa
to focus its curriculum reforms inwardly on social cohe-
sion and generating a new language of teaching and
learning. In contrast the government of Malaysia has ex-
pressed the desire to raise education in Malaysia to world
standards (UNESCO,2008,77-82) which reflects an out-
ward looking and competitive approach. Yet twenty years
earlier Malaysia was seeking to consolidate its own cul-
tural heritage through introducing new subjects, such as
Citizenship Education and Islamic Civilization, to pro-
mote greater awareness among student teachers regarding
national norms and objectives, and to help reduce commu-
nal and geographical polarization. (UNESCO,1990,32).
The modernising role of the teaching profession was even
more explicitly expressed in China from the late 1970s
when teacher education was perceived as a 'machine-
tool' of the educational cause and the fundamental base for
cultivating a new generation ready to commit itself to the
challenges of modernization, the world and the fu-
ture (UNESCO,1990,24).

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rines Sur. Likewise, it was conducted to determine the socio-
demographic profile of Mathematics teachers and trainers;
identify their teaching approaches, methods and strategies;
and determine the relationship of teachers profile and the
teaching approaches, strategies they use inside the classroom.
The respondents of the study were the Mathematics teachers
and DepEd trainers in the seven (7) selected secondary coop-
erating schools in the Division of Camarines Sur. Purposive
sampling technique and frequency counts, percentage,
weighted mean and chi-square tests were the statistical tools
used in this study. Findings of the study were the following:
the methods used by Mathematics teachers were inductive,
deductive and problem method and the approach used were
discovery, conceptual and process approaches. However,
case study, incident process, trips, role playing, micro-
simulation, buzz group, group debate, interview technique,
panel, computer-assisted and managed instruction were
never used as strategies in teaching Mathematics. For the
DepEd trainers, the discovery approach, concept formation,
process approach, problem method and 4As were used.
There were no significant relationship between teachers
profile and Mathematics teaching approaches, methods and
strategies. The observation on the demonstration teaching of
DepEd trainers showed that there was a parallel finding as
that of the teaching practices employed Mathematics teach-
ers. Interestingly, what the Mathematics trainers had used in
their demonstration teaching was also being used by other
Mathematics teachers.

I. Introduction

Education is an essential part of our life since it
gives us the chance and opportunity to learn a wide array
of things and informat ion from other people, from the
teachers and other students. It allows us to gain knowl-
edge and a host of experiences which can make us handle
lifes varied situations.
Mathematics is a general subject taken by all
students regardless of level and field of specialization.
This is one subject which is considered by many as diffi-
cult and challenging one. More often than not, students
span of attention and interest is hardly sustained by teach-
ers especially when topics at hand are high level and diffi-
cult to comprehend.
In an article authored by Lymeda Singleton, she
emphasized that in order to reach the goal of developing
mathematical power for all students, it requires the crea-
tion of a curriculum and an environment, in which teach-
ing and learning are to occur, that are very different from
much of current practice. The image of mathematics
teaching needed includes teachers who are more proficient
in: a) selecting mathematical tasks to engage students'
interests and intellect; b) providing opportunities to
deepen their understanding of the mathematics being stud-
ied and its applications; and c) orchestrating classroom
discourse in ways that promote the investigation and
growth of mathematical ideas. Likewise, using teaching
strategies that will incorporate various styles and differen-
tiated instruction are effective ways that can enhance the
teaching-learning at mosphere inside the classroom.
Indeed, the use of effect ive teaching styles and
practices in mathemat ics are very important to the stu-
dents ability to grasp and completely understand the les-
son. It is for this reason that this research on teaching
practices in Mathematics among teachers and students
performance in the cooperating schools was studied.

II. Significance of the Study

Primarily, the study is significant in acquiring
better understanding that would contribute to the improve-
ment of Mathemat ics teaching and development of
Teacher Education training institutions. This will also
provide avenue for instructional materials development.

III. Objectives

General:
To determine the teaching practices in Mathema-
Teaching Practices in Mathematics in Selected Cooperating Secondary Schools
in Camarines Sur

Gl oria B. Osea, Ph. D.
Professor VI
Central Bicol State University of Agriculture
San Jose, Pili, Camarines Sur,
Philippines
e-mail: gloriaosea@yahoo.com
Eden C. Paz, Ph. D.
Associate Professor V
Central Bicol State University of
Agricluture
Philippines
e-mail: edencpaz@yahoo.com
Ma. Teresa B. Lirag
Assistant Professor III
Central Bicol State University of Agriculture
Philippines
e-mail: tessbl@yahoo.com
tics in selected cooperating secondary schools in Camari-
nes Sur.

Specific:

1.To determine the socio-demographic profile of Math
teachers of the Secondary Cooperating schools in
Camarines Sur.

2. To identify the approaches, methods and strategies
used by Math teachers of the Secondary Cooperating
schools in Camarines Sur.

3. To determine the relationship of the teachers profile
and Math teaching approaches, methods and strategies.

4. To describe the various aspects of the teaching
learning situation done by the DepEd Math trainers.

5. To determine the teaching approaches, methods and
strategies of the DepEd Mathematics trainers of the
Secondary Cooperating schools in Camarines Sur.

IV. Methodology

The study made use of descriptive method. It was
used to determine the socio-demographic profile, teaching
approaches, methods and strategies used by Math teach-
ers. Correlat ional method was employed to determine the
relationships of teachers profile to the teaching ap-
proaches, methods and strategies used by Math teachers in
selected cooperating schools.

Respondents
The respondents of the study were the Math
teachers in the seven (7) selected secondary cooperating
schools in the Division of Camarines Sur. It covered the
Math teachers handling Math I, II, III and IV from the
following cooperating schools: Ocampo National High
School, Milaor National High School, Bula Nat ional High
School, Rodriguez National High School, Pili National
High School, Baao National High School and Pamukid
High School.

Research Instrument
A questionnaire was prepared. It consisted of
questions on socio-demographic profile of teachers and
teaching approaches, methods, and strategies used by
Math teachers.
Observation sheet was also used to serve as guide
in observing the DepEd Math trainers during their demon-
stration teaching to gather the various aspects of teaching
learning situation.

Analysis of Data
Descriptive statistics such as frequency count,
percentage, weighted mean and chi-square were used.

Framework of Analysis

V. Results of the Study

Socio-demographic profile of the Math teachers of the
secondary cooperating schools in Camarines Sur
Based on the socio-demographic profile aspect
of the Mathematics teachers of the secondary Cooperat-
ing schools in Camarines Sur, most of the Mathematics
teachers belong to age range of 41-60 years old having a
teaching experience of 11-20 years of teaching. Majority
of them have an academic rank as Teacher 1 and have an
annual family income of 100,000-250,000 pesos. The
respondents Math teachers are female dominated with a
percentage of 73.53% and already married. Generally, the
DepEd trainers/teachers were BS/AB graduates with a
percentage of 47.06%.

Teaching approaches, methods and strategies used by
the Mathematics teachers of the secondary cooperating
schools in Camarines Sur
It was noted that among the eight (8) teaching
approaches, discovery, conceptual and process approach
were always used by Cooperating Math teachers. In terms
of teaching methods, inductive, deductive and problem
method were always used. Thus, case study, incident
process, trips, role playing, micro simulation, buzz group,
group debate, interview technique, panel, computer-
assisted instruction and computer-managed instruction
were never used by the secondary Cooperating Math
teachers in Camarines Sur.

MATHEMATICS
TEACHING PRAC-
TICES
(Approaches, Methods
and Strategies)
Aspects of teaching
learning
The Classroom
The Teacher
Objectives of the lesson
Contents of the lesson
Lesson planning
Motivation
Teaching procedure
Drill and review lesson
Assignment
Evaluation
Classroom Management
Instructional Materials

Teachers Profile
Age
Civil Status
Gender
Income
Academic Rank
Year of Teaching
Educational At-
tainment

Relationship of the teachers profile and Math teaching
approaches, methods and strategies
There were no significant relationships that exist
between the teachers profile and Math teaching ap-
proaches, methods and strategies. Most of them were ca-
pable of choosing any of the Math teaching approaches,
methods and strategies. These findings led the decision to
accept the null hypothesis Ho1 that there were no signifi-
cant relationship between teachers profile and Math teach-
ing approaches, methods and strategies.

Various aspects of the teaching-learning situations that
was done by DepEd Math trainers
The observation on the demonstration teaching
reveals that there was a congruent finding as that of the
teaching practices employed by Math teachers. It highly
agreed that what the Math trainers have used, were being
followed by the other Math teachers in teaching the sub-
ject matter.

Teaching approaches, method and strategies of the De-
pEd Mathematics trainers of the secondary cooperating
schools in Camarines Sur
The findings revealed that discovery, conceptual,
process approach and 4 As were used by the DepEd train-
ers. In addition, the problem method and exercises teach-
ing strategy were also recognized by the DepEd trainers in
selected secondary Cooperating schools in Camarines Sur.

VI. Conclusion

The Mathematics teachers have an age range of 41-60
years, female-dominated profession and already mar-
ried. Most of them are AB/ BS graduates and belongs
to the 11-20 years of teaching experiences. Moreover,
Mathematics teachers have an academic rank of
Teacher 1 and having an annual family income ranges
from 100,000 to 250,000.

The teaching approaches always used by Mathematics
teachers are discovery, conceptual and process ap-
proaches while in teaching methods, inductive, de-
ductive and problem methods are always used. In
terms of teaching strategies, demonstration, exercises,
mastery instruction, ability grouping and cooperative
learning are always used by secondary Mathematics
teachers in Camarines Sur.

There are no significant relationships that exist between
the teachers age, gender and highest educational at-
tainment and teaching approaches, methods and
strategies used by Math teachers.

The secondary Mathematics teachers consider the Class-
room, the Teacher, Objectives of the lesson, Contents
of the lesson, Lesson planning, Motivation, Teaching
procedure, Drill and review lesson, Assignment,
Evaluation, Classroom Management and Instruc-
tional Materials in choosing teaching approaches,
methods and strategies.
Similar teaching approaches, methods and strategies
were used by the DepEd trainers and Mathematics
teachers.

VII. Recommendations

Upgrade the teachers knowledge and skills in the use of
computer through seminar/trainings and workshop
in relation to teaching practices in Mathematics
using ICT.

Since few Math teachers are PhD. holders and are still
of middle age and showing enthusiasm in pursuing
higher education, scholarship programs should be
instituted by DepEd to enhance their capability and
skills in teaching Math subject.

Test the socio-demographic profile of the Mathematics
teachers not mentioned in the study as factors af-
fecting the choice of teaching practices in private
schools.
Compare the findings of the study to the findings of
similar study among elementary Mathematics
teachers.

Test the effect of teaching practices in the students aca-
demic performance.

To test the relationship of the teachers profile to the
DepEd Mathematics I to Mathematics IV teachers
in the region.

It is likewise suggested that the relationship of the
teachers profile to the teaching approaches, meth-
ods and strategies be studied.

A study of this nature can be conducted to private and
public high school and even elementary schools
either on Division level or regional level.

Come up with training on Program Instruction and
other approaches, methods and strategies which
were never used by Mathematics teachers.

Acknowledgment
The Authors would like to extend their sincere
gratitude to DepEd Trainers and teachers in Math, coop-
erating school principals, Institute of Development Edu-
cation of Central Bicol State University of Agriculture,
DepEd Camarines Sur and Student Researchers: Babe-
lonia, Rufa Mae D., Bequillo, Sheena Ann O., Botor,
Rhoda B., Bonganay, Michelle B., Bonifacio, Ann
Marie B., Buergo, Teodel T., Canaco, Christian C.,
Detera, Elizabeth E., Gil, Michelle I., Joven, Maria Car-
mela C., Naldoza, Risheiel C., Ogneta, Zelda S., Tus-
cano, Rodel E., Verdadero, Ariane C., and Vibares, Jas-
mine F. for their assistance during the conduct of this
research.
LITERATURE CITED
Cornell, Chris. The Importance of Secondary Education. Re-
trieved from http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Importance-of-
Secondary-Education&id=5298983

Differentiating Instruction in the Mathematics Classroom. Pub-
lished by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the Educa-
tional and Professional Publishing Group of The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.,2000. Also retrieved from http://
www. gl e n c o e. c om/ se c /t e a ch i n gt od ay /s ub j e ct /
dimath.phtml

Singleton, Lymeda. Teaching and Learning Scholars
(Mathematics). Retrieved from http://www.acu.edu/cte/
facint/sotl/singleton.html

AbstractThis study aimed to analyze and evaluate the
practices on Campus Journalism so as to come up with man-
agement implications as regards student services. Using
purposive samplings, 26 campus-wide publication faculty-
advisers, 78 student-journalist and 140 students were given
questionnaires and were interviewed from the 26 HEIs in
the region out of the 66 HEIs with an existing student publi-
cation. Findings reveal that the editorial board, policies,
funding, press conferences and the rues and regulations are
still in the process of being institutionalized within the sys-
tem. Many of the provisions of the R.A. 7079 of the Campus
Journalism Ac are not yet fully implemented. There is a
need to increase faculty and students support and to
strengthen administrative collaboration. Campus journalism
in the region served as the voice of the students, gave out
information, helped to form public opinion, discussed issues
and safeguarded the HEIs from its own adequacies. In or-
der for the student publication services become more respon-
sive to the present changes, it is recommended that an up-
grading and streamlining of the student services based on the
needs and goals of the students should be initiated so as to
make the campus journalism proactive and student-focused.

I. Introduction

The school publication being one of the vital
components of student services provides an opportunity
for freedom of expression for the students. This promotes
the free growth of the individual. Even our constitution
recognizes this right and a law was also passed to make
campus journalis m stronger, this is the Republic Act 7079
also known as the Campus Journalism Act of 1991.
Believing in man and ultimate potential for self-
improvement, the educational institutions and agencies are
looked upon as the means for man to develop those poten-
tials to the optimum. Campus writing as an educational
medium needs remedial education, completion program,
and professional updating and in-service programs. In this
context, the study hopes to contribute.
This study aimed to analyze and evaluate the
practices on Campus Journalism in the selected HEIs in
Region III and the possible implications these have on the
management of the student services.

II. Methodology
The study covered the campus journalist in the
tertiary level as well as the publication adviser of the dif-
ferent student publication in the selected HEIs in Region
III. Some student-readers were interviewed to obtain
other data on satisfaction, evaluation and suggestion for
the improvement of the campus publication.
To accomplish the objectives of this study, the
descriptive method of research was utilized. The respon-
dents of this study were some 116 Higher Education Insti-
tutions in Region III though, only twenty-six (26) out of
the 66 were utilized in this study. The entire twenty-six
(26) campus-wide publication faculty-advisers, 78 student
-journalist (3 student journalist per HEI), and 140 students
selected randomly were interviewed from the 26 universi-
ties and colleges in Region III.
III. Findings

1. The components of campus journalism in the
region were delivered quite positively in majority of the
higher educational institutions whereby majority of the
components were well defined particularly the student
publication, journalist, security of tenure and publication
adviser. Although important points as regards publication
advisers and student journalist were still needing deeper
analysis. The editorial board, policies, funding, press con-
ferences and the rules and regulations are still in the proc-
ess of being institutionalized within the system. Many of
the provisions are not yet fully implemented due to the
EBs lack of knowledge. Most of the editorial policies
and the rules and regulations were based on their college
or university code.
2. There is a great need for campus journalism to
be supported by the administration, faculty and students
for this uplift the morale of the campus journalist. In
HEIs were the support is low or minimal, campus jour-
nalis m looks bleak and the staff feels disheartened and
unappreciated. Conversely, the HEIs, which experience
full support, tend to feel s esteemed, significant and in-
volved. There is also a need to increase faculty and stu-
dents support and to strengthen administrative collabora-
tion. Furthermore, the learning environment should be
made such that support systems are intact and in place.
3. There is a need for campus journalist and their
adviser to become fully aware of the basic components of
campus journalis m since evidently there is more campus
journalist whose level of awareness is only minimal or
almost none. Likewise, in some schools where adminis-
trators manifest openness and assistance, the level of
awareness is high and the implementation becomes effort-
less since the administration is very supportive and recog-
CAMPUS JOURNALISM IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN REGION
III: IMPLICATIONS TO THE MANAGE MENT OF STUDENT
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Mari a Agnes P. Ladia, Ed. D.
Tarlac State Univeristy
Tarlac City, Philippines
mapladia@gmail.com
nizes the directive of the CJA.
4. Campus journalis m in the region performed
the following roles and functions: served as the voice of
the students; gave our informat ion; helped in modest ways
to form public opinion through the editorial; discussed
issues in school in the community and even national issues
which are common to the students like budget cuts, tuition
fee hikes and the like; and safeguarding the college from
its won inadequacies, irregularity and ineptitude.
There exist in the region the pressing problems of engag-
ing the students as well as the faculty to get involved in
campus journalism; of meet ing the needs of the campus
writers for training, facility, and funding; and of wrestling
with authorit ies for recognition, fiscal autonomy and cam-
pus press freedom.
5. There is a pressing need for the HEIs to adapt
to the changing roles it plays in campus journalis m. One
which take on the leadership of providing a supportive and
open-line communication with the school publication. It
should be supportive of allowing budding journalist the
space they need to fully develop into responsible journal-
ist.
6. There are certain and part icular management
roles, which should be taken seriously by the student pub-
licat ion services and should take on a priority concern
especially in involving the students in certain policies that,
could affect them. This is to make the programs be stu-
dent-focused and serving the best interest of its clientele.
IV. Conclusions
1. The components of campus journalism in the
region were delivered quite positively in majority of the
higher educational institutions whereby majority of the
components were well defined particularly the student
publication, journalist, security of tenure and publication
adviser. Although important points as regards publication
advisers and student journalist were still needing deeper
analysis. The editorial board, policies, funding, press con-
ferences and the rules and regulations are still in the proc-
ess of being institutionalized within the system. Many of
the provisions are not yet fully implemented due to the
EBs lack of knowledge. Most of the editorial policies
and the rules and regulations were based on their college
or university code.
2. There is a great need for campus journalism to
be supported by the administration, faculty and students
for this uplift the morale of the campus journalist. In
HEIs were the support is low or minimal, campus jour-
nalis m looks bleak and the staff feels disheartened and
unappreciated. Conversely, the HEIs, which experience
full support, tend to feel s esteemed, significant and in-
volved. There is also a need to increase faculty and stu-
dents support and to strengthen administrative collabora-
tion. Furthermore, the learning environment should be
made such that support systems are intact and in place.
3. There is a need for campus journalist and their
adviser to become fully aware of the basic components of
campus journalis m since evidently there is more campus
journalist whose level of awareness is only minimal or
administrators manifest openness and assistance, the level
of awareness is high and the implementation becomes ef-
fortless since the administration is very supportive and
recognizes the directive of the CJA.
4. Campus journalis m in the region performed the
following roles and functions: served as the voice of the
students; gave our information; helped in modest ways to
form public opinion through the editorial; discussed issues
in school in the community and even national issues which
are common to the students like budget cuts, tuition fee
hikes and the like; and safeguarding the college from its
won inadequacies, irregularity and ineptitude.
5. There exist in the region the pressing problems
of engaging the students as well as the faculty to get in-
volved in campus journalis m; of meeting the needs of the
campus writers for training, facility, and funding; and of
wrestling with authorities for recognition, fiscal autonomy
and campus press freedom.
6. There is a pressing need for the HEIs to adapt
to the changing roles it plays in campus journalis m. One
which take on the leadership of providing a supportive and
open-line communication with the school publication. It
should be supportive of allowing budding journalist the
space they need to fully develop into responsible journal-
ist.
7.There are certain and particular management
roles, which should be taken seriously by the student pub-
licat ion services and should take on a priority concern es-
pecially in involving the students in certain policies that,
could affect them. This is to make the programs be student
-focused and serving the best interest of its clientele.

REFERENCES

Allen, Harold B. and Russell N. Campbell. 1975. Teaching Eng-
lish as a Second Language. Chicago: Mc Graw-Hill, Inc.

Cruz, Ceciliano-Jose B., 1997. Advance Campus Journalism for
Fourth Year. Manila: Rex Bookstore
Delworth, Ursula Gray R. Hanson and Associates. 1980. Student
Services: A Handbook for Professionals. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Drey, William G. Robert H. Daines and William C. Giangue.
1990. The Challenge of Management. Florida: Harcourt
Braze Jovanovich, Inc.

Gregorio, Herman C. Ph.D. 1978. School Administration and
Supervision. Philippines: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co.

Hanson, Mark E., 1991. Educational Administration and Organ-
izational Behavior Third Edition. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.

Hargreaves, David and D. Hopkins. 1999. The Empowered
School: The Management and Practice of Development
Planning. London: Cassell Educational Limited.
Abstract The study was done to investigate the effect
of Bruners Modes of Representations on high school
students ability to factor second-degree polynomi als.
A theoretical model was devel oped based on Bruners
Modes of Representations and used as a gui de in com-
ing up wi th the set of acti vities in teaching factoring
polynomials. There were 91 First Year high school
students that composed two sections who partici pated
in this study. Non-Equi valent Design, classroom ob-
servations, attitude scales and follow-up interviews
were done in this study. Based on the fi ndings, the use
of Bruners Modes of Representations has a positi ve
effect on students ability to factor second-degree pol y-
nomi als. The mean learning gain of the students who
used the di fferent representations was greater than the
mean learning gain of students who di d not use it.

Keywords-Jerome Bruner; representations; factoring polyno-
mials; classroom interaction;learning;teaching.
I. INTRODUCTION

One of the aspects of mathemat ics is the use of
variables, numbers, and symbols in a statement governed
by some mathematical rules and patterns. In teaching
mathematics, one of the common problems of teachers is
how to teach its abstractness in such a way that the stu-
dents would easily grasp the concepts. This leads the
teachers to look for the right pedagogy that would fit the
students learning styles to help them understand the con-
cepts. One of these ways is the use of the different re-
sources and teaching aids
In this study, the use of the resources and teach-
ing aids is reflected in Bruners (1966) mode of represen-
tations. His theory indicates that the learners conceptual
formation depends on their existing knowledge. Bruner
developed three modes of representations. These are en-
active, iconic, and symbolic representations
[1]
.
Representations have been one of the topics in
mathematics education research. Several researches
showed numerous advantages of using representations but
there were some researches also that claimed no guarantee
of success in improving the ability of the students to un-
derstand the abstract concepts
[2]
. This research was con-
ducted to determine the effect of using representations to
help students grasp the concepts on factoring second-
degree polynomials with ease. The researcher developed a
set of activities that uses the different modes of represen-
tations, tested its effectiveness to facilitate conceptual
understanding.
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The theoretical underpinning of the study em-
braces the learning theory on constructivism emphasized
in Bruners modes of representations. Constructivism
concerns the process of how humans come to know new
knowledge based on their past experiences from the things
around them
[3, 4]
and the role of teachers is to facilitate the
construction of knowledge and ensure students make
sense of the knowledge learnt.
In Mathematics, representations refer to both the
internal and external manifestations of mathematical con-
cepts
[1, 6]
. Internal representation is an abstraction of
mathematical ideas that are developed by the learners
through their experiences
[6]
. External representations are
merely input and stimuli to the senses to help understand
the concepts
[7]
. An example of these external representa-
tions is the use of geometry board or commonly known as
geo-board. The geo-board is used in teaching geometric
shapes. These can also be used in teaching measurement
especially teaching areas of the geometric shapes.
There are several researches that show advan-
tages on the use of multiple representations or the use of
different representations. The students should be taught
using different representations allowing them to use a
wide range of different learning styles
[6, 8]
. Representa-
tions also improve students conceptual understanding
[1,6,
9]
. Representations can be used as tools for manipulat ion
and communication
[10]
. In addition, representations are
used as cognitive tools to facilitate their ability to inter-
pret, operate, and construct mathematical concepts
[6]
.
Bruners Modes of Representations. There are
three modes on how the students represent their experi-
ences namely; enactive, iconic, and symbolic
[1, 11, 12]
.
Enactive Representations. The first type of rep-
resentations according to Bruner is the enactive represen-
tation. This is primarily focused on the motor responses

[5]
. Students perform various tasks to learn new ideas.
Enactive learning involves hands-on or direct experience

[13]
. An example of these tasks is performing an experi-
ment where students are in direct experience of the materi-
als in the experiment. In this study, manipulative or con-
crete materials such as algebraic tiles were used to aid the
students in visualizing mathematical process.
Manipulative materials are tangible objects, tool,
model or mechanis m that may be used to clearly show a
deeper understanding about a specific concept in mathe-
mat ics
[14, 2]
. One of the examples of manipulative materi-
als is algebraic tiles which are used to help the students to
Jerr A. Cabahug
General Education Depart ment
University of Cebu-Lapu-Lapu and Mandaue
jerhe_cabahug@yahoo.com
The Effect of the Use of Bruners Mode of Representations on Students Ability to
Factor Second-degree Polynomials
factor polynomials. There are three types of manipulative
materials. These are unstructured, structured, and virtual
manipulative materials
[15]
.
In this study, the students were exposed to alge-
braic t iles and they used it in finding the factors of the
given polynomials. The students represented the given
polynomials using the algebraic tiles and formed the tiles
into a rectangle. Once the students formed the rectangles,
they identified its sides to determine the factors of the
given polynomials.
Iconic Representations. The second mode of
representation for Bruner is the iconic representation.
Iconic representations depend on the visual perceptions of
the learners. Iconic representations are also called visual
representations. Visual representations are important both
as an aid supporting reflection and as a mean for the com-
municat ion of mathematical ideas
[16]
. Pictures, images,
graphs, diagrams, and tables are examples of the iconic
representations. There are different kinds of pictures or
images used by teachers. There are two kinds of pictures;
decorative and informational pictures
[17]
. Moreover, there
are four functions of pictures; decorative, representational,
organizational, and informational
[18]
.
Different pictures that represented the given
polynomials were used in this study. The students were
given with the pictures of the different polynomials and
their tasks were to identify the expressions and to deter-
mine the factors of the polynomials based on the pictures.
Symbolic Representations. The third representa-
tion according to Jerome Bruner is the symbolic represen-
tation. Symbolic representation is the use of the algebraic
rules specifying function
[19]
. These are the governing
rules that are used to solve word problems. In this repre-
sentation, the teacher puts much on the lecture of the dif-
ferent algebraic rules.
After the students were exposed to algebraic tiles
and the pictures, the students were taught on how to factor
polynomials using the different rules in finding the factors
of the polynomials in the form of perfect square trinomial,
difference of two squares, product of two binomials, and
polynomials that have common factors.

Fig. 1 Theoret ical Framework of the St udy

In Figure 1, the topic on Factoring Polynomials is
presented using the different representations according to
Jerome Bruner to improve the factoring scales of the stu-
dents. The use of algebraic tiles, illustrative pictures, and
the different algebraic patterns and rules in finding the
prime factors of the given polynomials are some of the
that can be associated with Bruners representations
[20]
.

III. THE PROBLEM

This study intended to investigate the effect of
Bruners Modes of Representations on high school stu-
dents ability to factor second-degree polynomials.
Specifically, this study aimed to:
1. determine the mean pretest and posttest scores of stu-
dents to factor second-degree polynomials in the ex-
perimental and control groups
2. find out if there is a significant difference in the mean
pretest and posttest scores of the students within the
experimental and control groups
3. assess the students attitude towards factoring and the
level of class interaction
4. evaluate the effect of using the different representations
on students learning gains in factoring polynomials

IV. METHODOLOGY

The study was conducted in one of the Basic Edu-
cation Depart ments (BED) in a large private university in
Cebu City. A total of 91 First Year High School students
that comprised two sections were the research participants.
The two sections were randomly selected and assigned as
experimental and control groups. The experimental group
had 46 students while the control group had 45 students.
The pretest was given to the chosen classes. The
experimental group was taught using the activity guide
while the control group was taught with the usual practice
of the teacher. The activity guide was developed by the
researcher based on the theoretical framework of the study.
Classroom observations were done to assess the level of
class interactions. After that, posttest was administered to
both groups.
Eighteen students were chosen to answer the 15-
item Likert scale concerning their attitudes towards factor-
ing. The students were asked to explain in writing their
responses to the interview guides.
After all the data were gathered, the results of the
posttest, classroom observations and the interview guides
were analyzed using the appropriate statistical tools. The
mean scores and standard deviations of the groups were
taken. The Paired test was used to determine if there is
any significant difference between the learning gains
within the groups. An Independent-samples test statistical
tool was used to determine if there is any significant differ-
ence between the learning gains between the groups.

V. RESULTS

The mean pretest scores were 12.93 and 13.38 for
the experimental and control groups respectively. The
standard deviation for the experimental group was 7.293
while for the control group the standard deviation was
6.101.
The mean posttest score of the experimental
group was 28.53 while the mean posttest score for the con-
Fact oring Fact oring
Bruners
Modes of Rep-
resentations
Concret e
(Algebrai
Iconic
(Represent at iona
l pict ures)
Abst ract
(Patt erns
trol group was 27.04. The standard deviations were 11.210
and 12.590 for the experimental and control groups re-
spectively.
Table 2 shows the difference of the mean pretest
and posttest scores of students between and within the
experimental and control groups.

TABLE 2 DIFFERENCE OF THE MEAN PRETEST
AND POSTTEST SCORES OF STUDENTS
Based from Table 2, the t- and p-values for the
mean pretest scores between the experimental and control
groups are -0.310 and 0.757 respectively. This means that
at level of significance the mean pretest
scores of both experimental and the control groups were
not significantly different.
Likewise, the t- and p-values for the mean post-
test scores between the experimental and control groups
are 0.592 and 0.555 respectively. The values showed that
the mean posttests scores of both experimental and control
groups were not significantly different at
level of significance.
In addition, the p- and t --values for the mean
pretest and posttest within the experimental group are -
7.800 and 0.000 respectively. At level of
significance, the values showed that there is a significant
difference between the mean pretest and posttest scores
within the experimental group. The same with the control
group, p-value was also computed and it is equal to -6.508
while t -value is 0.000. This shows that the mean pretest
and posttest scores within the control group differ signifi-
cantly at level of significance.
It was expected that there will be significant dif-
ference between the mean pretest and posttest scores of
within the groups due to the fact that the students already
gained the knowledge that they need to factor the given
polynomials after formal instructions were given to the
students. These quantitative data are supported by the
active participation of the students in every activity that
was given to them.
The global score of each student was taken by
summing the numerical assignments to their responses to
the statements given. The global scores of the students
were categorized into high, moderate, and low attitude.
Table 3 shows the frequency distribution of stu-
t p
Significant or Not
Significant
Mean Pret est Scores
Experiment al-Control
-0.310
0.757

Not Significant
Mean Postt est Scores
Experiment- Control
0.592
0.555

Not Significant
Experiment al Group
Pret est -Postt est Scores
7.800
0.000

Significant
Control Group
Pret est -Postt est Scores
6.508
0.000

Significant
students with high, moderate, and low attitude for both
experimental and control groups.

TABLE 3 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF STU-
DENTS WITH HIGH, MODERATE, AND
LOW ATTITUDE

Table 3 shows that 11 out of 18 students from
both groups have high attitude towards factoring poly-
nomials. The level of class interactions within the ex-
perimental and control groups vary greatly. Most of the
time in the experimental group classroom discourse was
on student-led activity, co-construct meaning, and high
engagement from the students while in the control group
most of the time spent on teacher-led activity, active
response, and low engagement from the students.
Representations increase the students involve-
ment and motivation to learn new concepts that was
why class interaction was more observed in the experi-
mental group than in the control group.
The learning gains of the students were com-
puted by getting the difference between pretest and
posttest scores of the students in both groups.
The mean learning gain of the students in the
experimental and control groups are 16.24 and 13.38
respectively. The standard deviation of the experimen-
tal group is 8.944 while for the control group the stan-
dard deviation is 11.305. The mean learning gains im-
ply that students in the experimental group performed
better in the posttest than the students in the control
group.
Table 4 shows the difference between the
learning gains of the students from both groups.

TABLE 4 DIFFERENCE OF THE LEARNING GAINS
OF THE STUDENTS OF BOTH GROUPS
Based in Table 4, the computed t-value be-
tween the learning gains is equal 1.285 and p-vale is
equal to 0.203, thus at level of significance
the mean learning gains of the students from the experi-
mental and control groups were not significantly differ-
ent.
Though the mean learning gains were not sig-
nificantly different, but it was observed that the students
in the experimental group were more active participants
in all the activities than the control group. In addition,
Experiment al Group Control Group
High Att it ude 6 5
Moderat e Att it ude 3 3
Low Att it ude 0 1
t p
Significant or Not
Significant
1.285
0.203

Not Significant
the students in the experimental group who were inter-
viewed claimed that the different representations helped
them in finding the factors of the given polynomials. This
follows that students who were exposed to the use of the
different representations became more flexible in switch-
ing from one mode to another mode of representations,
thus, they have better conceptual understanding compared
to the students in the control group who were exposed
only in one mode of representations.

V. CONCLUSION

Based on the findings of this study, the re-
searcher concluded that the use of Bruners Modes of
Representations has a positive effect on students ability
to factor second-degree polynomials. Based on the gath-
ered data, the students in the experimental group had
greater mean learning gain than the students in the control
group though it was not significantly different. The stu-
dents should have been exposed to the use of the different
representations longer to see more effects on students
ability to factor second-degree polynomials. However, the
experimental group exposure on the use of the different
representations was limited for one representation per day.
This could have affected the generalizat ion of the conclu-
sion.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research is supported in part of the Thesis
Grant from the Depart ment of Science and Technology of
the Philippines.

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Abstract - The purpose of this study was to devel op
constructi vist approach-based experi ments and to de-
termi ne its effecti veness in teaching some physics con-
cepts in mechanics.
In the conduct of the study, the quasi-experiment
following a non-equi valent control group design was
used. The study started with the admi nistrati on of pre-
test and atti tude inventory test. The teaching making
use of constructi vist approach-based experi ments for
the experi mental group and traditi onal experi ments
for the control group followed. Fi nall y, it ended wi th
the admi nistrati on of the post-test and attitude i nven-
tory test.
The control group and the experimental group
were equal in terms of cogniti ve level in physics. How-
ever, the students exposed to the constructi vist ap-
proach had significantly higher post-test scores and
higher mean gain scores than the students exposed to
tradi tional approach. The study also revealed that the
experi mental group developed a more positi ve atti-
tude towards physics than the control group. There
was a significant di fference between the post achieve-
ment scores of the students exposed to constructi vist
approach-based experi ments and traditi onal experi-
ments.
As revealed in the study, the Constructi vist Ap-
proach-Based Experi ments are effecti ve in enhancing
students achievement and in developing a more posi-
ti ve attitude towards physics than the Traditi onal Ex-
peri ments. Furthermore, the students achievement
and attitude towards the subject can be intensified
when they work cooperati vely, provi di ng them wi th
more opportunities to appl y their own skills and make
their own decisions thus overcoming their misconcep-
tions on the subject.
The constructi vist approach-based experi ments
really affirmed its worth and advantage as instruc-
tional material i n teaching physics concepts.

Keywords: Constructivist Approach, Constructivist Ap-
proach-Based Experiment, Traditional Experiment, Atti-
tude Towards Physics

I. Introduction

Science is recognized widely as being of great
importance internationally both for economic well being
of nations and because of the need for scientifically liter-
ate citizenry (Fraser & Walberg, 1995). Among the basics
of science, physics is the most fundamental and all-
inclusive of all the sciences. It is one of the subjects that
needs careful re-examination to determine what improve-
ment could be made to fully develop the students poten-
tials in the subject. The study of Physics involves the pur-
suit of truth, hence it inculcates intellectual honesty, dili-
gence, perseverance and observation in the learners (Das,
1985). Its being tagged as a difficult subject is almost a
prophetic statement as shown in the performance of the
Filipino students in various international assessments.
Ganagen (2000) said that no subject in the curriculum
today has drawn greater attention than science. But sad to
know that the present state of science education as as-
sessed by renowned scientist both in local and interna-
tional circles are discouragingly poor.
In the different science subject areas, achievements in
physics of Filipino students appeared below the interna-
tional standards (US Depart ment of Education National
Center for Education Statistics 2000, International Asso-
ciation for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement
2004). The Philippines ranked third and fourth to the last
in the list of nations in the 1999 and 2003 TIMSS respec-
tively. Findings of Philippine-based studies ( Orleans
1994) also present the same conclusion of low student
achievement in physics. This poor student achievement
has prompted educational researchers worldwide to con-
tinuously identify factors that can account for academic
outcomes in the classroom. Considering the worth of
knowing physics, it becomes a challenge for teachers how
they could make physics teaching more attractive to the
students.
Students misconceptions in science, specifically in
physics are just but common and universal in scope. After
conducting a review of literature and extensive reading,
the researcher found out that one of the approaches or
strategies in teaching which take into consideration the
misconception of the students is the constructivist ap-
proach. According to Novodvorsky, constructivism is a
philosophy of learning that covers all classroom activit ies,
thus, it is also applicable in the performance of experi-
ments in the laboratory. Because of this, the researcher
was encouraged to develop selected experiments in phys-
ics specifically in mechanics based on the constructivist
approach for the purpose of identifying and overcoming
the students misconceptions on some of the most basic
concepts in mechanics.
The constructivist approach was utilized in this

Lorelei C. Tabago
Institute of Teacher Education
Isabela State University Cauayan City Campus
Cauayan City, Isabela, Philippines
lei_tabago@yahoo.com
The Effectiveness of Constructivist Approach-Based Experiments
in Teaching Selected Physics Concepts
this study. It is the researchers desire to test the effectiveness of
the constructivist approach-based experiments in teaching and
learning selected physics concepts.
Specifically, this study was conducted to:
1. Determine the significant differences between the control
group and experimental group in terms of the follow-
ing:
a. pre-achievement scores
b. post-achievement scores
c. gain scores
d. pre-attitude scores towards physics
e. post-attitude scores towards physics
2. Determine the significant difference between the achieve-
ment and attitude scores towards physics before and after
the study of the:
a. Experimental group
b. Control group

II. Methodology

The researcher used a quasi-experiment following a
non equivalent control group design to verify the effec-
tiveness of the constructivist approach-based experiments.
It involved the comparison of concept learning in physics
between students exposed to constructivist approach-
based experiments and those to traditional experiments.
The students that were exposed to constructivist approach-
based experiments were designated as experimental group
and those students that were exposed to tradit ional experi-
ments were designated as control group. The students
achievement and attitude scores towards physics before
and after the experiments were gathered and measures
were employed.
The research was conducted at Isabela State Univer-
sity-Cauayan Campus, San Fermin, Cauayan City, Isabela,
Philippines during the 2
nd
semester, SY 2008-2009. The
respondents of the study were the two sections of the sec-
ond year BSIT students wherein the researcher was as-
signed to teach Physics 11.
This research made use of the following data gather-
ing instruments:
The Pre and Post Achievement Test
The Attitude Inventory Test (by Melecio Deauna)
The Traditional Experiments
The Constructivist Approach-Based Experiments
Before the experimental study, the pre-achievement
test was administered to the two groups of respondents to
find out their preconceptions and misconceptions in me-
chanics and likewise to measure their achievement level.
The Deaunas Attitude Inventory test was also adminis-
tered to determine the init ial attitude level of the students
towards physics.
The t reatment for the experimental group differs
from that of control group in only one aspect. During the
period of study, the experimental group was exposed to
the constructivist approach of laboratory teaching.
At the end of the study, a post achievement test was
again administered to measure the achievement level of the
students and the attitude inventory test was administered
again to find out their post-attitude towards physics.
A criterion scale was used in analyzing the over-all
attitude of the two groups.
The t- test was used to determine if there was differ-
ence between the experimental and control groups in their:
Pre-achievement scores in physics
Pre-attitude towards physics
Post-achievement scores in physics
Post-attitude towards physics
III. Results and Discussions

The Difference Between the Pre- Achievement Scores
of Experimental and Control Groups
The pre-achievement test was conducted to find out if
both groups of respondents posses the same cognitive level
before the conduct of the study.
Table 1 shows the difference between the pre-
achievement scores of the two groups of respondents.
It can be gleaned from the table that the experimental
group had a pre-test mean score of 14.65 and a standard
deviation of 4.02 while that of the control group had a
mean score of 14.13 and a standard deviation of 3.41. The
t-ratio of 0.671 has an associated probability of 0.252. This
means that the null hypothesis is accepted. Hence, there is
no significant difference between the pre-test mean scores
of the two groups of respondents. This only means that the
two groups of respondents have the same cognitive level
before the study was conducted.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE-AACHEVEMENT SCORES OF
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
The Difference Bet ween the Post-Achievement Scores
of Experimental and Control Groups
After the study, the effect of constructivist approach
and traditional approach in physics laboratory teaching
was determined. The actual scores of the two groups were
treated.
Table 2 shows the difference in the post-achievement
scores of the experimental and control groups.
As shown in the table, the students exposed to con-
structivist approach-based experiments had a post-test
mean score of 28.91 and a standard deviation of 3.60 while
the group exposed to traditional experiments had a mean
score of 22.52 and a standard deviation of 4.28. The t -rat io
of 7.7464 has an associated probability of 6.79 x 10
-12
.
Group Mean SD Df t-ratio p
Experimen-
tal Group

Control
Group
14.65

14.13
4.02

3.41

90

0.671
NS

0.252
This means that the null hypothesis is rejected.
Hence, there is a significant difference between achieve-
ment scores of the two groups after the study.
After the treatment, the two groups of respondents
varied statistically in terms of their physics achievement.
It also signifies that constructivist approach-based experi-
ments as a tool in teaching laboratory physics did enhance
better achievement of students than the traditional experi-
ments.
The higher post-achievement score of the experimen-
tal group can be attributed to the fact that the students
were highly motivated to play an active part in their acqui-
sition of knowledge giving them an active role in their
own learning which made them perform better academi-
cally after the study.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE POST-ACHIEVEMENT
SCORES OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
C. The Difference Between the Gain Scores of Experi-
mental and Control Groups

After the administration of the post-achievement test,
the gain scores of the two groups were compared.
Table 3 shows the difference in the gain scores be-
tween of the experimental and control groups.
The mean gain score of the experimental group was
14.26 and a standard deviation of 5.43 while that of the
control group was only 8.39 and a standard deviation of
5.53. The table also reveals that the t-ratio of 5.13 has an
associated probability of 8.1 x 10
-7
which means that there
is a significant difference between the gain scores of the
two groups after the study.
Furthermore, it can be noted that the students exposed
to constructivist approach-based experiments gained more
in their achievement scores after the conduct of the study.
This is due to the approach of instructions in which the
students had been exposed to.
The Constructivist approach of teaching laboratory
physics using constructivist approach-based experiments
resulted to an improved learning in physics which led to a
better understanding of physics concepts. This implicat ion
can be due to the fact that in the constructivist approach,
misconceptions on physical concepts and overcoming
them are taken into consideration thus giving more em-
phasis on most aspects of concept attainment in physics
for clearer and better understanding.
Group Mean SD df t-ratio P
Experi-
mental
Group

Control
Group
28.91

22.52
3.60

4.28

90

7.7464
S

6. 79x1
0
-12

TABLE III. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
GAIN SCORES OF EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS
D. The Difference Between the Pre-Attitude Scores
Towards Physics of the Experimental and Control
Groups

Before the experiment, the attitude scores towards
physics of the students were determined using the
Deaunas Attitude Inventory Test. This was done in
order to find out if both groups of students have the
same level of attitude towards physics before the con-
duct of the study.
Table 4 shows the difference between the pre-
attitude scores towards physics of the experimental and
control groups.
As gleaned from the table, the experimental group
had a mean score of 3.459 and a standard deviation of
0.295 which means that they have a neutral attitude to-
wards physics . The control group had a mean score of
3.400 and a standard deviation of 0.281 which also
means that they have a neutral attitude towards physics.
The ratio of 0.9456 has a probability of 0.1734
which tells us that the null hypothesis is rejected. There
is no significant difference between the pre-attitude
mean scores of the two groups. This only means that the
initial attitude of the two groups of respondents were the
same before the conduct of the study.

TABLE IV. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE
-ATTITUDE SCORES TOWARDS PHYSICS OF
THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS

E. The Difference Between the Post-Attitude Scores
Towards Physics of the Experimental and Control
Groups

The post-attitude scores towards physics of the two
groups of respondents were determined after the conduct of
the study in order to find out if there was a significant change
in the attitude of the students towards physics as a result of
constructivist and traditional approach of teaching laboratory
physics.
Experi-
mental
Group

Control
Group
14.26

8.39
5.43

5.53

90

5.13
S

8.1x10
-
7

Group Mean SD df t-ratio p
Experi-
mental
Group
Control
Group
3.459

3.400
0.295

0.281

90

0.9456
NS

0.1734
Table 5 shows the difference between the post-attitude
scores of the experimental group after being exposed to
constructivist approach-based experiments and the control
group after being exposed to traditional experiments.
The table reveals that the post-attitude mean score of
the experimental group was 3.88 and a standard deviation
of 0.339 which means that their attitude towards physics
was positive. This only shows that their attitude was
changed significantly from the neutral before the conduct
of the study to positive after the conduct of the study.
The table also reveals that the post-attitude mean
score of the control group was 3.59 and a standard devia-
tion of 0.336 which means that they still have a neutral
attitude towards physics after the conduct of the study.
Furthermore, the t-rat io of 4.14 which has a probabil-
ity of 3.85 x 10
-5
means that the null hypothesis is re-
jected. Hence, there is a significant difference between the
post-attitude of the experimental and control groups.
The above discussion implies that constructivist ap-
proach-based experiments enhanced the interest and atti-
tude of the students towards physics better than the tradi-
tional experiments. The positive response of the experi-
mental group after the study means that the students
learned to appreciate and love physics. This can be attrib-
uted to the fact that since constructivist approach-based
experiments give the students maximum opportunities to
apply their own decision, they were more mot ivated in
performing the activities that served to focus and stimu-
lated their attention towards the lesson; hence a positive
attitude that favors learning is nurtured.

TABLE V. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE POST-ATTITUDE
SCORES TOWARDS PHYSICS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS

F. The Difference Between the Pre and Post Achievement
Scores of the Students Exposed to Constructivist Ap-
proach-Based Experiments

The pre and post achievement test were administered
in order to determine whether was a significant change on
the achievement of the students as a result of using con-
structivist approach-based experiments as a tool in teach-
ing laboratory physics.
Table 6 shows the difference between the pre and post
achievement scores of the experimental group.
Before the conduct of the conduct of the study, the
mean score of the students was 14.65 with a standard de-
viation of 4.02 which was increased significantly to 28.91
with a standard deviation of 3.60 after the conduct of the
study.
The table also reveals that the t-ratio is 17.91 which has a
probability of 9.5 x 10
-14
which means that the null hy-
pothesis is rejected. Hence, there is a significant difference
between the pre and post achievement scores of the stu-
dents exposed to constructivist approach-based experi-
ments. It also suggest that constructivist approach based
experiments as a tool in teaching laboratory physics did
enhance achievement. The students performed better as a
positive effect of the approach that was employed.
Furthermore, it was also observed that during the con-
duct of the study, students showed willingness to under-
take new tasks, init iative new ideas related to classroom
activities, project and adapt easily to changes in proce-
dures.
TABLE VI. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE AND POST-
ACHIEVEMENT SCORES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
G. The Difference Between the Pre and Post Achievement
Scores of the Students Exposed to Traditional Experiments

The pre and post achievement test were administered in or-
der to determine whether there was a significant change on the
achievement of the students as a result of using traditional experi-
ments as a tool in teaching laboratory physics.
Table 7 shows the difference in the pre and post -achievement
scores of the control group.
The table reveals that the students in the control group ob-
tained a pre-test mean score of 14.13 with a standard deviation of
3.41 and a post-test mean score of 22.52 with a standard devia-
tion of 4.28. The t-ratio of 10.395 which has a probability of 2.0
x 10
-14
tells us that there is a significant difference between the
pre and post achievement scores of the students exposed to tradi-
tional experiment.
The result presented in the table implies that there was a
significant increase in the mean scores of the students after the
conduct of the study. This means that traditional experiments are
also capable of improving the students performance in physics
and should not be discarded as one of the approaches employed
to be employed in physics laboratory teaching.
In the event of the study, it was observed that students were
also participative and enthusiastic in performing the activities
which were undertaken in the subject.

TABLE VII. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE AND POST-
ACHIEVEMENT SCORES TOWARDS PHYSICS OF THE CONTROL GROUP

H. The Difference Bet ween the Pre and Post Atitude-
Scores of the Students Exposed to Constructivist Approach
-Based Experiments
Experi-
mental
Group

Control
Group
3.88

3.59
0.339

0.336

90

4.14
S

3.85 x
10
-5

Achieve-
ment
Mean SD df t-ratio P
PRE

POST
14.65

28.91
4.02

3.60

45

17.91
S

9. 5x1
0
-14

Achieve-
ment
PRE

POST
14.13

22.52
3.41

4.28

45

10.395
S

2. 0x1
0
-14

The Pre and Post-Attitude Inventory Test were adminis-
tered in order to determine whether there was a significant
change on the attitude of students towards physics after employ-
ing the constructivist approach of laboratory teaching.
Table 8 shows the comparison of the attitudes towards phys-
ics of the students exposed to constructivist approach-based
experiments before and after the study.
The students in the experimental group had a pre-attitude
mean score of 3.46 with a standard deviation of 0.295 and a post -
attitude mean score of 3.88 with a standard deviation 0f 0.339
and with a t-ratio of 6.47 with an associated probability of 2.49 x
10
-9
. Thus, there is a significant difference between the attitude
of the experimental group before and after the study.
The table further reveals that the students in the experimen-
tal grouped developed a positive attitude after the study.
The increase in the attitude mean scores indicates that the
students who were exposed to constructivist approach-based
experiments were well-motivated to love, like the subject, appre-
ciate the interesting activities and show interest, eagerness and
enthusiasm towards physics.
TABLE VIII. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE AND POST-ATTITUDE
SCORES TOWARDS PHYSICS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
I. The Difference Between the Pre and Post Attitude
Scores of the Students Exposed to Traditional Experi-
ments

The Pre and Post-Attitude Inventory Test were admin-
istered in order to determine whether there was a signifi-
cant change on the attitude of students towards physics
after employing the traditional approach of laboratory
teaching.
Table 9 shows the difference between the pre and post -
attitude towards physics of students exposed to traditional
experiments.
It can be gleaned from the table that the pre-attitude
mean score of the control group was 3.40 with a standard
deviation of 0.2812 and after the study the attitude mean
score was found out to be 3.59 with a standard deviation
of 0.3364. The table further shows that the null hypothesis
is rejected. Hence, there is a significant difference be-
tween the pre and post attitude mean scores of students
exposed to traditional experiments.
Thus, it can be noted that traditional experiments can
also enhance the students attitude towards physics
TABLE IX. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE AND POST-ATTITUDE
SCORES TOWARDS PHYSICS OF THE CONTROL GROUP
Hence, the developed constructivist approach-based
experiments as a tool in teaching laboratory physics is an
innovative approach that affects the students achievement
and attitude towards physics. The result of this study
strongly supports the research findings of Arpilleda
(1982), Alcantara (1982), Tong (1993) and Camarao
(1996) that the use of innovative approach of instruction
in teaching physics greatly affects students achievement.
The result of this study also strengthens the theory of
Tibigar (1986), Garcia (1989), Rafael (1990), Hidalgo
(1991), Teeravarapang (1992), and Agara (1996) that ef-
fective science teaching is based on the teachers arc of
using any particular method in achieving goals. Innovative
method and approaches improved learning and are helpful
in developing the critical thinking among students. The
approach of instruction should motivate the learner to
strive to learn and to acquire knowledge to find something
new to the world and explore for themselves. Based on the
foregoing discussions, constructivist approach of labora-
tory teaching enhances better achievement and attitude
towards physics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
LCT would like to thank her family for the inspi-
ration and to ISU Cauayan City Campus Research Depart-
ment for the support and encouragement and above all to
GOD for the guidance and wisdom.

REFERENCES

A. Books

Giancoli, Douglas C. 1998. Physics. 5th ed. USA: Prentice-
Hall, Inc.

Glaserfeld, Ernest Von. 1995. A constructivist approach to
teaching in constructivism in education. Leslie P Steffe
and Jerry Gale. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ-
ates, Publishers.

Navasa, Delia. C. 1990. Physics laboratory manual. Quezon
City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Pabellon, Josefina et al. 1998. Sourcebook on Practical Work
for Teacher Trainors. Quezon City:UPISMED

Salandanan, Gloria G. (2000). Teaching Approaches and
Strategies. Katha Publishing Co Inc. Quezon City

B. Journals/Publications

Hestenes, David, Malcolm Wells and Gregg Swackhamer.
1992. Force Concept Inventory. The Physics Teacher 30
( M a r c h )
141-153.

Malaluan, Nenita A. 1994. Concept mapping in introductory
physics; influence on student learning structure and
achievement. Diwang Pisika 14. (January) 9-13.
Atti-
tude
PRE

POST
3.46

3.88
0.295

0.339

45

6.47
S

2. 49x1
0
-9

Atti-
tude
Mean SD Df t-ratio P
PRE

POST
3.40

3.59
0.2812

0.3364

45

3.0013
S

1. 74x1
0
-3

Novodvorsky, Ingrid C. 1997. Constructing Deeper understand-
ing. The Physics Teacher 35 (April): 242-245.

Talisayon, Vivian M. 1995. Selected strategies for conceptual
changes in teaching physics in the 3 workshop on students
conceptual structure and changes in learning physics in
Seoul National University, Korea, June 13-17, 1995 by
ASPEN, KPS and SNU: 219229.

Tiberghien, A. E. et al. 1998. Connecting research in physics
education with teacher education. International & Pan
American Copyright Conventions.

C. Unpublished Materials/Theses

Acerit, V. M. 1990. Correlates of physics performance of col-
lege students at Isabela State University. Unpublished
Masters Thesis, Cagayan State University, Tuguegarao,
Cagayan

Aquino, Elbia P. 1994. A teaching model in physics: effects on
link generation, conceptual change and achievement.
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of the Philippines.

Aumento, Ma. Aileen S. 1998. Assessment of selected physics
teachers readiness to use constructivism as a teaching
approach and its effect on the classroom practices. Un-
published Masters Thesis, De La Salle University.

Bentillo, Eulalia N. 1996. Microcomputer based laboratory;
constructivist teaching, and students understanding of
force and motion concepts. Ph.D. Dissertation. University
of the Philippines.

Camarao, Elmer. 1997. Cognitive and attitudinal effects of
cooperative learning in physics teaching. Unpublished
Masters Thesis. CSU-GS, Tuguegarao, Cagayan

Jimena, Marilo M. 2002. The effectiveness of the constructivist
approach in developing selected experiments in mechan-
ics. Unpublished Masters Thesis. Ateneo de Manila Uni-
versity, Quezon City.

Limjap, Auxencia A. 1996. A constructivist based instructional
systems designed for undergraduate discrete mathematics.
Ph. D. Dissertation. De La Salle University.

Pattauinan, Dolores S. 1994. Effects of a constructivist profes-
sional development program on the problem solving skills
of secondary school mathematics teachers. Ph.D. Disserta-
tion, University of the Philippines.

Reteracion, Nenita B. 1996. Effects of the constructivist model
of learning on teachers conceptions of science, teaching
learning and classroom practices. Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of the Philippines.

Sacro, Consuelo P. 1996. Constructivist Teaching: effects on
students problem solving strategies and performance in
statistics. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of the Philip-
pines.

D. World Wide Web
http://curricuIa.ca1stateIa.edu/fgaculty/psparks/
theorjes/5o1_const

http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learners/lindavr/lindapgl

http://umperg.physics.umass.edu/perspectve/constructivism

http://umperg.physics.umass.edu/perspectve/researchfindings

http://sa3const.htm

http://physics.htm
AbstractThis paper presents selected Science and
Mathematics concepts wi th simple acti vi ties using sim-
ple and readil y available materials as strategies to en-
hance learning and get more interested with the sub-
ject/s in varied levels of learners. It features the
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) to Higher Or-
der Learning Tasks Skills(HOLTS), multi-modal ap-
proach, applicati ons, connecti ons and strategy in the
learning process using the Science and Mathematics
Thinker Moti vators (SMTM). The SMTM therefore
are excellent materials in the curriculum enrichment
for the basic education to enhance and expand the
learning process. It can be used as moti vator before
the lesson proper to stir up the cl ass, provi des the stu-
dent as an acti vity in order to maxi mize the contact
time; can be used as an assignment/homework; can be
used as an enrichment acti vity which can be done in-
side the classroom, at home or any fun acti vi ties.
Keywords: Innovation, Teaching Approaches, Teaching
Strategies, Links and Connections, Reconstruction

I. Introduction

Science and Mathematics are essential for the devel-
opment of critical and logical mind even early in school. It
allows our young children to give value to their environ-
ment and its effect on us, it will help them arrive at better
decisions and judgments. Because of this importance,
there is a need to innovate teaching through high quality
learning resources and effective teaching methods in order
to enhance the delivery of these courses. Answers to basic
questions like: What comes next to algebra? Geometry
and then what? Mathematics for what? All these questions
must lead to knowledge that can find applicat ions and
meaning to the learner, learning that will lead to his self-
development (Francisco,2010).
In the learning process, both students and teachers
should give emphasis and importance in the reconstruction
of ideas, increased perceptions of connections and conti-
nuities of experiences. The learning starts from the very
basic to the most complex ones through research, discov-
ery, inquiry, curiosity, experience and thorough experi-
ments . The expansion is unlimited.
LEARNING WITH FUN THROUGH SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
THINKER MOTIVATORS (SMTM)

Ramil F. Boli var
1

Leah A. Bolivar
1
Joena B. Parco
2

Mariel F. Bolivar
2
Fe T. Apolonio
3

1
Altavas National School, Altavas, Aklan 5616
2
Man-up Elementary School, Man-up, Batan, Aklan 5615
3
Lucas R. Pascual Memorial Elementary School, Baesa, Quezon City
limar_1215@yahoo.com
Teaching students with science and mathemat -
ics should be amazing, interesting, fun and enjoying.
If not, teachers may not teach effectively and can create
monotony in the classroom. Teachers should ensure that
scientific skills, analytical thinking and creativity are
gained by our students. For creat ivity to evolve, students
must be in a state of wonderment about science and
mathematics. What does it take to get them there
(Akiyama, et. al ,1999)?
What does it take to appreciate a musical
piece? Most people must hear the music played. And if
it is played by a full orchestra, then perhaps there will
be excitement. What does it take to appreciate a recipe?
The dish must be prepared and tasted. If it is beautifully
presented and taken in the ambiance of a great restau-
rant, then maybe there will be excitement. The senses
must be engaged. It is the same with science and mathe-
mat ics. A science and mathematical concept can be
more excit ing and fun if it can be presented physically
in a model that can be seen , manipulated, and, if possi-
ble, heard (Akiyama, et. al ,1999).
Here are some selected science and mathemat -
ics concepts using simple activities that can be brought
into the classroom so students can work with them with
fun and enjoyment, experiment, discover, and gain a
deep understanding of science and math concepts at
varied levels of learners.

II. Origami, Science and Mathematics

A. Paper Popper/Banger
When paper abruptly strikes air, the papers
kinetic (motion) energy is converted into sound energy.
The larger the paper, the louder the noise! After each
use, refold the paper popper and crease the edges flat.
This will help the popper to be reused several times
(before it eventually torn apart). If the popper does not
pop on the first attempt, loosen the pocket on the bot-
tom of the popper by unfolding and refolding it loosely
(Moje).

III. Puzzles and Dissections

A. Basis for the Area of a circle
Dissect the circle into congruent sectors of
small area. Extend the sectors for half of the circle over
a length r, half of the circumference of the circle, to form
a comb like figure. Extend the sectors similarly for the
other half of the circle to obtain a second comb. Then
mesh the two combs to approximate a rectangle. Since the
length of the rectangle is r and its width is r, its area is
r
2
which coincides with the area of the circle. The second
explanation is said to have been introduced by an Italian,
Torecilli, in the 17
th
Century. It is useful to think of the
circle as a cross section of a piece of cake called baumku-
chen. As in the baumkuchen, partition the circle into annu-
lar rings. Cut along a radius and extend each annual ring
along an approximate line parallel to tangent to the circle.
The extended annual rings approximate a right triangle, of
height r and base 2 r, whose area 2r x r/2 = r
2
coin-
cides with the area of the circle (Akiyama, et. al ,1999).

B.Pythagorean Theorem
Any two squares of different sizes can be dis-
sected, and the resulting parts, rearranged to form a
square, which is larger than both. This is the principle
used in the Pythagoras Stool. The topside consists of two
adjacent squares of different sizes and can be viewed as
hexagon (Akiyama, et. al. ,1999).

Figure 1. Larger square formed from t wo squares of different sizes

IV. TOPS

Using discarded cartons as tops with a toothpick,
one can observe different science and mathemat ics con-
cepts.
The tops spins because of centripetal force,
which stabilizes the spinning disk. When the top slows
down enough, it loses its stability and falls over. You can
observe this same thing with a bicycle wheel. When a
bicycle is going fast enough, it stays upright. However,
when it goes too slow, the bicycle falls over, since the
spinning wheels can no longer counteract the force of
gravity, which wants to pull the bike over onto its side to
give the lowest possible center of gravity.

B. Straight Lines to Circular Lines
The cards straight lines will seem to change into
circular lines. You may see spots of color in the white
spaces. If the disk is lit by a fluorescent light as it slows
down, the disks lines will seem to go in one direction
briefly stand still, and then reverse direction.
This is an optical illusion caused by the brains
being fooled by the spinning disk and its interaction with
light. The eye interprets the eight straight lines as four
concentric circles, with rings of dark lines separated by
white spaces. The spots of color that may be seen in the
white bands are caused by the brains subtracting out one
color more than others as black areas sweep over the white
areas.
The reason the lines change direction under fluo-
rescent light as the disk slows down is that fluorescent
light acts like a high-speed strobe light. Unlike an incan-
descent light, which glows continuously, fluorescent lights
blink on and off at a speed that is normally too fast for the
human eye to detect. But if spun fast enough, the disk will
show the high-speed blinking of the fluorescent light.

B. Every Triangle has an inscribed circle (Bolivar, et.
al.,2010).

Figure 2. Inscribed circle is seen in a triangle when tops spins

C. A tangent line always touches a circle at one point
(Bolivar, et. al,2010).

Figure 3. A circle is formed touching the line as seen in a spinning tops

Curved lines to colors.
This is an optical illusion caused by the brains
being fooled into thinking that the alternating regions of
black and white are instead colored. White is all colors
mixed together. Black is the absence of colors. When the
eye sees a blurry combination of white and black, it inter-
prets it as a color. The nature of the color depends upon
how much black is mixed with the white region, and
how fast (and in what direction) the disk( Moje).

V. Topology Experiments
Topology is a branch of mathemat ics that deals
with the propert ies of geometric configurations which are
unchanged by deformat ions such as stretching or twisting.

A. Paper-stretcher coin push

By bending the paper, the hole is made just large
enough to accommodate the diameter of the larger coin.
Although the circle does not change in its overall circum-

ference, by distorting the circle into an ellipse, in which
one axis (distance across the ellipse through the center) is
longer than the other axis, you provide enough room for
the larger coin to be pushed through. The long axis of the
ellipse is wider than the diameter of the larger coin. And
since the larger coin is thin compared to the shorter axis of
the now elliptical hole, it can pass through ( Moje)..

B. Super Chain

In Mathematics
By cutting a long continuous winding path in the
paper, you create a hole (paper loop) which is appar-
ently bigger than the paper itself. The original paper pe-
rimeter (distance around all four edges) did not allow you
to cut an ordinary hole that would be large enough for you
to fit through. However the length of the paper loop is not
restricted to the length of the original perimeter. By cut-
ting slits back and forth in the folded paper, a new and
much longer perimeter is created. The length of this pe-
rimeter is limited only to how narrow you can cut the slits.
The narrower the slits, the longer the perimeter, and the
larger the hole ( Moje)..

In Chemistry.
This activity can be used to observe physical
properties and changes of an object. The color and texture
of the paper has not changed, but the size and shape of the
paper has. It was a rectangular paper, but after the cutting
it resulted in a zig-zag chain-like structure big enough to
slip around a persons body. The procedure for cutting
produced the same effect as cutting thin strips from the
card and connecting them together. The zig-zag structure
allows the paper to stretch out into a large super chain
(VanCleave, 1989).

C.Mobius Strip
Made with a piece of paper and tape. If an ant
were to crawl along the length of this strip, it would return
to its starting point having traversed every part of the strip
without ever crossing an edge. Giant Mobius St rips have
been used as conveyor belts that lasts longer because the
entire surface area of the belt gets the same amount of
wear, and as continuous-loop recording tapes (to double
the playing time. It can also represent the symbol infinity
(Blum, 1997) .

V. Features of SMTM

A. The purpose of SMTM
1. Can be used as motivator before the lesson proper to
stir up the class.
2. Provides the student as an activity in order to maximize
the contact time with them especially when the teacher is
absent or in cases where an emergency occurred.
3. Can be used as an assignment/ homework.
4. Can be used as an enrichment activity which can be
done inside the classroom, at home or any fun activities
such as Olympics, science camps, etc.
5. Provides curriculum enrichment to enhance and ex-
pand the learning process.

B.SMTM from HOTS to HOLT
To develop higher order thinking skills (HOTS)
the mind needs to engage in higher order learning task
(HOLT). A good task for developing higher order thinking
skills is a problem solving task. But not all problems are
created equal. Some problems are best suited for evaluat-
ing while others are best suited for assessing learning that
would inform teaching. The difference between these two
sets of problems is not the content and skills needed to
solve them but the way they are constructed.

C. SMTM and Problem Solving
What are the features of a good problem solving
task for learning science and math?
1. It uses contexts familiar to the students
2. What is problematic is the science and mathematics
rather than the aspect of the situation
3. It encourages students to use intuitive solutions as
well as knowledge and skills they already possess.
4. The task can have several solutions
5. It challenges students to use the strategy that would
highlight the depth of their understanding of the concept
involved
6. It allows students to show the connections they have
made between the concepts they have learned

Links and Connections
Good Science and Mathematics teaching always
link concepts.

Bucky Ball
Bucky Balls are a class of pure carbon molecules
which has a molecular structure of C
60
and can be resem-
bled in the pattern found in the soccer ball. It contains 12
pentagons and 20 hexagons arranged in a pattern similar
to that of a soccer ball (Angel & Porter, 2001).

Figure 4. A soccer ball with patt erns resembling t he fullerenes

E. SMTM and ICT
There are still many schools who cannot afford
technology especially the underserved areas in the Philip-
pines. SMTM provides learning materials when disability
of technology occurs.
F. Multi-modal Approach
Mathematical and Science ideas are abstract and
mental constructs, ie,.force. To help students grasp these
ideas, they must be represented in a more concrete way
using external representations. These external representa-
tions take the place of the abstract, mental concepts, and
they embody the key properties of the concepts. Since a
particular mode of representation cannot embody an ab-
stract concept completely, it is necessary to have more
than one representation for each concept. In science and
mathematics there are six commonly used modes of repre-
sentation, namely, numbers, words, symbols, diagrams,
stories, and real thing. This mult i-modal strategy can
translate these modes of representation into a systematic
and practical technique for teaching science and mathe-
mat ics. This technique will stress linkages among differ-
ent modes of representation, thus, deepening understand-
ing. It will also focus on a variety of experiences to make
the learning of science and mathematics more enjoyable
and challenging to the students (Yoong, 1999).
These six modes assess the quality of mathe-
matical understanding by highlighting the connections
among different representations of the same concept or
skill. The inability to fluently link the different represen-
tations together is a sign of weak understanding (Yoong,
1999).

SMTM as a Learning Strategy
The modes and action verbs of the SMTM can pro-
vide shared language used as cue words to prompt stu-
dents to undertake certain mode of thinking .

Example

Word(Problem): Any two squares of different sizes can
be dissected, and the resulting parts, rearranged to form a
square, which is larger than both. This is the principle
used in the Pythagoras Stool.
Numbers: Two squares of different sizes are 9m
2
and
16m
2
respectively.
Diagram: A student can draw one small square and one
big square to represent the two figures Real Thing: By
dissecting the two squares using a pattern in a piece of
paper
One can arrive at a conclusion that it forms a larger
square.

Story: Tell a story about Pythagoras stool and its signifi-
cance in Pythagorean theorem
Symbols: a
2
+b
2
= c
2

Enhancement:
Apply this to other larger squares and other possibilities
and connections. Ask students on practical applications of
Pythagoras Stools and Pythagorean Theorem.

REFERENCES

Akiyama, Jin, Hirano, Yoichi and Sakai, Toshinori
(1999).Nonstandard Ways of Teaching Standard Mathe-
matics. Proceedings of 8
th
Southeast Asian Conference on
Mathematics Education. Ateneo de Manila University,
Philippines.

Angel, Allen R. and Porter, Stuart R. (2001). A Survey of Mathe-
matics with Applications (6
th
ed). New York: Addison
Wesley Longman, Inc.

Blum, Raymond(1997). Mathemania. New York: Sterling Pub-
lishing.

Bolivar, Ramil F., Bolivar, Leah A, Bolivar, Mariel F., Parco,
Joena B.& Apolonio Fe T. (2010). Learning Science and
Mathematics with Fun. Proceedings of 2010 International
Conference on Science and Mathematics Education. UP-
NISMED, Philippines.

Francisco, Felizardo Y. (2010). Science and Math Learning Inno-
vations. Message given to the 2010 International Confer-
ence on Science and Mathematics Education at UPNIS-
MED. dirfyf@yahoo.com

Moje, Stephen W. (2000). 100 Science Experiments with Paper.
New York. Sterling Publishing.

VanCleave, Janice Pratt (1989). Chemistry for Every Kid. New
York. Wiley & Sons.

Yoong, Wong Khoon (1999). Multi-modal Approach of Teaching
Mathematics in a Technological Age. Proceedings of 8
th

Southeast Asian Conference on Mathematics Education.
Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines.

AbstractDetermining the status of the Early Chil d-
hood Learni ng Centers (ECLC) in Mari nduque and
the needs of ECLC mentors are the ai ms of the study.
Baseline information on Early Chil dhood Educati on
(ECE) can be the bases for the development of res pon-
sive programs and projects to i mprove the deli very
and quality of ECE to the young learners of the prov-
ince.
Survey questionnaire and interview gui des
were used in the study. The res pondents were the Day
Care Workers referred to as the ECLC mentors. Re-
cords from the Munici pal Social Welfare and Develop-
ment (MSWD) Offices and interview of the Munici pal
Social Welfare and Devel opment (MSWO) Officers
together with the information from the questionnaire
were the pri mary sources of the data. Actual observa-
tions in the fiel d were also done.
Results of the study revealed that out of 218
barangays of the province 209 ECLCs were estab-
lished. All the mentors are female and majority are
high school graduates. The problems of the mentors
include the low honorarium they recei ve, lack of sup-
port from parents, l ack of educational materials, need
for the i mprovement of the physical facilities and the
lack of support from the Barangay Councils.
With these problems, the mentors expressed their
needs for assistance, es pecially in provi di ng the centers
wi th more educati onal materi als for the chil drens ac-
ti vities, seminars for them to gi ve quality services to
the children, assistance to improve their physical facili-
ties and the support from parents and the barangay
councils.

Keywords- day care workers; early childhood learning;
early childhood learning center; Marinduque; rural
communities.
Introduction

Kids are a long-term investment [1]. This may be
the reason why many Filipinos consider education for
their children as a top priority concern. However, many do
not see the importance of starting to educate the young
kids even at an early stage or the parents may not just
have the means to support their children for an early edu-
cation. The latter would especially refer to early education
in private learning centers where costs could be as costly
as or even higher than the costs of college education.
Early Childhood Education (ECE) is the term applied to
the education of young children from birth through age 8
[2]. Researchers believe that from the time of birth, all
children are ready to learn. However, what others do or
dont do as individuals, as parents, educators and collec-
tively as society can impede a childs success in learning.
For instance, if parents do not provide adequate health
care and nutrition for their youngsters, those children en-
tering public schools will already be behind their health-
ier, properly fed peers. Parental negligence in Early
Childhood Care Development (ECCD) can result in devel-
opment defects both physical and psychological from
early years which can have irreversible effects on the indi-
vidual in his/her capacity to learn and participate in pro-
ductive activities. Educators, on the other hand, planning
the curriculum have to consider the developmental stages
of the children. Likewise, specific intervention strategies
for ECCD be part of the local government plan for the
education of the youth.
Thus, determining the status and problems of
Early Childhood Learning Centers (ECLC) in the province
would provide the baseline of information for the develop-
ment of responsive programs and projects to improve the
delivery and the quality of early education of the youth.
According to Soliven [3], ECCD can break the cycle of
poverty. Research shows that investment in the early years
outperformed other policy options in terms of savings on
remedial programs. In this regard, ECCD is increasingly
seen as an investment with potential educational, social,
with economic returns.
For children from poor families, ECE is a time bound op-
portunity to break the cycle of poverty. Hence, this study
aimed: (1) to review the state of development of the early
childhood learning centers; (2) to identify problems affect-
ing the childrens development; and (3) to suggest solu-
tions to these problems in order to uplift the childrens
state of development.
Research conclusively indicates that when chil-
dren are engaged in physical activities, the cognitive do-
main of the brain are naturally stimulated [4]. Thus, Early
Childhood Education Institution (ECEI) curricula have to
promote developmentally appropriate movement/ activi-
ties. In this program the teachers have the responsibility
to give all children developmentally appropriate move-
ment act ivities that will increase their self-esteem [4]. The
learning experiences at ECEI would be designed to meet
the physical, cognitive, social and emotional needs of
children.
The curriculum of ECEI would be themat ic in approach.
This provides a solid foundation on which children will
build their knowledge, understanding and experience of
the world through active play and manipulation of mate-

Early Childhood Learning Centers (ECLC) in the Rural Communities
of Marinduque: Basis for Curriculum
Review Program Enhancement
Dr. Julieta L. Go, Associate Professor 5
School of Arts and Sciences, Marinduque State College
Boac, Marinduque (4900), Philippines
gojulieta@yahoo.com
Dr. Carlos J. Andam, Professor 3
School of Arts and Sciences, Marinduque State College
Boac, Marinduque (4900), Philippine
cjandam@yahoo.com
rials. Thematic curriculum should meet the following pa-
rameters [5]:
(a) Presents the children with many opportunities for
success, opportunities to develop self-awareness
through independence and decision-making;
(b) Allows children to develop social skills through
large
group, small group and individual activit ies and
experiences;
Challenges the children to examine, explore, investi-
gate and internalize;
Provides many opportunities for language development
including pre-reading fundamentals, sequencing,
classification, vocabulary enrichment, listening
skills and composition skills;
Provides many opportunities for mathematics develop-
ment including symbols, quantities, spatial aware-
ness, comparison and time measurement;
Provides many opportunities for science development
including sensory exploration, discovery, inquiry
and investigation;
Provides many opportunities for expressive learning
including art, role playing, music and stories;
Includes examples and opportunities for health, safety
and nutritional education;
Provides many opportunities to respect exemplify and
appreciate the cultural diversity of the school com-
munity;

THE EARLY CHILD CARE AND
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

R.A. 6972 and R.A. 8990
Republic Act 6972, known as Barangay Level
Total Development and Protection of Children Act, is an
act establishing a Day Care Center in every barangay,
instituting therein a total development and protection of
children program, appropriating funds, thereof, and for
other purposes [6]. Accordingly, Filipino children up to
six (6) years of age deserve the best care and attention at
the family and community levels.
This legislat ion provides among other materials
and network of surrogate mothers-teachers who will pro-
vide intellectual and mental stimulation to the children, as
well as supervise play, mental stimulation activities and
group activities with peers; and a support system and net-
work assistance from among the members of the barangay
for the total development and protection of the children.
Nine years after, another legislation for the wel-
fare of the children was approved. This is R.A. 8980, the
ECCD (Early Childhood Care and Development) Act ap-
proved in December 2000 promulgating a comprehensive
policy and national system for ECCD and providing funds
for other purposes [6]. This Act recognizes the role of the
state to institutionalize a National System for ECCD that
is comprehensive, integrative and sustainable, that in-
volves mult i-sectoral and inter-agency collaboration at the
national and local levels among government; and among
the publicand private sectors, non-government organiza-
tions, professional associations and academic institutions,
like Marinduque State College. This System shall promote
the inclusion of children with special needs and advocate
respect for cultural diversity. It shall be anchored on
complementary strategies for ECCD that include service
delivery for children from conception to age six (6), edu-
cating parents and caregivers, encouraging the active in-
volvement of parents and communities in ECCD pro-
grams; raising awareness about the importance of ECCD;
and promoting community of life for young children and
families.
The objectives of the National ECCD System are
the following:
To achieve improved infant and child survival
rates by ensuring that adequate health and
nutrition programs are accessible to young
children and their mothers from pre -natal
period throughout the early childhood years;
To enhance the physical, social, cognitive, psy-
chological, spiritual and language develop-
ment of young children;
To enhance the role of parents and other
caregivers as the primary caregivers
and educators of their children from
birth onwards:
To facilitate a smooth transition from care and
education provided at home to community or
school-based setting and to primary school;
To enhance the capabilities of service providers
and their supervisors to comply with quality
standards for various ECCD programs;
To enhance and sustain the efforts of communi-
ties to promote ECCD programs and ensure
that special support is provided for poor and
disadvantaged communities;
To ensure that young children are adequately pre-
pared for the formal leaning system and that
both public and private schools are respon-
sive to the developmental needs of these chil-
dren;
To establish an efficient system for early identifi-
cation, prevention, referral and intervention
for the developmental disorders and disabili-
ties in early childhood: and
To improve the quality standards of public and
private ECCD programs through but not lim-
ited to, a registration and credential system
for ECCD service provider.

B. The Early Childhood Learning Centers and Its Services

The Early Childhood Learning Centers (ECLC)
referred to in this study are the Day Care Centers (DCC)
established under the RA 6972, the Barangay Level Total
Development and Protection of Children Act. As stated in
the Implementing Guidelines of EO 340, the objectives of
the day care services are: (a) To provide for proper care
and nutrition for the children to make them physically fit;
(b) To provide opportunities for intellectual, social, moral,
spiritual, emotional and physical development in a safe
and healthy venue toward positive child development; (c)
To develop strong socio-cultural and nationalistic values
as well as positive attitudes towards the Almighty, self,
family, community and society in general; and (d) To pro-
vide substitute parenting and neglect, abuse and exploita-
tion while parents are at work.
Day Care Center (DCC) is a form of day care service
which provides care for 3 5 years old children by ac-
credited day care workers [7]. This Day Care Service
(DCS) is the provision of supplemental parental care to
under-five year old children with socially, mentally, psy-
chologically and physically stimulating activit ies. This is a
support service for parents to enable them (parents) to
concentrate on their work with the assurance that their
children are cared off. In case of workplace-based service,
it provides care for children during their parents working
hours. This service should be made available from eight in
the morning to five in the afternoon from Monday to Fri-
day.

The ECLC Mentors

Based on the Implementing Guidelines of EO
340, applicants for the Day Care Workers (DCW), re-
ferred to as the ECLC Mentors, should be screened ac-
cording to these criteria: (a) single or married between 18
45 years old; (b) with at least two years of college edu-
cation; (c) with good moral character; (d) with experi-
ence in working with pre-school children; (e) with resi-
dence near office; (f) had undergone training related to
Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) or early
communicat ion; (g) willing to render full time service as
day care worker; (h) willing to sign a contract to serve as
day care worker for at least one year and serve as such
based on satisfactory performance; and (i) be physically
and mentally fit to work.
With these qualificat ions of early childhood mentors
or the caregivers, they would be able to provide the chil-
dren with the developmentally appropriate activities de-
signed to meet the physical, cognitive, social and emo-
tional needs of the children.

Methodology
Research Design

In this descriptive research, survey questionnaires
and interview guide were used to collect data for this
study. Records from the different Municipal Social Wel-
fare and Development Offices (MSWDO) in the province
together with the information from the questionnaire given
to the ECLC mentors and the interview of MSWD Offi-
cers were the sources of data for this research.

The ECLC Mentors

The list of ECLC mentors from the six munici-
palities of Marinduque Boac, Gasan, Mogpog, Sta.Cruz,
and Torrijos were requested from the respective Munici-
pal Social Welfare and Development Officer (MSWDO).
Complete enumerat ion of the mentors was used as respon-
dents of the study. All mentors from the province were
requested to answer the survey questionnaire. A total of
209 mentors composed the respondents of the study to-
gether with the six (6) MSWDO and the PSWDO of
Marinduque.

Results and discussion

The Early Childhood Learning Centers (ECLC)

The Legal Bases. The Early Childhood Learning
Centers (ECLC) popularly known in the country as the
Day Care Centers (DCC) were established under the RA
6972 known as the Barangay Level Total Development
and Protection of Children Act. As stated in the Imple-
menting Guidelines of EO 340, the objectives of the day
care services are: (a) To provide for proper care and nutri-
tion for the children to make them physically fit;
(b) To provide opportunities for intellectual, social,
moral, spiritual, emot ional and physical development in a
safe and healthy venue toward positive child development;
(c) To develop strong socio-cultural and nationalistic val-
ues as well as positive attitudes towards the Almighty,
self, family, community and society in general; and (d) To
provide substitute parenting and neglect, abuse and ex-
ploitation while parents are at work.
Day Care Centers (DCC) as defined in the
Memorandum Circular No. 1, s. 1997 of the Depart ment
of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), is a form of
day care service which provides care for 3 5 years old
children by accredited day care workers. This Day Care
Service (DCS) is the provision of supplemental parental
care to under-five year old children with socially, men-
tally, psychologically and physically stimulating activit ies.
This is a support service for parents to enable them
(parents) to concentrate on their work with the assurance
that their children are cared off. In case of workplace-
based service, it provides care for children during their
parents working hours. This service should be made
available from eight in the morning to five in the after-
noon from Monday to Friday.
ECLC Marinduque. Out of the 218 barangays,
209 ECLC were established as mandated by R.A. 6972.
There are municipalities that had put up ECLC more than
the number of their barangays. To cite, Torrijos, has 26
barangays but established 34 ECLC with a total of 932
children; Sta.Cruz has 55 barangays but with 58 ECLC;
Gasan with 25 barangays but with 27 centers; and Bue-
navista with 15 ECLC although they only have 14 baran-
gays. In these mentioned municipalities, R.A. 6972 is not
only implemented but more than fully implemented. Ac-
cording to their MSWDO, the reason for the establishment
of additional ECLC in a barangay is the distance of the
centers from the residence of the children. Thus, if the
barangay officials and parents of the children would re-
quest for another center in the same barangay the request
would be granted.
However, this study also revealed that there are
municipalities in the province, wherein not all the baran-
gays have ECLC. These are Boac and Mogpog, where
there are learning centers managed by private individuals
and non-government organizations.

C. The Early Childhood Learners (ECL)
Although the municipality of Boac has 61 baran-
gays it has only 46 ECLC, but it has the highest number of
ECL totaling to 1,042. Next to Boac is Torrijos with 932
ECL, followed by Mogpog with 714 ECL in the 29
ECLC. This municipality has 37 barangays. Next is Sta.
Cruz with 710 ECL; Buenavista has the least, 234; then
Gasan with 500 ECL.
In the 209 ECLC, the biggest class has 46 learn-
ers (Mogpog) and the least is six (6) in Buenavista.
From this 5,844 children now would come the
leaders of this province or of this nation twenty years,
hence. This is, if all the early learning centers, be public or
private, would be able to carry out its function. Thus, the
province would continue to develop great leaders for this
country.

C. ECLC Mentors Profile
Requirements for Mentors. Based on the Imple-
menting Guidelines of EO 340, applicants for the Day
Care Workers (DCW), referred to as the ECLC Mentors,
and should be screened according to these criteria: (a)
Single or married between 18 45 years old; (b) With at
least two years of college education; (c) With good moral
character; (d) With experience in working with pre-
school children; (e) With residence near the office; (f)
Had undergone training related to Early Childhood Care
and Development (ECCD) or early communication; (g)
Willing to render full time service as day care worker; (h)
Willing to sign a contract to serve as day care worker for
at least one year and serve as such based on satisfactory
performance; and (i) Be physically and mentally fit to
work.
This means that the above-mentioned qualifica-
tions of an early childhood mentors or the caregivers
would be able to provide the children with the develop-
mentally appropriate activit ies designed to meet the physi-
cal, cognitive, social and emotional needs of the children.
The basic educational requirement for the ECLC
mentors is at least two-year college education wherein at
this level they have taken college subjects on the psychol-
ogy of human growth, development and learning. Their
understanding of the growth of the children would guide
these mentors in the preparation of activities for their
learners.
Profiles of the Mentors. Results of the survey
show that out of 209 mentors in the province, 86 (41.15%)
are high school graduates; 54 (25.84%) are undergradu-
ates; and 69 (33.01 %) are college graduates. Although
41.15 % are high school graduates, almost all of them
have attended seminar on ECCD sponsored by the PSWO
of the province.
The study also revealed that all the mentors are
female with age ranging from 19 to 65 years old and had
been in service with the minimum of less than a year and a
maximum service of 24 years. It also shows that there are
retirees who still enjoy working in the centers. Their com-
mit ment to the service is immeasurable, despite the low
honorarium received.
As to the trainings related to their work as ECLC
mentors, as mentioned, they have attended seminar on
Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) con-
ducted by the PSWDO in coordination with other agen-
cies.
Based from these data, there is a substantial com-
pliance to the implementing guidelines of EO 340 as to
the qualifications of the mentors of the ECLC. Although
some aspects of this issuance are beyond the scope of this
study.
D. Problems of Mentors

The common problems expressed by the mentors
are their low honorarium, the lack of support from parents,
lack of the needed educational materials in the centers,
lack of support coming from their respective Barangay
Council and problem on the physical structure of the cen-
ters.
The minimal compensation in terms of honorar-
ium given to the mentors coming from the barangay fund
ranged from P500 to P1,000. Considering the cost of living
at the present time, this amount is really minimal. Al-
though it is stated in Section 6.c. of RA 6972 that the
monthly allowance, not honorarium, should not be less
than five hundred pesos (P500) to be charged to the annual
appropriations of the DSWD [6], allowances of these men-
tors need to be adjusted. If other government employees
have their salary adjustments or even the standardization
of their salaries, this segment of the civil servants deserves
such privileges of benefits, too. They have longed for that
same privileges and benefits like other government em-
ployees.
Although, these mentors (34.86%) do not con-
sider this, their honorarium, as a great problem as evi-
denced by their length of service, their commit ment to
their respective centers may, in a way, be affected and
consequently the delivery of services of these workers.
Offering trainings for them as early childhood educators
will be fut ile, if there would be better-paying jobs offered
to them and they would take that opportunity for a better
employment.
Next to their financial woes, is the lack of support
coming from the parents of the children in their centers
(25.73%). Parents, being the first provider of ECCD need
to be educated as to their role in the care and development
of these children. Since 33.01% of the mentors are college
graduates, they believed that their centers need the essen-
tial educational materials for their learners activities. This
was expressed by the 17.01% of the respondents. Other
problems cited by the mentors are the physical facilities of
the centers (11.79%) and the lack of support from the
Barangay Council (10.62%). Although it is minimal, some
of the problems on the physical facilities are the lack of
tables, chairs and the location of the center which need to
be given proper attention for the safety and security of the
children in the center.
It seems they there are communities who are not
so much concerned on the development of their youths as
indicated by the responses (10.62%) of the mentors. The
community has great role in the care and development of
the youths as embodied in RA 8980.

Conclusion

The results of the study which reviewed the state
of the early childhood learning centers provided insights
not only on the profile of the daycare workers and children
enrolment but also on the problems affecting the different
centers. Among the operational problems including (1) the
lack of support from some parents and members of the
barangay council, (2) the lack of needed educational mate-
rials in the centers, (3) the physical structure of the center,
and (4) the low compensation of the daycare mentors, but
the most significant is the low level of educational qualifi-
cations of the daycare mentors. Most of them had only a
high school diploma which is short of the requirements
and this led to the development of the Diploma in Early
Childhood Education (ECE), a t wo-year trimester program
to backstop their knowledge and skills not only in caring
but providing early education considering that the most
important stage in the development of the child is from 0
to 8 years old.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Provincial
Social Welfare Office through Mrs. Julpha M. Arevalo,
the PSWO Officer, the Municipal Social Welfare Officers
(MSWOs) of the six towns of the province, and especially
the 209 ECLC Mentors for the information on the status
of the early childhood education in Marinduque.

REFERENCES

[1] Miles, K. (1996) Help your children excel: Top teachers tell
how. Readers Digest 66(394), p. 57-61.

[2] Bredekamp, S., et.al. 1992. What does research say about
childhood education. NCREL

[3] Soliven, S. 2001. How ECCD can break the cycle of pov-
erty?. Phil. Star. August 9, p. 12.

[4] Krull, S.W. 1999. The theory behind developmentally appro-
priate movement activities. Early Childhood Com., p.
4.

[5] Hatch, I. 1991. Creating thematic curriculum: The goal of a
curriculum in early childhood programs. Early Child-
hood Com., p.8.

[6] Official Gazette. 1991. RA 6972. Vol. 87. January 14, 1991.
EO 340, DSWD.

[7] DSWD. 1997. DSWD Memorandum Circular No.1, s.
1997.
AbstractVery recent research (Felipe and Pori o,
2010) revealed no direct relationship between the
lengths of basic education cycles and student perform-
ance in TIMSS (2007) science and mathematics tests.
The TIMSS scores were impliedly used as proxy meas-
ures of quality for basic education. The present study
is an in-depth anal ysis of the vari ous socio-economic
factors that directly bear on the quality of basic educa-
tion outcomes using the sub-indices of the Global Eco-
nomic Index (GCI) 2009 in view of the assertion that a
mechanical additi on of more years in basic educati on
does not i mprove quality at that level. Results revealed
that specific basic economic parameters (connecti vity
and access) related to poverty reduction, efficient and
effecti ve higher educati on and trai ning of teachers,
technological readiness and strengthening of economic
fundamentals all significantly bear on the quality of
basic education globally.
Keywords: Global Economic Index; Infrastructure; Fac-
tor-Driven Economy; Efficiency; Basic Education

Introduction

Felipe and Porio (2010) found no direct link be-
tween the lengths of basic education sub-cycles of differ-
ent countries and their students Science and Mathematics
performance in the TIMSS (2007) report except for the
pre- elementary sub-cycle. The authors hinted on the pos-
sibility that the quality of basic education does not rely on
a mere mechanical addition of more years to the cycle but
rather, on the socio- economic factors that bear more di-
rectly on schooling. This study continues this line of in-
vestigation to provide an empirical evidence to the conjec-
ture or perhaps, to debunk it altogether.
It may be recalled that the interest in finding di-
rect determinants of basic education quality intensified
when the present Administration announced its intent to
lengthen the current 10- year basic education cycle to 12
years. There are at least two (2) main arguments for-
warded by those supporting the proposition of lengthening
the cycle (Cruz, 2010). First, it is claimed that the current
10year cycle is just too short to learn what needs to be
learned in basic education. This, they argue, is the cause
of the countrys dismal performance in international tests.
Second, the Philippines is signatory to both the Washing-
ton and Bologna accords (CHED, 2009) for international
equivalency of higher education degrees which require (or
assume) a 12year basic education cycle (or a 16year
schooling regime). Of these two arguments, the first ap-
pears to be the more debatable (and researchable) point.
As correctly pointed out by Felipe and Porios (2010)
paper, the basic education cycle has no statistical relat ion-
ships with the quality of basic education. In fact, a 2007
study by the RAND Corporation as reported by Buddin
(2009) revealed that teacher quality is an important deter-
minant of the outcomes of basic education schooling. The
same finding were reported by Ferguson (2009) in the state
of Texas who concluded that teaching experience and
other similar tradit ionally accepted determinants of student
performance although important, were not directly linked
with student performance. He found instead that student
performance is more direct ly linked with teacher quality
(content and methodology expertise).
It is generally accepted that quality improvement is an
economydriven process. What remains an open issue is
the determination of the proportion of quality variances
explained or attributed to socioeconomic factors. As this
paper will illustrate, this issue is certainly a nontrivial
one, confounded by the complexity of measuring the
wealth of a nation (WEF, 2009). That is, while it is intui-
tively clear that socioeconomic factors determine the
quality of basic education, what is not clear are the specific
socio-economic variables that drive quality improve-
ment.
Assumptions and related concepts

The socioeconomic variables that impinge on quality
had been succinctly summarized in a Global Competitive-
ness Index (GCI) painstakingly gathered, compiled, col-
lected and analyzed by the World Economic Forum (WEF)
since 1979. Sala-I-Martin et al. (2009) define competitive-
ness as the set of institutions, policies and factors that
determine the level of productivity of a country. Hence-
forth, the concept of competitiveness clearly contains both
static and dynamic components, as the authors further con-
tended. Also, productivity of a country is one of the major
determinants of the return of investments, apart from the
fact that it determines a countrys ability to sustain a high
income level. Furthermore, the returns of investment are
among the main factors that explain an economys poten-
tial for growth (Sala-I-Mart in et al., 2009).
For many years, economists have been trying to under-
stand what exactly determines the wealth of a nation. For
example, in the latter part of the 19
th
century, Adam Smith
focused on specializat ion and the division of labor; the
neoclassical economists deviated their focus towards in-

Global Competitiveness Sub-Indices as Potential Determinants
of Basic Education Quality Across Different Countries
Dexter S. Ontoy
Center for Research and Development
dexter_s_ontoy@yahoo.com
Roberto N. Padua
University Research Consultant
rnpadua@yahoo.com
investment in physical capital and infrastructure; in the
last decades or so, towards other processes such as educa-
tion and training, technological improvement, macroeco-
nomic stability, good governance, the rule of law, trans-
parent and wellfunctioning institutions, firm sophistica-
tion, demand conditions, market size, etc. (Sala-I-Martin
et al., 2009). Sala-I-Martin et al. (2009) further stated that
each of these conjectures rests on solid theoretical foun-
dations, (which basically makes common sense), and
essentially are not mutually exclusive. Many of these con-
jectures are simultaneously true as supported by a handful
of econometric studies conducted in the past (Blanke,
2009). As clearly reflected in the GCI, the methodology
essentially takes into account the openended dimensions
of competit iveness.

The GCI and Stages of National Devel opment

According to the World Economic Forum (1979, 2009),
nations develop by stages, and 3 stages were identified.
The first stage is factordriven economies. In factor
driven economies, countries compete based on their factor
endowments, primarily labor (often unskilled) and natural
resources. The competitiveness pillars for this stage hinge
on: wellfunctioning public and private institutions (pillar
1), welldeveloped infrastructure (pillar 2), stable micro
economic framework (pillar 3), and a healthy and literate
work force (pillar 4).
The second stage is the efficiencydriven stage. At
this stage, nations begin to develop more efficient produc-
tion processes and increase product quality. The competi-
tiveness pillars for this stage are: higher educations and
training (pillar 5), efficient good market (pillar 6), well-
functioning labor market (pillar 7), sophisticated financial
market (pillar 8), large domestic or foreign market (pillar
10) and the ability to harness the benefits of existing tech-
nologies (pillar 9).
The final stage of development is the innovation-
driven stage. It is at this stage that nations are able to sus-
tain higher wages and the associated standard of living
higher only if their businesses are able to compete with
new and unique products. The drivers for this final stage
of development are: innovation through the production of
new and different goods (pillar 12) and using the most
sophisticated production processes (pillar 11).
These twelve pillars or drivers affect different countries in
differently: the best way for an underdeveloped nation to
improve its competit iveness is not the same best way for a
developed nation. This is because the two countries are in
different stages of development: as countries move along
the development path, wages tend to increase, and, in or-
der to sustain this higher income, labor productivity must
improve.
Basic Re-
qui rements
-Inst it ut ions
-Infrast ruct ure
-Macro-
economic
st ability
-Health and
primary educa-
t ion

Effi ciency
Enhancers
-Higher Edu-
cat ion &
Training
-Goods Market
Efficiency
-Labor Market
Efficiency
-Financial
Market sophis-
t icat ion
-Technological
readiness
Market Size
Innovation
and Sophisti-
cation Factors
Business So-
phist icat ion
Innovat ion

Gl obal
Competi -
ti veness
Index
Key for
FACTOR
DRVEN
ECONOMIES
(INDEX 1)
Key for
EFFICIENCY
DRIVEN
ECONOMIES
(Index 2)
Key for
INNOVATION
DRIVEN
(Index 3)
Fi gure 1: Global Competi ti veness Index Schema

The concept of stages of development is inte-
grated into the Index by attributing higher relative weights
to those pillars that are relatively more relevant for a
country given its particular stage of development. Table 1
shows the weights of these three main groups of pillars at
each stage of development.

Table (Source: GC Report 2009-2010)
Figure 1 shows that GCI schema
Pillar Group
Factor
Driven
(%)
Efficiency
Driven
(%)
Innovation
Driven
(%)

Basic Requirement
Efficiency Enhancer
Innovation Factors

60
35
5

40
50
10

20
50
30
TOTAL 100% 100% 100%
Abstract-This research invol ved a competency-based
evaluati on of Systems Plus College Foundation BSIT &
BSCS curricula. Graduates belonging to three differ-
ent batches were res pondents to a survey questionnaire
prepared by the author based on the CHED CMO # 53
series of 2006 Policies & Standards for Informati on
Technol ogy Educati on (ITE) programs. The two in-
struments were content-vali dated, factor-analyzed and
reliability-tested. One-sample tests were used to deter-
mine significant di fference between the standard and
the implemented curriculum. T-tests for two independ-
ent groups were done to determine significant differ-
ence between the responses on the implemented cur-
riculum of the different batches. The fi ndings showed
vali d and reliable instruments (BSCS curriculum, 54
items, 93% vari ance expl ained by 12 factors extracted,
Cronbach al pha = 0.97 ; BSIT curriculum, 52 items,
94% variance explai ned by 10 factors extracted, Cron-
bach al pha = 0.98). There is a significant di fference
between the standard and the i mplemented curriculum
for both BSCS & BSIT programs. There is no signifi-
cant difference between the responses of the graduates
bel onging to the three different batches on the i mple-
mented curriculum. The current program will be
strengthened based on the recommendations from the
respondents.
Keywords: competency, evaluation, curriculum, Infor-
mation Technology education

I. INTRODUCTION

This research utilized a competency-based cur-
riculum evaluation instrument which consists of compe-
tency standards.
Competency refers to specific skills, knowledge
and attitudes that may be demonstrated through perform-
ance. Standards pertain to a common set of expectations.
Robustly-defined higher order competencies present in the
CHED CMO # 53 series of 2006 Policies and Standards
for Information Technology Education (ITE) Programs
were made use of in the evaluation instruments prepared
by the author.
Competency defines what the learner is expected
to have gained from successful undertaking of a specific
educational program of study. It consists of a description
of the different Computer Science & Information Technol-
ogy -related tasks which can be evaluated thru perform-
ance. Successful indicators are defined solely by the com-
petencies achieved and not by the underlying process or
time served in the formal educational settings. Evaluation
is made on a set of clearly defined outcomes that can be
objectively observed .
The evaluation of SPCF Informat ion Technology
Education curricula namely, Bachelor of Science in Com-
puter Science and Bachelor of Science in Information
Technology is opportune. Since the initial operation of
SPCF in 1985, it has not subjected any of its academic
programs to formal evaluation. The school has undergone
tremendous expansion in student and faculty population,
academic offerings, infrastructure and other facilities for
learning. The institution is seeking accreditation for these
two academic programs of the College of Computing &
Information Sciences (CCIS). In line with this accredita-
tion & expansion, a conduct of an in-house review and
evaluation of these programs is inevitable.
The main object ive of this research is to conduct
a competency based evaluation of the two academic pro-
grams in the College of Computing & Informat ion Sci-
ences. The sub-objectives are to:

1. describe the profile of the respondents in terms of:
Gender
Age
2. determine the validity and reliability of the evaluation
instruments.
3. determine any significant difference between the stan-
dard and implemented BSCS curriculum by graduates
of Batch 2010 & 2011.
4. determine any significant difference between the stan-
dard and implemented BSIT curriculum by graduates
of Batch 2010 & 2011.
5. determine any significant difference between the
evaluation of the BSCS & BSIT curricula by Batch
2010 & 2011.
6.. provide a basis for recommendations for improvement
in the BSCS & BSIT curricula based on the compe-
tency-based evaluation results of these two programs.

II. METHODS

This study utilized a non-experimental of
quantitative design. Data was obtained using a survey
questionnaire given to the respondents who were requested
to evaluate the curriculum using a 5-point Likert Scale ( 5-
highest, 1- lowest). The descriptive interpretation of the
ratings were as follows: 1.00-1.50 needs improvement;
1.51-2.49 fair; 2.50-3.50 good; 3.51-4.49 very good; 4.50-

Juanita M. Cruz
CRD, Systems Plus College Foundation
Angeles City, Philippines
juanitacruz62@yahoo.com
Competency-Based Evaluation of Systems Plus College Foundation
B.S. Information Technology & B.S. Computer Science Curricula
5.00 excellent.
Two competency-based evaluation instruments/
survey questionnaires were prepared one for BSCS cur-
riculum and another for BSIT curriculum, based on the
CHED CMO # 53 series of 2006 Policies and Standards
for Informat ion Technology Education (ITE) Programs.
They were init ially content validated by the former dean
of CCIS, Ms. Grace Tyler. She also suggested clustering
the items into core, common, personal and interpersonal
competencies. Construct validity was established by factor
analysis. Reliability was determined by computing Cron-
bach alpha.
There were twenty (20) respondents from 2010
BSCS graduates & sixteen (16) from 2010 BSIT gradu-
ates. Twenty six (26) 2011 BSIT graduates and five (5)
2011 BSCS graduates were also part of this study.
T-test for two independent groups was done
to determine any significant difference between the
evaluation scores of the BSCS 2010 & BSCS 2011 gradu-
ates. Similarly, the evaluation scores of BSIT 2010 &
2011 graduates were compared using the same statistical
test A one-sample T-test was employed to determine any
significant difference between the standard and the imple-
mented BSIT and BSCS curricula from the six batches of
BSCS and BSIT graduates.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the
respondents. In 2010, the % of male and % of female
graduates is about the same for both the BSCS and BSIT.
In 2011, all the five BSCS graduates are males and out of
the 26 BSIT graduates 15 are males and 11 are females.
From the same table, it can be seen that the age range of
the 2010 and 2011 BSCS & BSIT graduates are about the
same.
The researcher-prepared competency-based
evaluation instruments for the BSCS & BSIT curricula are
valid and reliable (Table 2). The % variance in the re-
sponses in the BSCS curriculum explained by the factors
is equal to 93% while in the case of the BSIT curriculum
it is equal to 94%. Both instruments were content -
validated by the former Dean of the SPCF college of
Computing & Information Sciences (CCIS). The high
reliability and validity of the instruments satisfy the re-
quirements necessary for their ut ilization in this research.
The one sample t-tests for significant difference
between the standard & implemented BSCS & BSIT cur-
riculum turned out to be significant at 5% level of signifi-
cance (Table 3). For both curricula the 2010 & 2011
graduates registered a mean for the implemented curricu-
lum below that of the standard. This provides evidence
that there is a significant discrepancy between the de-
signed or standard and the implemented curriculum. Both
BSIT Batch 2011 & BSCS 2011 rated the implemented
curriculum lower than that given by Batch 2010. There
seems to be some decline in the implementation of the
standard curriculum in both curricula. This is an interest-
ing information for the academic people managing the
program. It is a wake-up call to look into the factors con-
tributing to this result.
A competency-based evaluation determines the
extent to which the competencies in the designed curricu-
lum were implemented. This procedure has been utilized
in the medical, nursing, dental, and business education
( Atienza, et al. 2007, Cowan et al. 2005,Taleghani et al.
2004,& Smith & Forbes 2001).
Substantial evidence of the effectiveness of a
curriculum can be obtained from evaluation data. Direc-
tions for further enrichment of the educational experiences
of students can also be given by evaluation results. Future
planning can be based on the documented strengths and
weaknesses of the curricular program. Planning can be
followed by the development of more creative curriculum
materials and instructional processes which can be sub-
jected to re-evaluation which will contribute to continuous
and significant feedback for curriculum development
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2008).

TABLE 1. DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS

TABLE 2. VALIDITY & RELIABILITY OF RESEARCHER-
PREPARED CURRICULUM SURVEY
QUESTIONNAIRES
Cour
se/
Bat c
h
N Mean T calc T t ab
2-t ailed .05
Conclu-
sion
BSC
S
2011
&
BSC
S
2010
5
20
200.20
196.95
0.281 2.069 ns cannot
reject Ho
BSI
T
2011
&
BSI
T
2010
26
16
173.00
177.72
0.697 2.021 ns cannot
reject Ho
Curricu-
lum
# of
it em
s
# of respon-
dent s
Construct Valid-
ity(variance
explained
Reliability
(Cronbach
alpha)
BSCS 54 20 93% 0.97
BSIT 52 16 94% 0.98
Countries are allocated to stages of development
based on two criteria: level of GDP and extent to which a
country is factor driven. The first criterion is the level of
GDP per capita at market exchange rates. This widely
available measure is used as a proxy for wages, as interna-
tionally comparable data are not available for all coun-
tries. The thresholds are shown below:

Table 2. GDP per Capital Thresholds.
The second criterion measures the extent to
which countries are factor driven. The proxy for this the
share of exports of primary goods to the total exports. If
this is more than 70%, then the country is mainly factor
driven.

Quality of Basic (Primary) Education, the Pillars
and the TIMSS Scores

Fortunately the WEF (2009) data on global com-
petitiveness are quite comprehensive allowing for a cross
national analysis of the interdependence of the various
pillars as well as crossreferencing with the Boston Col-
lege database on Times (2007) results. This situation al-
lows us to fully explore the socioeconomic variables
contained in the twelve (12) pillars in relat ion to the qual-
ity of basic education (as proxied by the TIMSS (2007)
results).
The first order of business is to ensure that the TIMSS
(2007) results are reasonable proxies of the quality of ba-
sic education (pillar 4). We note that pillar 4 actually con-
tains both the quality of primary education and health ser-
vices in a single measure, hence, the need for a proxy. If it
were possible to disaggregate the measure for pillar 4,
then no proxies are needed.
We correlated the TIMSS (2007) mathematics scores
to the health and primary education indices of thirty (30)
participating countries to determine the efficiency of the
TIMSS scores as proxy to the quality of basic education.
The thirty countries were chosen as follows: top 10 coun-
tries, middle 10 countries and the lowest 10 countries in
Mathematics under the TIMSS (2007) survey.

Table 3: Relationship Between Health and Primary Educa-
tion Index and TIMSS Scores
The TIMSS scores significantly correlated with the Health
and Primary Education Index (r = 0.588, p<0.0001). About
35% of the variance in the TIMSS scores is explained by
the health and primary education index or put in another
way, a proportion overlap of about 35% existed between
these two criterion measures. We shall, henceforth, use the
TIMSS scores as a proxy to the quality of basic education
in these countries.

Quality of Basic Education and the Sub-Indices for
Factor Dri ven Economies

Table 4 shows the correlations between the quality of
basic education (as proxied by the TIMSS (2007) scores)
and the various sub-indices for factor driven economies.

Table 4. Relat ionship of the Basic Education Quality and
Sub-Indices of Factor-Driven Economies
**significant at p=0.01.

Factor-driven economies maintain their competi-
tiveness through well-functioning institutions, infrastruc-
ture, macro-economic stability and health and primary
education based on their factor endowments of unskilled
labor and natural resources. Apparently, the quality of ba-
sic education has no statistical relat ion with both the insti-
tution indices and macro-economic stability indices but
only with extensive and efficient infrastructure (r = 0.549,
t = 3.335) essential in significantly reducing income ine-
qualities and poverty in variety of ways. Along this line, a
countrys ability to connect to the core economic activities,
schools and education hinges on a well-developed commu-
nication and transport infrastructure network. It is, there-
fore, not surprising to find that the quality of basic educa-
tion significantly related with the overall basic require-
Stage of Development GDP Per Capi tal
Stage 1: Factor driven
Transition from Stage 1 to stage 2
Stage 2: Efficiency Driven
Transition from Stage 2 to stage 3
Stage 3: Innovation Driven
<2,000
2,000 -< 3,000
3,000 - <9,000
9,000 - <17,000
>17,000
Variables Correla-
tion
Coefficient
R
2
-
value

t-value

p-value
Health &
Primary
Education
Index and
T I M S S
Scores

0.588

0.3460

24.843

p< .0001
Sub-Index
Corre-
lation
R
2
-value
multi plied
by 100%
t-
value
p-value
Institution 0.264 7.00% 1.40 0.174

I n f r a -
structures

0.549

30.10%

3.35

0.002**

M a c r o -
Ec o n o mi c
Stability

0.032

0.10%

0.11

0.910
Overall Ba-
sic Index
0.462 21.30% 2.65 0.013**

requirements index (r = 0.462, t = 2.65) which indicate
that high basic requirements index correspondingly im-
plied better basic education quality.
The results essentially confirm Felipe and Porios
(2010) conjecture but even more can be said. While em-
pirical evidence now suggest a direct link between basic
socio-economic factors impinging on the quality of basic
education, we found that these factors relate to connec-
tivity and access to core socio-economic facilit ies through
efficient infrastructure. Moreover, as studies have demon-
strated (Sala-I-Mart in, 2009 and others) efficient infra-
structure addresses a core societal problem: poverty.

Quality of Basic Educati on and the Sub-Indices of Effi-
ciency Dri ven Economies
The correlations between basic education quality and
the sub-indices for efficiency-driven economies are dis-
played in Table 5.
Economies at the efficiency driven stage begin to de-
velop more efficient production processes and increase
product quality. Overall, the quality of basic education is
noted to significantly improve with increasing efficiency
indices among the participating countries ( r = 0.688, t =
4.83). In particular, the quality of basic education is most
significantly enhanced with efficient and effect ive higher
education and training (r = 0.720, t = 5.30). This result is
consistent with the basic premise that improved student
performance can be achieved by providing for well-
qualified and quality teachers who, parenthetically, come
from excellent pre-service teacher education programs.
Then, too, technologically-ready countries tended to have
significantly better quality basic education outcomes ( r =
0.713, t = 5.19). The rest of the sub-indices refer to purely
economic indices which, not surprisingly, significantly
figured in improving the quality of basic education. We no
longer considered the correlation of basic education qual-
ity with the sub-indices of the last stage of national devel-
opment.

Table 5. Relationship Between Basic Education Quality and Sub
Indices of Efficiency Driven Economies
Discussion and Conclusion

Lengthening the basic education cycle in the
Philippines to twelve years does not result in better quality
basic education. What does? Felipe and Porio (2010)
hinted on the possibility that certain socio-economic fac-
tors are stronger determinants of basic education out-
comes. Our findings, based on a careful analysis of the
socio-economic sub-indices of the global competit iveness
index and the quality of basic education outcomes of thirty
(30) participating countries in the TIMSS (2007) tests,
affirm this conjecture. In particular:
Since the quality of basic education improves with
increasing basic requirements indices of countries world-
wide, a more direct way to address the quality of basic
education in the country would be to squarely tackle the
problem of income inequalit ies and poverty. Findings sug-
gest that strengthening the economic infrastructures lead-
ing to greater connectivity and access to primary educa-
tion has the potential of making our basic education glob-
ally competit ive.
More importantly, basic education quality improve-
ment is steeper when the urgent problem of improving
teacher quality is addressed by higher education and train-
ing. Our findings, for instance, show that 52% (or
51.90%) of basic education quality variance is explained
by efficient and effective higher education and training of
teachers. Experience has shown us that the main obstacle
to producing high quality teachers is the dearth of good
inputs to teacher education programs: the best and the
brightest do not pursue a teaching career. In the 70s an
experimental project by then Nat ional Science Develop-
ment Board (now DOST) provided attractive incentives to
the top 100 students in the Philippines to pursue a teach-
ing career in Science and Mathematics. The graduates of
this program now play prominent roles in the development
of scientific and technological talents of basic education
students. The countrys inability to sustain programs of
this kind (while shift ing to other science education schol-
arship programs) needs to be looked into.
Basic education should benefit from technological ad-
vancement if it were to improve. Our findings revealed
that countries whose technological readiness indices are
high have consistently better basic education qualities. In
fact, 51% of the quality variance in basic education is ex-
plained by this particular factor. However, this solution
presupposes that the basic economic issues for financing
basic education have been appropriately addressed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Special thanks to Cebu Normal University for the
funding of the consultancy services of Dr. Padua.

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AbstractThe study was conducted mainly to document and
analyse the processes in the promotion of intensified biogas
technology utilisation (biogasination) and draw lessons
and insights from the experiences of the Department of Sci-
ence and Technology (DOST) as the prime mover of the tech-
nology in Marinduque.
The introduction of the technology was assigned to a
technical staff of DOST-Marinduque. This campaign initia-
tive immediately started with an informal seminar for the
purpose and individual follow-up with those who indicated
interest on the technology. On the average, it took the tech-
nical staff three (3) visits to those who were interested then
to finally schedule the construction of their bio-digester of
which DOST-Marinduque coordinated with DOST-Rizal
and facilitated their engineers for technical assistance.
Probably, this is the major cost shouldered by DOST-
Marinduque plus the transportation expenses of the techni-
cal staff of DOST-Marinduque in following up and coordi-
nating with the adopters. This would make the informal
strategy cost effective in technology promotion and adoption
considering that the initiative generated a total of P 316,000
investments among the seven adopters-cases or approxi-
mately P1.00 investment as cost in technology promotion for
every Php 31.60 investment generated for the construction of
biogas system.
On the process of technology promotion, there are
problems though these provided the opportunity to learn
and draw insights for improving the technology promotion
initiative in the province. This stems from the lack of com-
plete and comprehensive information on the varied uses of
biogas technology, proper management of the digester, and
lack data on savings resulting from having a biogas unit.
The last one is necessary to rationalize the initial investment
on the digester.
To enhance the rate of technology adoption necessitates
working with the local government for policy measures to
extend soft loans whereby the monthly amortisation is
equivalent to the monthly expenses, for example, on liquefied
petroleum gas or LPG that a household or enterprise buys
for their daily cooking so that there would be no impact on
their coffers. Reversing the strategy by promoting backyard
animal raising so that there would be a ready source of ma-
nure for the digester maybe worth trying. A technology
manager specifically for biogas technology promotion and
commercialisation and to be drawn from the R&D workers
in the province is necessary not only to assist DOST-
Marinduque but to make the program visible and to cham-
pion biogas technology.

Keywords: biogas, biogas technology, energy, fuel, farm
wastes, digester.


The State of Biogasination of Communities in Marinduque:
Basis for Technology Management for Alternative
Energy in the Countryside

Diosdado P. Zulueta, PhD.
School of Arts and Sciences
Marinduque State College
Boac, Marinduque, Philippines
dodi.zulueta@yahoo.com
Carlos J. Andam, PhD.
Research & Extension Depart ment
Boac, Marinduque, Philippine
cjandam@yahoo.com
I. Introduction

Development of alternative energy sources from
locally available resources like farm wastes is generally a
neglected dimension of rural and agricultural develop-
ment. The biogas technology is a practical solution to alle-
viate high energy cost and the increasing requirement for
local firewood due to the increasing requirements of a
rapidly growing population. However, the adoption of
this technology is very slow up to this time.
Biogasination in this study refers to the promo-
tion of intensified utilisation of biogas generated from
wastes in government institutions, educational institutions,
business and livelihood enterprises dependent on energy
to produce goods and services, as well as households who
have the means, the wastes in their backyard, and the need
to reduce the cost of fuel consumption in cooking the fam-
ily meals. Available literatures indicated that during both
World Wars, many farmers set up biogas plants. In 1952,
there were over 1,000 plants in France, but most have now
been abandoned In India, where biogas research is leading
the world over, more than 2,500 plants are in operation
and the cow dung is used as feed to the digester. In some
parts of that country, however, the cow dung is collected
and dried and then sold as fuel for cooking, thereby di-
rectly competing for its use in bio-digesters. In the early
part of 1985, Thailand had about 400 biogas digesters but
only 39% was then operational [1]. Of the total number of
units, 80% were privately owned, 16% by local health
centres and the rest by monasteries. Actual utilisation of
biogas, either using livestock waste or agro-waste in Ma-
laysia is minimal, so that only a few biogas plants can be
found then [2].
The slow adoption of the biogas technology may
be attributed to various reasons. The existing biogas sys-
tems known today have been found to have many difficul-
ties in construction, installation, operation, maintenance
and also of the quality of the product output [3]. One is,
in the concrete type, there is a danger of high water level
due to the inherent below the ground level construction,
not to mention the incidence of leakage [3].
Another one is, frequent opening and cleaning of
the system is necessary with the concrete type [2], [3].
Yet, this system generates corrosive and mal-odorous
gases together with the biogas and it also produces a toxic
liquid sludge which is a product of fermentation. The
system thereby increases the pollution problems of most
of the livestock raisers [3].
In addition to the above drawbacks, the concrete
or septic tank biogas system has to be closed and its op-
eration stopped whenever the system is to be cleaned,
thereby interrupting biogas production and at the same
time causing the accumulation of waste manure [2], [3].
Recent developments or modification of existing models
have made great improvements in the application of the
biogas system. The model being introduced by the De-
partment of Science and Technology (DOST) is shown in
Figure 1.
The study was conducted 1) to document the process
of technology commercialisation; 2) to synthesise case
studies of adopters and draw lessons and insights on the
process of promoting the technology; and 3) to suggest
strategies that would enhance biogas technology commer-
cialisation.

II. Methodology

Data for the study were based from the works of
the School of Industrial Technology of the Marinduque
State College (SIT-MSC) [4]. These were supplemented
with interviews with the seven owners of the biogas sys-
tem case studies.
A separate interview was conducted with the
technical staff (Bernardo Caringal, Science Research Spe-
cialist) of DOST-Marinduque. This was to collect infor-
mat ion on the processes involved in introducing the bio-
gas technology and some details of the technology.
Among the seven cases, two are owned by the local gov-
ernments of Mogpog and Gasan, one is owned by MSC
and the rest are privately owned specifically family house-
holds.
It should be noted that there was no promotional
activities of the technology from January to December
2007 because the technical staff of DOST-Marinduque
was on study leave. Also, one very important personality
in the DOST-Marinduque biogas technology promotion
initiat ive, Mr. Jayson Simon, Instructor and Head of the
Animal Science Unit of MSC has already left the College
and is not available for interview during the conduct of the
study.

III. Results and discussion

Technology Promotion

The history of biogas utilisation shows independ-
ent developments in various developing and industrialised
countries [5]. In the reviewed historical development of
the biogas technology paper, there is evidence that biogas
was used to heat bath water in Assyria during 10 BC; and
the first digestion plant to produce biogas from wastes was
built in a leper colony in Bombay India in 1859 [6] and
developments followed in England and countries like Al-
geria, USA, Germany, Taiwan, South Africa, China and
Philippines [7].
The introduction of biogas technology in Marin-
duque began in year 1997 at the School of Agriculture of
the Marinduque State College. This was at a time when
the school was still implementing the Philippine-
Australian Agri-Tech Program. One unit was built then as
a showcase primarily to its students in the Diploma of Ag-
ricultural Technology (DAT) and Bachelor of Agricultural
Technology (BAT). The model was a low cost material
using PVC tube. This is one of the projects implemented
by Mr. Jayson Simon as Instructor of MSC-SA and as
Head of the animal science unit of the school. It was op-
erational then for about two years but unfortunately it did
not last long because one of the schools animals went
astray and accidentally stepped on the structure thereby
damaging the digester.
In year 2002, DOST-Marinduque introduced the
model biogas digester being promoted by DOST-Rizal
mainly to alleviate the energy crises recurring in the coun-
try due to the increasing cost of importing crude oil.
Only one activity started it all in Marinduque and that was
to bring the technology to the School of Agriculture of the
Marinduque State College (MSC-SA). Being an animal
science major, the head of the animal science unit of the
school, Mr. Jayson Simon who was Instructor then, had no
second thought on the technology. In fact, he was respon-
sible for the first biogas project in the in 1997. With the
technical staff of DOST-Marinduque, they agreed on the
schedule of arrangement of the construction of the digester
including technical assistance from DOST during the con-
struction. DOST-Marinduque in turn facilitated the techni-
cal assistance of DOST-Rizal to supervise the construc-
tion.
During the construction, the DOST technical staff
took advantage of holding an informal orientation seminar
on the biogas technology to share the advantages and
benefits as well as the practicality and simplicity of con-
struction of a biogas system as source for fuel even for
ordinary household cooking. This was in November 2002
and it was attended by 15 students and five faculty and
staff of MSC-SA.
The DOST-Marinduque technical staff admitted
that Mr. Simon had a big role in the technology promotion.
This is so as he goes around the province frequently to
visit hog raisers whom he was providing technical assis-
tance that gave him at the same t ime the opportunity of
disseminating biogas technology as part of the hog raising
system. Soon he learned the technical aspect of the di-
gester construction and he continued the campaign and, in
fact, he alone supervised some of the construction of di-
gesters in the province. The students of MSC-SA accord-
ing to Mr. Caringal had likewise contributed in the dis-
semination of the technology.
DOST-Marinduque also sent Municipal Engineer
Emilio Sosa of the Municipality of Gasan for training on
the technology in DOST-Rizal. After that, he was able to
introduce the technology to a family who eventually had
their own biogas system in which he supervised the con-
struction of the digester.
Also, after completing the biogas system of MSC-
SA and showing that it works, DOST-Marinduque in-
formed the Provincial Agricultural Office and Municipal
Agricultural Offices and suggested to them to visit the
model. Additionally, there were many buyers of piglets at
MSC-SA at that time so that many of them witness an op-
operational biogas system.
In 2006, DOST-Marinduque accompanied hog
growers of Boac in visiting the system of the municipali-
ties of Mogpog and Gasan and a household one in Su-
mangga, Mogpog.

Synthesis of Biogas Technology Adoption Case Studies

This section provides an overview of the impor-
tant findings in the seven cases covered in this study.
This recent initiative of DOST-Marinduque of
introducing the biogas technology in 2002 was actually a
re-introduction of the technology considering that MSC-
SA had already one in 1997. There was no promotional
activity in January to December 2007 because the techni-
cal staff of DOST-Marinduque was on study leave. That
was also the time when the Provincial Science and Tech-
nology Officer is still on detail at DOST-Quezon so that
nobody then continued the program last year.
Two of the cases are owned by local government
for their abattoirs, one is owned by MSC-SA, and the rest
are privately owned mainly for family use. None of the
four privately owned biogas system is used or was in-
tended for livelihood/business undertaking. The owners
are families who are in their active economic life, ages
ranging from 30 to 54 years old. They were convinced on
the benefits/advantages of having a unit of their own.
They are more definit ive on the use for family household
cooking. On the other hand, the interest of the local gov-
ernment on the technology is anchored mainly on the re-
duction of electrical energy expenditures and as pollution
control measures in their slaughter houses.
The household size of the biogas owners / opera-
tors / adopters ranged from five to ten or an average of
seven members per household. The biogas they produced
is mainly for household cooking of their meals. There is
no indication on the relationship of the number of house-
hold members to the size of the digester based on the data
gathered from the private owners of the biogas system.
This is because the source of the manure for the digester
has been there already existing when the units were con-
structed. The size of the digesters ranged from 1.0 to
6.3m
3
.
Except for MSC-SA, which is a government
agency, construction costs were higher in the local gov-
ernments biogas system because they were intended for
bigger operations than the household. Correspondingly,
their digesters were bigger and the cost ranged from Php
52,000 in Mogpog and Php100,000 in Gasan depending
on the size of the digester. The total investment of the
seven adopters-cases amounted to Php 316,000.
Aside from MSC-SA having a biogas unit earlier
than DOSTs introduction in the province, all informat ion
gathered from the seven cases points out to DOST-
Marinduque as the sole source of their information about
the technology. That the provision of technical assistance
from other units of DOST were all coordinated by DOST-
Marinduque. Experts from DOST-Rizal provided techni-
cal leadership only during the construction of the first
digester and that is in the MSC-SA. The rest were super-
vised by Mr. Jayson Simon except for one unit which is
not operating up to this time.
The problem on leakage as reported by one user
requires technical inspection and DOST should find t ime
to visit the unit. While this is only one case among the
seven adopters-cases studied, this may dissuade or dis-
courage would-be owners in the future. Having an assur-
ance to attend to technical problems arising after construc-
tion would make them more assured that somebody can be
relied upon through time. Abandoned units would also
taint public image of promoters including DOST and may
ruin their image in technology commercialisation in the
province.
While the present users know the uses of biogas,
not one among them reported using the by-product sludge
as fertiliser. This is one indicator of the limitations of the
present technology promotion initiative which may have
contributed to slow adoption of the biogas technology.
An appreciation of all possible benefits from adopting a
technology could significantly contribute in increasing the
number of users. Information about the technology should
therefore be complete and comprehensive.
One of the problems reported by the users is the
insufficiency of manure to continuously feed the digester.
This only implies that in the design of the digester and the
source and volume of manure are important consideration
in the construction of the digester.
Maintenance like cleaning where water is needed
as raised as a problem by another user may not be a prob-
lem at all once there is full appreciation of the system. It
only becomes a problem if water is totally lacking in the
site.
The experience of the seven users is in general
encouraging and shows no serious technical problems that
may preoccupy R&D workers. Maybe the challenge, but
which may be another approach in promoting the technol-
ogy, is to reverse the campaign by promoting backyard
animal production in order to have readily available
sources of manure for digesters. This approach has the
twin goals of turning wastes into beneficial resource and
productivity to alleviate poverty.

Lessons and Insights on Technology Commercialisation

Design of the Digester. Through time, the tech-
nology has undergone modifications for its improvement
in terms of simplicity in construction and ease in mainte-
nance. While the technology being introduced is the
model of DOST-Rizal as shown earlier in Figure 1, con-
struction in Marinduque generally had slight modificat ion
as shown in Figure 2.
Strategic Site for Technology Diffusion. It is
interesting to note that after the digester construction, the
informal orientation seminar, and after it was shown that
the system operate well, the technology diffused to other
people. DOST-Marinduque recognised that Mr. Simon as
well as the students of MSC-SA was very instrumental in
promoting the technology. The choice of the initial activ-
ity in introducing a technology is very important. The
very nature of the school system makes it a strategically
important launching pad for the introduction of the tech-
nology. This is because of the crowd of the faculty and
students who would consciously or unconsciously spread
the news about a technology in their lessons, discussion or
relating it to their family, relatives or friends.

Problems and Suggestions. Based on feedbacks
and data reflected in Table 1, the major constraint in its
wide-scale adoption is the cost of constructing the di-
gester. An ordinary household cannot just accommodate
the idea of having a unit simply because of high construc-
tion cost as the digester is made up of concrete and the
materials and labor are expensive. In the present initia-
tive, it ranged from Php 8,000.00 to Php100,000.00 de-
pending on the capacity of the digester. If there is a way
of helping interested households or enterprises in invest-
ing in the technology, certainly the number of units would
increase in the province of Marinduque.
One suggestion resulting from this study is for
the local governments (municipal and/or provincial) to
provide assistance, similar to the then program of the De-
velopment Bank of the Philippines [8]. A local policy or
ordinance on soft loan from the local government will
certainly be helpful in the construction cost. That is, a non
-collateral and interest-free loan could be formulated
wherein the amortisation should be approximated based
on the expenditures of the household on LPG fuel. This
would enable family households to contain the cost as
they would not feel the impact of the amount for construc-
tion because that would spread the cost over time and also
that would just substitute their current expenditure on
LPG which is approximately one tank per month. In fact,
if their expenditure on LPG is equivalent of the monthly
amort ization, there would be no impact at all on the family
coffers.
Another problem could be the immediate source
of waste or manure for feeding the digester. The present
biogas technology being commercialised by DOST is to
use pig manure or cow/carabao dung but not all house-
holds are raising any or all of these animals in their back-
yard. Other waste materials which are commonly found
in rural areas or agricultural farms like chicken dung, wa-
ter lily, dried banana leaves, ipil-ipil and other farm
wastes [2], [7], [8] may be used but these are not covered
in the present DOST program.
Corollarilly, potential households and enterprises
shall be chosen and priority should be given to those who
have both the financial capability for the construction of
digesters, and ready source of waste materials like ma-
nures for the digester. The second priority should be en-
terprises depending on electricity and/or liquefied petro-
leum gas (LPG) to generate energy to produce their prod-
ucts or services.
The rate of adopting the technology in the prov-
ince is approximately one unit per year and this could
definitely increase if there is an intensified and regular
awareness campaign on the technology. The present sys-
tem of technology introduction and commercialisation at
DOST-Marinduque is that there is only one technical staff
attending to various technology commercialisation pro-
programs aside from attending to routinary activit ies of the
office.
In view of these experiences and to enhance tech-
nology adoption, a technology manager who would focus
on promoting biogas is imperat ive and his/her function
should include among others to serve as a biogas technol-
ogy promotion walking media, on-call resource person,
and technical support coordinator. This may come from
the R&D workers in the province who have the experience
in technology promotion and equipped with the technical
and socio-economic understanding of the biogas system.
While the study covered only a limited number of
only seven cases, a sign which is indicative of multiplier
effect or technology diffusion may be drawn from t wo
early adopters of the technology. For instance, these two
adopters acted as anchors of technological informat ion.
They had naturally performed dissemination of the tech-
nology to another three who later eventually adopted the
system. Dissemination of technology does not happen
spontaneously but rather inducing it requires sustained
effort, careful planning and commit ment to the advance-
ment and promotion of the technology [9]. This strength-
ens the imperativeness of having a technology manager in
the province.
The campaign for promoting the biogas technol-
ogy needs to continue and the findings of around one unit
per year necessitates intensified efforts and resources to
increase the number of adopters. This should be with a
focused initiat ive, and this could be done though a technol-
ogy manager. In addit ion, DOST taps or should be able to
influence local governments to support this initiative if it
wants to make a significant impact in the technology com-
mercialisation of biogas.
A model for using biogas for lighting purposes
should also be put up to demonstrate a different use albeit
other uses which have been found viable.
Investment Analysis for the Technology Promo-
tion Initiative. In the promotion of the biogas technology,
DOST-Marinduque had chosen an avenue for dissemina-
tion with great potential impact and that is, the school sys-
tem and for this particular technology, the Marinduque
State College. One should note that the technology on
biogas has been there dating back in the olden days. How-
ever, its utilization is still limited or not on a wide-scale
extent because of some problems and one of which is the
high cost of constructing the digester.
According to the DOST-Marinduque technical
staff, if he has to impute values on all his activities in pro-
moting the technology like facilitating DOST-Rizal to pro-
vide technical supervision during the construction of the
first biogas system, the training that they attended in
DOST-Rizal, coordination cost, time and effort, it would
just amount to only less than Php10,000 and this is for the
initial biogas system in MSC-School of Agriculture. The
promotion related cost for the rest of the adopters were
already very minimal considering that the DOST-Rizal
supervised only the construction of the first digester and
there was no training cost incurred anymore. Succeeding
promotional activities were mostly done by Mr. Simon
whenever he attends to the hog raisers.
Assuming that the estimate of Php10,000 was the
full value of the promotional act ivit ies, that amount in five
years has generated an investment of Php 316,000 for
seven biogas system. That means that for every peso in-
vested by DOST in this promotional scheme could result
to Php 31.60 investment from future biogas users.

IV. Conclusion

The study was conducted to appraise the biogas
technology commercialisation initiat ive in Marinduque.
The results could enrich the ongoing technology promo-
tion and commercialisation strategy. It could be noted in
the findings that if biogas technology is to be popularised
in the province or even in other provinces of the country,
there is a need to intensify the campaign with comprehen-
sively complete information in terms of construction and
utilisation. That there is also a need to stratify would be
users and prioritise those with financial capacity and di-
gester raw material availability, and those business/
livelihood enterprises whose potential for the viability for
biogasination is imperative to reduce cost of their opera-
tions and households needing financial assistance. Lastly,
there is a need to have a biogas technology manager not
only to assist DOST-Marinduque but also to make the
program visible and to champion the biogas technology.

Acknowledgment

We would like to thanks the DOST-Marinduqur
Technical Staff through Mr. Bernie Caringal, the MSC-
School of Agriculture, especially to Mr. Jayson Simon and
the technology adopters who shared with us the lessons
they gained in this community-based technology dissemi-
nation-adoption work in the province of Marinduque.

REFERENCES

[1] Hunkin, T. The rudiments of wisdom encyclopedia. Re-
t r i e v ed 1 0 J an u a ry 20 0 1 fr o m ht t p : / /
www.RudimentsofWisdom.com .
[2] Alicbusan, R. V. State-of-the-art of biogas technology in
Southeast Asia. Phil. Tech. J. 10(2): 5254 (1985).
[3] Felizardo, I. S. Improved multi-purpose biogas apparatus.
NSTA Tech. J. 10(3): 8185 (1985).
[4] Onte, C. M., R. E. Villanueva & R. S. Sajul. Status of biogas
technology utilisation in Marinduque. BSIT Thesis. Marin-
duque State College, Boac, Marinduque. (2007), 21pp.
[5] ISAT-GTZ. Biogas basics: information and advisory service
on appropriate technology, German Agency for Technical
Cooperation. Biogas Digest. Vol. 1. (n.d.)
[6] Kangmin, L. & M. W. Ho. Biogas in China. ISIS Press Re-
lease 02/10/06. Retrieved 5 February 26 from http://
www.sis.org.uk/energy/BiogasChina.php.htm
[7] Maramba, F. D. Sr., E. Obias, C. Taganas & P. Pangilinan.
Evolution of industrial anaerobic digesters at Maya Farm.
Phil. Tech. J. 13(4): 49 63.
[8] Anglo, P. G., C. M. Silverio & V. S. Luis, Jr. State of the
Art: Biogas from Banana Peelings. NSTA Tech. J. 11(4):
72 87 (1986).
[9] Cuyno, R. V. Role of Intermediary system in Agricultural
Research Utilization: The PCARRD Case. Philippine
Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Devel-
opment, Los Baos, Laguna . Staff Paper Series No. 9.
21pp. (n.d.).

Figure 1. Biogas digester being promot ed by DOST IV (2005).

AbstractThis paper describes the utilizati on of i nfor-
mati on technology in addressing the problems encoun-
tered by most colleges and uni versities in implement-
ing the performance eval uation of their faculty mem-
bers and lecturers. Teaching performance eval uation,
considered to be an indispensable tool in the deli very
of quality instruction in academic instituti ons, needs to
be i mplemented in a ti mely and accurate manner to
ai d in the decision-making of the academic deans and
administrators. With the tradi tional paper -based per-
formance evaluati on, considerable admi nistrati ve ef-
forts are required in collecting and anal yzing data,
consoli dating, archi vi ng and disseminating of results to
the academic leaders and faculty members in a ti mely
manner. Problems usually encountered in a paper-
based system include considerable amount of time is
needed i n the preparation of materials needed in the
evaluati on, high cost of printing materials and man-
power, not all students are able to partici pate in evalu-
ating their teachers, inaccurate computation of per-
formance eval uation ratings, unsecured and possible
lost of records, eval uation reports are not generated in
a ti mely manner, processing the evaluati on report is
time-consuming and other related problems.
In this paper, the devel opment of an innova-
ti ve online system for faculty evaluati on based on Web
technologies is described. This is aimed to make the
evaluati on task easier and dramatically reduce the
time and resources required in the conduct of evalua-
tion. With the automated system, efficient, accurate
and real-ti me evaluati on results and reports are gener-
ated, hence provi di ng prompt eval uation i nputs to aca-
demic deans and administrators. Moreover, the auto-
mated evaluation system prevents data encodi ng er-
rors and ensures proper record keeping.
Keywords. Faculty Performance Evaluation; Web-
based System.
I. Introduction

Faculty performance evaluation, as a tool for
improving facultys performance by providing feedback to
the faculty concerned and then in effect improve their
teaching performance, is usually conducted every semes-
ter or every school year. This is done to help the school
administrators in their decision-making in ensuring the
effective and efficient delivery of quality education.
However, in the tradit ional way (paper-based) of
conducting the evaluation, common problems are evident.
Every evaluation period, a high-cost budget is usually
allocated for the reproduction of evaluation forms depend-
ing on the schools student population multiplied by the
number of instructors they are under with. The evaluation
forms are given to the students during their classes to en-
sure that majority are able to participate. However, this
activity causes interruption in the classes. Moreover, the
presence of the subject instructor during which the evalua-
tion is conducted may influence the way the student rate
the faculty concerned. The conduct of the traditional
evaluation also requires that a staff is assigned to adminis-
ter the evaluation, thus interrupting his/her other assigned
work. After the evaluation, the staff needs to encode and
do the computation manually to generate results. This
process requires time to complete, hence may result in the
delay of producing the necessary evaluation reports. These
reports need to be done in a timely manner to increase the
chance of encouraging the faculty for improvement and
will also help the deans/administrators to take necessary
actions immediately.
Since with the online evaluation system, the stu-
dents can do this at their own time and place of conven-
ience, issues on the students participation may create un-
certainties to change from the traditional way to the online
approach. However, in the study conducted in Texas Uni-
versity, the two methods, paper-based versus online, are
compared. Although the student response rate for online
evaluations was lower, evaluation scoring patterns were
similar for both methods. Results showed that conducting
faculty evaluations online may be a suitable alternative to
traditional paper-based approach [1].
Colleges and universities are recently taking its
turn in embracing the innovative use of informat ion tech-
nology to aid in ensuring quality education. It was reported
that the University of Oregon, previously using the paper-
based system and now using the Web-based evaluation
system, saves roughly $200,000 per year while eliminating
the waste of between 500,000 to 750,000 pieces of paper.
Also moving the evaluations out of the classroom and onto
the Web serves well by not interrupting classes during the
administering of evaluations. In addition, it provides im-
mediate feedbacks to the instructors in a more efficient and
accurate way [2].
In this study, we utilized the innovative use of
informat ion technology in addressing the problems en-
countered using the traditional paper-based approach. A
web-based system is developed for the faculty perform-
ance evaluation of Mindanao University of Science and
Technology. With the online system, there will be reduce
time and resources in the evaluation process .

Development of an Innovative Online Faculty Performance Evaluation
System for Colleges and Universities
Jay Noel N. Rojo, Consorcio S. Namoco, Jr., Jocelyn B. Barbosa and Maricel A. Esclamado
Mindanao University of Science and Technology
Lapasan, Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines
II. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT AND
IMPLEMENTATION

A systematic approach in analyzing the system is
used. This approach is called the System Development
Life Cycle (SDLC). SDLC has several phases namely:
identifying problems, opportunities, and objectives, deter-
mining information requirement, analyzing systems need,
designing, developing and documenting the software, im-
plementing and evaluating the system. These are consid-
ered during the whole process of analyzing the system.
The Web-based Faculty Performance Evaluation
system is developed using PostgreSQL for the databases,
which is a sophisticated open-source Object-Relational
DBMS supporting almost all SQL constructs, including
subselects, transactions, and user-defined types. PHP, a
widely-used, free and efficient scripting language for
making dynamic and interactive web pages, is used for the
scripting. Apache, an open-source web server software
available for a variety of operating systems, is used for the
server. In Figure 1, the diagram shows how these tech-
nologies work together.

Figure 1. Online Faculty Evaluat ion Syst em Archit ect ure

Most of the private data in the system are held
confidential and are accessed only by the administrators.
Thus, a login system is implemented to identify the users
in order to control their access rights. The diagram below
shows the comprehensive framework of Online Faculty
Performance Evaluation System. It shows how data flows
from different entities involved in the system. It also
shows which t ransactions and data processes are only al-
lowed to a certain user.
Figure 2. Illust rat ion of t he dat a processes relat ive to the ent it ies in-
volved in complet ing t he evaluat ion
III. RESULTS

The findings of the system developed in this
study show that the integration of a web-based solution
can provide accurate, timely, and more detailed informa-
tion to the instructors and the administrators, as well as,
retain the confidentiality, security, and functionality of the
existing paper-based approach. Figures 3, 4 and 5 show
the sample reports generated by the system.

Figure 3. CHAIRMAN PROGRESS REPORT Form that displays a
progressive report diagram of a part icular inst ructor indicating the com-
parison of performance per semest er on subject s handled if increasing or
decreasing.

Figure 4. DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS Form that shows how report s
are downloaded into a PDF file.

Figure 5. Downloaded PDF Format of Report

In the manual process, a student would take an
average of thirty (30) minutes to finish the evaluation.
This is the amount of time the classes is interrupted in
order for the evaluation to be administered. However, with
this web-based evaluation system via web, the process
only requires an average of two (2) minutes to complete
each evaluation. Thus if a student needs to evaluate 4-5
instructors, each student may need only an average ten
(10) minutes to evaluate. Moreover, processing the out-
come of evaluation would not be a burden at all since the
system itself can generate the results in a timely manner.
The online system also makes the evaluation process cen-
tralized to the users. The system additionally can generate
graphs to better represent the performance progress report
of instructors.

IV. CONCLUSION

With all the features of the system, the admini-
stration and the users would highly like to use the Online
system in conducting the evaluation process. Hence, the
proposed system would provide a better alternative to im-
prove the current traditional evaluation system practiced
by colleges and universities.

REFERENCES

[1] Fike, D.S., Doyle, D.J., Connelly, R.J. (2010). Online vs.
Paper Evaluations of Faculty: When Less is Just Good. The Jour-
nal of Effective Teaching, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2010, 42-54.

[2] Bedard, A. (2009). University of Oregon Implements Web-
based Course Evaluation System from CollegeNET. CollegeNET,
Schwartz Communications, Inc.

[3] Kelly, R. (2008). Electronic Portfolios for Faculty Evalua-
tion. Faculty Focus: Focused on Today;s Higher Education
Professional.

[4] Anido, C. (2009). Online Teaching Performance Evaluation
System: A Tool for Quality Education.
Abstract Comprehension is al ways the problem of
the students in understandi ng the lessons of the differ-
ent subject areas across the curriculum. It is the focus
of this study to determine how effecti ve is the reci pro-
cal teaching reading strategy in devel oping the critical
and creati ve thinking of the students across the cur-
riculum towards learni ng the causes and effects of cli-
mate change. This study is being conducted in order to
improve the curriculum of the teacher education pro-
gram particularly in the curriculum content, learning
experiences and resources.
The res pondents of this study were the college
students of the subject developmental reading the
new professional subject reflected in the CMO 30,
2004. These respondents are in the pre-service educa-
tion and future teachers in the 21
st
century who will be
facing challenges in developing comprehension skills of
the learners particul arly in anal yzing the causes and
effects of cli mate change.
Interview and extemporaneous speeches were
the bases of analyzi ng the effecti veness of reciprocal
teaching readi ng strategy in anal yzing the critical and
creati ve thinking of the students on the lesson the
causes and effects of climate change. The res pon-
dents emphasized that there is really a need to all
teachers to be equi pped wi th reci procal teaching strat-
egy in order to develop the comprehension skills. Cur-
riculum content of the teacher education program
must integrate the topic causes and effects of climate
change and use reci procal teachi ng strategy across
the curriculum. Hence, i deal graduates in the teacher
education program can hel p the people in the commu-
nity and throughout the worl d of sol ving and prevent-
ing the causes and effects of cli mate change through
the application of what they have understood.

Keywords: Climate Change, reciprocal strategy, critical
and creative thinking, curriculum
I. Introduction

Reading across the curriculum is very important
in analyzing the Content Areas of the school curricula
specially in the teacher education program whose ideal
graduates are the agent of change in the society of mold-
ing the minds of the people living in the community and
throughout the world. Indeed, it has been observed that
one of the problems that the teachers encountered in
teaching is the comprehension skills of the students. Stu-
dents do not have the skills to read and comprehend con-
tent-based text. Therefore, content area teachers need to be
skilled in content-based reading strategies (Billmeyer,
1996). Skills needed depend on the content and text. Con-
tent teachers are best qualified to help students compre-
hend the material presented by developing prior knowl-
edge related to the topic. If all teachers provide reading
opportunities for students, students will be better prepared
to meet identified standards in all areas. Background
knowledge and content provide an essential link between
what students understand and what they read (Anthony
and Raphael, 1989).
Thus, in order to help readers, teachers may wish
to consider utilizing the techniques and strategies in
teaching reading in their content area. One of the best
reading strategies is the used of reciprocal teaching
method by means of summarizing the content with se-
mantic features, asking question, clarify, and predict con-
tent and meaning. Through this reciprocal reading strat-
egy, the critical and creative thinking skills of the learners
are developed. Then it is a great help to the students in
analyzing the content of lessons across the curriculum
particularly the topics and issues about the problems of the
causes and effects of climate change which the people are
suffering nowadays.
It is in this juncture that the role of the teachers in
developing the critical and creative thinking skills of the
students is very important to the students specially in the
education program where the ideal graduates are the hope
of the young generation facing the challenges in the 21
st

century like the causes and effects of climate change as
well as the possible solutions of preventing it. Hence,
through curriculum development part icularly in the con-
tent, learning experiences and resources as well as com-
prehension skills of the people will be sharpened. Thus,
they could easily understand how to analyze the causes
and effects and possible solutions in preventing it. It is
through education that the people around the world will be
informed about the issues and problems of the environ-
ment.

Adelfa C. Silor, Ed. D.
Faculty: Depart ment of Professional Education
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology
Iligan City, Philippines
Charm_adel@yahoo.com
RECIPROCAL TEACHING READING STRATEGY: A GREAT HELP FOR
CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING OF STUDENTS ACROSS
THE CURRICULUM TOWARDS LEARNING THE EFFECTS
OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Accordingly, in the teaching and learning proc-
ess, teachers must use the best strategy in developing the
critical and creative thinking skills of the students. It is
then the focus of this research study to analyze the use of
reciprocal teaching reading strategy in developing the
critical and creative thinking skills of the students across
the curriculum. This is very useful in analyzing the causes
and effects of the climate change, one of the challenges
in the 21
st
century.

II. Research Methodology

The researcher used the interview and extempo-
raneous speeches as bases of analyzing the effect iveness
of reciprocal teaching reading strategy in analyzing the
critical and creative thinking of the students on the lesson
the causes and effects of climate change. The respon-
dents of this study were the college students of the subject
developmental reading the new professional subject
reflected in the CMO 30, 2004. These respondents are in
the pre-service education and future teachers in the 21
st

century who will be facing challenges in developing com-
prehension skills of the learners particularly in analyzing
the causes and effects of climate change.
In gathering data, the researcher presented to the
students of developmental reading class a video clip
about the causes and effects of climate change which is
uploaded by the Global Change.Com taken from the
Youtube. After watching the video clip presentation, the
teacher who is the researcher of this study, asked the stu-
dents to summarize, formulate their own questions, make
clarification and prediction about the content and meaning
of the video clip presentation on causes and effects of
climate change. This is the reciprocal teaching reading
strategy used in developing the critical and creative think-
ing of the students across the curriculum.
In doing this reciprocal strategy, students stood
up one by one and delivered their extemporaneous
speeches expressing their critical and creat ive thinking in
analyzing the causes and effects of climate change. In fact,
there is video presentation of the students in
Developmental Reading Class who served as the re-
spondents of the study. Other students were interviewed
about their ideas on the causes and effects of climate
change.

Reci procal Teaching
III. Findings of the Study

After analyzing the interview and extemporane-
ous speeches of the students, the researcher found out that
students could easily understand the issues and problems
about the causes and effects of climate change through the
use of reciprocal teaching reading strategy as well as the
integration of video clip presentation on the causes and
effects of climate change. The students said that reciprocal
teaching strategy together with the video clip presentation
of the lessons really helped them in sharpening their criti-
cal and creat ive thinking in analyzing the lessons across
the curriculum. Furthermore, the students said that today
the world is facing a problem on climate change. Hence,
according to them there is a need to integrate the topics
causes and effects of climate in the curriculum particu-
larly in the teacher education program so that the graduates
of education can help the people in the local, regional,
national and international communication spread of the
informat ion about the causes and effects of climate
change. Then best solutions of preventing it may be ap-
plied. Thus, everybody in this world can contribute to
make the earth a better place to live in.
Reciprocal teaching is a technique that actively engages both
teacher and students in the use of prior knowledge. The
teacher needs to model this strategy.

Summarizing - After
students have silently or
orally read a short sec-
tion of a passage, a sin-
gle student acting as
teacher (i.e., the student
leader summarizes what
has been read. Other
students, with guidance
from the teacher, may
add to the summary. If
students have difficulty
summarizing, the
teacher might point out
clues (e. g., important
items or obvious topic
sentences) that aid in the
construction of good
summaries.
Questioning - The
student leader asks some
questions to which the
class responds. The
questions are designed
to help students identify
important information in
the passage.

Clarifying - Next, the student
leader tries to clarify confusing
points in the passage. He might
point these out or ask other students
to point them out. For example, the
student leader might say, The part
about why the dog ran into the car
was confusing to me. Can anyone
explain this? Or, the student leader
might ask other students to ask
clarification questions. The group
then attempts to clear up the confus-
ing parts. This might involve re-
reading parts of the passage.
Predicting - The student leader
asks for predictions about what will
happen in the next segment of the
text. The leader can write the pre-
dictions on the blackboard or on an
overhead, or all students can write
them down in their notebooks.
Keeping those predictions in mind,
the class then silently or orally reads
the text. Then a new student is se-
lected to be the teacher (i.e., the
student leader), and the process
begins again. During each succes-
sive summarizing stage, the student
leader addresses the predictions that
were made.
III. Conclusion

After analyzing the results of the data gathered
through the students interview and extemporaneous
speeches, the researcher concluded that reciprocal teach-
ing reading strategy with the use of video clip presentation
is very effect ive in honing the crit ical and creative think-
ing of students. It is also concluded that school curriculum
has a great role in developing the mind set of students
specially in facing the challenges of the 21
st
century con-
sidering the climate change that affects the lives of the
people around the world.
Recommendations and Suggestions of the Study
There is really a need to integrate the topic cli-
mate change in the curriculum for the students awareness
on the causes and effects and possible solutions of pre-
venting it. In addit ion, teachers must use teaching strategy
that helps develop the critical and creative thinking of the
students. It is strongly recommended to integrate ICT or
video presentation in the teaching and learning process.
Most importantly, reciprocal teaching reading strategy is
highly recommended in teaching to develop the compre-
hension skills of the students.

REFERENCES

Fox, G. Thomas and Geichman, Judith (2001) Creating research
questions from strategies and perspectives of contemporary
art. Curriculum Inquiry 31 (1): 33-49.

Gough, Noel (2000) Interrogating silence: environmental educa-
tion research as postcolonialist textwork. Australian Journal
of Environmental Education 15/16: 113-120.

Gough, Noel (2001) Learning from Disgrace: a troubling narra-
tive for South African curriculum work. Perspectives in
Education 19 (1): 107-126.

Gough, Noel (2002a) Ignorance in environmental education
research. Australian Journal of Environmental Education
18: 19-26.

http://www.climatechangechallenge.org/Resource%20Centre/
Climate-Change/3-what_causes_climate_change.htm

http://www.firehow.com/20090325777/how-to-prevent-climate-
change.html

http://www.nclicoalition.org/environmental -education/
index.html

http://youtube.com/madonna-helps-fight-climate-change/index

TABLE 3 T-TEST FOR SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
STANDARD & IMPLEMENTED CURRICULUM

TABLE 4. T -TESTS FOR SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
EVALUATION OF BATCHES OF CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION

IV. CONCLUSION

A significant difference was found between the
standard and implemented curriculum based on the
evaluation of the BS Informat ion Technology & BS Com-
puter Science curricula by 2010 & 2011 graduates.
No significant difference was found between the
evaluation by BS IT 2010 & 2011 graduates of the imple-
mented curriculum. This was similarly observed in the
case of BSCS 2010 & 2011 graduates.

REFERENCES

Atienza,M.A.,C.C. Roa & E.A. Sana.2007. Development of a
core curriculum on tuberculosis control for Philippine medi-
cal schools. Singapore: Ann. Acad. Med.36:930-936

Cowan D.T. I. Norman & Coopamah v.p. 2005. Nurse Education
25:5 Competence in nursing practice: A Controversial Con-
cept Ornstein,A.C. & F.P. Hunkins. 2008. Curriculum
foundations, principles and Issues CA: Allyn & Bacon.

Smith ,J.E. & J.B. Forbes,2001. Creating a Competency-Based
Leadership and Managerial Skills Program: A Model for
Smaller Schools.J. Management Educ.25(2):209-230
Ho: 1= 2 Ha; 1
Taleghani,M,E.S. Solomman & W.F. Wothen.2004. Non-graded
evaluation of dental students in a competency-based educa-
tion. J.Dent. Educ. 68 (6): 644-655.

Cur-
riculu
m/
Bat ch
N X bar SD t calc t
t ab
.05
Con-
clusion
BSIT
211
26 3.32 0.42 -20.487 -
1.708
sig,
reject
Ho
BSIT
2010
16 3.41 0.52 -12.720 -
1.753
sig
reject
Ho
BSCS
2011
5 3.70 0.35 -8.660 -
2.132
sig
reject
Ho
BSCS
2010
20 3.79 0.83 -7.117 -
1.729
sig
reject
Ho
Course/
Bat ch
N Mea
n
Ho

T
calc
T t ab
2-
t aile
d .05
Conclu-
sion
BSCS
2011 &
BSCS
2010
5
20
200.
20
196.
95
Ha:
1=
2
0.28
1
2.06
9
ns can-
not
reject Ho
BSIT 2011
& BSIT
2010
26
16
173.
00
177.
72
Ho
: 1=
2
0.69
7
2.02
1
ns can-
not
reject Ho
AbstractThis study ai med to correlate the perform-
ances in Mathematics and Computer Programming of
the fourth year IT students of the College of Computer
Studies, TSU, during the second semester, SY 2010-
2011. It was carried out to determine the significant
relationshi p of the students performances in two sub-
jects towards the development of an action plan.
The study used the correlati on design. No experimen-
tal variables were mani pul ated. The students final
grades in six Mathematics and Programmi ng subjects
determined their performances in each field. Fre-
quency and percentage distri bution, means and stan-
dard devi ati ons were utilized in the anal ysis and inter-
pretation of the data. The Pearson Product -Moment
Coefficient Correlation at 0.01 and 0.05 level of signifi-
cant were used to i dentify the subjects which Mathe-
matics subjects have significant relationship to Pro-
grammi ng subjects. Results show that Mathematics
performance is significantly related to Programming
performance. Computer programs are mathematical
formulae, with a precise formal meaning and embody-
ing constructi ve theorems about the system they i mple-
ment. Performance in Mathematics indicates perform-
ance in Programming. Students who find Mathematics
hard woul d find Programming hard. Likewise, those
who find Mathematics easy woul d find Programming
easy. Thus, the students need to be mathematically
equi pped.

Keywords-component; formatting; style; styling; insert
(key words)
I. Introduction

Mathematics and computer languages (also
known as programming) have been partners for so many
decades. Ones knowledge on basic Mathematical con-
cepts is required to be able to formulate and perform a
computer program or language. Binary numbers are basi-
cally used in Logic operations, algebraic expressions are
used in Programming and as basis in making algorithms
most especially in Data Structure.
This connection between mathematics and pro-
gramming is undeniable. Thus, thorough studies must be
conducted to determine the in -depth relevance and rela-
tionship between the two fields.
This research validated some assumptions based
on the researchers experience as Mathematics and Prog-

Ferdinand L. Marcos
Graduate Studies, College of Education
ferdie526@yahoo.com
Correlation Between Performances in Mathematics and Computer Programming of
Information Technology Students: Towards an Action Plan
ramming teacher. One of them connects students diffi-
culties with a lack of basic mathematical knowledge. It
is known that students need to develop creative, logical
and deductive reasoning that has inherent mathematical
skills. It becomes more and more obvious that program-
ming education is intrinsically linked to Mathematics
knowledge and abilities. The main goal of this study is
to validate these ideas, acquired by experience, but still
litt le sustained from a scientific point of view.
The result of the study will be used to explore
possible relations between deficient mathematical prob-
lem solving competencies and the lack of programming
skills performed by the students. It will also be used to
bring out implications to Mathematics curriculum and
prescribed activities.
II. Objectives

The study aimed to correlate the performances
in Mathemat ics and Programming of Selected Informa-
tion Technology Students of Tarlac State University.
Specifically, this study will seek to answer the
following questions.
What is the Mathematics Performance of the fourth
year Information Technology students on the
following subjects:
College Algebra;
Plane Trigonometry;
Analytic Geometry;
Differential Calculus;
Integral Calculus and;
Probability and Statistics
What are the performances of fourth year Informa-
tion Technology students on the following Pro-
gramming subjects?
Computer Concepts and Fundamental with
Application Software Program;
Program Logic Formulation;
Data Structure;
Computer Programming 1, 2 and 3;
In what subject are the students weak and strong?
How do the Mathematics Performance and Pro-
gramming Performance of fourth year Informa-
tion Technology students correlate?
What action plan in Mathematics Education
could be proposed?

III. Scope

Mathematics Performance was measured in terms
of the students final grade in College Algebra; Plane
Trigonometry; Analytic Geometry; Differential Calculus;
Integral Calculus; and Probability and Statistics. The
achievement in IT will be broken down into Computer
Concepts and Fundamental with Application Soft ware
Program; Program Logic Formulation; Data Structure;
Computer Programming 1, 2 and 3.
One could also employ the results to select those
students who are capable to take Informat ion Technology
courses. In order to choose students for programming
classes, one may use the mathemat ics results as one of the
criteria.
A total population of one hundred sixty-six (166)
fourth year IT students were utilized as the respondents of
the study. Their Final Grade in College Algebra; Plane
Integral Calculus; and Probability and Statistics will be
obtained by the researcher through the Management Infor-
mat ion System Office. Their Final Grade in Computer
Concepts and Fundamental with Application Soft ware
Program; Program Logic Formulation; Data Structure;
Computer Programming 1, 2 and 3 were also recorded and
correlated with the previously mentioned Mathematics
subjects.

IV. Conceptual Framework

The performance of each student in Mathematics
subjects, namely: College Algebra; Plane Trigonometry;
Analytic Geometry; Differential Calculus; Integral Calcu-
lus; and Probability and Statistics were determined to rep-
resent their Mathematics Performance. Strengths and
weaknesses were identified to make an in-depth analysis of
the results.
The same treatment was applied with the stu-
dents performance in Programming subjects, namely:
Computer Concepts and Fundamental with Application
Software Program; Program Logic Formulation; Data
Structure; Computer Programming 1, 2 and 3. The final
grades in these subjects represented the students Program-
ming Performance.
The performance in Mathematics was correlated
with the IT students performance in Programming.
From the results, a proposed action plan was pre-
sented to emphasize and improve the present curriculum
and activities of the Mathematics and Programming sub-
jects. In turn, the faculty members would understand the
students weaknesses and could utilize effective interven-
tions and innovations to improve pupils performances in
both fields. It could be used to explore possible relations
between deficient mathematical problem solving compe-
tences and the lack of programming skills performed by
the students. It could also be used to bring out implications
to Mathematics curriculum and prescribed activities.

V. Research Design

The study used the correlation design. No experi-
mental variables were manipulated. Correlation research
explores the relationship between or among variables. The
variables were studied without any attempt to control or
manipulate them. Correlation research is also sometimes
referred to as a form of descriptive research because it
describes relationship between variables.
To determine the correlation between Mathemat-
ics and Programming Performances of the IT students, the
Final Grade in the Mathematics and Programming subjects
were obtained from records and documents available in the
Management Informat ion System Office. The gathered
data were recorded and correlated, analyzed and inter-
preted.
The first data were the students grades in College
Algebra; Plane Trigonometry; Analytic Geomet ry; Differ-
ential Calculus; Integral Calculus; and Probability and
Statistics. The second data were the students grades in
Programming subjects, namely: Computer Concepts and
Fundamental with Application Software Program; Pro-
gram Logic Formulat ion; Data Structure; Computer Pro-
gramming 1, 2 and 3.
The data were tabulated as to the sequences of the
stated problems in this study. These were analyzed, corre-
lated and interpreted.
The names of the one hundred sixty six (166)
Information Technology students were listed, verified and
confirmed using the Colleges records and documents.

St rengths and Weaknesses
Programming Perform-
ance
- Co mputer Concepts and
Fundamental with Applica-
tion Software Program
- ProgramLogic Formulation
- Data Structure
- Co mputer Programming 1, 2 &
3
Mathemati cs Performance
College Algebra
Plane Trigonometry
Analyt ic Geomet ry
Different ial Calculus
Int egral Calculus
Probability and
St at ist ics
Implicat ions to Mat hemat ics
Proposed Action Plan
VI. Statistical Treat ment

The average of each students final grade in
Mathematics subjects, namely: College Algebra; Plane
Integral Calculus; and Probability and Statistics were de-
termined. This were the Mathemat ics performance of the
fourth year IT students.
The same treat ment was applied with the stu-
dents final grades in programming subjects, namely:
Computer Concepts and Fundamental with Application
Software Program; Program Logic Formulation; Data
Structure; Computer Programming 1, 2 and 3. This data
represents the students Programming Performance.
The Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient Corre-
lation at 0.01 and 0.05 level of significant were used to
identify the subjects which have significant relationship to
the Mathematics and Programming Performances. Pear-
son-moment Correlation Coefficient (r) is a measure of
the degree of linear relat ionship between two variables,
usually labeled x and Y. It requires the assumption that
the relationship between the variable is linear, and it re-
quires the variables to be measured on interval scales. The
formula used follows:

Where: X = refers to the first variable
Y = refers to the second variable

Students grades were encoded and then analyzed
through the Computer Software.
The work of collegiate students was rated at the
end of each term in accordance to the Universitys Grad-
ing System:

1.0 - Excellent
1.25 1.5 - Very Good
1.75 2.0 - Good
Average
2.25 2.5 - Satisfactory
2.75 3.0 - Fair
5.0 - Poor

VII. Summary of Findings

A. Mathematics Performance
The IT students performances in Mathematics
were as follows: College Algebra (2.5868, fair); Plane
Trigonometry (2.7688, fair); Analytic Geometry (2.6243,
fair); Differential Calculus (2.5372, fair); Integral Calcu-
lus (2.6862, fair) and Probability and Statistics (2.3306,
satisfactory).
Generally, the IT students had an average per-
formance level in Mathematics.
B. Computer Programming Performance
The IT students performances in Programming
were as follow: Computer Concepts and Fundamentals
with Application Software Program (satisfactory); Pro-
gram Logic Formulation (fair); Computer Programming
1 (fair); Computer Programming 2 (fair); Data Structure
(fair); and Computer Programming 3 (satisfactory).
As indicated, the IT students showed below
average performance in their Computer Programming
subjects.

C. Strengths and Weaknesses
1. Of the Mathemat ics subjects, the IT students
performed least in Plane Trigonometry (2.77)
and strongest in Probability and Statistics
(2.33).
2. As to the Computer Programming subjects, the
IT students were weakest in Computer Pro-
gramming 2 (2.88) but were found strongest in
Computer Concepts and Fundamentals with
Application Software Program (2.45).

D. Correlat ion of Mathematics Performance and Pro-
gramming Performance of fourth year Information
Technology students.
College Algebra, Analytic Geometry, Differen-
tial Calculus, and Probability and Statistics were highly
correlated to the Programming Subjects. Plane Trigo-
nometry is highly correlated to all Programming Sub-
jects except Data Structure. Integral Calculus is not cor-
related to Computer Programming.

VIII. Conclusions
Results show that Mathematics performance is
significantly related to Programming performance.
Computer programs are mathematical formulae, with a
precise formal meaning and embodying constructive
theorems about the system they implement. Perform-
ance in Mathematics indicates performance in Program-
ming. Students who find Mathematics hard would find
Programming hard. Likewise, those who find Mathe-
mat ics easy would find Programming easy. Thus, the
students need to be mathemat ically equipped.

IX. Implications

The common problem of all educators is how
to make their teaching effort most productive. When-
ever the students encounter learning difficulties the
teachers try their best to make the learning process ef-
fective so that students will learn from the subject.
The result of the study revealed that the per-
formance of the students were average in Mathematics
and below average in Programming. The students were
not fully mot ivated to perform well for some reasons.
The performance in Mathematics of the students should
be elevated to at least above average level since it is cor
r =

N XY - XY
[NX
2
-(X)
2
] [NY
2
-(Y)
2
]

related to their Programming subjects. If this performance
will continue and will not be corrected and elevated to the
next level, the consequence would be incompetent future
programmers. If students performance in Mathematics
could be improved, performance in Programming would
also improve.
Mathematics is a very difficult subject because of
high level of accuracy, concentration, hard work and dili-
gence it requires. Thus, it is always advocated that the
students must be well mot ivated mentally and physically,
otherwise, they will find it non-sense to relate it to their
programming activities.
While the College of Computer Studies offers a
Mathematical-oriented program as reflected to its curricu-
lum with a 12 unit course in Mathematics and as man-
dated by the Commission on Higher Education, the cur-
riculum alone is not enough to make the students learn.
Other factors such as the teachers knowledge of the sub-
ject content passed on to them by their previous teachers
and to their students may be partly to blame. The inade-
quacies of the teachers and to their students lead to a poor
conceptualizat ion of strategies to deliver the topic in an
easier way (Tatu, 2006). Mathemat ics need to provide
students with activit ies that will be used in Programming
skills.
As one of the objectives of the Information Tech-
nology Education of the three programs (BSCS, BSIS and
BSIT) the students must be prepared as IT professionals
and researchers. Thus, case studies in Mathematics espe-
cially in Probability and Statistics must be done.

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First Year Students in Camiguin Public Secondary Schools:
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Camiguin
[8] Ambrosio, Mayra Christina . (2001). Mathematical Achieve-
ment of the Second Year High School Students of St. Paul Col-
leges of Ilocos Sur. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of
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ABSTRACTA research study was conducted to de-
termi ne the readi ness and acceptability of informati on
and communicati on technol ogy (ICT) integration in six
internet for Public High Schools (ischools) in Camari-
nes Sur. It also aimed to determine the ICT knowledge,
skills and attitude of faculty and students in ischools,
ICT trainings and competencies of teachers and avail-
ability of ICT facilities in the schools and community.
Purposive sampling was used in determining the re-
spondents of the study and quanti tati ve statistical tools
such as frequency counts, percentage rates and
weighted means were used in anal yzing the data. Find-
ings revealed that faculty and students in two out of
the six schools were highly knowledgeable and highly
skilled in ICT hardware and software components
identification but only one school was found to be
highly competent on ICT usage. All faculty members
in one school integrated ICT i n teachi ng English,
Math, Science and TLE however, no school integrated
ICT in Social Studies. The avail ability of ICT re-
sources and the provision of i nitial ICT trainings to
facul ty and students in ischools contri buted to ICT
integrati on in teaching. The ini tial level of ICT integra-
tion in teaching is indicati ve of faculty and students
readiness and acceptance of ICT tools in teaching-
learning environment. Recommendations in the study
were conduct of retraining courses on ICT; develop-
ment of ICT-based teaching modules in Soci al Studies;
conduct future studies that woul d test relati onshi p be-
tween socio-demographic profile and ICT integrati on
in teaching; and correl ate ICT competencies of stu-
dents in achievement tests in English, Math, Science
among ischools.

Keywords: information and communication technology, ICT
integration
I. Introduction

The use of ICT has become pervasive in our
daily lives and has received wide attention from many
people from all walks of life. We had seen the increased
importance of ICT to students, farmers, businessmen, pro-
fessionals and even to an ordinary citizen of our society.
In the education sector, school administrators and
officials are facing competitive pressure to make their
delivery of services effective and efficient and to make
their clienteles/students globally competit ive as they leave
the portals of their schools.
In the Philippines IT Action Agenda for the 21
st

Century, it was emphasized that our country must develop
and implement life-long learning through the Internet;
incorporate IT in the primary, secondary and tertiary cur-
ricula; implement IT-based/computer-aided learning in
basic education; upgrade competencies of educational,
training institutions with IT-based tools and programs;
develop institutional/learning material especially in the
sciences and engineering, math and technology.
Indeed, the Philippine government needs to focus
on harnessing informat ion technology in boosting per-
formance of teachers, students and other education stake-
holders to be competitive and to move forward. The In-
formation and Communicat ion Technology assume deep
strong and constant ingredients to push the change that the
school needs in the beginning of this century.
Over the years, Central Bicol State University of
Agriculture has become sensitive to the emerging techno-
logical changes that can give the school the competitive
advantage over other schools. Lirag (2000) emphasized
the need for the school to develop and implement policies
and curricular reforms that will give employees and stu-
dents the opportunity to improve themselves, be globally
competitive and be at par in terms of academic excellence
with other students of other schools and universities. Like-
wise, Foronda (2011) made a recommendation in one of
his studies to build the ICT capability of public school
teachers and monitor the influence of capability building
on classroom instruction improvement, school governance
efficiency, and student performance.
According to WoodHurst 2002, the term
integration relates to the way in which ICT is incorpo-
rated into student learning, and this can be treated sepa-
rately from its consequences. The literature of the effec-
tiveness of ICT integration can therefore be examined as
the distinct area. It should be noted however, that IT
merely provides an opportunity to gain competitive advan-
tage and improve operational efficiency; it does not guar-
antee results (Ritchie, 1998).
Readiness and Acceptability of Information and Communication Technology
Integration in Basic Education
Osea, Gloria B.
Institute of Development Education
Central Bicol State University of Agricultre (CBSUA)
Pili, Cam. Sur, Philippines
Email: gloriaosea@yahoo.com

Foronda, Vladimir R.
Institute of Agricultural Sciences & Environmental Management
CBSUA, Pili, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Email : foronda_vladimi r@yahoo.com

Nacario, Charlie P.
Institute of Development Education
CBSUA, Pili, Cam. Sur, Philippines
Email: liecharpnac@yahoo.com

Lirag, Ma. Teresa B.
Institute of Economics and Management
CBSUA, Pili, Cam. Sur, Philippines
Email : tessbl@yahoo.com
Considering that todays teachers are educated
and trained in a tradit ional teacher-centered approach, it
takes substantial effort and a major paradigm shift to
move on to a facilitative learner-centered approach that is
espoused by an ICT-educational setting. It is therefore,
important that the education sector should take a serious
look at more appropriate approaches to change manage-
ment among teachers, administrators, and support staff
towards planning and implementing ICT in education ini-
tiatives. Special attention should be given on learning
rather than on teaching as well as teachers readiness in
terms of their inclinations, perceptions, attitudes, con-
cerns, and motivation in ICT integration, role of the
teacher, classroom management, support systems, and
computer coping strategies.
The readiness and acceptability of the students
and teachers are needed to be considered in ICT integra-
tion to improve the quality of teaching and learning proc-
ess. Their skills will vary depending upon several factors
like the availability of the computers, their knowledge on
how to use it and the time when to utilize the technology.

II. OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine the readiness and
acceptability of ICT integration among ischools in Cama-
rines Sur.

Specifically, it aimed to:
1. Characterize the faculty and students in terms of socio
-economic aspects
2. Describe the knowledge and skills of faculty and stu-
dents in ischools on computer components and ICT com-
petencies
3. Identify ICT trainings attended by faculty among
ischools
4. Determine the readiness and acceptability of ICT inte-
gration among ischools

III. METHODOLOGY
The study made use of the descriptive-evaluative
method. Primary data collection was conducted using
questionnaire and key informant survey. The question-
naire answered the following: 1) socio-demographic pro-
file of faculty and students in cooperating ischools 2)
knowledge, skills and attitude of faculty and students in
cooperating ischools on the computer components (3) ICT
competencies of teachers and students (4) ICT t rainings
attended by the teachers (5) availability of ICT in the
community and (6) readiness and acceptability of teachers
and students in cooperating ischools. Key informant sur-
vey using guide questions was used to validate the data
from the teachers.
Likewise, descriptive statistical tools were used
such as weighted mean, frequency counts and percentage
technique.

Respondents of the Study
Six (6) cooperating ischools served as respon-
dents of the study. These included: Balaogan High School
(BHS), Coguit High School (CHS), Justo V. Imperial Me-
morial High School (JVIMHS), Doa Basilia S. Quilon
Memorial High School (DBSQMHS), Nonito Paz Arroyo
Memorial High School (NPAMHS) and Victor Bagasina
Sr. Memorial High School (VBSMHS). Selection of stu-
dent respondents in the six (6) cooperating ischools was
based on 30% of the total population of 3
rd
and 4
th
year
high school students for the school year 2009-2010 (Table
1).
The 82 faculty respondents of this study were
taken through purposive sampling while the 225 3
rd
and 4
th
year students of the six (6) cooperating ischools in Camari-
nes Sur for the school year 2009-2010 comprised the total
number of student respondents.

TABLE 1. POPULATION AND RESPONDENTS
OF THE STUDY
Instrumentation
The study used two sets of instruments. The first
set was the questionnaire, Parts II and III of which were
taken from Commission on Informat ion and Communica-
tions Technology (CICT) Questionnaire Form. The ques-
tionnaire was designed to obtain the following data from
faculty and students: Part I - General Informat ion; Part II
knowledge, skills, and attitude; Part III - ICT competen-
cies; Part IV - ICT trainings attended; Part V - availability
of ICT in the community and Part VI - readiness and ac-
ceptability of ICT integration in teaching.

IV. RESULTS and DISCUSSION

Most of the faculty-respondents belong to the
middle age bracket of 37-48 years old. There were more
female (67%) than male (33%) and 77% of them are mar-
ried. In terms of monthly income, almost half of the re-
spondents receive a monthly salary between Php 16,000.00
-26,000.00 (Table 2).

For the student-respondents, 92% of them belong
School
No. of
Teach-
ers %
No. of
Stu-
dents %

A 12 16.0 50 22.2
B 7 9.3 35 15.6
C 31 41.3 30 13.3
D 10 13.3 30 13.3
E 5 6.7 30 13.3
F 17 22.7 50 22.2

Total 82 100 225 100
to the age range of 14-17 years old, with more female
(63%) respondents than male (37%). Seventy percent of
the students belong to families with monthly income of
Php 5,000.00 and below (Table 3).

TABLE 2. SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF FACULTY
IN I SCHOOLS IN CAMARINES SUR
TABLE 3. SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF STU-
DENTS IN I SCHOOLS IN CAMARINES SUR
Knowledge and Skills (KS) of faculty and students on
computer components i dentification and utilization

The faculty of schools A & D are highly knowl-
edgeable and highly skilled in identifying the different
computer components, while the faculty from school C is
slightly knowledgeable and slightly skilled on this area
(Figure 1).

Figure 1. Knowledge and skills of faculty on comput er component s
ident ificat ion and ut ilizat ion

The students of schools B, C, D and F are knowl-
edgeable and skilled in identifying the different computer
components, while the students from schools A & E are
slightly knowledgeable and slightly skilled in this aspect
(Figure 2).
Figure 2. Knowledge and skills of st udent s on computer component s
ident ificat ion and ut ilizat ion

In terms of trainings attended related to ICT, the
study revealed that both faculty and students did not have
the opportunity to attend ICT t rainings except the ICT
training courses conducted by the Commission of Infor-
mat ion and Communicat ions Technology (CICT) and
Total Percent-
age
CHARACTERISTICS
f
AGE
55 60 6 7
49 54 5 6
43 - 48 19 23
37 42 21 26
31 36 11 13
25 30 20 24
GENDER

Male 27 33
Female 55 67
MONTHLY FAMILY INCOME
27,000 up 7 8
16,000 - 26,000 35 43
5,000 - 15,000 31 38
5,000 below 9 11
EDUC. ATTAINMENT
College Graduate 59 72
PhD/M.A. with units 13 16
M.S Graduate 8 10
Total Percentage
CHARACTERISTICS f
AGE
18 above 14 6
16-17 104 46
14-15 107 48
GENDER
Male 83 37
Female 142 63
CIVIL STATUS
Single 225 100
MONTHLY FAMILY
INCOME
16,000 above 18 8
5,000 - 15,000 49 22
5,000 below 158 70
CBSUA. Faculty respondents showed interest in learning
more on slide animat ion and powerpoint presentation to
enhance their learning styles.

Readi ness and acceptability of ICT integrati on in
teaching among faculty and students in cooperating
ischools

Almost half of the respondents/faculty in schools
A, B & E use ICT in teaching however, 100% or all fac-
ulty in school C use ICT in teaching. On the contrary,
97% of the faculty in school D does not integrate ICT in
teaching.

Ninety-one percent and ninety percent of students
in schools B and D, respectively prefer ICT integration in
the class than traditional method while only 47% of stu-
dents in school C prefer integration of ICT in the class.

TABLE 3. READINESS AND ACCEPTABILITY OF ICT
INTEGRATION OF TEACHERS IN ISCHOOLS

TABLE 4. READINESS AND ACCEPTABILITY OF ICT
INTEGRATION OF STUDENTS IN ISCHOOLS

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The students in four schools ( B, C, D and F) are
knowledgeable and skilled towards computer components.
On the other hand, students from schools A & E are
slightly knowledgeable and skilled towards computer
components.
The faculty of schools A & D are highly knowl-
edgeable and highly skilled towards ICT competencies.
On the other hand, the faculty in one school (school C) are
slightly knowledgeable and skilled towards ICT compe-
tencies.
The availability of ICT resources and the provi-
sion of initial ICT trainings to faculty and students in
ischools contributed to ICT integration in teaching by
37%. The init ial level of ICT integration in teaching par-
ticularly in Science, Math, English and TLE is indicative
of faculty and students readiness and acceptance in ICT.
The following were the recommendations: con-
duct of retraining courses on ICT integration is important
to ischools however, few number of teachers are capable
of ICT integration; development of teaching modules in
Social Studies that will assist teachers to facilitate integra-
tion ICT in teaching the subject is necessary; future studies
are recommended that will test relat ionship between socio-
demographic profile and ICT integration in teaching. Like-
wise, it is also important to correlate ICT competencies of
students in achievement tests in English, Math, and Sci-
ence among ischools.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researchers would like to extend sincere ap-
preciation to the Commission of Informat ion and Commu-
nication Technology (CICT) for making CBSUA as one of
its partners in ischools project; Atty. Marito T. Bernales,
CBSUA President thru the ICT Office for allowing the
researchers to conduct this study in selected recipients of
ischools project; Principals of the 6 high schools for pro-
viding the needed data through their faculty and students;
to the following CBSUA student-researchers who gathered
the data from the schools: Ma. Cristina Alabastro, Ren
Amor Amorganda, Nikki Consulta, Edward Corpuz, Mary
Ann Listones, Venus Pacis, Glenn Redecilla, Rosa Ann
Reyes, Diane Salamea, Lovelee Sierda, Moriel Taniegra,
Christine Valencia, Mary Ann Victorino and Cristy Yanto.
Most of all, we are truly grateful to the Almighty God for
the talent, skills and physical strength given to us in order
to conduct this study.

LITERATURE CITED

Foronda, Vladimir R. Integrating Information and Communica-
tion Technology into Education: A study of the ischools
Project in Camarines Sur, Philippines. Journal of Develop-
ments in Sustainable Agriculture. 2011

Lirag, Ma. Teresa B. The Information System of CSSAC: Its Ef-
fectiveness, Unpublished Thesis, March 2000.

National Information and Technology (IT) Council. IT 21 Philip-
pines, Manila, October, 1997.

Harnessing ICTs for Philippine Basic Education. CICT-Human
Capital Development Group. Retrieved from http://
www.scribd.com/doc/6785601/ICT4E-Article-Manual

Integration or Transformation? A cross-national study of infor-
mation and communication technology in school education.
Retrieved from http://www.educ.utas.edu.au/users/afluck/
thesis/html/litrev.htm
Acceptability Total
(f) ( )
ICT Integra-
tion
30 37
T r a d i t i o n a l
Method
52 63
Total 82 100
Acceptability Total

(f) ( )
ICT Integration
151 67
Traditional
Method
74 33
Total 225 100
Abstract The study was conducted to develop and validate
a BEC based workbook in Mathematics VI in Santa
Ignacia North Central Elementary School. The workbooks
objectives were based on the Public Elementary School Com-
petencies. The workbook underwent content validity and was
evaluated by five Mathematics experts in the District. It was
also tried out to Grade Six pupils to test its effectiveness.
Result of the study revealed that the workbook was excellent
in terms of its format and language, objective, content and
usefulness. All area indicators showed that the workbook
was highly acceptable. It was found out that there was no
significant difference between the pretest mean scores of the
control group and the experimental group while the posttest
revealed significant differences with respect to the gain in
mean scores. It is therefore concluded that the use of the
workbook contributed to the improved performance of the
experimental group. It is implied based on the results that
the use of workbook to supplement Mathematics instruction
is effective. It is therefore recommended that teachers use the
said workbook. The developed workbook may also be en-
hanced by including more topics in Mathematics VI.
Keywords-Workbook is a set of activities and exercises to prac-
tice the skills required in the math learning competencies for
grade six.
I. Introduction
Mathematics equips pupils with a uniquely pow-
erful set of tools to understand and change the world.
These tools include logical reasoning, problem-solving
skills, and the ability to think in abstract ways. Mathemat-
ics is important in everyday life, in many forms of em-
ployment, science and technology, medicine, the econ-
omy, the environment and development, and in public
decision-making. Different cultures have contributed to
the development and application of mathematics. Today,
the subject transcends cultural boundaries and its impor-
tance is universally recognized. A creative discipline, it
can stimulate moments of pleasure and wonder when a
pupil solves a problem for the first time, discovers a more
elegant solution to that problem, or suddenly sees hidden
connections [1].
However, learning mathematics is never easy.
Most students would label it the hardest and least favorite
among their subjects. Some say they do not have the talent
in math. Others simply refuse to take the subject, and still
others think of taking it as an ordeal. Mere observation of
students attitude towards Math would reveal that this
number- and logic-filled subject is not much loved. Also,
aside from personal dislike of students in studying
Mathematics, several problems encountered by the general
education as a whole affects their learning.
Development and Validation of a Basic Education Curriculum (BEC)
Based Workbook in Mathematics for Grade Six
Agnes F. Valdez
Depart ment of Education
Division of Tarlac Province
Tarlac, Philippines
agnesfvaldez@yahoo.com
Only six out of 1,000 grade six elementary graduates
are prepared to enter high school [2]. In the achievement
test conducted for the SY 2004-2005, scores showed that
grade six pupils earned an average of 58.73. It was men-
tioned that Filipino grade schoolers ranked 23
rd
out of 25
countries in Math and Science proficiency. This means
that the present status of education is greatly declining and
is a cause for alarm.
The pressure on the countrys educational system is
unrelenting [3]. For the S.Y. 2005-2006, 17.6 million stu-
dents went to public schools, colleges and universities.
Rapid enrollment increase has plagued the educational
system. Her art icle also provided that, citing that of econo-
mist Alex Herrin, the high level of enrollment also re-
sulted in a low proportion of students who manage to
complete basic education, as well as in the over-all poor
quality of education available to them. She further added
that the falling achievement of levels of students in both
public elementary and secondary schools is already an old
news. The mean achieving scores of these students on
assessment tests was only around 50%.
Teachers may help reduce the problem of low achieve-
ment of students by providing students with the quality
education they deserve. They are enjoined to use a variety
of teaching strategies and materials that would facilitate
learning.
One of these instructional materials is the work-
book. According to Good as cited by Mangulabnan [4], a
workbook is a learning guide for students, often related to
a particular textbook that may contain exercises, prob-
lems, practice materials, direct ions for use, space for re-
cording answers, and frequently, the means of evaluating
the work done. These exercises provide opportunity for
practice in the application and building of skills.
In the Philippines, where an educational crisis is seen,
the development of workbooks that will provide opportu-
nities for practice among pupils may provide a way of
changing the scenario of degrading mathematics capabil-
ity of the pupils. It is for this reason that the researcher
was inspired to develop a workbook. It is hoped that it
will lead to the promotion of a better teaching-learning
experience in Math education.

II. Statement of the Problem

The main purpose of the study was to develop
and validate a workbook for grade six pupils of Santa
Ignacia District, Santa Ignacia, Tarlac, based on the Basic
Education Curriculum (BEC) topics for grade six.
Specifically, the study aimed to attain the following
objectives:
1. to develop a workbook in mathemat ics for grade six;
2. to validate the workbook in terms of:
2.1. content validity based on the BEC outline;
2.2. judgment of experts; and
2.3. effectiveness to users.

III. Methods and Materials

A. Research Design
To develop the proposed workbook for Mathe-
mat ics for grade six, the researcher used the Research and
Development (R & D) Project Design.
The Pretest/Posttest Control Group experimental design
was used to validate the effectiveness of the workbook in
terms of the pupils performance.

B. Sampling Design
The random sampling was used in the selection
of section for the experimental and control group. The
subjects of the study were taken from two sections of
grade six pupils at Santa Ignacia North Central Elemen-
tary School, Santa Ignacia, Tarlac. There were 30 pupils
in each group.

C. Instrument
The research instrument used in measuring the
pupils achievement was the teacher-made pretest and
posttest. The posttest was in parallel form to the pretest
and was constructed following the sequence of the topics
on Mathematics for grade six.
The results of the pretest and posttest of the ex-
perimental and control group were analyzed using t -test.
The results of the pretest and posttest determined
the effectiveness of the workbook to the users. This also
established the validity of the developed instructional ma-
terial.
An evaluation sheet was made to evaluate the
developed workbook in terms of its consistency and con-
gruency to the BEC Public Elementary Learning Compe-
tencies including its coverage and adequacy. This instru-
ment was used by the math experts in evaluating the
workbook.
Math experts were selected based on the number
of years they taught the subject in grade six. They were
chosen as the evaluators of the prepared workbook. Re-
sponses of the math experts were tallied and analyzed.

IV. Findings and Discussion

A. Content Validity
The workbook was presented to the District
Mathematics Consultant for content validity vis --vis the
Public Elementary Learning Competencies in Mathemat-
ics VI. The topics included in the workbook complied
with the
with the learning competencies expected for a grade six
pupil taking up math as prescribed by the Public Elemen-
tary Learning Competencies.

B. Expert Validation of the Workbook
Five math experts were asked to evaluate the
workbook in terms of format and language, objectives,
content and usefulness. These experts have been teaching
mathematics VI for not less than three years. Three were
Master teachers, one is Teacher III and the other was
Teacher II.
Table 1 presents the general rating of the work-
book as evaluated by the experts in terms of format and
language, objectives, content, and usefulness. All area in-
dicators were described as excellent, making the workbook
highly acceptable.

TABLE 1. SUMMARY TABLE OF THE MEAN AND INTERPRETA-
TION ON THE OVERALL EVALUATION OF THE MATHEMATICS
EXPERTS ON THE DEVELOPED WORKBOOK

The results imply that based on expert evaluation,
the developed workbook is highly commendable as it uses
suitable and appropriate language, is easy to understand,
has a clear set of objectives, may develop learners skill in
creative, logical and critical thinking, very useful and can
facilitate learning and retention.
It may therefore be concluded that the material
may be of good help to teachers handling Mathematic VI
since it can assist both teachers and pupils in attaining the
goals of instruction.

C. Validation Using Pupils Performance
The t-test was used to determine whether the
workbook is valid using the pupils performance in a
teacher-made test assessing the learning outcomes pre-
sented in the workbook.
Two groups were used for this purpose: a control
group and an experimental group. Both groups have taken
a pretest and a posttest. The raw scores were listed, tabu-
lated, and their means were compared and tested at .05
level of significance.

Area of Assessments Mean Rating Descri pti ve Ti tle
Format and Language 4.55 Excellent Highly Acceptable
Object ives 4.55 Excellent Highly Acceptable
C. Cont ent 4.60 Excellent Highly Acceptable
D. Usefulness 4.60 Excellent Highly Acceptable
Composite Mean 4.58 Excellent Highly Acceptable
TABLE 2. T-STATISTICS FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
GAIN SCORES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUP
Table 2 shows the t-statistics for the gain scores
of the control and experimental group. The t -value at .05
level of significance is 2.24 while the t-critical value is
2.045. It was concluded that statistically speaking, the
performance of the pupils in the experimental group is not
comparable to the performance of the pupils in the control
group.
Since the experimental group has been exposed
to the workbook, the workbook was considered as the
variable that caused the difference between the perform-
ance of the control and experimental group. Therefore,
the workbook is valid.

V. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Summary of the Findings
The salient findings of the study are as follows:
1. The workbook passed through content valida-
tion as inspected by the District Math Consultant in
Mathematics.
2. The Mathematics experts agree that the work-
book is highly acceptable in terms of: format and lan-
guage, objectives, content and usefulness.
3. The mean of the control group during the pre-
test is 7.97 and that of the experimental group is 8.67.
Using t-test, it was found out that there is no significant
difference between the pretest mean scores of the control
group and the experimental group.
4. There is a significant difference between the
mean scores of the control group in the pretest and the
posttest. The mean of the pretest is 7.97 while the mean of
the posttest is 12.57.
mean scores of the experimental group in the pretest and
the posttest. The mean of the pretest is 8.67 while the
mean of the posttest is 15.43.
posttest gain scores of the control group and the experi-
mental group. The mean of the gain scores of the control
group is 4.60 while that of the experimental group is 6.76.

Conclusions
1. The following conclusions are drawn based on
the findings of the study:
The workbook is valid as to its content as in-
spected by the District Math leader using the competen-
cies listed in the Public Elementary Learning Competen-
cies for Grade Six pupils in the Basic Education Curricu-
lum for Mathemat ics.
2. The workbook is highly acceptable in terms of
format and language, objectives, content and usefulness as
evaluated by five math experts.
3. The experimental group performed comparable
to the control group in the pretest showing that at the start
of the study, there is no significant difference between
their performances.
4. The experimental group performed better than
the control group in the posttest after the experimental
group has been exposed to the workbook.
5. The workbook is a good instructional material
since it contributed to the improved performance of the
experimental group. As such, the workbook is a good in-
structional material that can assist teachers in teaching
Mathematics VI.
6. Based on the result of the study, the use of
workbooks to in Mathematics VI instruction is effective.
The need for workbooks that is appropriate to the learners
level, needs, and capabilities is realized by the workbook
since it is primarily centered on the competencies required
by DepEd.
The use of the workbook motivated and inspired
the pupils to study mathemat ics since the learners ability
to think creatively, logically and critically may also be
developed by using the workbook.

Recommendations
The following are recommended based on the
results of the study:
1. After validation of the developed workbook,
this may be considered as an instructional material for
teaching mathematics for grade six pupils and it is recom-
mended that the workbook be used by other schools in the
elementary level covering the same set of competencies.
2. The material may still be enhanced by includ-
ing additional exercises in every lesson and covering addi-
tional topics in Mathematics VI.
3. Teachers should also be encouraged to prepare
their own workbooks too since these are customized to
their pupils needs. Collaboration among math teachers in
preparing the workbook covering all the competencies in
Mathematics VI is also encouraged.
4. School heads and principals, as the leaders in
the school, should provide technical support and incen-
tives to their subordinates who are pursuing writing en-
deavors to further encourage them to write.
5. The workbook is also recommended to be sub-
mitted at the Department of Education (DepEd) Division
Office of the Tarlac Province for endorsement to the text-
book evaluation committee.
Parame-
ters
Control Group
Experimental
Group
Differ-
ence in
Mean

% %
Mean Gain 4.60 15.33 6.76 22.53 2.16
SD 3.68 2.88
t -value 2.24
Crit ical t-value : 2.045
Significance : 0.05 level of significance
Acknowledgment
The researcher would like to thank Dr. Lolita V.
Sicat, the Vice President for Academic Affairs of the Tar-
lac State University, the researchers adviser, and the
members of the advisory committee for the untiring effort
and guidance given to the researcher. The researcher also
extends her heartfelt thanks to the teaching staff of Santa
Ignacia North Central Elementary School for their valu-
able help and cooperation throughout the conduct of the
study.

REFERENCES

[1] The National Curriculum on Line, http://www.nc.uk.net/nc/
contents/ Ma-home.htm

[2] The Philippine Star, August 17, 2005 Issue

[3] Jimenez-David, Rina. Back-to-School Blues. Philippine
Daily Inquirer. June 8, 2003.

[4] Mangulabnan, Jefferson C. (2000). A Proposed Workbook
in Basic Mathematics for College Students. Unpublished
Masters Thesis. University of the Assumption.

Abstract This study on the development and vali da-
tion of reinforcement modules in Grade VI Mathemat-
ics was carried out to determine if the reinforcement
modules coul d improve the mathematical skills of the
Grade VI pupils in Balete Elementary School during
the school year 2010-2011. The study utilized the Re-
search and Devel opment Method of research. The
products were developed based on the least learned
topics as revealed by the National Achievement Test
(NAT) results. The experts judgment and pupils per-
formance vali dated the effecti veness of the reinforce-
ment modules. The Pretest/Posttest Control Group
Experi mental Design was conducted to eighty pupils
who were randomly selected. A teacher-made test was
administered to i dentify the pupils entry behavi or.
Both groups underwent traditi onal approach of teach-
ing but the experi mental group was supplemented wi th
the reinforcement modules. A posttest was given to
both groups to determine which group had better per-
formance. The Mathematics experts highly agreed that
the reinforcement modules were excellent in terms of
relevance of the content, adequacy of scope, and ap-
propri ateness. The result of the posttests of the experi-
mental and control group led to the better perform-
ance of the experi mental group in favor of the rein-
forcement modules as supplementary materials.

I. Introduction

It could be noted that Mathematics has been one
of the vital components of our educational system. Its ob-
jectives and goals are practical and useful to ones daily
living. Thus, learners who undertake formal education are
required to pass the subject to achieve higher level of un-
derstanding and application.
But, lack of instructional and supple-
mentary materials hinders the demand of quality Mathe-
mat ics instruction. Public schools have been handicapped
with this major problem. In turn, pupils suffer and show
poor academic performance in Mathemat ics.
During the past three years, the Balete Elemen-
tary School was not an exemption. As revealed by the
National Achievement Test results, pupils find it difficult
to deal with the mathematical skills required of them.
And being one of its Mathematics teachers, the
researcher is not exempted in the responsibility of helping
her pupils improve their academic performance in the sub-
ject. She believed that continuous exploration and applica-
tion of effective innovations and interventions would
minimize if not eradicate this major problem.
In response, she developed and validated rein-
forcement modules in Grade VI Mathematics to give a
hand among her pupils. She identified the least learned
topics through the use of the National Achievement Test
(NAT) results during the school years 2007-2008; 2008-
2009 and 2009-2010. The least learned areas were the
topics covered by the reinforcement modules which were
validated by the Mathemat ics experts judgment and by
the pupils performance.
The reinforcement modules would give the pupils
a chance to learn, explore, enrich and later on master the
difficult Mathematical skills required of them to achieve
higher level of understanding and application. These
would also serve as enjoyable and helpful materials to
help themselves work and strengthen the skills and realize
that Math is easy and fun. These would also serve as use-
ful and effective instructional aids for the teachers in pro-
moting better and worthwhile Mathematics learning ex-
perience.
II. Objectives
The study aimed to develop and validate rein-
forcement modules in Grade VI Mathemat ics in Balete
Elementary School during the school year 2010-2011.
Specifically, this study sought to attain the fol-
lowing objectives:
1. Identify the specific lessons in Mathematics VI in
which the pupils experience difficulty in learning
and mastering with.
2. Develop reinforcement modules for the pupils learn-
ing and mastery of the identified difficult learning
areas.
3. Validate the reinforcement modules by:
3.1 the experts judgment, and
3.2 the pupils performance

III. Scope

The study used the Research and Development
(R&D) Design. The National Achievement Test (NAT)
results for three previous school years were the basis of
the development of the reinforcement modules. The least
learned areas were the topics to be covered by the rein-
forcement modules. The reinforcement modules were
validated by experts judgment and pupils performance.
The study used the Pretest-Posttest Control
Group Experimental Design. Each groups scores in the
pretest and posttest were computed using the t -test of dif-
ference between means of correlated data. The two
Development and Validation of Reinforcement Modules in
Grade VI Mathematics
Christine Joyce D. Santomin
Graduate Studies, College of Education
joice_1204@yahoo.com
groups scores in the pre-tests and posttests were treated
using the t-test of difference between means of independ-
ent data.
A total of eighty (80) pupils were divided into
two (2) groups: the control and the experimental groups.
Each group was composed of forty (40) pupils who were
selected randomly and heterogeneously with equal entry
behavior. The control group underwent the traditional
approach of teaching while the experimental group under-
went instruction with the reinforcement modules.
IV. Conceptual Framework

To identify the least learned topics in Mathemat-
ics VI, the researcher used the pupils National Achieve-
ment Test (NAT) results during the School Years 2007-
2008; 2008-2009 and 2009-2010. The development of
reinforcement modules followed the least learned topics.
The developed reinforcement modules were validated by
the experts judgments and pupils performance using the
criteria in evaluation of reinforcement modules and Pretest
-Posttest Control Group Design, respectively. The results
of the validation dictated the final form of the modules

V. Research Design

This study utilized the Education Research and
Development (R&D) Design. R&D design is defined by
Borg and Gall (1992) as a process used to develop and
validate products. R&D design, also called R&D cycle,
has the following cycle: (1) studying research findings
pertinent to the product; (2) Developing the product; (3)
Field testing where it will be used; (4) Results; and (5)
Revising the product to correct deficiencies.
The studys products were the reinforcement
modules which were developed and further validated by
experts judgment and pupils performance.
To identify the topics to which the pupils experi-
enced difficulty, the National Achievement Test (NAT)
results during the school years 2007-2008; 2008-2009 and
2009-2010 were used as the bases for the development of
the reinforcement modules. The least learned areas were
the topics to be covered by the reinforcement modules.
To validate the reinforcement modules, the Pre-
test/Posttest Control Group Experimental Design was em-
ployed. The reinforcement modules were utilized as the
treatment in the experiment. The following clearly illus-
trates the experimental design.
R G1 O1 O2
R G2 O1 X O2

Fig. 2. The Pretest /Postt est Cont rol Group Design

The pupils in each group were randomly selected.
Group 1 (Control Group) experienced traditional class-
room instruction while Group 2 (Experimental Group) had
instruction with reinforcement modules.
A pretest was administered to determine each
groups entry behavior before undergoing tradit ional class-
room instruction for the control group and instruction with
reinforcement modules for the experimental group. The
means of the two groups are equal before the start of the
experimentation. The t-test between means of independent
data was employed to determine the homogeneity of each
group before the experiment.
To determine the validity of the reinforcement
modules, criteria for evaluation were utilized to serve as
the guide for the evaluation scales used by the Mathemat-
ics experts. A posttest was administered to determine the
gain on the pupils performance.

VI. Statistical Treatment of the Data

The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design util-
ized the T-test of Difference between means as the statisti-
cal treat ment.
The pretests of the Control and Experimental
Group were compared using the t-test of difference be-
tween means of independent data. To begin, both groups
must have equal means. Thus, a test of difference must be
conducted to assure that they are equal in terms of entry
behavior. The formula for the difference between means
of independent data follows:

t = X
1
-X
2 f

x
1
2
+ x
2
2
f 1 1
N
1
+ N
2
- 2 N
1
N
2

where: t = the ratio of the difference between the means
with respect to the standard error of the difference
X
1
= mean of the control group;
X
2
= mean of the experimental group;
N
1
= total number of the control group; and
N
2
= total number of the experimental group
The t-test of difference between means of corre-
lated data was utilized to determine the learning of the
pupils on the least learned topics with traditional instruc-
tion and experimental approach.
The formula of the t-test of difference between
means of correlated data follows:
t = D
S
D

where: t = the ratio of the difference between the means
with respect to the standard error of the differ-
ence
D = difference between means
S
D
= the standard error of the mean difference
Development
of Reinf orce-
ment Modules
Identif ying
Least
Completed
Reinforce-
Validation of
the Rein-
forcement
Vali
Not
Lastly, the posttests of the control and experi-
mental groups utilized the t-test of difference between
means of independent data to determine which group
gained higher performance in learning the least learned
areas.
VII. Summary of Findings

A. Identification of the Least Learned Topics in Grade VI
Mathematics
The National Achievement Test (NAT) Results
during the School Years 2007-2008; 2008-2009; and 2009
-2010 were the basis of the contents of the development of
the reinforcement modules in Grade VI Mathemat ics. Pu-
pils obtained the lowest average in solving word problems
on measurement. Next on the rank was on interpretation
of measurement data with an average of 53.78.

B. Development of the Reinforcement Modules
The least learned topics based on the NAT results
from SY 2007-2008 to 2009-2010 were the basis of the
content of the Reinforcement Modules to be developed.
The Reinforcement Modules included the following top-
ics: Geomet ry, Measurement, and Integers.

C. Validation of the Reinforcement Modules by the
Mathematics Experts
The experts marked all the areas of assessments
of the reinforcement modules excellent. Furthermore,
they highly agreed that the relevance of the contents
(x=4.75 excellent); adequacy of the scope (x=4.63
excellent); and appropriateness (x=4.7 excellent) of the
reinforcement modules as instructional and supplementary
materials. As revealed by the composite mean of 4.69.

D. Validation of the Reinforcement Modules by the Pu-
pils Performance
The pretest of the control and experimental
groups obtained a mean of 12.23 (34.94%). The means of
both groups show that the entry behavior of the control
and experimental groups are equal which is required be-
fore conducting the experimentation. The computed t -
value of zero which is less than the critical value of 1.665
at 0.05 level of significance, accepts the null hypothesis.
The means of the pretest and posttest of the con-
trol group increased from 12.23 (34.94%) to 16.93
(48.37%). The t-test test showed that there is a significant
difference between the pretest and posttest of the control
group.
The pretest and posttest of the Experimental
Group showed an increase of 9.15 from the pretest mean
of 12.23 to the posttest mean of 21.38. The t -value of
10.28 which is greater than the critical value of 1.685 at
0.05 level of significance.
The posttests scores of the experimental and con-
trol groups had a difference in mean of 4.45 as reflected
by the mean of 16.93 of the control group and a mean of
21.38 of the experimental group shows that the experi-
mental group performed better than the control group.

VIII. Conclusions

The Mathematics experts highly agreed that the
reinforcement modules were excellent in terms of rele-
vance of the content, adequacy of scope, and appropriate-
ness. The result of the posttests of the experimental and
control group led to the better performance of the experi-
mental group in favor of the reinforcement modules as
supplementary materials.

IX. Implications

The study implies that the utilization of rein-
forcement modules in the teaching and learning process is
proven effective as educational intervention to achieve
better academic performance in Mathematics. Reinforce-
ment modules emphasize and strengthen the knowledge
and skills learned since they serve as guides and drills to
pupils as they learn, discover and master the simple and
complex skills required of them to perform better in the
field of Mathematics.
Moreover, the developed and validated reinforce-
ment modules could be considered as effective supple-
mentary aids to classroom teaching since pupils work on
them in addit ion to what they do in class. Extra time and
effort are proven effective in improving learning.
Pupils, on one hand, can use the reinforcement
modules as they learn, discover and master the skills they
are ought to practice and master. Through the initial dis-
cussion, guidance and supervision of the teacher, learning
and mastery of the skills could be best achieved through
the use of the reinforcement modules. Pupils easily under-
stood the simple discussion of the mathematical concepts.
Pupils were also motivated with the colorful and
attractive presentation of each lesson through the use of
graphics, images and icons. Pupils attention was caught
by the reinforcement modules because they were enjoy-
able to read, learn and perform.
The availability of the modules could also aug-
ment the limited books provided among the public school
pupils. With the assistance of the school administrators
and other community partners, pupils will be able to use
the reinforcement modules and realize that Mathematics is
easy and fun.
REFERENCES

[1]Crown, Num. (2001). Numeracy Across the Curriculum Unit
1. Rex Book Store, Manila, Philippines

[2] David Slade. (2007). Enrichment in Early Childhood. http://
www.articlesbase.com/childhood-education-articles/enrichment-
in-early-childhood[2] Ariola, Tito G. (2004). Development and
Validation of Reinforcement Modules in Circular Functions.
Unpublished Masters Thesis, Tarlac City, Tarlac State Univer-
sity

[3] Biag, Sutero C. Jr. (2003). Development and Validation of
Contextual Teaching and Learning Materials for Selected Topics
in Mathematics of Investment. Unpublished Masters Thesis,
Tarlac City, Tarlac State University
AbstractThe study showcases the devel opment of the
R&D Unit of Marinduque State College (MSC) that
started from scratch or almost zero budget into a
thri ving research instituti on that produces research
outputs that were accepted and presented here and
abroad. The paper appraises the ten-year performance
of the College with regard to the number of research
outputs made and presented in the local, regional/
national and i nternati onal conferences, the number of
facul ty members acti vely engaged in research, the
number of published and reviewed papers and funded
R&D proposals. Now that the College is aiming to be-
come a uni versity, where R&D is one factor that is
being looked into to attain such goal, this paper is use-
ful for this purpose.

Keywords: research productivity, research and development,
Marinduque, science educators.

I. Introduction

It is a well established concept that knowledge is
an indispensable factor for development, thus in our so-
called knowledge society [1], institutions of learning are
continuously serving as conduit of formal and informal
knowledge.
It is universally accepted that outmoded teaching
styles and outdated subject matters contribute a lot in pro-
ducing poor quality graduates, thus faculty members in
colleges and universities or the so-called institutions of
higher learning are advised to carry out relevant research
to be partners in the development of one country [2]. With
this urgent need, all state universities and colleges (SUCs)
are mandated to perform four primordial functions, such
as instruction, research, extension and production.
It is believed that proper balanced in these func-
tions will create a balanced human capital equipped with
knowledge and skills and values to be productive indi-
viduals.
Before, there were three primordial functions that
SUCs must perform and later on production was added.
It is presumed that the origin of these functions in
the Philippines was in early 1900 with the opening of the
University of the Philippines College of Agriculture [3],
[4]. But, it is believed that this was patterned after those
of the land grant colleges and universities in the USA [5].
Parallel to this, in the work of Boyer [6], universities
and colleges in the U.S. and Europe centered their activi-
ties on teaching (instruction), discovery (research), appli-
cation and integration. The same functions are related to
the functions of the SUCs.
But, among these functions, research served the
most primordial, because it is the foundation of new
knowledge that can be transformed into skills and in the
long run can be shared or disseminated to increase produc-
tion and finally development [7].
In order to strengthen the role of SUCs toward
development of the country, Higher Education Moderniza-
tion Act of 1998, also known as R.A. 8292, mandates state
universities and colleges (SUCs) to establish research and
extension centers for the promotion of their development.
This act was complemented by National Budget Circular
No. 461 clearly indicating the four functional areas of
SUCs that did not limit them into teaching colleges and
universities, but more into research and development -
oriented institutions of higher learning for them to move
on into sustainable institutions economically and academi-
cally.
In line with this, the Medium-Term Development
Plan for Higher Education, 2005-2010 (MTDPHE, 2005-
2010) articulates and stresses the role of higher education
system in the attainment of the national development goals
of the country through its three main functions namely:
human resources development (HRD), research, and exten-
sion [8].
The MTDPHE recognizes the most pressing chal-
lenges faced by the higher education system, in which re-
search was given with such importance, by reorienting
R&D works towards systematic and purposive utilization
of research outputs in order to generate employment and
support poverty reduction, especially in the countryside
[8].
With the above premises, this study looked into
the research productivity of MSC for the last ten (10)
years, e.g. 2000-2010, which can be a basis for its bid to
become a university.
Specifically, the study looks into the number of
research outputs the college-researchers made, the number
of papers presented in conferences, number of papers pub-
lished and reviewed, and funded R&D proposals.

II. Methodology
The data used in this paper were lifted from the
records of the Office of the Vice President for Research
and Extension (OVPRE), from the College R&D Informa-
tion System, through the Center for Scientific Information
Management and from the collected informat ion of faculty
members who worked in the unit since the time it was
Research Productivity Experiences of Marinduque State College:
Basis for College Universityhood Program
Diosdado P. Zulueta, Ph.D.
Director, Quality Assurance Office
Tanza, Boac, Marinduque, Philippines
dodi.zulueta@yahoo.com
established.
Direct interviews of some of the faculty members
were done due to the limited documentation and written
reports in the department.
The historical development was gathered from
the minutes of the BOT Meetings and those filed in the
Human Resources Management Office, while others were
gleaned from the Colleges annual reports.

III. Results and Discussion

Historical Background of the College R&D
As per Section 2 of Batas Pambansa Blg. 377, the
former Marinduque School of Arts and Trades (MSAT)
was made into Marinduque Institute of Science and Tech-
nology on 8 April 1982. It was indicated that along its
four-year Secondary Education, two-year Trade Technical
and four-year Bachelor of Science in Industrial Technol-
ogy curricula, research and advanced studies should be
promoted along the areas of agriculture, mining, fisheries,
engineering, allied technological courses and education.
In 5 January 1990, by the virtue of RA 6833, MIST was
converted to Marinduque State College (MSC), which
further calls for the enhancement of research as one of the
primordial functions of SUCs along with instruction, ex-
tension and production. [9].
Furthermore, new campuses and curricular offer-
ings were established when RA No. 7319 was approved
on March 30, 1992 for the School of Agriculture in Poc-
toy, Torrijos, School of Fisheries in Gasan and the transfer
of the former Marinduque Community College in Sta.
Cruz as MSC-Sta. Cruz.
In view of these developments, the R&D Unit of
the College was organized in August 1993 as a separate
entity, because before it was fused with the Extension
Unit as Research and Extension Unit under the director-
ship of Mr. Romeo Magcamit.
Due to the separation of the two major functions,
Mr. Respicio Javier, the late Vice President proposed that
the Research Unit be manned by Mr. Panchito Labay, its
first director, in 15 June 1993. The unit started from
scratch, wherein papers and even typewriters were bor-
rowed from other offices to do the paper works during the
night.
Because some of the faculty members were
loaded with teaching subjects, wherein some had 30 teach-
ing hours per week, the Director trained the senior educa-
tion students in the chemistry and biochemistry to do re-
search and fieldwork [10].
In 1995, during the term of Dr. Teodoro Garcia,
the second College President, the butterfly research pro-
ject was proposed and was presented in the budget hearing
for SUCs in Batasan Pambansa. The project got the atten-
tion of the late Sen. Raul Roco and proposed a Php 2.0M
budget for the R&D Unit of the College [10].
The said budget was released in 1995 during the
time of the third president of MSC, Dr. Rodrigo Monterey
Sr., which created also the Research and Extension Build-
ing, renovated from the old ADB Building.
A lot of funded proposal were made by its first
Director, wherein t wo specialized laboratories, the Envi-
ronment Monitoring Laboratory, was established in 1996
with a funding of Php 0.5M and the Ceramics Laboratory
in 1998, which was funded by TESDA, DOLE and DOST
worth Php 1.8M, plus the additional Php 0.8M for training
of displaced workers, rural mothers and out -of-school
youths [10].
In 1999, another proposal named Pera sa Paru-
paru (Money from Butterflies) was funded by World
Bank through the DOLE at a cost of Php 0.5M [10].
In July 20, 2000, the MSC-BOT approved Reso-
lution No. 15 creating the Technical and External Affairs
Depart ment (TEAD), which integrated the three functional
functions. The department was originally composed of
research, extension and linkaging units and the first VP of
TEAD was Dr. Carlos Andam. That was also the time that
the College became a member of Southern Tagalog Agri-
cultural Resources Research & Development Consortium
(STARRDEC) [9].
In that same year, the first research paper of the
College in R&D symposium/conference landed as second
best paper, which was about butterfly farming by Mr. Pan-
chito Labay. For poster paper presentation, the first win-
ning R&D project was that of Dr. Virginia Sotto, about
coconut and malunggay products made into nutritive
drinks.
In that same year, the management of the College
decided to place the External Affairs under the R&D De-
partments supervision in view of its vision to harness the
support of the alumni, local and national government
agencies, non-government organizations, private compa-
nies and international agencies to support the development
of the faculty engaged in research and extension activit ies,
the college and the province as a whole [9].
In 2003, the MSC-BOT authorized the Manage-
ment Review Team (MRT), including the Curriculum
Review Team that studied the organization, management
and programs of the College. The MRT recommended the
realignment of two units of the department, leaving the
Research Unit and Extension Unit under the Office of the
Vice President for Research, Extension and Linkages
(OVPREAL).
Consequently, the Board approved this recom-
mendation on January 16, 2004 through MSC-BOT Reso-
lution No. 4, Series of 2004 [11]. The latest reorganiza-
tion was endorsed by Administrative Council (ADCO) in
April 2006 and subsequently approved by MSC-BOT
placing under its supervision two specialized units and
two support services units. The acronym of OVPREAL
was likewise shortened to Office of the Vice President for
Research and Extension (OVPRE) [9].
During the time of Dr. Isidro Sotto, majority of
the R&D Projects were continued under the leadership of
the departments first Vice President, Dr. Carlos Andam.
In 2005, per BOT Resolution No. 13, Dr. Romulo
Malvar, became the 5
th
President on 25 March 2005 and
the first ever re-elected President in 2010.
Under his term, faculty members started present-
ing their research papers not only in the national confer-
ences, but more in the international conferences. Thus, in
in 2006, two papers were presented in the Catholic Uni-
versity of America, Washington DC, through the invita-
tion of Ford Foundation International Fellowships Pro-
gram.
In 2009, three papers were presented in Mahidol Univer-
sity, Bangkok, Thailand and in 2010; four papers were
peer-reviewed and accepted for presentation in London,
Great Britain about climate change.

The Faculty Members as the Backbone of R&D
The faculty members are and always considered
the most important assets of colleges and universities in
building their research based capabilit ies. They are the
driving force behind programs of teaching and research.
The university [college] is specifically charged with and
expected to make significant contributions through re-
search (Bland, et al, 1996), thus in the province of Marin-
duque with the presence of Marinduque State College,
being the only state institution, is charged with this func-
tion [9].
It is a fact that the faculty members in the col-
leges and universities are considered as scholars and not
just mere teaching mentors. Thus, it is a long established
belief that research and teaching are complementary to
each other [12].
As such, leaders in education have indicated that
research activities enhance the faculty members knowl-
edge and increase their enthusiasm to share such knowl-
edge with the students [13] to enrich their learning experi-
ence.
With these premises, the performance of the fac-
ulty members as the human capital in research was as-
sessed.
At present there are 125 regular and temporary
faculty members the College has. It has also 80 contrac-
tual instructors distributed in the eight academic schools
in the three campuses, including the Graduate School.
Of this number, only three are considered as full-
fledged professors, while 21 are Associate Professors, 46
are Assistant Professors and 55 are Instructors.
From Assistant Professor up, the School of Tech-
nology has 20 faculty members and one is full-fledged
Professor.
The School of Education has six Associate Pro-
fessors and 10 Assistant Professors. The School of Engi-
neering has five Associate Professors and six Assistant
Professors, while the School of Arts and Sciences has one
full-fledged Professor, four Associate Professors and four
Assistant Professors.
The rest of the schools with lower number of
faculty members generally composed of Assistant Profes-
sors and Instructors, except the School of Fisheries that
has one full-fledged Professor.
It is indicated that majority of the faculty mem-
bers in the College are Instructors, but the research can cut
across academic ranks, because there is one instructor who
had eight papers to date presented in national and interna-
tional conferences.
At the start of the R&D Unit, there were only two
researchers who were conducting research or have re-
was the GAD Director then. Their papers were first pub-
lished in the first research journal of the College in 1994
the Buslo ng Marinduque.
Even until now, few faculty members are engaged
in research, which they did not have time to do so, because
some have 24-30 teaching hours per week. Others cited
that from 2008 to present, the prevailing policies of the
department have affected the faculty members interests in
research. Their stiff policies are presumed not conducive,
especially to budding faculty researchers.
With regard to professional degree finished, the
College has nine doctors, six of which are PhDs and three
are EdDs. Two of whom are full-fledged professors, five
are Associate Professors, one is Assistant Professor and
one is Instructor.
With these numbers, six have accepted and pre-
sented research papers in the national and international
conferences and as mentioned previously, one PhD with
instructor rank has reached a total of eight papers already,
including two published papers in Mahidol University,
Thailand and two in the local research journal.
Among faculty members with Masters degree
and PhD units, only 10 have accepted and presented papers
in the national and international conferences.
One faculty member with Master of Science de-
gree abroad and now a full-fledged professor has a total of
18 reviewed and accepted papers internationally, eight
papers accepted nationally and six papers presented lo-
cally. To date he has 32 published papers, majority of
which are about butterflies and the environment, phyto-
chemistry / phytoremediat ion and related social issues.
To encourage more researchers to conduct and
publish their research works, the PMS-OPES of the Col-
lege has given research with high points ranging from 24
to 80 depending on the level, whether local, national of
international, published in the journal or not.
At present, the College has five duly approved
research journals that were approved by the BOT and reg-
istered in the National Library with matching ISS Number.
These are The Marinduque State College Journal of Re-
search and Innovation, The Marinduque State College
Journal of Engineering, Environment and Technology,
Arthropoda Marinduquea, Marinduque ISLE (Island Sus-
tainable Living and Environment) and The Marinduque
Research Review.

Performance of the College R&D
As far as research productivity is concerned, there
is no consensus yet on the alternative measurement on the
quantity or number of research paper as a gauge for re-
search productivity. Hence, research productivity in terms
of the number of researches and publications still prevails
in many research institutions throughout the world. It is
also becoming a measure of the strength and productivity
of academic institutions, as it is an important element in
the equation for excellence [9].
In addition, through the faculty members re-
search publications in the major journals, they also dis-
seminate their research findings to the target beneficiaries
in the community
in the community and industry. Such scholarly activity
brings visibility and prestige to the researchers and their
institutional affiliations [14].
During the first quarter of 2000, the task of orga-
nizing a R&D Depart ment was assigned naturally to the
Vice President for Research and Extension. The President
then that time said that he would like to complete the Col-
lege. The attempts to organize was evident from the his-
tory of the College, for example the designation of an
Extension Director and later on a Research Director and
even designating other faculty members to assist the Di-
rectors, but the initiative did not successfully work out.
In the same year, the VP for R&D sent 10 faculty mem-
bers to attend a training-workshop on research proposal
preparation writing organized by University of the Philip-
pines Los Baos and the Commission on Higher Educa-
tion. Two of the faculty members eventually made it to
do research. In the ensuing years, training-workshop in
MSC on same topic with resource persons coming from
the Philippine Council for Industry and energy Research
and Development (PCIERD) was organized. Around 30
faculty members attended and 4 of them are doing it now.
The University of the Philippines Diliman came over and
conducted another seminar on research attended by some
25 faculty members. Some of them made it. In addition,
the Vice President personally assists faculty members who
are showing interest on R & D and this approach seems to
be more effect ive.
In consonance with the Colleges membership in
the Southern Tagalog Agriculture and Resources Research
and Development Consortium (STARRDEC), the Annual
Regional Symposium on Research and Development
Highlights was hosted by the College on 24 August 2000
in Boac Campus. Only one research paper and two post-
ers were presented during this symposium, but one landed
as second best paper during that occasion.
As a STARRDEC member, the First Agency In-
House Review (AIHR) of MSC was conducted in the year
2002. Spearheaded by TEAD of the College, research
productivity was noted at 15 studies and one research pro-
ject proposal from various research and development units
in the province including the Philippine Rural Reconstruc-
tion Movement (PRRM) and units of the provincial and
municipal governments although bulk of the studies re-
viewed were expectedly done by the faculty members of
the College [15].
A total of 28 studies were reviewed during the
second AIHR on 2627 February 2004. Significantly, this
feat places MSC in the forefront of R&D in the province
of Marinduque. Four studies came from the Depart ment
of Education in the province and the rest from MSCs
faculty members [15].
In April 2006, the MSC-STARRDEC Agency In-
House Review was organized and conducted wherein only
seven studies were reviewed.
It is important to note that most of these studies
were not provided with funds from the College or from
other sources, thus it is an indicator that research has been
a passion by the researchcultured faculty members.

With such findings, the STARRDEC elevated the
membership of the College from associate to regular
member. STARRDEC also suggested that the faculty-
researchers be given with some form of incentives like
honoraria to compensate the good work that they have
done for the College and the community.
As shown in the Table, there was a sudden in-
crease in the number of research papers in 2001 and 2004
and dips were recorded in 2006, 2008 and 2010.
Table 1. Research papers accepted and presented in the local,
regional/national and international conferences.

This can be presumed from the changes in the
policies of the R&D Depart ment during those periods.
When the agency in-house review (AIHR) was stopped
somewhere in 2006, the faculty members did not present
anymore their papers in the local committee.
One faculty-researcher commented that the cre-
ated local committees comments are not supportive to
their outputs but rather discouraging and intimidating,
especially to the budding researchers. Thus, at the start of
2006, they targeted more the national and international
conferences rather than presenting their works before the
local committee.
Despite the non-compliance of the faculty-
researchers to the policies being imposed by the present
leadership of the Depart ment, they were not battered by
such restrictions, because research according to them is
already their passion. They feel that research is a part of
their academic commit ment to the students, to the commu-
nity people and to the College. As they conduct research,
their creativity and analytical thinking is enhanced, which
they share these findings to the students.
On the other hand, the College President is very
supportive to faculty-researchers who will present papers
in the national and international conferences, which gener-
ally approved at once their travels related to these.
With regard to utilized research outputs, the but-
terfly research outputs are the most accepted ones as these
are applied by 220 farming households and traders who
are engaged in this livelihood.
The rootcrops research, especially arrowroots and
other traditional rootcrops that are made into bakery prod-
ucts, is also gaining prominence, side-by-side with the
phytochemical research on herbal medicines, like
tawak, snake anti- venom concoction and og-og plant
and the phytochemical research on traditional plants as
pharmavegetables.
The latest among the research outputs that also
gained national prominence also is the breadfruit flour
production baked into delicacies, which is one of the off-
shoots of Dr. Malvars research ideas.

IV. Conclusion

Research is really the crux of human develop-
ment, a human product that spawns more products that
can bring changes to the socio-cultural, economics and
environmental dimensions of development.
Thus, it is considered one of the prime functions
of SUCs, which striked the difference between a teaching
college or university and a performing college or univer-
sity.
For the Marinduque State College to reap more
the benefits of research toward its bid for universityhood,
it is important that the cited R&D projects have to be con-
tinued. These projects that the College can have a
trademark, which is unique and not in duplication with
other SUCs and can help the College to have its own niche
as far as R&D is concerned. These are also the resources
that can be found in the province, which can be further
enhanced to gain an international prominence.
A research policy that is conducive to the re-
searchers must be agreed between and among the present
leaders of the department and the faculty-researchers in
order to remove the differences between them. The policy
should be made empowering, encouraging and energizing,
because autonomy, accountability and creativity are pecu-
liar characteristics of cultured researchers.
Research productivity can be made spontaneous
and naturally occurring when conducive policies and envi-
ronment for the researchers are in place.

Acknowledgment
I would like to acknowledge Prof. Panchito La-
bay and Dr. Carlos Andam for reviewing this paper and
sharing with me their experiences in running the Research
Unit during their time as the first Director and Vice Presi-
dent of the unit / department.
Acknowledgment is also due to Dr. Romulo Mal-
var, the College President, who designated me as Quality
Assurance Director that also gives me the chance to be-
come a Certified ISO Auditor.

REFERENCES

[1] M. Jacob & T. Hellstrm, Organising the academy: New
organisational forms and the future of the university,
Higher Education Quarterly, 57(1): 48-66, 2003.

[2] P.M. Labay, Why a Research Unit for Marinduque State
College, Buslo ng Marinduque, 1(1):1-10, 1994.

[3] C. J. Andam, P.M. Labay, D.P. Zulueta & R.H. Malvar The
historical development and research productivity of Marin-
duque State College, Boac, Marinduque: Marinduque State
College, (unpublished) 2005.
[4] O.F. Sison, College of Agriculture in perspective: Retro-
spect and prospect (19091984). Philippine Agriculturist, 67
(Special Issue), 1984.

[5] S.L. Lasap, Productivity as a Legitimate Function of State
Colleges and Universities in Agriculture. Medium, 9(3)
Technical Panel for Agricultural Education, College, La-
guna, 1987.

[6] E. Boyer, Scholarship reconsidered, Washington, DC: The
Carnegie Foundation, 1990.

[7] P.M. Labay, Research module: Principles of research, con-
cepts and methodologies, Marinduque State College, 2008.

[8] Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Medium term
development plan of higher education, (MTDPHE: 2005-
2010), undated.

[9] C.J. Andam & J.M. Nabos, The research historical develop-
ment of Marinduque State College, Boac, Marindu-
que:Marinduque State College, (unpublished) 2008.

[10] P.M. Labay, Reifying R&D program in a newly emerging
state college: The Marinduque State College experience,
In: 11
th
Philippine Association of Research Managers Na-
tional Convention, Central Luzon State University, Muoz,
Nueva Ecija, 10 October 2001.

[11] V.S. Vitto Sr. & C. J. Andam, An overture of the 2
nd

Marinduque R&D Review, The Marinduque State College
Jour. Research & Innovation 3(1): 27-30, 2004.

[12] A.M. Winkler, The faculty workload question. Change, 24
(4): 36 41, 1992.

[13] A.M. Winkler, Explaining what professors do with their
time. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 38 (July 15
issue). p. B1 B2, 1992.

[14] K. Im, K. Shin, K. Young & J. S. Kim, A response to as-
sessing research productivity: Important but neglected con-
siderations. In: S. Vickery (ed.), Decision Line, Depart-
ment of Management, College of Business, Michigan State
Univ., East Lansing, USA, p. 1215, September / October,
1998.

[15] C.J. Andam, MSC gears toward research productivity.
The Frontiers, 1(1):1, 6 & 9, 2004.
Abstract The study dealt mai nly with the effects of
Internet Social Networking (ISN) on the sociability,
academic performance and study habi ts of the 4
th
year
students of San Roque Nati onal High School, Bamban,
Tarlac. The 240 respondents were selected based on
the degree of usage of ISN. Analytical-Survey research
was done to bring about desired results about the pos-
sible effects of Internet Soci al Networking. Data gath-
ered were treated with the use of Anal ysis of Variance
or ANOVA to determine viability of results among the
classified groups of light users, heavy users and very
heavy users.
Analyzed data yiel ded that sociability was not af-
fected by the number of hours spent in using ISN; sig-
nificant di fference however was found on the academic
performance and study habits of the students demon-
strating that there was a need for the school admini-
stration, the teaching force and the student body to
device new ways to address both the positive and nega-
ti ve effects of this emerging phenomenon if it was to be
used for the benefit of the learners.
Keywords- Internet Social Networking; Sociability; Aca-
demic Performance; Study Habits

Introduction

The phenomenal shoot up of Internet Social Net-
working (ISN) in the World Wide Web created new inter-
net experience among the users. These sites provides not
only social connectivity but also different features that
allow users to be captivated and be absorbed. This is the
main reason why the primary destination of many internet
users are the ISN sites such as Facebook, Friendster, Twit-
ter and MySpace .
With the advent of technological advancement in
education and the rapid invasion of internet in every
household, ISN inclination of the students cannot bring to
a halt.
At present there is no clear cut direct ion on
where the ISN is leading in terms of its effects among the
users most specifically the students. Since this phenome-
non is new few studies have addressed it [1]. Although the
common idea and general notion is that ISN contribute to
the negative effect of the learner.
Thus in this study , the researcher looked on the
effects of Internet Social Networking on the sociability,
academic performance and study habits among the stu-
dents fourth students who are using ISN.

Statement of the problem

It is the intention of the study to determine the
effects of Internet Social Networking (ISN) on the socia-
bility, academic performance and study habits of the
Fourth Year students of San Roque National High School
for the school year 2010-2011.
Specifically, the researcher sought to find answers to the
following questions:
1. What are the internet social networking sites com-
monly used by the students?
2. To what extent do students expose themselves to
these sites?
3. In what group of users are students categorized?
4. What are the effects of using Internet Social Net-
working in terms of:
4.1 Sociability
4.2 Academic Performance
4.3. Study Habits
5. What are the implications of the study in Educa-
tional Management?

Methods and Materials

Reseach Design and Sampling
The study made used of analytical-survey
method. It was conducted at San Roque National High
School, Bamban, Tarlac. The subject of the study were the
fourth year students using ISN sites.
Clustered sampling was utilized in which respon-
dents were selected through preliminary stage and catego-
rization stage. On the first stage, those who are using ISN
were identified and were taken as the respondents of the
study. Students classified as ISN users were 240. On the
second stage ISN users were grouped as light users, heavy
users and very heavy users according to the number of
hours spent used in ISN.

Instrumentation
The study used an ISN Sociability Inventory
Scale, a self made instrument tailored to measure the so-
ciability level of the students towards ISN used. Study
Habits scale was also used to measure the study habits of
ISN users. The questionnaire found to be reliable with
Cronbacks alpha of 0.80 for sociability scale and 0.92 for
study habits scale. Records of the classroom advisers
where requested to get the first and second quarter grades
of the students which was intended to measure the aca-
demic performance of the users. ANOVA or Analysis of
The Effects of Internet Social Networking on the Sociability, Academic Performance
and Study Habits of San Roque National High School
Michelle L. Miranda
Graduate Studies
Department of Education
mitchmiranda546@yahoo.com
Variance was used in order to determine the effects of ISN
among the group of users.

Results and discussions

Careful analysis of data gathered through ques-
tionnaire and documentary support was done. Thereafter,
data were interpreted and presented.
Internet Social Networking Sites Commonly Used by the
Students
Results of the study showed that students inclina-
tion towards ISN was evident since most of them actively
maintained more than one site. Majority of the students
opted for Facebook as the commonly used ISN site.
Extent of Exposure to ISN Sites
Students extent of exposure to ISN sites was
measured in terms of the number of hours spent in using
ISN sites per day as well as the number of years ISN was
used.
Result of the study show that student would not
let a day end without logging in to their ISN account. Fur-
ther interview supported that majority of these students do
not have internet at home, they spent money for the inter-
net caf nearby to logged-in.
Furthermore, in this study it was found out that
majority of the students had been using ISN sites for 1-2
years. A clear indication of increasing awareness and inter-
est on the ISN sites.

Category of Users
Internet Social Net working users were catego-
rized according to the number of hours spent online using
the ISN sites.
Students who spent less than one hour time per
day were grouped as light users, those who were spending
1-2 hours a day were grouped as heavy users, very heavy
users group are those online for 3 hours or more per day.
In Table 1, it can be seen that majority of the users group
fell on the category of heavy users group. It was found out
that these students spent their time in uploading pictures
and videos, games, chatting with friends and commenting
on latest status.
Light users are the type of users who go online
for updating purposes only.
Very heavy users group stayed online 3 hours or
more per day. It was found out that these students could
afford to be connected in as much time as they want be-
cause of the availability of internet at home and with their
mobile phones.

TABLE 1. FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRI-
BUTION ON THE CATEGORY OF ISN USERS

Effects of Internet Social Networking
Below are the results on the effects of ISN among
the light users, heavy users and very heavy users group in
terms of their sociability, academic performance and study
habits.

Sociability
Sociability of the students were measured based
on the quality of social interaction in a networked environ-
ment.
Result of the study show that light users, heavy
users and very heavy users group huddled at moderately
sociable level.
In order to show the effects of using ISN on the
sociability Analysis of Variance or ANOVA was used.
ANOVA statistics revealed that there is no significant dif-
ference on the sociability among the light users, heavy us-
ers and very heavy users of ISN.
It can be concluded that whatever type of users a
student be, his sociability towards ISN is not affected by
the extent of his ISN usage. It means that sociability in the
net could not be factored out by the number of hours spent
in using it.

Academic Performance
In this study, academic performance of the student
refers on the average grade of the first and second grading
periods accumulated this school year.
Table 2 show that the light users and heavy users
of ISN had an average academic performance. The very
heavy users group obtained high academic performance.
Disparity among the values of computed mean of
users had been observed with the very heavy users having
high academic performances and the light users getting the
lowest academic performance. A slight margin of disparity
had also been noted between the light users and heavy us-
ers.
An inquiry among the student-respondents of the
study revealed that most very heavy users belonged to the
top section of the batch and were also vying for honor rolls.
Add to these fact, the same students had been found to have
internet connections at home and with their phones. They
could also buy their time for an internet connection on any
caf at the length of time that they wish.
Moreover, the very heavy users group revealed
that chosen ISN sites had been used as medium for aca-
demic exchange such as announcement of report, ex-
changes of opinions, reviewers and even exchange of
known sites for academic purposes. They also had been
found to be adept in multitasking, as in opening up other
sites on separate window while updating their profile and
correspondence in Facebook or Friendster.

Group of User Frequency Percentage
Light Users 86 36%
Heavy Users 122 51%
Very Heavy Users 32 13%
Tot al 240 100%
TABLE II. FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBU-
TION ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE LEVEL OF
THE THREE GROUP OF USERS
TABLE III. ANOVA STATISTICS FOR THE COMPARISON IN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE OF THE THREE GROUP OF USERS
ANOVA statistics revealed that there is signifi-
cant difference in the academic performance among the
light users, heavy users and very heavy users.
To further identify which among the group shows
significant difference, Scheffes Test was employed among
the group of users.
The groups were paired with each other to see
among the pairs show significant difference in the aca-
demic performance.
Scheffes Test result showed that there is no sig-
nificant difference between the light users and heavy users
group. Significant difference was found between the light
users group and very heavy users group, as well as on the
heavy users group and the very heavy users group.
Based on the results it can be concluded that the
higher the ISN usage the higher the academic performance
becomes. Having low ISN usage result, on the other hand
means low academic performance.
Results can be explained explicitly by three fac-
tors. The academic profile of the concerned groups, the
socio-economic strata by which the group in majority be-
longs to, and the innate effect of internet usage towards
academic endeavors.
Result of the study showed that the academic per-
formance of a student is affected by the ISN usage among
the group of users in a positive way.

Study Habits
Study Habits scale was also used to measure the
study habits of ISN users.
Result show that light users, heavy users and very
heavy users had satisfactory study habit skills.
Table IV show that among the three group of us-
ers, the light users reflected the highest study habits skill,
followed by the very heavy users group. The heavy users
got the lowest mean of study habits skill.
Descrip-
tion
Light User Heavy Users Very Heavy User
F % F % F %
High 5 6% 14 11% 15 47%
Average 70 81% 84 69% 14 44%
Low 11 13% 24 20% 3 9%
Total 86 100% 122 100% 32 100%
Mean 79.22 79.47 82.14
Source of
Variation
SS Df MS F
Bet ween
groups
216.46 2 108.20 11.2885
W i t h i n
groups
2, 271.5 237 9.59
Tot al 2,487.96
TABLE IV. FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON THE
STUDY HABITS LEVEL OF THE THREE GROUP OF USERS
TABLE V. ANOVA STATISTICS FOR THE COMPARISON IN STUDY HAB-
ITS OF THE THREE GROUP OF USERS
Table V reveals that there is significant differ-
ence in the study habits among the light users, heavy
users and very heavy users of ISN. Since there is an ob-
servable margin of difference on the study habits among
the group of users Scheffes Test was used to show the
comparison.
Scheffes Test result showed that there is no
significant difference between the light users and very
heavy users group and between the heavy users group
and very heavy users group. While significant difference
was found between the light users group and very heavy
users group in terms of their study habits.
The disparity in the study habits of light users and heavy
users was obvious because of the time element that the
groups used in preparing for a lesson. Much that they
both enjoyed the same constraint of ISN usage, the light
users of ISN were able to optimally use more t ime in
studying, reviewing and researching for the subjects that
they were taking.
Heavy users also found to be susceptible to
less preparations because of the added time they spent
in ISN usage. Adding to that was the established fact
that their primal intention for ISN usage was never aca-
demic in nature but rather satisfaction of their social
networking needs thereby, making them more prone to
use their remaining time of studies.
Further narrative inquiry among heavy users
have revealed that after special time on internet caf
surfing their favorite ISN sites the group tended to slack
it out at home. As compared to the light users who, in
general, uttered much gesture in doing homework and
reviews.
It is therefore concluded that students study
habits was greatly affected by two factors the time con-
straint in preparing for their lesson and review and the
Descrip-
tion
Light User Heavy Users
Very Heavy
User
F % F % F %
Out-
standing
10 12% 14 11% 7 22%
Satisfac-
tory
60 70% 60 49% 13 41%
Needs
Guidance
16 19% 48 39% 12 38%
Total 86 100% 122 100% 32 100%
Mean 37.50 35.93 36.78
Source of
Variation
SS Df MS F
Bet we en
groups
126.09 2 63.05 4.1768
W i t h i n
groups
3,577.30 237 15.09
Tot al 3,703.40 239
was outside their home instead of studying their previous
and coming lessons.
The time which could be spent in reading, study-
ing and reviewing are spent playing, chatting, socializing,
and keeping up with friends which was supposed to be
done after they have finished their school requirements.
This showed that ISN users had difficulty in pri-
oritizing the most important things in their schedule.

Implications of the study in Educational Management
Since it was found that the ISN affects the aca-
demic performance and study habits of the students, educa-
tional leaders should act immediately and bravely to take
action in order make this as a positive reinforcement to-
wards students learning. The administrators role is to ac-
cept the paradigm shift of technological advancement and
the reality that they have to include within their contin-
gency plans the factor that their students could no longer
be confined within the portals policies of the four-walled
rooms of the school figuratively and literally.
Coherently, teachers are of concern with this new
wave of growing social phenomenon. Their acceptance and
inherent taboos towards this social change must be checked
with.
Administrators and teachers therefore are bound
to take new bold steps not to hinder or abate the emerging
network lifestyle of the students rather the administrators
and teachers should work hand in hand to create the new
road of direction so as to explicitly exploit to the best of
the learners interest, the new found world of theirs called
the World Wide Web.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

1. Majority of the students actively maintained more than
one ISN sites.
2. The commonly used Internet Social Networking Sites
by the students is the Facebook. Majority of the students
had been maintaining these sites for 2 years.
3. Most of the users logged in to ISN sites 1-2 hours per
day.
4. Students were categorized in three group of users the
light users, heavy users and the very heavy users group,
majority of these students belonged to heavy users group.
5. Sociability of the group of users is not affected by the
extent of ISN usage. The sociability in the net could not
be factored out by the number of hours spent in using it.6.
6. Academic performance of a student is affected by the
ISN usage among the groups of users in a positive way.
7. Study habits of the ISN users were greatly affected by
the time and priority factor invested by the group of users.

Recommendations:

To the administrator:
Maximized the utilization of ISN usage since it
has a positive effects on the academic performance of the
the learner. Administrators are encouraged to devote
physical facility such as simple room that might provide a
Wi-Fi services so that students can access ISN during their
vacant hours. The researcher acknowledged that such capi-
tal outlay investment for facility might be costly and
thereby, might compel the school to charge a certain fee,
on such eventualities, it is further recommended that the
school charge a minimal fee which might be lower than
that of operating shops or caf outside to make it afford-
able for the socio-economic challenge students.
Administration themselves should be abreast at
the usage of ISN to make appropriate plan and to be able
to proactively make decisions rather that reacting without
basis.
Intervention should be laid out by the school head
together with skilled faculty members to buffer the grow-
ing clamor for social networking sites such as creation of a
customize social portal within the school which is tailored
to their social preferences but embedded with academic
undertakings.
Programs should be created and implemented to
address the bad study habits brought about by ISN usage.
Such program should be planned systematically and well
coordinated throughout the hierarchical structure of the
school with special emphasis on the role of the Guidance
Counselor.
Regulation of Wireless Protocol and internet con-
nectivity in the school is encouraged. This entails creating
special protocols where websites such as Facebook or
Friendster cannot be access within the school during class
hours so as to maximize learning potentialit ies among
learners.

To the teachers:
Teachers are also encouraged to utilize the fullest
potential of ISN sites such as Facebook by linking the les-
son into it through process like embedding an act ivity for
next days lesson. Teachers may use the Facebook features
like linking videos or small flash presentation or posting
some task to be done which would require the learner to
access other sites that are educational in nature such as
Discovery.com or Nature.com.
Teachers are also encouraged to exploit the innate
features of network games of the ISN like Farmville, Farm
Town, My caf, found in Facebook as a form of pedagogy,
relating this gaming experience of learner to the actual
setting of classroom situations will elicit heightened par-
ticipation and focus retention among learners since they
could relate the topic to their borrowed experience from
the ISN world.
It is also encouraged and suggested that modera-
tion and precaution be used when employing innovations
by means of these ISN sites. The idea of being innovative
should be coupled with preventive measures not only on
the ability of a child to enhanced technology but also the
harsh effect that might come with it. Specialized teachers
holding ICT related subjects must lay down ground rule
when letting the students engaged with the World Wide
Web, this is to maximize ISN potentialities if the teacher
wishes to use such medium in learning.
To the parents:
Parents must also be aware of their childrens
activities in the World Wide Web particularly on ISN, so
that they could monitor the content of their childrens ac-
count as well as on how these accounts are used.

To the students:
Students must properly used these ISN features
like updating, downloading, uploading , gaming and chat-
ting for educational or academic purposes.

For Future Research:
It is recommended that future studies include not
only the 4
th
year students but the first year, second year
and third year students as well to establish the varying
degree of effects of ISN across all year levels.

It is recommended that in future research socio-
economic status should be controlled to show better reli-
ability for the results.

Acknowledgment
Thank you for being part of my social network!
My deepest gratitude to the following:
Sir Rod and Mam Lolit, Mdm Juliet, Mdm Ladia, Sir
Nick, Sir Rex, Mam Carmen, Sir Marlon, Sir Es me, Ate
Badette, James, Dolly, Aldous, Mama Es, Mama G,
Mama Fe.
Sir Lau thanks for everything.
To my family, second family and third family. Thank you
for the love and support.
I am deeply indebted to all of you.
God bless!
REFERENCES

[1] Nyland, Rob (2007) Jesus is My Friend: Religiosity as a
Mediating Factor in Internet Social Networking Use,
Brigham Young University, Reno, Nevada.

Abstract The study focuses on work related stress of MSC
employees and their coping mechanisms to determine inter-
ventions for stress management. This paper presents the
inventory of the work-related stress based on six indicators
namely: role overload, role insufficiency, role ambiguity,
role boundary, responsibility and physical environment.
Corollary to these indicators are the coping mechanisms
practiced by the respondents. The general inventory of work
related stress of MSC employees was categorized by school,
by campus and by job description. The descriptive quantita-
tive type of research was used in the study. The types of
stress experienced by the employees were identified accord-
ing to the six indicators. The data was analyzed using fre-
quency, weighted mean, percentage and rank. The coping
mechanisms were ranked according to which were the most
often practiced and which were found most effective in elimi-
nating stress. The results were used in the proposal for a
stress management intervention suited to needs of the MSC
employees. The paper presents the overall level of stress by
school, by campus and by the nature of job whether teaching
or non-teaching. The paper describes the most frequently
used coping mechanisms in all types of stress based on the six
indicators. Likewise, the coping mechanisms found effective
in each type of stress. The study is deemed relevant and nec-
essary in clarifying the stresses experienced by the employees
in the workplace. This is significant in providing the College
administration the real picture of its employees thus enabling
them to thresh out the difficulties brought about by stress
and to find administrative remedy for the improvement of
employees and agency performance.

Keywords: workplace-related stress, coping mechanisms, role
overload, role sufficiency, role ambiguity, role boundary

Introduction

The United Nations declares workplace stress to
be a worldwide epidemic. In the United States alone, 46%
of workers report that their job is very stressful. [1]. Stress
may become a prevalent disease in 2020 in the labor
world. Statistics revealed that each day workplace stress is
credited with more than a million absences and at least
40% of all personnel turnover. Studies show that stress is
a primary cause of accidents, quality control problems,
medical claims, and lost productivity [2].
The NIOSH report that 40% of workers reported
their job was very or extremely stressful; 25% view their
jobs as the number one stressor; three-fourths of employ-
ees believe that workers have more on-the-job stress than
a generation ago; 26% of workers said they were often or
very often burned-out or stressed by their work, and that
job stress is more strongly associated with health com-
complaints than financial or family problems [3].
Several indicators of stress were identified. The
first is role overload (RO) which measures the extent to
which job demands exceed resources (personal and work-
place) and the extent to which the individual is able to ac-
complish workloads [4]. RO can result in an employee
experiencing anger and frustration toward persons be-
lieved responsible for the overload in the work [5]. High
workload, including the demands of work, inevitably
causes stress. [6]. In some colleges and universities, the
main problem is work overload and even role overload.
One teacher gets several designations to the extent that he/
she cannot manage to function in his/her major roles.
The second indicator is role insufficiency (RI)
which measures the extent to which the individuals train-
ing, education, skills and experience are appropriate to job
requirements. [4]. The stress of employees may be re-
moved by assigning them to jobs that match their skills
and preferences [6]. The importance of Human Resource
Development (HRD) in reducing stress cannot be down-
played. HRD includes the areas of training and develop-
ment, career development, and organizat ion development.
HRD is a process within the service in order to make the
employee grow personally and professionally for the pur-
pose of improving the job, the individual, and/or the or-
ganization [7] [8]
Role Ambiguity [RA] arises when an individual
does not have a clear picture of work objectives, co-
workers expectations, and the scope and responsibilities
of his or her job. Often, this ambiguity results simply be-
cause a manager does not lay out for the employee exactly
what his or her role is. RA measures the extent to which
priorities, expectations, and evaluation criteria are clear to
the individual [4]. Teachers often encounter stress due to
the difficult, numerous and varied tasks that they experi-
ence and have to accomplish [9].
The fourth indicator of stress is role boundary
(RB) which measures the extent to which the individual is
experiencing conflict ing role demands and loyalties in the
work setting [4]. With different roles taken on by some
employees, and sometimes under different managers or
supervisors, the question of loyalty arises which may pull
the employee into a quandary as to which task to priorit ize
and who to obey first. Ureta (2002) presented tips on
doing a million things that makes ones life harder. Those
showed the readers how an individual creates his/her own
stressors. [10].
Responsibility is another organizational stressor.
Responsibility (R) measures the extent to which the indi-
vidual has, or feels, a great deal of responsibility for the
Inventory of Work-Related Stress, Coping Mechanism among Faculty and Personnel of
Marinduque State College: Basis for Stress Management Interventions
Dr. Homer L. Montejo/Dr. Leodegario M. Jalos, Jr.
e-mail: hlmontejo@yahoo.com
performance and welfare of others on the job [4]. The
stressful nature of having responsibility for others has
grown in the economic climate of the 1990s [11]. In edu-
cational institution, some school leaders or managers may
not have been adequately trained to deal with such a re-
sponsibility resulting to stress. Teachers also experience
taking responsibility for another persons actions in extra
and co-curricular activit ies due to the minimal numbers of
available employees in the organizat ion
Another stress indicator is the physical environ-
ment (PE) which measures the extent to which the indi-
vidual is exposed to high levels of environmental toxins or
extreme physical conditions [4]. The design or physical
setting of the workplace may be a source of stress. The
physical surroundings like noise, lighting, smells, tem-
perature and humidity can affect mood and normal mental
state, whether or not employees found them consciously
objectionable [12]. Burnout is stress with physiological,
emotional and mental attitudinal manifestations like al-
ways feeling tired, frequent headaches, hyperacidity, poor
sleeping, change in eating habit; depression, absenteeism,
unreasonable complaints; negative attitude, low self-
esteem and feeling they will not succeed in the future [14]
[15].
Employees, however, are able to continue work
despite the stresses because of the individual ways of cop-
ing. Nonetheless, stress in the workplace results to prob-
lems that may need interventions. Interventions are meant
to reduce if not totally eliminate stress and to support the
employees individually and organizationally. Lam (1991)
proposed interventions for employees in educational insti-
tutions specifically for teachers [12].
In the Philippines where there are more or less
1.4 million government workers, stresses are inevitable.
Marinduque State College being one of these government
agencies with more or less one hundred sixty (160) mem-
bers of the workforce may have been affected by stress.
The stress experienced by the employees may be indicated
by some kinds of stressors. Thus, the Occupational Stress
Inventory Revised Edit ion (CSI-II) by Layne (2001)[16]
has been viewed as a viable instrument to use in this study
to measure stress in terms of role overload, role insuffi-
ciency, role ambiguity, role boundary, responsibility and
physical environment and determine the coping mecha-
nisms.

Methodology

This study focused on the inventory of work re-
lated stress of MSC employee, their coping mechanis ms
and the effectiveness of these mechanisms.
The data were gathered from the nine (9)
schools, four (4) campuses with two (2) depart ments of
the college. Only those with plantilla position, except
those who are on leave or scholarship, were taken as re-
spondents.
The data were gathered using questionnaire
adapted from the work of Dr. Layne who had granted the
researcher permission. The questionnaire was modified
and validated. The data were statistically treated using
descriptive statistics.
The study made use of qualitative and quantita-
tive type of research. In looking at the work-related stress
of the employees, the quantitative analysis was applied
while in finding out the stress coping mechanisms, the
qualitative type was utilized.

Results and Discussion

Inventory of work related stress of MSC Employ-
ees by School.
In general, the level of stress by school are as
follow: SAM showed absence of stress ( 2.0); SAS
was at normal level of stress ( 2.89); and the rest -
SSTED ( 2.83), SEng ( 2.99), SICS ( 2.95),
SIT ( 2.58), SFTED ( 2.91), SAg ( 3.05) and
SF ( 3.07) were all at normal level. or role overload,
SAM manifested the least stress; SEng, mild level of mal-
adaptive stress and the rest are in the normal level.
In role insufficiency: SAM and SEng showed the
least level of stress; SAS, SICS SF, and SSTED had mild
level of maladaptive stress while SIT, SETED and SAg
demonstrated normal level.
In role ambiguity, SAM and SEng had the least
level of stress, while Sag and SICS had mild level of mal-
adaptive stress. The other five schools were at the normal
level.
For role boundary, the least level was manifested
by SAM, SSTED, SEng, SIT and SF while normal, was
displayed by SAS, and SICS, SETED and Sag. With re-
sponsibility held by the employees in each school, stress
was least for SIT, mild level of maladaptive stress for SAg
and SF, and normal for SAM, SAS, SSTED, SEng, SICS
and SETED.
SICS had an absence of stress while all the other
eight schools showed the least level of stress for physical
environment.

X
X
X X X
X X X
X
TABLE 1. INVENTORY OF WORKPLACE-RELATED
STRESS OF MSC EMPLOYEES BY SCHOOL
Legend: NT (never true)
Oct (occasionally true)
Oft (often true),
UT (usually true),
TMt (true most of the time)

Inventory of work related stress of MSC em-
ployee by Campus.
By Campus, normal level of stress was shown in the mean
for Boac ( 2.70), Sta. Cruz ( 2.59), Torrijos (
2.99) and Gasan ( 2.53).

For role overload, only Gasan displayed the least
level while the three other campuses were at normal level.
All the four campuses manifested normal level of stress
for role insufficiency. The same normal level was mani-
fested in role ambiguity. In role boundary, Boac and
Gasan demonstrated the least level whereas Sta. Cruz and
Torrijos manifested normal level. The responsibility indi-
cator showed normal level of stress except for Gasan that
manifested a mild level of maladaptive stress. The physi-
cal environment did not pose stress as shown in the ab-
sence of stress for Gasan and least level for the three other
campuses.
X X X
X
INVENTORY OF WORKPLACE-RELATED STRESS OF MSC EMPLOYEES BY
CAMPUS
Inventory of work related stress of MSC Employees by
Job Description.
The general level of stress according to the nature
of the work is normal for those in teaching with adjectival
equivalent of often true in role overload, role sufficiency,
role ambiguity, role boundary, responsibility except in
physical environment with occasionally true. The non
teaching group stress is often true to role overload, role
ambiguity, role boundary except in responsibility and
physical environment in which both with occasionally true
description. The table revealed that their level of stresses is
quite similar.
INVENTORY OF WORKPLACE-RELATED STRESS OF MSC EMPLOYEES BY
JOB DESCRIPTION
Most employed stress coping mechanism of MSC Em-
ployee.
The most frequently used coping mechanis m of
the MSC employees are as follows: In role overload - I
talk with others talk with friends, professional counsel-
ors, support groups or relatives about what is bothering
me; role insufficiency - I talk with others talk with
friends, professional counselors, support groups or rela-
tives about what is bothering me; role ambiguity I just do
what it seems to be right for me; role boundary - I talk
with others talk with friends, professional counselors,
support groups or relatives about what is bothering me;
responsibility I just say, I did my best in carrying out
responsibility and physical environment If there is a high
level of sound, I find other place of work- If there is a high
level of dust, I clean the work place.
In the table below, the first three coping mecha-
nisms identified are ranked as numbered.
School
Workplace-Related Stress
RO RI RA RB R P
E
SAM
1.6
Oct
2.15
Oct
2.4
Oct
2.5
Oft
2.55
Oft
1.
15
O
ct
SAS
3.045
Oft
3.07
UT
3.23
Oft
2.687
Oft
2.09
Oft
1.
83
O
ct
S ST E
D
2.88
Oft
4.25
UT
3.07
UT
2.38
Oct
2.66
Oft
1.
74
O
ct
SENG
3.568
UT
2.32
Oct
3.41
Oft
2.465
Oct t
3.55
UT
1.
96
O
ct
SICS
3.3
Oft
3.65
UT
4.0
UT
2.6
Oft
2.75
Oft
1.
4
N
T
SIT
3.014
Oft
2.99
UT
2.78
Oft
2.333
Oct
2.44
Oct
1.
98
O
ct
SE T E
D
13.136
Oft
3.46
UT
2.70
Oft
2.83
Oft
2.24
Oft
1.
91
O
ct
SAG
13.12
Oft
2.20
Oft
3.7
UT
2.86
Oft
3.66
UT
2.
2
O
ct
SOF
2.8
Oft
3.8
UT
3.45
Oft
2.45
Oct
3.75
UT
2.
2
U
T
Schoo
l
RO RI RA RB R PE
Boac 2.93
Oft
3.108
Oft
3.203
Oft
2.435
Oct
2.871
Oft
1.686
Oct
St a.
Cruz
2.775
Oft
2.77
Oft
2.543
Oft
2.646
Oft
2.821
Oft
1.834
Oct
Torri-
jos
3.162
Oft
3.02
Oft
3.488
Oft
2.71
Oft
3.535
UT
2.228
Oct
Gasan 2.8
Oft
2.245
Oct
3.25
Oft
2.0
Oct
3.8
UT
1.1
NT
Job De-
scri ption
RO RI RA RB R PE
Teaching
2.94
Oft
3.04
Oft
3.20
Oft
2.53
Oft
3.06
Oft
1.69
Oct
N o n
Teaching
3.04
Oft
2.92
Oft
2.91
Oft
2.53
Oft
2.07
Oct
1.94
Oct
MOST EMPLOYED STRESS-COPING MECHANISM

Effectiveness of stress coping mechanism.
Stress coping mechanism that are found to be
effective in each stress type are: Role Overload - the most
effective are talking with others, tell my heartaches about
my job to colleagues, getting enough rest and sleep, get-
ting away for a while, telling oneself that I am good, hav-
ing optimistic attitude with an adject ival rating of stress
completely eliminated. The least coping mechanism in-
cluded having sense of control; express feelings instead of
bottling them, trying to relieve burden, learning to forgive
and singing with adjectival equivalent of usually elimi-
nated.
In Role Sufficiency, the most effective are get-
ting away for a while-read a book, watch a movie, play a
game, listen to music, giving in occasionally, avoid quar-
rels whenever possible, and talking with others, talking
friend, professional counselors, support groups or relatives
about what is bothering me with an adjectival equivalent
of stress fully eliminated. The least effective are do not try
to control the uncontrollable, expressing feelings instead
of bottling them upon and have optimistic attitude with an
adjectival equivalent of stress usually eliminated.
In Role Ambiguity, the most effective are just
doing what it seems to be right for me, talking with others
-talk with friends, professional counselors, support groups
or relatives about what is bothering me, just focusing on
routinary office/assignment activity of our office or unit or
school, just thinking or focusing on my functions and get-
ting enough rest and sleep with an adject ival rating of
stress completely eliminated. The least coping mechanism
include just following what my boss tells, getting away for
a while-read a book, watch a movie, play a game and lis-
ten to music, just following order form my boss, having
optimistic attitude and expressing my feelings instead of
bottling them up with an adjectival equivalent of stress
usually eliminated.
In Role Boundary, the most effective are talking
with others, accommodating suggestions and opinions,
getting away for a while and getting enough rest
and sleep with an adjectival rating of stress fully elimi-
nated. The least coping mechanism include obeying first
before complaining, just following order, expressing my
feelings instead of bottling, learning to forgive, making
the first move to be friendly and practicing come what
may with adjectival equivalent of stress usually elimi-
nated. Responsibility - the most effect ive are following
order, sticking to one designation, keeping quiet, accom-
modating suggestions with an adject ival equivalent of
stress fully eliminated. The least coping mechanism in-
clude making the first move to be friendly, dancing with
the music, getting enough rest and sleep, having sense of
control with an adjectival rat ing of stress usually elimi-
nated.
In Physical Environment, the most effective are
just practicing come what may, obeying first before com-
plaining with an adject ival rating of stress fully elimi-
nated. The least coping mechanism is going on leave with
an adjectival equivalent of often eliminated.
EFFECTIVENESS OF COPING MECHANISMS
Workplace-related
Stress
Coping Mechanism
Role Overload
1. Talk with others- t alk with friends,
professional counselors, support
groups or relat ives about what is
bothering me. (65)
2. Tell my heartaches about job to
my colleagues. (63)
3. I get enough rest and sleep. (61)
Role Sufficiency
bothering me. (65)
2. I get away for a while, for a while
read book, wat ch a movie, play a
game, and listen t o music. (57)
3. I get enough rest and sleep. (54)
Role Ambiguity
1. I just do what seems t o be right .
(62)
bothering me. (59)
3. I just focused on rout inely office/
assignment act ivit y of our office or
unit.
Role Boundary
bothering me. (66)
2. I just accommodate suggest ion
and opinions so that t here will be no
quarrel at all aft er this. (65)
3. I have my sense of control. (55)
Responsibilit y
1. I just say I did my best in carrying
out responsibility. (68)
2. I just imbibe t he att it ude of being
successful by helping others. (63)
3. I t alk to my best friends col-
leagues about the great deal of re-
sponsibilit y.(62)
Physical Environment
1. I find quiet place of work. (59)
2. I clean the workplace. (58)
3. I work out side with-------
Workplace-
Related St ress
Most Effective Coping Mechanism

Role Overload Talk wit h ot hers- t alk
wit h friends, professional
counselors, support
groups or relat ives about
what is bothering me.
5.42
St ress Complet ely
Eliminated
Role Suffi-
ciency
I get away for a while
read books, wat ch a
movie, play a game, list en
to music.
5.08
St ress Fully Elimi-
nat ed
Role Ambigu-
ity
I just do what seems to be
right for me aft er this.
5.17
St ress Complet ely
Eliminated
Role Boundary I talk wit h other t alk
wit h friends , professional
counselors, support
groups
5.5
nat ed
Responsibilit y I just follow over---t his 5.67
nat ed
Physical Envi-
ronment
Talk wit h ot hers- t alk
wit h friends, professional
counselors, support
groups or relat ives about
what is bothering me.
5.42
St ress Complet ely
Eliminated
Conclusions

This study gives a gist of inventory of work re-
lated stress by school. For role overload, the School of
Allied Medicine (SAM), School of Secondary Teachers
Education (SSTED), School of Informat ion and Comput-
ing Science (SICS), School of Industrial Technology
(SIT), School of Elementary Teachers Education
(SETED), School of Agriculture (Sag) and School of Fish-
ery (SF) had normal level of stress in role overload. SAM
and SEng got the least level of stress while SAS SICS and
SSTED had maladaptive stress. Only SIT, SSTED and
SAg manifested normal level of stress in role sufficiency.
SAM and SEng got least level of stress; SAS, SSTED,
SETED and SF displayed normal level of stress while
SAg and SICS manifested mild level of maladaptive stress
in role ambiguity. SAM, SSTED, SEng and SIT and SF
manifested least level of stress while SICS and SETED
displayed normal stress in role boundary. SIT has least
level of stress, SAg has mild level while SAM, SSTED,
SAS, SEng, SICS and SETED had normal level of stress
in responsibility. SAM, SAS, SSTED, SEng, SIT, SETED
and SAG manifested least level of stress while SF and
SICS displayed absence of stress in physical environment.
The stress inventory by campus revealed that
Boac, Sta Cruz and Torrijos had normal level of stress and
only Gasan displayed least level of stress in role overload.
All the campuses showed normal stress in role sufficiency
and also manifested in role ambiguity. Boac, Sta. Cruz
and Torrijos showed normal level of stress while Gasan
had mild adaptive stress in responsibility. Boac, Sta. Cruz
and Torrijos manifested least level of stress while in
Gasan it has the absence of stress in physical environment.
Teaching and non-teaching displayed almost the
same level of stress except in responsibility and physical
environment. The coping mechanisms are found to be
effective in each stress type. Those listed showed that
when applied, the coping mechanis ms helped to fully or
completely eliminate the stress felt/experienced.

Acknowledgment
The researchers acknowledge the help of Dr.
Layne and the participation of the MSC faculty and non-
teaching personnel.

References

[1]. American Institute of Stress, http://www.stressorg/job
html, October 29, 2008.

[2]. Causes of Work Related Stress, http://www.managing-
stress.org/causes-of-stress/work-related-stress, July 4, 2008.

[3]. NIOSH Report, http;/www.cde.gov/niosh187-111.html,
October 7, 2008.

[4]. Osipow, 1998, p. 2) Osipow, S. H., & Spokane, A. R.
(1987). Occupational Stress Inventory Manual (research ver-
sion). Odessa, Fl: Psychological Assessment Resources.

[5]. M. D. Schultz & J. T. Schultz, The effects of age on stress
levels and its affect on overall performance, http;///aabs.org/
Journal2003/Schultz.html.

[6]. J. Tennant, Work-related Stress: the Experiences of Poly-
technic Teachers, 2006.

[7]. G. P. Espiritu, paper presented in the HRD class, 1
st

semester, MSC, July 21, 2007.

[8]. N. R. Mingi, paper presented in the HRD class, 1
st
se-
mester, MSC, July 28, 2007.

[9]. A. T. Nicolas, Therapeutic Approaches to Avoid Stress,
The Modern Teacher, 2002.

[10] J. V. Ureta, Are You Addicted To Stress? The Modern
Teacher, January 2002.

[11]. S. Coverman, Role Overload, Role Conflict, and Stress
Addressing Consequences of Multiple Role Demands. USA:
University of Carolina Press, 1989.

[12]. M. L. Lam, A study of Occupational Stress Among
Hongkong Aided Secondary School Teachers, unpublished
masteral thesis, 1991.

[13]. R.S. Macasieb, The Stress and Burnout, Modern
Teacher, vol. LV11 no.8, January 2008.

[15]. Understanding and Preventing Teacher Burnout.
ERICDIGEST.http://www.enidigest.org.2004-1burnout
html.

[16]. C. M. Layne, The Relationship of Occupational Stress,
Psychological Stress, and Copy Resources to the Turnover
Intentions of Rehabilitators Counselors, Unpublished disser-
tation, Virginia States University, 2001.

AbstractThe study determined whether the Participatory
Rural Approach (PRA) has empowered farmers in terms of
percentage of attendance, accuracy of knowledge shared by
the farmers in the prevailing agro-ecological condition, agri-
cultural productivity, cropping pattern readiness of the
farmers to identify true issues and concerns, validity of rec-
ommendations; the output of the PRA process based on the
training conducted and the recommendations of the technical
working group (TWG) to improve the PRA process. The
indigenous knowledge of the farmers was demonstrated in
the data gathering and documentation which include the use
of seasonal calendar and trend analysis using parameters
related to or affecting farm yield. Information gathered from
these techniques and the focused group discussion helped the
participants in identifying their real concerns which led to
the valid recommendations for the solution of the problems
identified and prioritized by the farmers themselves. The
paper describes TWGs overall assessment of the PRA in
reference to the training objectives, course contents and
methodologies. This paper also describes what the TWG has
found out in the process of applying the PRA. With PRA, in
contrast to the top-bottom approach, high percentage of at-
tendance in meetings during the planning process of the
Marinduque Wildlife Sanctuary (MPS) was observed. The
increase in attendance reveals a positive response and conse-
quently an increased participation to development initiatives.
Keywords: participatory rural approach, indigenous knowl-
edge, empowerment, wildlife sanctuary
Introduction

The lack of appreciation in the use of planning
system that considers the conditions and situations of
farming communities, the farmers inputs in terms of tech-
nical capability and the empowerment of farmers is defi-
nitely a major contributory factor to underdevelopment in
rural farming communities. From the past and up to the
present time, the practice of centralized planning ap-
proach has continued to prevail over participatory plan-
ning approach. With this, the farmers generally had not
developed a sense of ownership to programs or projects
implemented in their locality, thereby resulting to discon-
tinuance, indifference, wait-and-see attitude, and evasion
from development initiat ives or even disbelieving in the
sincerity of the government programs and projects.
The insistence of the top-down planning ap-
proach discounts the contribution of farmers themselves to
reform and improve their own farming systems into a
more productive, profitable or efficient enterprise. In do-
ing so, the farmers see themselves not the stakeholders of
these development efforts but merely the implementers. It
is therefore important to develop in them the sense of
ownership of projects from the very beginning so that they
would value their initiat ive.
Many agricultural projects and rural develop-
ment init iatives had been implemented in the past but the
resultant expectations were not encouraging and satisfying
not only to the implementers and beneficiaries but also to
local decision makers. Most of these development efforts
were planned and decided following the top-down ap-
proach even without solid basis or inputs to the planning
process in terms of local data or hard facts to analyze the
conditions and situation of the farming communit ies.
Beneficiaries were generally not involved in the planning
of most if not all programs and projects implemented in
rural areas especially in inaccessible areas of the hinter-
lands.
Genuine development has to be people-oriented
and enable people to take charge of their own lives [1].
Atte (1992) emphasizes that development has to start with
and build on what people know. Only then will it result in
self-reliance rather than dependency and be sustainable
[2]. The use of indigenous knowledge in the planning of
development projects generally facilitated the participa-
tion of beneficiaries [3]. Massaquoi (1993) suggested that
in the process of developing or introducing new technolo-
gies, the existing technologies should be examined in or-
der to identify their weaknesses and strengths so that the
scientific principles can be applied in effective ways to
improve the- living condition[4]. Basic projects with an
understanding of indigenous knowledge enhance the like-
lihood of avoiding costly mistake and promoting appropri-
ate technologies [1]. The farmers participation, too, in all
aspects can make an initiat ive a success.

Methodology

The study determined the level of participation
and empowerment in the planning of the Marinduque
Wildlife Sanctuary of 125 involved farmers in the process.
The data were presented to the eight (8) members
of the Technical Working Group (TWG) to answer the
specific questions regarding the processes used in the Par-
ticipatory Rural Approach (PRA). The survey question-
naire assessed the process in terms of training objectives,
course content and methodologies and output done by the
farmers. This is the primary data.
The percentage of attendance, accuracy of in-
digenous knowledge shared, agricultural productivity and
cropping patterns were analyzed. These are the secondary
data. All the stakeholders who participated in the PRA
were made respondents of the study. The total is 125 up-
Empowerment of Upland Farmers Thru Participatory Rural Approach
(PRA): Marinduque Experience
Dr. Homer L. Montejo/ Dr. Leodegari o M. Jalos, Jr. /Susana P. Arellano
hlmontejo@yahoo.com
land farmers.
The researchers joined the planning of the Marin-
duque Wildlife Sanctuary for the onset of the program
through the PRA. Participatory survey was used in data
collection. Interviews, trend analysis, focused-group dis-
cussion and seasonal calendar were used. A system of
data validation technique was applied to data gathered
from the farmers.

Results and Discussion

The study aimed to analyze and determine
whether the participatory rural approach (PRA) has em-
powered the farmers based on the planning of the Marin-
duque Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS).

Farmers Empowerment in thePlanning of the MWS
Attendance
There was considerable high attendance in meet-
ings during the planning process of the MPS. This is com-
pared to the normal average of 10 to 15 people joining the
planning during previous activit ies and development pro-
grams characterized by top-bottom planning approaches.
It was also found out that more women than males were
involved in the program. This shows that the farmers were
empowered based on the percentage of attendance pre-
sented.

Accuracy of the Knowledge Shared in Prevailing Agro-
Ecological Condition, Agricultural Productivity and Crop-
ping Pattern
The technical working group tested the accuracy
of the knowledge shared by the farmers through a system
of data validation technique. It involves a series of struc-
tured interview schedule that dealt with how the data were
gathered and the proficiency by which these were reported
by the farmers. The TWG found out that the data gather-
ing and documentation were highly accurate that led to
valid recommendations for the solution of the problems
identified and priorit ized by the farmers themselves.
These findings showed that the farmers were empowered
using the PRA tools.

Prevailing Agro-ecological Conditions
The data on the prevailing agro-ecological condi-
tions are shown in the trend analysis. Significant changes
can be observed in changes in climate, soil fert ility, area
devoted for agriculture, forest and timber resources, non-
timber products and water system resources. Farmers be-
lieved that there is a significant change now in comparison
to twenty years ago. There is a significant change ob-
served in the climate. In the past, one could feel cool even
during the summer months. These days one experiences
extremes in the weather. There is also a significant change
in rainfall. The farmers observation was that they experi-
enced more rainfall in the past. There is a significant de-
cline in soil fert ility and a significant change in the area
devoted for agriculture. Water resources have decreased
due to destruction of natural forest. There is a also a sig-
nificant dwindling in resources like fish and other river
animals.

Agricultural productivity
Plantation crops
The yield of different plantation crops covered by
the MWS showed that saba variety is within the national
level of production. Other variet ies namely: lakatan, laton-
dan and sayanis were below the national level. Yield of
coconut is below the national level. This is due to old age
of coconut trees and non-practice of fert ilization, weeding
and cultivation.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (PLANTATION CROPS)
Root crops
The farmers also plant root crops. The level of
productivity of cassava, sweet potato and San Fernando is
within the national average of 8-10 metric tons per year. It
shows that cultural management of these crops produced
by the people is not yet developed. They just wait for har-
vest time.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (ROOTCROPS)
Cereal crops
The yield of rice and corn is only one tone per
hectare per cropping. This is below the national average of
three tons per hectare. The farming skills of the farmers in
the barangay where PRA was conducted are still inade-
quate in terms of rice and corn.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (CERAL CROPS)
Vegetable crops
The vegetables planted by the farmers in the pro-
tected areas are ginger (3 tons /ha), squash (5 tons/ha),
string beans, bottle gourd and eggplants (.25 mt/ha/),
mungbean (6 tons) and sigarillas (.5 mt/ha). The yield per
year are all below the national level. Thus, it shows that
Commodi ty
Average Yiel d /ha/year
National (mt) L ocal (mt)
Banana
Saba

8 -10 10
Lakat an
8 - 10
3
Lat undan
8 - 10
5
Sayanis
5
1
Coconut 12 6
Commodi ty
Cassava

8 -10 10
Sweet pot ato
8 - 10
8
San Fernando
8 - 10
8
Arrowroot
8 - 10
2
Gabi 6 2
Commodi ty
Rice

3 1
Corn 3 1
their techniques and practices in vegetable production are
still inadequate.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (VEGETABLE CROPS)
Fruits
There are only two types of fruit trees - kala-
mansi and lanzones - planted in the covered barangays.
The yields are very low compared to the national average
of six tons per hectare per year.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (PLANTATION CROPS)
Cropping Patterns
Based on the farmers planting calendar diagram,
the months from June to January is rainy but August to
September is a mix of dry and rainy. The months from
February to May are considered dry months with few rain-
fall events. The kinds of crops planted and/or harvested
are dependent on these seasons.
The farmers could provide their indigenous
knowledge about agricultural productivity in the vegeta-
tive areas. Therefore, an indication that PRA has empow-
ered them.

Readiness to Identify True Issues and Concerns
Based on the problems identified by the PRA
participants, farmers were empowered in identifying true
issues and concerns and in analyzing their situation in a
holistic manner. These local data given by the farmers
were used in the planning process for the MWS. Through
this, beneficiaries were generally involved in the planning
of most of the programs and projects implemented in rural
areas especially in the MWS.

Viability of Recommendations
The recommended solutions made by the PRA
participants for the identified issues and concerns were
used as a starting point in doing actual plans. This shows
that the farmers were empowered integrating all of the
recommendations made in the plan as an output of PRA.

Assessment of the Output of the PRA with reference to
the Training Conducted
The TWG assessment of the PRA using periodic
evaluation forms shows that the training objective of en-
hancing community participation in upland management
planning and implementation was achieved.
The methodologies applied resulted to the for-
mulation of a sound plan and program in wildlife protec-
tion and conservation.
After a series of activities done by the farmers,
identifying key issues and concerns and looking at the
solution to the problem, the TWG assessed the plan as
highly achieved.
The overall assessment of the TWG regarding the
PRA with reference to the training objectives are highly
achieved, course content is satisfactorily discussed, and
methodologies are highly effective formulation of sound
plans and programs by the part icipating farmers. The
training resulted to the list of activit ies which the farmers
follow to have an efficiently managed program on wildlife
sanctuary conservation and protection.

Recommendation of the TWG to Improve the PRA Proc-
ess
From the observed problems during the conduct
of the PRA, the TWG forwarded several recommenda-
tions to improve PRA. These are:
1. Technical staff that will conduct the PRA should be
properly trained in the use of each tool/instrument
to be used in the PRA. The technical staff should
have a background in community organizing and
rural development and in the psychology of the
rural folks.
2. Proper scheduling of planning activities for the PRA
should be done to avoid bad weather inclement
and to avoid bad road system during the rainy sea-
son. If possible, it should be conducted during the
summer months. Proper scheduling will also elimi-
nate conflict in the schedule of activities.
3. The time allot ments for the conduct of the PRA be
longer. A two-day PRA for each barangay is too
short to extract vital informat ion of the cooperative
barangay. It should be at least four days to one
week or at least the facilitator must live in the
community. The latter will facilitate transfer of
trust between the people and the development
worker which will lead to more accurate data vali-
dation and thus a sounder program.
4. Facilitators should be neutral and must be outsiders
in the conduct of PRA to give people a free space
to express their opinions. Presence of the staff
from government regulatory agencies sets bottle-
necks for the farmers participants to be hesitant in
giving information.

Conclusion

This study concluded that participatory rural ap-
proach (PRA) has empowered farmers or stakeholders in
the three upland barangays covered by the Marinduque
Wildlife Sanctuary (MWS). It showed positive impact on
the actual planning for the MWS because the PRA gener-
ated first hand information about the condition of the com-
munity as indicated by the percentage of attendance; accu-
racy of knowledge shared by the farmers in the prevailing
Commodi ty
Ginger

6 3
Squash
10
5
St ring beans
4
1
Bott le Gourd
6
3
Eggplant 6 3
Mungbean 3 0.25
Sigarillas 3 0.5
Commodi ty
Kalamansi

6 1
Lansones 6 0.5
Acknowledgment

This study acknowledged the participation of the
technical working group and the farmers in the barangays
covered by the Marinduque Wildlife Sanctuary.

References

[1]. International Development Research Centre, Aspects of
Indigenous Knowledge, Indigenous Knowledge and Develop-
ment Monitor, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 5-10, April 1993

[2]. O. D. Atte, Indigenous Knowledge and Local Level Devel-
opment: the Participatory Approach, Paper presented in the
International Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustain-
able Development, IIRR, Silang Cavite, Philippines, 1992.

[3]. R. Ulluwishewa, Indigenous Knowledge, National IK re-
source Centre and Sustainable Development, Indigenous Knowl-
edge and Development Monitor, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 11-13, April
1993.

[4]. J. G. M. Massaquoi, Indigenous Technology for Off-farm
Rural Activities, Indigenous Knowledge and Development Moni-
tor, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 2-3, April 1993.

Abstract This study delved on the design, development,
and validation of a Computer-Managed Exam Assistant and
Grade Recorder with Item Analysis which provided an alter-
nate way for teachers to create and prepare test items, ad-
minister exams, score and record the student responses, re-
port exam results, supply test item analysis statistics, and
improve test items.
The researcher implemented a research and de velopment
design wherein the developed software was designed, cre-
ated, tested, and then validated for its functionality. A soft-
ware requirement specification was used as basis for the
development of the software. To validate the developed soft-
ware, the Users utilized the Usability, Functionality, and
User Interface as criteria while the IT Experts used Database
Design, Maintainability, Security, and User Interface. The
study used the rating scale sheet to gather validation results.
Based on the findings, the Computer-Managed Exam
Assistant and Grade Recorder with Item Analysis was devel-
oped based on the requirements of the Users and IT Experts.
The acceptability of the developed software was then estab-
lished. The Users agreed that the system is usable, functional,
and provides an interface that is appropriate to the tasks it
was designed for. The acceptability of the developed software
as validated by the Information Technology Experts was
confirmed. The IT Experts agreed that the software uses a
logical and synchronized database design, is maintainable
and secured. They have also established that the software
provides an appropriate user interface which was the same
observation given by the Users.

Keywords-Item Analysis; Exam; Grades; Syllabus; TOS
Introduction

Teaching in todays fast changing world is be-
coming more complicated than it was decades ago. Ad-
vances in science and technology have brought corre-
sponding changes in the way we view teaching. Computers
have undeniably changed the way teachers experience and
hone their craft. Teachers tasks have been faced with cir-
cumstances and experiences that are aided with computers.
Evidently, with computer-based applications and complete
automation, work has been more effortless and yet has a
great deal of efficiency. One major advancement is the
recognition of the inadequacies inherent in the traditional
evaluation in the student-learning process.
Evaluation is considered to be one of the most
important parts of the teaching-learning process. Examina-
tions or tests, a common method of assessing student
learning at the end of an educational course, enable teach-
ers to find how well students are meeting their curricular
objectives. Assessment decisions based on examination
results could substantially improve student performance
and help motivate students on how to structure their aca-
demic work. It will serve as a guide to enhance the teach-
ing-learning process and assist policy makers in improving
the educational system.
Preparing good tests takes a lot of expertise and
effort to include all the educational objectives of the
course. Ideally, test items should be reviewed by a commit-
tee of experts. Admittedly, this rarely happens especially
when time is inadequate. Administering tests, grading ex-
ams and interpreting them can be difficult as well. This is
where descriptive statistics and item analysis come in.
These will ensure examinations reliably measure what they
are supposed to measure, and will enable teachers to create
good test items. Such tasks can be daunting if done manu-
ally. Thus, the researcher designed, developed, and vali-
dated a Computer-Managed Exam Assistant and Grade
Recorder with Item Analysis (CMEAGRIA) that enabled
teachers to prepare test items and create exams based on a
Table of Specification (TOS), administer exams in a local
area network environment, score and record the student
responses automatically, report exam results immediately,
and supply accurate test item analysis statistics and exami-
nation reliability index.
The Tarlac State University-College of Computer
Studies (TSU-CCS) and its faculty members with at least
five (5) years of experience in teaching were considered as
the Users. Such users validated for the functional require-
ments of the developed software. Programmers coming
from Tarlac State University- Management Informat ion
System Office (TSU-MISO) were considered as the Infor-
mat ion Technology Experts (IT Experts) who validated
for the non-functional characteristics of the developed
system according to software engineering principles and
practices.
Statement of the Objectives

This study intended to design and develop a
Computer-Managed Exam Assistant and Grade Recorder
with Item Analysis, which provided an alternate way for
teachers to create and prepare test items, administer ex-
ams, score and record the student responses, report exam
results, supply test item analysis statistics, and improve
test items.
Specifically, this study aimed to achieve the fol-
lowing objectives:
1. To design and develop a Computer-Managed
Exam Assistant and Grade Recorder with Item
Analysis with the following functions:
Computer-Managed Exam Assistant and Grade Recorder with Item Analysis
Jo Anne S. Gamalinda - Cura
College of Computer Studies
joanne_cura@yahoo.com
1.1 Examination Construction
Test Blueprint Manager;
Test Item Manager;
Test Assembly Manager;
Exam Administration Manager;
Item Analyzer/Item Report Manager;
1.2 Examination Scoring and Recording
Test Scoring/Recording Manager;
1.3 Student Grade Management;
Class/Grade Manager;
Test Reliability Analyzer/Test Report Man-
ager; and
1.4 Access and Database Management
Access Manager.
2. To validate the Computer-Managed Exam Assistant
and Grade Recorder with Item Analysis in terms
of:
2.2 Evaluation by Users
Usability;
Functionality;
User Interface;
2.3 Evaluation of IT Experts
Database Design;
Maintainability;
Security; and
User Interface.

Methods and Materials

The researcher implemented a research and devel-
opment design wherein the developed software was de-
signed, created, tested, and then validated for its signifi-
cance. The product was then pilot tested to determine its
usability. When the developed software was considered
usable, it will then be accepted as another tool for the edu-
cational system. Otherwise, it will be revised and improved
further. Another pilot testing followed. The cycle went on
until the product addressed the requirements of the Users
and IT Experts.
The researcher used the Gantt Chart as the project
management tool, and the Rapid Application Development
(RAD) as the software engineering paradigm.
All throughout the RAD phases, the following
were used: the System Structural Chart (SSC) as the Visual
Table of Content (VTOC) for the hierarchy of the func-
tions of the developed software, the Entity Relationship
Diagram (ERD) as the data modeling tool, the Context
Diagram and Data Flow Diagram (DFD) as the process
modeling tools.
To develop a functional software in the shortest
amount of time possible, RAD was chosen.
During the business modeling phase, the infor-
mat ion flow among the examination administration was
modeled through the Context Diagram. The functional and
non- functional requirements were discovered using the
question guide during interviews.

Figure 2. Soft ware Engineering Paradigm Used in t he Development of
the Computer-Managed Exam Assist ant and Grade Recorder wit h It em
Analysis Soft ware

Information flow as part of the business modeling
phase were refined into a set of data objects. The DFD
showed the attributes that are defined, and relationships
between them. Using the DFD, the data defined were
transformed into information flow in the process modeling
phase.
Application generation phase commenced using
Visual Basic and MySQL. Visual Basic was utilized be-
cause of its highly graphic approach to building Graphical
User Interfaces (GUIs). MySQL was used due to its pow-
erful capabilities for querying the database.
The last phase which is testing allowed the re-
searcher to validate the CMEAGRIA according to data-
base design, maintainability, security, and user interface
through the help of the IT Experts. On the other hand, the
Users such as the Faculty, the Proctor, and the Student
validated the software according to the application archi-
tecture requirements and the technical architecture require-
ments. When the Users and IT Experts requirements
were satisfied, the developed software was turned over to
the research locale.

Results and Discussions

Design and development of the Computer-Managed Exam
Assistant and Grade Recorder with Item Analysis
During the design stage, the researcher inter-
viewed the stakeholders at TSU-CCS to understand the
user requirements, identify problems and opportunities,
and analyze the process logic.
The users required the developed system to have
functions that will handle specific tasks during test con-
struction such as; a TOS generator to help them conceptu-
alize the examination, an item generator to populate the
item bank, an examination assembler that is based on a
TOS, an examination administration module to facilitate
the standardizat ion of test administration, a student re-
sponse checker to eliminate errors in scoring, and a mod-
ule that will report examination results to the teacher and
students as well as item analysis statistics. They also re-
quired that the software be able to score and record student
responses as soon as the examination have been adminis-
tered to facilitate the assessment of student learning. File
security was also among the concerns of the users.
The completed design was presented in the form
of the SSC, the Context Diagram, and the ERD as initial
prototypes.
Business Modeling
Dat a Modeling
Process Modeling
Applicat ion Generat ion
Test ing and Turn-over
Features of the System
The five basic steps in test construction such as
test conceptualization, item generation, item tryout/
examination administration, item analysis, and test revi-
sion have their own equivalent in the form of software
modules in the developed software. Additional modules
on the management of the student grades were also incor-
porated.
The access levels provided to the Administrator,
the Faculty, the Proctor, and the Students are based on the
access level determined by the developed software
through the Administrator account. Each system user is
required to supply the appropriate username and password
to access the system. The Faculty has the ability to use all
the modules in the developed software except for the Ac-
cess Manager Module for the administrator accounts. The
Proctor is only capable of administering examinat ions
while the Students can only take examinations. Students
can view their exam results or grades depending on the
restrictions made by the faculty per examination or per
class.
Following the system user management, classes
can then be created by the Faculty. Students are enrolled
or associated with classes to identify which student can
take what examination. Depending on a specific course
outline, a TOS is generated to identify the appropriate
number of items a faculty can give in a particular exami-
nation he/she wishes to administer per class. The gener-
ated TOS is also stored in the system database.
The item bank database is populated through the
Test Item Manager. The faculty can choose among short -
answer item test, mult iple-choice item test, and binomial-
choice item test. The correct response to each item is in-
putted to facilitate scoring. Item time allotment is identi-
fied to be used during exam administration.
The Test Assembly Manager Module allows the
faculty to identify the test items to include in an examina-
tion coming from the item bank. If the item has been used
as part of an examination, item analysis statistics are in-
cluded in the information per test item. The test items are
sorted per topic or in ascending or descending order of the
difficulty index or the discrimination index.
The Exam Administration Manager Module al-
lows a faculty to indicate details to be followed during
exam administration such as the time allocation for each
test item or for each examination as well as test instruc-
tions, and test scoring and reporting. During an examina-
tion administration, students are able to access and take
exams in a LAN-based environment that help ensure con-
sistent test administration.
The Test Scoring/Recording Manager Module
scores and records the student responses and indicates the
passing score and score classification in the form of re-
ports.
The Item Analyzer/Item Report Manager Module
provides appropriate item analysis statistics that are used
for item modification or improvement and item dropping.
The Test Report Manager Module provides score
reports and topic wise score reports. Student answer sheet

is also provided.
Navigation features such as search capability
are incorporated in the developed software. A network
support feature to administer the tests remotely with
high security is also present in the developed software.

Validation of the Computer-Managed Exam Assistant
and Grade Recorder with Item Analysis.
Validation of the Software consisted of two
processes: by IT Experts and by Users. The IT Experts
judged the software as to: database design, maintain-
ability, security; and user interface requirements while
the users reviewed the software focusing on functional-
ity, user interface, and usability of the system modules.
Their comments and suggestions were considered in the
improvement of the system. The set of criteria which
was formulated to evaluate the developed system was
based on modern software engineering concepts and
practices.

Users Evaluation on the Software.
As shown in Table I, the Users evaluated the
Usability of the software as Excellent obtaining a com-
posite mean of 4.54 showing that functions of the sys-
tem can easily be understood, that software supplied an
environment that minimizes the effort exerted by the
different users to learn how to use the software and its
functions, and, that the software can easily be operated
by a given user in a given environment.
USERS EVALUATION OF THE SOFTWARE BASED ON USABILITY
Table II indicates that the software was Excel-
lent to the Users since there is a composite mean of 4.52
for its Functionality. This indicated that the Functionality
of the developed software were appropriate to the tasks
needed to construct examinations, score and record ex-
aminations, manage student grade, and, access and man-
age the database, and, that the functions were able to
accept and generate correct the data, reports were verifi-
able, and that incorrect information can be edited or de-
leted.

Usabili ty Average
Verbal
Interpretation
Examinat ion
Construct ion
4.51 Excellent
Examinat ion
Scoring and Re-
cording
4.73 Excellent
St udent Grade
Management
4.56 Excellent
Access and Dat a-
base Management
4.42 Very Sat isfactory
Composite
Mean
4.54 Excellent
USERS EVALUATION OF THE SOFTWARE BASED
ON FUNCTIONALITY
Table III shows that the Users found the User
Interface to be Excellent and gained a composite mean of
4.59. This shows that the software uses a users interface
that is visually appealing, and that the software uses a
users interface that has navigational tools. Moreover, it
also shows that the Users have found that the human-
computer interaction is pleasant and efficient.
USERS EVALUATION OF THE SOFTWARE BASED ON USER INTERFACE

IT Experts Evaluation on the Software.

Table IV illustrates the IT Experts evaluation of
the Database Design of the software as Very Satisfactory
obtaining a composite mean of 4.00. The results in indi-
cated that the software uses a logical database design, and,
that the software uses a database that is synchronized.
They also evaluated the Maintainability of the
system as Very Sat isfactory because of the acquired com-
posite mean of 3.75 as shown in Table 4. The results indi-
cated that the system requires an acceptable amount of
effort to change the system settings, and, that it requires
acceptable effort needed to verify and test a system or
settings change.
Table IV also shows that the software maintains a
secured software and database having an Excellent rating
gaining a composite mean of 5.00. This verifies that the
software prevents unauthorized access to the system, and
the database.
IT EXPERTS EVALUATION OF THE SOFTWARE BASED ON DATABASE
DESIGN, MAINTAINABILITY, AND SECURITY
The IT Experts Users also found the User Inter-
face to be Very Satisfactory and gained a composite mean
of 4.25 showing that the software uses a users interface
that is appealing visually, and that the software uses a
users interface that has navigational elements as shown in
Table V.
IT EXPRTS EVALUATION OF THE SOFTWARE BASED ON USER INTERFACE

Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following
conclusions were deduced:
1. On the design and development of a Computer-
Managed Exam Assistant and Grade Recorder with Item
Analysis, the CMEAGRIA was developed based on the
requirements of the users.
2. On the validation of the Computer-Managed
Exam Assistant and Grade Recorder with Item Analysis:
2.1 The acceptability of the developed software which
was validated by the Users was established. The Users
agreed that the system is usable, functional, and pro-
vides a user interface that is appropriate to the tasks it
was designed for.
2.2 The acceptability of the developed software as vali-
dated by the Informat ion Technology Experts was con-
firmed. The IT Experts agreed that the software uses a
logical and synchronized database design, is maintain-
able and secured. They have also established that the
software provides an appropriate user interface which
was the same observation given by the Users
Functionali ty Average
Verbal
Interpretation
Examinat ion Con-
st ruct ion
4.50 Excellent
Examinat ion Scor-
ing and Recording
4.64
Excellent
St udent Grade
Management
4.55
Excellent
Access and Dat a-
base Management
4.41 Very Sat isfactory
Composite
Mean
4.52
Excellent
User Interface Average
Verbal
Interpretation
Examinat ion Con-
st ruct ion
4.61
Excellent
Examinat ion Scor-
ing and Recording
4.55 Excellent
St udent Grade
Management
4.55 Excellent
Access and Dat a-
base Management
4.64
Excellent
Composite
Mean
4.59
Excellent
Grand Mean 4.55
Excellent
Software Evaluation Cri -
teria
Composi te
Mean
Verbal Interpre-
tati on
Dat abase Design 4.00 Very Sat isfactory
Maintainabilit y 3.75 Very Sat isfactory
Securit y 5.00 Excellent
Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the
following recommendations are offered:
To the TSU Administrators, it suggested that they
should allocate funds to support the implementation
of the developed CMEAGRIA and integrate the sys-
tem into the work environment of the teachers to heed
the call of continuous advancement and innovation.
To the TSU Administrators, it is recommended for
them to create policies on the use and implementation
of the developed Computer-Managed Exam Assistant
and Grade Recorder with Item Analysis to further
enhance their Teachers performances as well as their
students.
To Other Educational Institutions, it is suggested
that incentives may be given to researchers who are
interested to develop software solutions to be imple-
mented in their respective offices and institutions.
The school administrators need to allot funds to sup-
port research and development.
To the Teachers, they are encouraged to transform
their tradit ional evaluation practices in the student -
learning process to a computer-based one to better
hone their craft.
To Future Researchers, it is recommended that
they include the capability of creating examination
items for programming subjects to broaden the scope
of the items that can be stored in the item bank, link
the program to the Princes (PRISMS) system so that
students can also view their grades through it, and
include IP address verification informat ion to the ex-
amination report per student to allow the Faculty to
identify the specific computer each student used
thereby increasing the security and authentication
function of the system.
Acknowledgment
The researcher would like to express her warmest
appreciation to the following people who extended their
untiring and generous support to the successful comple-
tion of this study.
Prof. Jerome C. Legaspi, Prof. Marlon V. Ga-
mido, Prof. Heidilyn V. Gamido, Engr. Edjie M. Delos
Reyes, Prof. Rogel L. Quilala, Prof. Lolita V. Sicat, Prof.
Theda Flare G. Quilala and Dr. Murphy Mohammed for
their insightful recommendations;
James Benedict and Mommy, for the inspiration,
encouragement, and never-ending support;
Above all, the researcher would like to give back
the honor and glory to Almighty God for the courage,
strength, perseverance, knowledge, and patience for the
complet ion of the study.
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Abstract This paper ai med to determine the factors
that contri buted to the teaching moti vation of selected
facul ty members in a state uni versity. Factors that mo-
ti vated the teachers were identified; circumstances on
how the teaching moti vati on of the faculty members
decreased were determined; effects of teaching moti va-
tion to the job performance and job satisfaction of the
teachers were shown.
A descripti ve research method was empl oyed
in this research work utilizing a questionnaire and an
interview in gathering pertinent data. Salient factors
were revealed in the study which was of great use
among people in the fiel d of educati on and in the
teaching profession.
From the research undertaking, it was found out that
the factors of the teachi ng moti vati on of the faculty
members were the teaching profession itself, profes-
sional growth and advancement, teaching status and
security, participation and res ponsibility, salary, uni-
versity/ college policies, recognition and job achieve-
ment, interpersonal relati ons and the working condi-
tions.
The circumstances which decreased the teach-
ing moti vation of the faculty members were favoritism
and bi as treatment among faculty members, handling
boring cl asses, slow-learning and hard-headed stu-
dents, failure to reach the as pired ranking promotion,
inadequate working condi tion, di fficulties in the deli v-
ery of the lesson, feeling of hostility, isolation and
alienation from colleagues, restriction among faculty
members to express their opinions, suggestions, com-
pl ains, grievances, confrontati ons, fights and criticisms
from their colleagues and superior, and insecurities
among their colleagues.
The effects of teaching moti vation to the job
performance of the faculty members were high level of
performance and increased efficiency and effecti veness
in teaching.
That the effects of teaching moti vation to the job
satisfaction of the faculty members were increased of
their feeling of being more responsi ble and competent
teachers; and teaching moti vati on encouraged and
helped them to come on ti me and not to be absent from
their respecti ve classes as much as possible.

I. Introduction

Work is a fundamental dimension of human exis-
tence. It is a physical and intellectual effort directed to-
wards a desired end. Teachers are working beings who
have goals in life. These are the physiological and psycho-
logical needs and interests that they must satisfy for sur-
vival and meaningful existence. Through teaching they can
find ways of satisfying their goals in life.
Teaching is not just limited to the level of exert-
ing energy and bodily efforts, but also the mental and psy-
chosocial functioning. What activate and direct teachers to
perform an activity is because of their motives. Motivation
plays a vital role in performing a task such as teaching. It
energizes the teachers interest, willingness and courage to
perform task with industry, patience, endurance and ex-
citement as well.
Teaching motivation is a fundamental factor that
needs to be given emphasis in order to understand the be-
havior and performance of the teachers in their work set-
ting. Teaching is a serious intellectual work that entails
much duties, responsibilities and obligations. In the world
of academe, everything gets done through the teachers
power and the power of work (teaching). Teachers have
been and will always be the indispensable partners of the
educational and learning institutions and organizations in
achieving excellent and quality education. But the prob-
lem on teachers motivation is crucial in all kinds of edu-
cational and learning institutions today. One of the press-
ing problems facing educational and learning institutions
today is how to motivate teachers to work productively
and increase their feelings of satisfaction and involvement
with their job. That is why it is a must to develop or find a
precautionary measure on how to prevent or lessen this
pressing problem. As a response to this problem, it is es-
sential to know and identify the factors that determine the
teaching motivations of teachers. Giving attention and
emphasis to this kind of problem is perceived necessary
and will be beneficial to the students, teachers and to the
academe.
II. Statement of Objectives

This paper aimed to determine the factors that
contribute to the teaching motivation of the college teach-
ers. Specifically, it sought to answer the following objec-
tives:

1. Identify the factors that motivate the college teachers.
A STUDY ON THE TEACHING MOTIVATION OF SELECTED
FACULTY MEMBERS IN A STATE UNIVERSITY
Dr. Erwin P. Lacanlale
Research Chair, College of Arts and Social Sciences
e-mail: win1179_tsu@yahoo.com
2. State the circumstances on how the teaching motivation
of the faculty members decreased.
3. Show the effects of teaching mot ivation to the job per-
formance and job satisfaction of the teachers.

III. Significance of the Study

Efficient and effective teaching does not only
require commit ment and dedication but also motivation. If
we value education, so much the teachers. Because it is
through their hands where quality and excellent education
lies. The teachers are the most important assets of any
educational and learning institutions. Without them, the
educational system will be paralyzed.
In this sense, the teachers are the ultimate benefi-
ciaries of this study. Through the discussion in this paper,
they could identify to themselves the factors that really
motivate them to teach. In the same manner, they could
also evaluate whether they have or lack the proper teach-
ing motivation.
Students could also benefit from this study. For
the effect of teaching motivation of the teaching perform-
ance of their teachers will have aftereffects on them
through the efficient, effect ive and quality teachings of
their mentors.
Educational and learning institutions could use
this study in analyzing their faculty members teaching
motivation, performance and job satisfaction.
This paper is also of great importance to future
researchers, for it can be utilized as a reference in pursu-
ing similar studies.
IV. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1: Paradigm of the Study

The illustrated paradigm of the study shows how
the motivating factors affect the teaching motivation of
the faculty members. At the same time, there are also cir-
cumstances that affect and decrease the teaching motiva-
tion of the teachers. As a result, the teaching motivation
has effects on the job or teaching performance and job
satisfaction of the teachers. The effects depend on the kind
of motivation brought about by the motivating factors or
the circumstances that caused decrease in motivation. Pre-
sumably, if the presence of the motivating factors is high
among the teachers, their teaching motivation is high also
and this will lead into positive effects on the teaching per-
formance and job satisfaction. On the other hand, if the
circumstances that caused the decrease of the teaching
motivation are prevalent, presumable the teaching motiva-
tion is low and that this will result into poor teaching per-
formance and low job satisfaction.


In this study, the Two Factor Theory on Moti-
vation of Frederick Herzberg was used in explaining the
teaching motivations of the faculty members. This the-
ory explains how the motivating factors contribute to
the teaching motivation and how it affects the teaching
performance and job satisfaction.
Herzberg described two categories of needs
that are necessary for superior effort and performance.
These are the motivation needs (associated with the job
itself) and the hygiene needs (peripheral to the job it -
self). Motivation needs are also known as content fac-
tors, intrinsic factors, satisfiers or growth factors. Gen-
erally, they are motivating factors. These needs are di-
rectly associated with the work or job itself. Examples
of these are; the teaching profession itself, professional
growth recognition, advancement, responsibility, and
achievement. These factors were found to be important
in motivating the teachers to superior performance and
improving the quality of their work.
From the motivation needs identified by Herz-
berg, the following factors are proven to motivate teach-
ers to do superior performance. Achievement- a feeling
of personal accomplishment or the feeling of having
done a job well; Recognition- being recognized for do-
ing a job well such as being complimented by the boss,
colleagues, receiving a reward or incentive, promotion
or salary increase; Participation- being personally in-
volved in ones work, having some responsibility for
making decisions about ones job; Growth- challenges
of the job itself, the chance to learn skills, acquire
knowledge and achieve development and advancement.
As more varied tasks are included in the job under the
enrichment program, the work is made more interesting
and challenging, the job or teaching becomes more sat-
isfying and the teachers become more productive.
Hygiene needs are also called ext rinsic factors
or maintenance factors. Examples of these are school
policies, work conditions, salary, job status and security,
and interpersonal relations. These factors make the
teachers dissatisfied when these conditions were not
satisfactorily met; hence they are also called disatisfiers.
According to Herzberg, the ult imate objective
of worker mot ivation is to produce superior effort and
performance. Hygiene needs are merely to prevent dis-
satisfaction but do not activate performance. Nonsatis-
faction of hygiene needs may cause the teachers work
slowly, be absent and late as expressions of their dissat-
isfaction. That is why it is very important that hygiene
needs be prevented from dissastifaction and work on the
satisfaction of the motivation needs.
Motivation needs are the factors that propel
and give the teachers satisfaction to their work. If the
teachers do not satisfy their needs, what makes them
Moti vating
Factors
Circumstances

Teaching Moti vati on

EFFECTS
Job/ Teaching Performance
Job Satisfaction

stay and continue working is the presence of the hygiene
factors.
V. Discussion

Moti vation factors of the faculty members.
Noticeably, the teaching motivation factors of the
faculty members are; the teaching profession itself, pro-
fessional growth and advancement, teaching status and
security, participation and responsibility, salary, univer-
sity/ college policies, recognition and job achievement,
interpersonal relations and the working conditions.
The teaching profession itself motivates the col-
lege faculty members to function and perform well their
works as teachers. This is because they believe that teach-
ing is an interesting, challenging and competitive intellec-
tual work. Teaching also enables them to show and impart
their knowledge, talents, skills and abilit ies.
Professional growth and advancement are the
motivating factors which enable the teachers to have the
opportunity to pursue special trainings and higher educa-
tion. These factors motivate them in a way that they per-
ceived that they are acquiring more knowledge, learning
skills and personal development. And these help them in
making themselves effective and competitive teachers.
Aside from these, they are also able to raise their qualifi-
cations and competencies through attending various ser-
vice trainings, seminar-workshops, lectures, symposia,
conferences, paper presentations and other teaching en-
richment programs and activities.
Job/Teaching status and security also served as
motivating factors. The feeling of having a permanent and
secured job made them work with enthusiasm and indus-
try. These factors also inspire the teachers to commit and
dedicate themselves to their teaching profession.
Participation and responsibility also played im-
portant roles in the teachers motivations. These factors
made them work productively and effectively because of
the mutual cooperation, unity and participation in the deci-
sion-making, problem solving, school activities and other
matters concerning their school. They are also motivated
to teach and do extra- assignments because of the trust,
respect of opinion and suggestions from their colleagues
and their superior. And because of the perceived sense of
responsibility and participation in the work environment,
they are also encouraged and prompted to become partici-
pative and responsible to their teaching profession and
other works assigned or entrusted to them.
Salary is also perceived as a motivating factor.
Most teachers want their salary to be increased because its
not sufficient to satisfy all their needs. That is why they
want to pursue higher education so that they will be pro-
moted when evaluation or promotion time comes in. Sal-
ary increase follows if they are promoted.
The University/ College policies also help in mo-
tivating the teachers especially if these policies are posi-
tively and effectively implemented. The more they feel
motivated if they perceived that these policies really bene-
fit them, their students and the institution in the long-run.
Job achievement and recognition motivate the
teachers in a way that they feel they are being com-
mended, rewarded and appreciated for their accomplish-
ments and hard work. The more they value their work once
they received merits and the more they are mot ivated to
teach if their efforts are recognized by their college, their
superior or by the institution.
Interpersonal relations also motivate the teachers
to work and teach vigorously. Because of the smooth hu-
man relations and the friendly and healthy professional
environment they have at work, they feel comfortable to
work and teach. That the feeling of being accepted and the
belongingness to the group as teachers and colleagues cre-
ate a positive outlook in their profession. On the other
hand, unhealthy human relations among their colleagues
and from their superior may demotivate the teachers.
Negative feedbacks, personal and professional crit icis ms,
insults, confrontations from their colleagues and superior
lead them to become conscious and unproductive in their
work.
Lastly, working condition is also an important
factor on teachers motivation. A teaching environment
conducive for learning should be free from noise, distrac-
tions and hazards. Clean and fresh school environment,
sufficient equipment and facilit ies for instructional pur-
poses should be made available for teaching enrichment
and to make the teachers effective in teaching. But if the
working condition is not good and not friendly to the
teacher and the learners, no matter how good and intelli-
gent the teacher is, he will find it hard to teach effectively.

Circumstances that decrease the teaching moti vation of
the faculty members.
If there are factors which motivate the teachers to
work, there are also circumstances wherein their teaching
motivation is decreased. These circumstances are favorit-
ism and bias treatment among faculty members, handling
boring classes, slow-learning and hard-headed students,
failure to reach the aspired ranking promotion, inadequate
working condition, difficult ies in the delivery of the les-
son, feeling of hostility, isolation and alienation from col-
leagues, restriction among faculty members to express
their opinions, suggestions, complains, grievances, con-
frontations, fights and criticisms from their colleagues and
superior, and insecurities among their colleagues.
Favoritis m and bias treatment among faculty
members is one of the circumstances which decreased the
teaching motivation of the teachers. Knowing that other
faculty members are much favored and treated well by
their superior affects them negatively. That the unfair giv-
ing of incentives, priorities, merits and recognition creates
a negative feeling towards their work. That when they per-
ceived that others who are less qualified than them were
given plantilla item or promotion, their morale is lowered.
Handling boring classes, slow-learning and hard-
headed students also demotivate the teachers. This is
caused probably by the difficulty in establishing rapport
with their students who have different personalities. Also,
another factor is the difficulty in making the students un-
derstand and catch up the lessons because their level of
intelligence is below average. Although teachers exerted
much effort and preparation in their lesson, if the classes
are boring and students are slow learner and hard-headed,
these negatively affect their teaching motivation and per-
formance. And because of these circumstances, they lose
their interest in teaching, they do not find their work chal-
lenging and sometimes misperceived themselves as inef-
fective and incompetent to teach. Because of these feel-
ings and perception, teaching becomes stressful to teach-
ers.
Failure to achieve aspired promotion ranking
consequently brings dismay and dissatisfaction to teach-
ers. Because of this circumstance, they could not teach
properly and they are demotivated. This somehow makes
them feel that no matter how hard they teach, still they
will not be promoted. Also, problem occurs when the
trainings and seminars they participated were not credited
in the evaluation for promotion.
Inadequate working condition is also perceived to
decrease the teachers motivation. Notably, because of the
perceived inadequacies in their work setting such as im-
proper teaching load or overloading, improper teaching
subjects (subjects loaded to them are not in line with their
specialization), improper room assignments, unsatisfac-
tory classrooms and faculty rooms, lack of equipment,
facilit ies, devices and school supplies for classroom dis-
cussion and instruction.
Other circumstance which demotivates the
teacher is the difficulty in the delivery of lessons. This
happened when the classes they are teaching are loaded
with requirements from their other subjects. Other reasons
for this are the boring classes they are handling, having
passive, slow-learning and hard headed students. All of
these made them feel that teaching is not a satisfying one.
The feeling of hostility, isolation and alienation
among their colleagues caused a problem on human rela-
tions. Because of these, they are not comfortable with the
other teachers, they could not feel that they belong to the
group, they are really striving hard to adjust with the situa-
tion. Thus, these affect their teaching motivation.
The restriction among faculty members to ex-
press their opinions, suggestions, complains, grievances,
confrontations, fights and criticisms from their colleagues
and superior also decreased their teaching motivation.
Because of the feeling of being suppressed, this feeling is
being carried even inside the classroom. They could pre-
vent and help themselves from thinking on this problem.
Because of this, instead of teaching, they just share with
their students their dis may and dissatisfaction from the
restrictions they have. And also, they could not make up
their minds and prepare themselves for their lesson be-
cause the problem is still bothering. Problems related to
this restriction are believed to originate from problems on
interpersonal relations, nom open communication from
their colleagues and superior, and from not being open to
suggestions and criticis ms.
Other reasons why there is a decrease in the
teaching motivation of the teachers are their insecurities
and enviousness to their other colleagues. These occur
when they perceived that others are being favored, pro-
moted without any effort, and comparing themselves from
those who are receiving high salary.
All of these circumstances were remarkably found to
decrease the teaching motivation of the faculty mem-
bers.

Effects of teaching moti vation to the teachers job
performance and job satisfaction.
High level of performance and increased effi-
ciency and effectivity in teaching are some of the per-
ceived effects of the faculty members teaching mot iva-
tion on their performance. These effects were evidently
seen to their various styles, techniques and strategies of
teaching, active classroom discussions, preparations of
lessons, examinations, prompt submission of the
teachers report, grades and other requirements in a
neatly organized manner. They could perceive also that
this has positive effect on their performance, that there
is learning and transfer of knowledge from them to-
wards their students.
As a result of the faculty members teaching
motivation on their job satisfaction, one of the perceived
effects is the increase of their feeling of being more
responsible and competent teachers. This was resulted
from their desire and motivation to pursue higher educa-
tion, attending and participating seminar-workshops,
trainings and learning programs for professional growth
and advancement, promotion and salary increase. Thus
the knowledge and learning they gained from their pre-
vious and various education and trainings were inte-
grated on their teachings.
Another effect is that it encourages and helps
them to come on time and not to be absent from their
respective classes as much as possible. This is because
they want to impart to their students the knowledge and
learning they had. They also want their students to be-
come mot ivated to their studies.
Generally, the teaching motivation of the fac-
ulty members increased their job satisfaction. Teachers
could never find satisfaction in their work unless they
have the proper motivation. Teachers feel satisfied be-
cause they are able to perform their duties, responsibili-
ties and obligations to the fullest. Their feeling of being
competent to teach was brought about satisfaction to
their work.
VI. Conclusions

Based from the data presented in this paper, the
following conclusions were drawn:
1. That the factors of the teaching motivation of the
faculty members were the teaching profession it-
self, professional growth and advancement, teach-
ing status and security, participation and responsi-
bility, salary, university/ college policies, recogni-
tion and job achievement, interpersonal relations
and the working conditions.
2. That the circumstances which decreased the teaching
motivation of the faculty members were favoritis m
and bias treatment among faculty members, han-
dling boring classes, slow-learning and hard-headed
students, failure to reach the aspired ranking pro-
motion, inadequate working condition, difficulties
in the delivery of the lesson, feeling of hostility, isola-
tion and alienation from colleagues, restriction among
faculty members to express their opinions, suggestions,
complains, grievances, confrontations, fights and criti-
cisms from their colleagues and superior, and insecuri-
ties among their colleagues.
3. That the effects of teaching motivation to the job per-
formance of the faculty members were high level of
performance and increased efficiency and effectivity
in teaching.
4. That the effects of teaching motivation to the job satis-
faction of the faculty members were increase of their
feeling of being more responsible and competent
teachers; and teaching motivation encourages and
helps them to come on time and not to be absent from
their respective classes as much as possible.

VII. Recommendations
To fully realize the objectives of this study, the
following are strongly recommended to:

Faculty Members
1. Faculty members should continue to pursue higher edu-
cation and should find ways on how to increase quali-
fications and competencies.
2. Faculty members should not compare themselves from
those who are superior than them to prevent the feel-
ing of insecurity and inferiority.
3. Faculty members should be innovative in and patient in
handling boring classes and slow learning students.
4. Faculty members should enhance their human relat ion
skills so not to experience fights, confrontations and
the feeling of hostility, isolation and alienation.
5. There must be a regular faculty meeting every month to
address faculty complains and grievances. Also, de-
velop an open communicat ion between colleagues
and their superior.

Uni versity/ College
1. The University/ College should be supportive to the
personal and professional development of their fac-
ulty members. Provisions of scholarship grants, bene-
fits and educational assistance could help on this mat-
ter.
2. The University/ College should have the initiative of
sending their faculty for regional, national and inter-
national seminars and trainings.
3. The University/ College should provide incentives and
recognition to deserving faculty members. Give trib-
ute, reward and appreciation to those who worked
hard and to those who have great achievements to
compensate their efforts.
4. The University/ College should provide or conduct an-
nual spiritual retreat, seminar on human relations and
socialization program to the faculty members. This
will help in developing a healthy atmosphere in work
environment.
5. The University/ College should ensure and provide a
conducive working condition so that faculty members
will not find it hard to teach and to increase their
teaching motivation.

Administrators and Supervisors
1. Develop an instrument in assessing and evaluating the
teaching motivation and performance of the faculty
members. This will enable the administrators and
supervisors in increasing the teaching motivation of
their subordinates.
2. Distribute properly and fairly the teaching assignments
and honoraria to all active and productive faculty
members. This will prevent or lessen the suspicion
of other teachers that there are favoritis ms and bi-
ases among them.
3. Give faculty members appropriate teaching loads, sub-
jects, and assignments that are in line with their
specialization. This will enable the faculty members
to utilize, apply and enhance their expert ise, talents
and creativity in teaching. Thus, this will contribute
to their teaching motivation and job satisfaction.

References

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Course for Beginners in General Psychology.
Quezon City: New Mercury Printing Press.

[2] Davis, Keith (1981). Human Behavior at Work: Human
Relations and Organizational Behavior. New
York: McGraw-Hill, Incorporated.

[3] Maslow Abraham (1977). Organizational Behavior and
Performance. Claifornia: Goodyear publishing,
Inc.

[4] Muchinsky, Paul M. (1989). Worker Motivation:
Psychology Applied to Work. Chicago, Illinois: Dorsey
Press, Wadsworth Inc.

[5] Sison, Perfecto S. (1981). Personnel and Human re-
sources Management. 5
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[6] Tempo, Elisa H., et. al. (1996). Human Behavior in Busi-
ness Organization: An Interdisciplinary Approach.
Philippines: University of the East TEPO.

AbstractWhile the preponderance of conflict circumstances
in Philippine Schools Overseas are evident and are underex-
plored, school administrators are bound to maintain compo-
sure in their attempt to mediating conflict between and
among members of the organizations. With the belief that
Reflective Mediation Practice is an alternative tool for con-
flict mediation, a semi-structured interview was utilized in
this phenomenological study in order to capture the lived
experiences of a select group of Philippine Schools Overseas
schools administrators representing countries such as the
United Arab Emirates, the Sultanate of Oman and the State
of Qatar as they practically apply reflective mediation in
pacifying conflict at their workplace. From cool to warm
analyses, reading and rereading of significant statements
were facilitated and extended texts were subjected to phe-
nomenological reduction to surface the essence of the phe-
nomenon. A dendogram was utilized to cluster common re-
sponses into themes. Said themes went through a member-
checking procedure to ensure validity and trustworthiness of
data. While mediating conflict, it indirectly made them re-
flective individuals as imperfect leaders harmonizing with
imperfect people. Such reflectivity of the mind must tran-
scend down to the heart purposely grounded on facets of
mediation that should begin from listening, connecting, rec-
onciling, satisficing and nurturing. Nurturing means denying
hate and acknowledging love; renouncing rage and welcom-
ing forgiveness, and ruling good over bad. School adminis-
trators are breaths of sound and dynamic interpersonal net-
works of individuals in dynamic organizations transcending
the ecology of human behavior to be more profound than
professional, more humane than inhumane and more under-
standing than being understood.
Keywords-: Facets of Reflective Mediation, Philippine
School Administrators, Philippine School Overseas, conflict
mediation, listening, connecting, reconciling, satisficing,
nurturing.
Introduction

In considering potential imbalance of relationship
due to either vertical or horizontal violence at the work-
place, conflict mediat ion as a strategy becomes a paradox
of reflective apparent for concern for self and concern
for others as the best constructs of cultural values
(Kaushal, & Kwantes, 2006; Hunter,2009; Vaiyrynen,
2001; Carnevale and Pruitt, 1992). Conflict mediat ion is
conceptualized within a phenomenological framework
where the 'transformat ion of typifications and
'renegotiations of realities' are emphasized thrives within
the capacity of disputants to understand and appreciate
each others interests transcendentally (Vaiyrynen, 2001;
Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992; Warries,1992). This transcen-
dental constitutive thinking spontaneously carries re-
markably a picture of human experience acceding to the
transcendental ideas or ideas of reason that support
in the mediation process of a dispute (Warries,1992;
Epstein 2002). Various studies have shown that attitudes
formed as a result of reflective thinking are more pre-
dictive of behavioral intentions and actions and are
more persistent in conflict resolution overtime
(Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, Blair, & Jarvis, 1996; Petty,
Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997).
Reflection defined as a cognitive process that
attempts to raise individuals awareness of personal
experiences and evaluation of new concepts into per-
sonal knowledge structures, relating these concepts to
the individuals other knowledge and experience (Gray,
2007; Alvero, Bucklin, & Austin, 2001; Kluger & DeN-
isi, 1996). Cognizant of this, mediat ion resembles her-
meneutic negotiation that seeks to understand the sce-
nario of friction and feud contextually as part of the
process in joint decision making between disputants and
the mediators (Zart man, 2001; Bleiher, 1982; Vaiyry-
nen, 2009). Moreover it is an extension of the negotia-
tion process relying on finding the common cause of
conflict and transcends it reflectively to the common
human understanding and consciousness of the phe-
nomenon (Bercovitch, 1992; Burton, 1997). Mediator
does not primarily bring to the process of negotiation
but shows superior knowledge of the causes of conflicts
in guiding erring parties to interpret the language of
conflict aim at settling an agreement favorable to them
(Gadamer, 1979). While most educators are concerned
with potentially destructive outcomes from conflicts in
school, numerous theoretical perspectives on conflict
can be represented either as human development theo-
ries or social psychological theories with school admin-
istrators consider to effect positive change (Al-Mabuk,
Dedrick, &Vanderah, 1998; Johnson & Johnson 1996),
such as possibility of not condemning disputants but of
the consequence that brought about by disagreements
affectively (Ferch,1998) which turns anger, hatred, re-
sentment and sadness into neutral and transcendental
hive of good over bad (Pingleton,1997) thus avoiding
revenge and willing to build a peaceful and loving or-
ganizational community (Kearns, & Fincham, 2004).
Understanding to reaching an agreement in-
volves a form of translation and conveying meaning
From Emotional Flame to Moral Frame: A phenomenology of the Reflective Mediation
Practice of the Philippine Schools Overseas (PSOs)
All starts well ends well: Understanding the facets of Reflecti ve Medi ati on Practice
in Phili ppine Schools Overseas of the as (PSOs)
Alexander S. Acosta
1, 2, 3, 4

1
UST Graduate School,
2
Philippine School Doha, Qatar
3
Doha State of Qatar

4
xandreacts@yahoo.com
from one context to the context of another persons life
which is why the third-party is indispensable in a conflict
(Vaiyrynen, 2009). Conflict mediators are perceived as
rational beings transcending hermeneutic facets of reason-
ing clumped on understanding and listening which is the
basic character of human life (Selman, 1981 Smetana,
1989; Youniss, 1980 Heidegger, 1990 ; Gadamer, 1991).
Interestingly, Epstein (2004), presupposed that the dy-
namic nature of consciousness, the way consciousness
moves continually from sensation to sensation, and
thought to thought, relies on the whole nexus of associa-
tions, memories and emotions that constitutes experience
in its unique savor and significance. Previous studies have
produced arrays of mediation forms, and strategies re-
s earched and employed, (Beards ley, Quinn,
Biswas,Wilkenfeld, 2006; Fisher, 2007; Balay, 2006; Al
Ajmi,et.al 2007) (Chen &Tjosvold, 2005) none of them
dwelt on the value of reflect ive mediat ion as built -in dis-
closive capacities of our moral understanding, enabling
school administrators to bring out the moral quality of
judgment that is illocutionary. This argues that the success
of the mediation process through reflection depends on the
ability of the mediator to exercise his power ensuring him
that the extent of his authority is basically grounded on
transcendental reason. In this way, providing alternatives
to resolve conflict in Philippine Schools Overseas have a
meaningful and peaceable effect that may direct disputants
to conflict mediat ion in a diplomat ic and non-coercive
conflict resolution. Undoubtedly, the lived experiences
shared in the verbalizations and musings of the school
administrators hope to answer the phenomenological
question What Reflective Mediation Practice do PSOs
school administrators use as they take the mediators role
in conflict mediat ion?

Method

Design, Selection, and study sites
To capture the essence of the lived experiences of
human beings in their chosen world, this qualitative study
utilizes the phenomenological design. According to Rock-
well & Giles (2009) phenomenology develops an under-
standing of the meaning and experience as dimensions of
humans lives and the social worlds. The sample subject
of this research inquiry was composed of ten (10) school
administrators from the three chosen countries in the Mid-
dle East, namely: The United Arab Emirates, The Sultan-
ate of Oman and The State of Qatar. Five of them were
school principals who have served their schools for at
least 5 years to 15 years. Three of them were Doctors of
Education and the other two were all masters degree
holders. The other 5 are chairmen of the school board of
trustees who have been serving the school from 2 to 17
years.

Instrumentation
A two-part instrument was used to gather data
intended for this research. The first part called robotfoto
(Kelchtermans &Ballet, 2002) sought to record the demo-
graphic data of the respondents such as gender, positions
held and years of experience serving the school. The sec-
ond part was a semi structured interview purposively con-
ducted to school administrators who have experienced the
phenomenon being researched (Kruger, 1988 Kruger, D.
(1988) unfolding the form of reflective mediat ion practice
employed in the Philippine Schools Overseas. Such mode
elucidates the meanings of intentional experience by
studying the reports of the participants lived worlds.
(Hull, 1997; Moustakas, 1994).

Data Collect ion and Ethical Consideration
The researchers point of entry in data collection was done
through a semi structured interview. Three qualitative
forms of interviewing, namely: the informal, conversa-
tional interviews and semi structured interviews via audio
and video taped recording were employed for a friendly
mood and intimate at mosphere with interviewees. After
the receipt of the respondents consent for the interview, a
2-hour interview was conducted personally at the most
convenient process of the subjects in their respective
schools. Respondents were assured of the confidentiality
of their responses. Interviews served as processes of pri-
mary data gathering in phenomenological design (Bogdan,
& Biklen, 1982) for which questions were directed to the
subjects experiences, feelings, beliefs and convictions
(Welman, & Kruger, 1999). Note taking was also observed
between formal and casual conversation to enrich data
interpretation (Arkley, & Knight, 1999)

Mode of Analysis
Through the epoche, the researcher attempted to
suspend a priori beliefs relating to the experience being
investigated (Rockwell & Giles, 2009). The process of
data reduction followed the guidelines described by
Moustakas (1994): First, regard every statement as having
equal value (Horizontalizat ion). Second, eliminate repeti-
tive text and highlight qualities of the experience that stand
out (Delimit ing Horizons or Meanings). Third, cluster
similar text into themes (Invariant Qualities and Themes).
Fourth, write a composite textural description integrating
the experiences of all research participants into a unified
narrative (Composite Textural Descript ion). Finally, write
a composite structural description integrating the experi-
ences of all research participants into a unified narrative
(Composite Structural Description). In the final analysis,
emerged themes in the dendogram, were reviewed by the
second researcher who was not involved in data gathering
as suggested by Faulkner and Sparkes (1999). The second
researcher is a crit ical friend member who procedurally
checks the validity and trustworthiness of data (Dingwall,
1997).

Findings

Capturing the lived experience of a select group
of school administrators of the Philippine School Over-
seas, this phenomenological inquiry has shed light on the
facets of Reflect ive Mediation relat ive to the central ques-
tion What Reflective Mediation Pract ice do PSOs school
administrators use as they take the mediators role in con-
flict mediation? As shown in Figure 1, the pyramid dis-
plays ascendance of mediat ion facets that emanate from
listening; believed to be the foundation of successful me-
diation, connecting; where reasons are processed and re-
flected upon. Reconciling encourages both parties to be
open for forgiveness and amicable resolution contritely
and peacefully. When issues are positively attuned for
purposes of mediat ion, satisficing is the level where both
parties and mediator reach the satisfaction level of media-
tion by providing options beneficial not only to them but
also to the organization. Nurturing is the transcendental
level of mediat ion where both parties reflect on lessons
learned from the consequence of disputes. Both disputants
and mediator see the value of relationship and are encour-
aged to unburden themselves the pain, hatred and rage;
and nurture good over evil.
Figure 1.The Five Facets of Reflective Mediat ion

Listening
Resolving issues and concerns at the workplace
is a pivotal function of a leader. He must have a listening
ear to both pleasant and unpleasant reports may it be work
related, personal and conflictual before guiding the dispu-
tants to arrive at a meaningful solution. School administra-
tors in Philippine School Overseas were very keen to re-
solving issues by finding the cause of the conflict through
listening to both erring parties. They verbalized:
We always tell both parties that we do not side
anyone of them. We listen to both sides then afterwards
we weigh things. Which one we think did the right thing
and who did the wrong thing. We need to know the real
situation first before we can give our suggestions to the
solution of the issues.
Verbalizations of these school administrators
simply proved that they always subscribe to listening to
both erring parties before they engaged themselves in me-
diation. One can never engage in mediation right away
without taking into account the background of the dis-
agreed issues as articulated by one school administrator.
Based on my experience, what is important in dealing
with conflict is through listening, because I just cannot
give my views without understanding their situation. I
need to listen to them first, present t heir views one at a
time and then from their expressions of ideas I could
come up with a suggestion to the solution of the prob-
lem. It is interesting to note that through listening, the
mediator can redirect his understanding of the issue that
would somehow build the foundation of resolving conflict
amicably and diplomatically.

Connecting
Learning through and from the experience of
conflict mediation, school administrators experiences
have beautiful sharing of their journey with their col-
leagues. Conflicts indirect ly fashioned them to be good
and reflective individuals which made them mature in
the way they see the preponderance of circumstances
particularly on conflict. They mused:
Mediating conflict makes us more mature in
dealing with issues and enables us to reflect on the
thought that this experience can better prepare us for a
bigger conflict ahead for us to resolve. It may not be
in the school setting but probably in our personal con-
nection with our family.
This articulation described that both disputants and me-
diator are in a way connecting with the same level of
experiences where they can see things clearly from their
respective points of view. The positive outlook of the
school administrators on conflict mediat ion gives them
a more opportunity to enhance their leadership skills
and hone themselves in preparation for bigger or more
challenging tasks ahead. By connecting conflict media-
tion, school administrators see themselves, as learning
individuals, a depth in understanding human behavior as
integral to the resolutions of issues and disagreements.

Reconciling
In every conflict, disputants and even others
around them wish to resolve the conflict in a more
peaceful way where both parties forgive and reconcile.
School administrators shared the ways of how they rec-
oncile individuals who were in conflict. Following is the
narration.
I will present the summary of their claims,
then let them see the disadvantages and the advantages
for them to realize the effect of their feuds. Then I shall
present my suggestion and it is up to them to follow.
Through this foregoing strategy, administrators
claimed that disputants were enlightened and profound
enough to reconcile with each other out of their own
volition not of coercion because they saw the continu-
ance of unhealthy relationship between and among other
members of the group. In fact administrators clearly
expressed that:

I always maneuver the mediation process ensuring
that both parties can convert the situation into a posi-
tive experience with the realization that conflicts hap-
pen to discover their weaknesses and limitations for
them to be guided and that when they occur again they
know when to compose and pause for a while whether
or not they would continue the fight.

Undoubtedly, the heart of mediation is recon-
ciliation as averred by the school administrators. One
can think of what good mediat ion is if attaining reconcilia-
tion is a failure. Vividly, mediat ion is anchored on recon-
ciling human weaknesses by reflecting and identifying
limitat ions which the mediator believes to be the source of
enduring conflict.

Satisficing
Reaching at the level best of providing options to
the disputants whether genuine or irrational, it is always at
the satisfying level or a more fulfilling feeling for media-
tors to see disputants resolve conflicts at their peak state
of mediation. They feel the very purpose of their role as
conflict mediators in the very sense of the word. School
administrators profoundly articulated when asked what
they felt when conflict has been resolved. They said:

In my personal assessment, if I solved the problem
peacefully and if both parties have been satisfied with
the recommendations that I made that made me so ful-
filled to think that I am an effective decision maker.

Bringing themselves as conflict mediators at the
highest level of satisfaction, school administrators felt of
having a purpose-driven career and not just being school
managers but also by being instruments of change. As one
administrator said:

Nothing is more fulfilling and satisfying in this career
than by being adored and offered respect not because of
fear but because I have been part in the changing course
of my colleagues lives

Nurturing
Transcending the facets of conflict mediations,
school administrators have reached the highest facet of
mediation of nurturing whereby disputants felt humbled
when they start the course of the mediation process. One
school administrator verbalized that she did not feel any
difficulty in resolving conflict in her group because her
people treated her as their mother. She said, I dont
know maybe because I am t he mother of everybody here,
conflict is not very difficult to handle. If members of the
organizations felt the need to preserve peace at the work
place, they should practice the values that the school is
advocating to and should embed the vision-mission of the
school in their day to day encounter with colleagues and
other staff.
One administrator had shared:
I give them time to reflect and review the vi-
sion-mission and the values that the school adheres to.
They need to identify the advantages and disadvantages
of their fight and come back to me for another session. I
scheduled them for final settlement, reminding them that
they should come up with realizations. If nothing hap-
pens, then the board will decide for both of them.
Indeed, nurturing love for service and passion for
work hold through the success of mediation. It is the im-
petus that enables organizations stay at their peak and re-
mained untouched despite disagreements, politics and
other peripheral conflicts because school administrators
have committed themselves to be on guard whenever con-
flict threatens. When asked about the lesson they learned
from serving the school, this school administrator had his
beautiful final remark.
The essence of service does not come from the
position you handle but how you perform your role. In
serving the school I find the fulfillment of my dream I
went through a lot just to save the school yet I continue to
serve because I have a mission to fulfill.
Undoubtedly, nurturing the positive character and
behavior transcends the person to be more profound in his
thoughts, words and deeds. As one respondent said, there
is joy in serving-no pain, no gain.

Discussion

The fascinating verbalizations, art iculations and
musings of the school administrators in Philippine School
Overseas as conflict mediators have demonstrated the
value of mediat ion as an adequate response to conflict,
disagreements and disputes. This phenomenological study
reveals ascendants of reflective mediation facets evidently
practiced by school administrators of the Philippine School
Overseas: namely, listening; considered as the foundation
for a successful mediation that regulates the negotiation
process, connecting; where reasons and opinions are
grounded aesthetically from previous and present situa-
tions at the work environment, reconciling; believed to be
the heart of the mediation process, satisficing; where op-
tions are laid by mediators while disputants are made to
realize the consequences of their rifts and nurturing, as the
highest level of mediat ion that examines the cause of con-
flicts, extends a leverage of power to mediate, enables to
play the role of mediator and transcends the whole being
of a mediator to be prolific in decision making and pro-
found in his/her words, thoughts and deeds.

Listening
Truly, the beginning of understanding is listening.
It provides the ability to access and/or generates feelings
when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emo-
tion and emotional knowledge that make individuals to be
better friends, better partners, better co-workers and better
leaders (Herkenhoff, 2004; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso
2004). Studies by Irving and Benjamin (1995), and Kres-
sel, Frontera, Forlenza, But ler and Fish (1994) indicate
that public and private practice settings influence what
mediators do particularly when they rely on passive forms
of intervention such as clarification and active listening.
Thus, mediators may espouse different orientations and
practice differently on the basis of objectives and expecta-
tions specific to their context of mediation (Timmerman &
Scott 2006). In this way effective leadership requires rela-
tional skills such as problem solving in conflict manage-
ment, motivation, communicat ion, and listening (Yukl,
1998). Nothing is more important to a leader than skills
involved in communicating and in listening to followers
intent, for it is only through effectively transmitt ing intent
that followers may understand and execute the goals of the
team and leader (Jarvenpaa & Tanriverdi, 2002). While the
purpose of the mediat ion process is to surface the cause of
conflict in such a way that misunderstanding between and
among employees can be redirected positively, listening to
disputants attentively and intentionally may enhance in
resolving the issues immediately.
According to Timmerman and Scott (2006), dem-
onstrating attentiveness to a mediation discussion ensures
both parties share with a common understanding that pro-
duces better performance outcomes despite misunder-
standing between them. Although opposed by scholars
that misunderstandings among team members can lead to
inadequate critical thinking, human error in informat ion
processing, uncertainty, perceived isolation, as well as
reduced satisfaction, task- and organizational commit-
ment, trust and team cohesion (Caballer, Gracia, & Peiro,
2005; Driskell, Radtke, & Salas, 2003; Jarvenpaa & Tan-
riverdi, 2002; Timmerman & Scott, 2006; Workman,
Kahnweiler,& Bommer, 2003), the value of listening to a
dispute can be an effective process through and interactive
and deliberative dialogue that requires spaces for dispu-
tants to get together to deliberate on pressing issues
(Hajer, 2003) sustained interactive arrangements, such as,
collaborative dialogues and seek mediators councils
(Fung & Wright, 2001) and come up with a deliberative
consensus (Gastil & Levine, 2005). Freedom of expres-
sions is embedded in the mediation process which may
lead to coming up with legitimate policy decisions similar
to what Dryzeks (2001) term as democrat ic deliberation.
It is interesting to note that listening to communication is
a form of mediation inculcation as the normat ive ideal of
conflict mediation which disputants are informed about
the policy issue and reason together in view of the better
argument (Dryzek, 2000 ).Ideally mediators hold open
preferences and provide reasons about the arguments for
the disputants to appreciate and accept (Benhabib, 1996).
In the Philippine Schools Overseas, school ad-
ministrators observed the ideal way of mediating conflicts
where productive deliberat ion on issues and problems are
tackled succinctly not only to listen to the cause of the
disputes but also to provide sensemaking on the issues to
be resolved. Sensemaking has been defined as how peo-
ple make sense out of their experiences in the
world (Duffy, 1995). Individual sensemaking consists of
a set of activities or processes in the cognitive and social
domains that starts with perception and ends prior to tak-
ing action (Redden, Elliott, Turner & Blackwell 2004).
The value of listening to conflict discussions scaffolds the
success of mediation the extent to which leaders should
coordinate, decide and perform quickly with emphasis on
collaborative and calculated decisions.

Connecting
Depth of sincerity and regret expressed by the
disputants during the mediation process relies on how
mediators lead them to accept apologies from their own
misdeeds. Findings show that both mediators and dispu-
tants expressed the same level of expectations where con-
flicts become a mirror of events in the past and the possi-
bility of happening again in the future. Formal mediat ion
of interpersonal disputes ideally occurs in a context that
encourages problem solving that connects resemblance
of past conflict of what has been learned and what shall
be learned when conflict recurs (Herman, Hollet, Eaker
& Gale, 2005). Preferences for certain outcomes predis-
pose mediators to steer conversations in desired direc-
tions that gradually shape the sanity and understanding
of disputants (Greatbatc & Dingwall, 1989; Bartunek ,
Kolb &Lcwicki ,1992). This describes the interpretive
frames to make sense of a conflict, and to formulate
actions that usually connect the social drama of conflict
not only at the work place but also conflict within his or
her own environment (Gilkey & Greenhalgh, 1993). It is
a mediators preferences for coherence and subsequent
choice of language that consciously connects their ori-
entations to their mediation practices as mirrored in the
past (Cobb, 1994; Rifkin, Millen, & Cobb, 1991). In-
deed, Lang and Taylor (2000) suggest that mediators
need to relate consciously to their personal beliefs, as-
sumptions and orientations. In its real sense no mediator
entering the field is immune from his or her personal
and professional background. He should address the
issues of integration by interplaying with their past
training and experiences in mediation being aware of
the cultural differences and political claims of each dis-
putant (Gold, 1985; Luwisch, 2000).
In other words, because of the status of domi-
nance over their staff, managers intervention in the
case of conflict greatly holds the balance. In keeping
with the idea of wide reflective equilibrium, judicial
opinions, mediators must consider judgments and moral
principles on relevant background and sameness of dis-
putes used to help assess pressing issues which in the
end favors forgiveness and harmony in the organization
(Klosko, Keren &Nyikos, 2003; Menkel-Meadow,
1984; Riflkin, Millen and Cobb, 1991; Irving & Benja-
min, 1995; Jones, 2001). The purpose of forgiveness is
to accommodate erring individuals back to unity with
other members of the organization, thus fostering peace-
ful and supportive working environment (Undung & De
Guzman, 2008).

Reconciling
While affirming peace building to be success-
ful in the long run, reconciliat ion should be the heart of
conflict mediat ion (Irani, 1999; Castles & Whiten 1998;
Aureli & Van Schaik 1991; Waal, 1986; Cords &
Thurnheer 1993; Koyama 2001 ; Kutsukake & Castles,
2001 ). The sharings of school administrators in Philip-
pine School Overseas enlighten other dynamic organiza-
tions to resolve conflict peacefully in reconcilable
agreement. Reconciliation is one of the discussed con-
flict resolutions defined as the first post-conflict affini-
tive interaction between former opponents (Palagi, An-
tonacci, & Norcia ,2008; Waal & van Roosmalen,1979).
It operates in restoring the relationship between oppo-
nents after a conflict (Aureli & de Waal 2000; Demaria
& Thierry 2001; Wittig & Boesch 2005) and limit
stress between disputants (Das et al. 1998 ; Aureli &
Smucny 2000; Arnold & Whiten 2001). The very es-
sence of conflict resolution processes requires explora-
tion through social constructivism emphasizing the impor-
tance of culture in meaning making and in using com-
mon sense to perceive, interpret, evaluate and act on, in
both the internal and external reality (Avruch & Black,
1991; Aureli & Schaffner, 2006 ; Kappeler & van Schaik
1992; Cords 1992; Watts 1995). Conflict mediat ion is
culture bound composed of experiences, organized,
learned or created by individuals aimed at reconciling
individuals who may have common experiences in a di-
versified interpretation of meanings (Abu-Nimer, 2001;
Avruch & Black, 1991). However, the field of conflict
resolution continues to grapple with the question of where
to infuse cultural needs within reconciliat ion processes
(Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, & Miall, 2005;Palagi, An-
tonacci, & Norcia ,2008; Inman & Zeelenberg, 2002).
Culture shapes the character of people and people
act differently according to their desired norms and values
as individuals. It is the moral duty of the school adminis-
trators to bridge the gap of misunderstanding between and
among members of the school organization by offering
sense of fairness and forgiveness illumined by the produc-
tive pride and dignity of people through reconciliation. If
peoples needs are culturally specific, it follows that con-
flict resolution processes should address human needs
with culturally specific means under the tenet of the Is-
lamic term Sulha (Irani, 1999). Sulha reconciles indi-
viduals and communities who have been hurt and of-
fended by stressing the link between the psychological
and political dimensions of communal thought embodied
by restoring of honor and granting of forgiveness (Irani,
1999).

Satisficing
Personal sacrifice involved in bringing out the
best outcome is an act of satisficing determined by the
value found in a situation or state of affairs at or around
the time of an act (Bradley, 2006). Sat isficing is a moral
act good enough to bring about an outcome that is rea-
sonably close to the best outcome (Henden, 2006; Brad-
ley, 2006). It is a term of providing options whether con-
sequential or non-consequentialis m. Sat isficing conse-
quentialism means to solve the problem with necessity
and does not permit the gratuitous prevention of goodness
(Weber, 2004). Non-consequentialis m is difficulty in ex-
plaining the rationalizing role of the thought that an alter-
native is good enough within a non-consequentialist
framework (Dancy, 1997). Some authors argued that it
can be rational to choose a satisfactory, suboptimal option
even when one knows that a better option is included in
ones set of options. They call this genuine satisficing
(Bradley, 2006; Byron 1998). More often than not, school
administrators in Philippine Schools Overseas practice
satisficing without noticing it that their act is an act of
selflessness that must have earned indulgence by provid-
ing service to the school more than what they expect to
do. The most gratifying moment that school administra-
tors see the fruit of their hard-earned labor is when the
school grows in abundance with peace among members
and the willingness to forgive and forget for ones mis-
deed. Satisficing equates giving in and giving up in favor
of ones benefits either for the organizations or for per-
sonal advantage (Hurka 1990; Mulgan 1993; Schmidtz,
2004). According Kouassi (2007), authorit ies have three
complementary qualit ies in relat ion to power and execu-
tion, namely: qualification, knowledge and deep practice
of the subject or the domain at hand; recognition, the abil-
ity to inspire trust in either the justice, the objectivity or
the impartiality of his arguments in the domain involved
and exemplification, or coherence and consequence de-
rived from recognized obedience, adherence and self-
denial. Principals work in a complex network of relat ion-
ships. Their success at mobilizing faculty and staff to do
their best depends on their abilities to grow and maintain
honest, supportive relationships with and within that group
of important adults. Principals cannot cultivate those rela-
tionships without regularly cultivating their own relat ional
skills that means learning from the daily work of leader-
ship with the help of insightful and caring colleagues
(Donaldson, Marnik, Mackenzie & Ackerman, 2009).

Nurturing
Nurturing peace provides an eloquent answer in
conflict mediation. It is a transcendental empowerment
achieved by allowing erring parties to take control of the
resolution process by attending all activities of thinking,
bringing even the unconscious activities of the imagination
into the purview of philosophical reflection (Mulcahy,
2000). In this case, nurturing is the last facet of mediation
where both mediators and erring parties are borne part of
the success of mediation in the form of preventive diplo-
macy. Preventive diplomacy means the proactive involve-
ment of the third parties in a conflict through a dialogue
rather than waiting for a "ripe" moment (Zart man, 1989).
True dialogue is a kind of speech that progressively dis-
closes the object, continually addressing it as something
different reflectively (Vyrynen, 2005). Reflect ion can be
defined as a cognitive process involving the absorption and
evaluation of new concepts into personal knowledge struc-
tures that nurtures knowledge, positive feedback and ex-
perience (Gray, 2007). Reflection is the nurturing stage of
mediation that enhances conflict interventions which is
believed to be stimulating and enriching shared by both
disputants and the mediators (Alvero, Bucklin, & Austin,
2001; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein,
Blair, & Jarvis, 1996; Petty, Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997).
Every behavior echoes the dynamic interplay of the three
levels of influence nature, nurture and culture that can ei-
ther play synergistically or dysergistically (Lucas, 2005).
When conflict is viewed to be a way of correct ing an act or
a change of attitudes and behavior then it is a demonstra-
tion of concern and love that promotes persuasive and im-
bibing message to both disputants, people around them
and mediators themselves (Gordijn, Postmes, & de Vries,
2001;Tormala & Petty, 2004). Mediators tend to nurture
love and faith as their edge over conflict which illuminates
tact and decency in their words, actions and thinking. They
serve as effective counselors strategically controlling at-
tention during mediat ion session exercising both a cogni-
tive and affective empathic response to the disputants
(Lambert & Barley, 2001;Wiley &Wampold, 2001).
In organizational domain, Dustin (2006), equates
profound professionals as nurturing individuals deeply
inscribed the value of commonsense that really makes
sense in its profoundest form.
Principals, whether aspiring or practicing, must
maintain their core beliefs and values as leaders focusing
particularly on both pedagogical and relational dimensions
of their work. Philosophical nurturance radiates the true
dominance of principalship or adminstratorship that val-
ues caring for others and getting things done collectively.
This orientation communicates itself both subtly and pow-
erfully to staff, students, and the public, sending the mes-
sage that everyones voice counts and nurtures everyones
feelings that reverberates throughout the culture of the
school (Donaldson, Marnik, Mackenzie & Ackerman,
2009) until every member of the organization can develop
the attitude of respecting individual differences; nurturing
love and care for others.

Conclusion

Indeed nothing beats the intricate and challeng-
ing roles of school administrators. Their leadership com-
mand cannot be underestimated however should be emu-
lated. Their power to direct the course of a successful
school environment does not promise a bed of roses but
thorns of insurmountable surprises to challenge both their
leadership and human skills.
Conflicts are but a sure indication that people are
rational and can commit errors. What people need is to
find perfection in their own imperfection and to be suffi-
cient despite insufficiency of either human or material
resources. In listening, people discover the equality of
rights to be heard of and to learn to keep their silence
when others start to deliver their piece. As school leaders,
they must be rich with experiences of the past to connect
the possibility of inevitable events in the future when con-
flict threatens to erupt at the workplace. A leader is a fail-
ure leader when he fails to resolve conflict, but when he
manages to reconcile the disputants successfully, his im-
age as conflict mediator is worthy to be praised. Recon-
ciliation is the heart of mediation. It is in the middle of
pyramid with a thought that it bridges the gap of media-
tion before one can proceed to self-satisfaction, the
shadow of selflessness and personal sacrifice relatively
known as satisficing. Satisficing is next to self- sacrifice
which one should share for an option and give in for the
sake of a peaceful conflict resolution. Amidst the chal-
lenge of conflict mediat ion, school administrators are ex-
pected to be calm and radiate a therapeutic aura of peace
favoring forgiveness and harmony between disputants and
among the group. School administrators must transcend
the ecology of human behavior to be more profound than
being only professional, to be more humane than inhu-
mane and to be more understanding than being much un-
derstood. If all leaders and members of the group would
be able to reach the highest level of mediat ion which is
nurturing, nothing could be more pleasing and sweeter
than to see all workers working productively having one
common vision-mission to achieve, one drive to move on
and one dream to realize- to know the meaning of their
existence.


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Abstract -- This paper describes a human intervention-
free class scheduling system for higher educati on insti-
tuti on that is ai med at increasing the efficiency of exist-
ing computer-based class scheduling systems. This
improved scheduling system only requires the set of
timeslots, set of subjects and the correspondi ng student
takers and i ts faculty, as its input data, after which the
system performs a rati onalized pl otting of class sched-
ules based on default criteria and other preferences as
set by an administrator or the department head. With
this improved scheduling system, classroom usage is
optimized while schedule preferences of students and
teachers are gi ven considerations. Moreover, evalua-
tion of this proposed scheduling system shows that as
the number of input data increases, its computati on
time is significantly reduced as compared to the cl assi-
cal computer-based scheduling system.

Introduction

In higher educational institutions, scheduling of
classes is required hence, timetabling is applied. The main
difference between high school timetabling and university
timetabling is the fact that in high schools, students have
to be occupied and supervised every hour of the school
day, or nearly every hour. A class scheduling system con-
sists of scheduling a sequence of activities between teach-
ers and students, satisfying a set of constraints. The activi-
ties are usually meet ings at a particular location. Conse-
quently, a timetable specifies which students meet at
which location and at what time. A timetable must meet a
number of requirements and should satisfy the desires of
all people involved simultaneously as well as possible.
The timing of meet ings must be such that nobody has
more than one meeting at the same t ime.
The difficulty in Class scheduling (also known as
Course Timetabling or Class-Teacher Timetabling Prob-
lem) Problem is due to the associated constraints (Cooper
and Kingston, 1993), since there are constraints that must
be satisfied and constraints that should be fulfilled as well
as possible. For example, it is impossible for a teacher or
student to attend more than one course simultaneously.
Therefore, every teacher or student can have at most one
course at the same time. These conditions are referred to
as teacher constraints and student constraints. Similarly,
room constraints are only satisfied if each room is used for
only one course at a time.
Many formulations and algorithms have been
proposed to solve course scheduling problem and most of
these algorithms are based on local search techniques. The
most common local search techniques are hill climbing,
simulated annealing, and tabu search. Many authors such
as Glover and Laguna (1997), Dowsland (1997), Colorni,
Dorigo and Maniezzo (1998), and Feldman and Golumbic
(1990) had tested and claimed that Tabu Search is both
flexible and efficient and yields a very good result among
all local search based search technique algorithms. How-
ever, these algorithms cannot guarantee that a solution is
optimal (Costa, 1994; Hert z, 1991). In other words, if a
solution is found, it cannot guarantee that this solution has
the best possible optimizat ion cost. This may lead to ineffi-
cient utilizat ion of classrooms which can violate courses,
rooms, teachers, and students preferences (i.e. preferred
timeslots). These algorithms, however, can produce qual-
ity solutions but often have a considerable and enormous
computational time or very slow (Burke and Petrovic,
2002).
To overcome the shortcomings of solution meth-
ods mentioned above, this study combines the Adjacency
Interchange Search Technique as a neighborhood operator
and a local search based framework algorithm, and uses
tabu list as a core that allows modeling of a problem using
constraint programming primitives. One of the attractive
properties of the local search paradigm is that different
techniques can be combined to solve complex problems.
By incorporating the single move as a neighborhood opera-
tor for the search technique, one can change the value of
just one variable in order to improve or reduce the search-
ing time as well as to generate better timetable (Loureno,
Marti and Sttzle, 1996; 2001; 2003). Moreover, the sin-
gle-move can create two alternative neighborhoods by
means of si mple move, that is, a solution is obtained by
using current student available t ime slots to schedule new
course. The approach is complete and hence examines the
entire search space defined by the problem to prove that
either (i) the problem has no solution, i.e. the problem is
unsatisfiable, or (ii) that a solution does exist, i.e. the prob-
lem is satisfiable. If the problem is satisfiable, the pro-
posed approach will search all possible solutions to find
the optimal solution.
The performance of both the Adjacency Inter-
change Search Technique solver and the classical local
search technique solvers is then compared in terms of
computational time cost and efficiency of schedules.The
proposed system is implemented and tested at the AMA
A Human Intervention-Free Class Scheduling System
for Higher Education Institution
Junrie B. Matias,
1
Jay Noel N. Rojo
2*
, Consorcio S. Namoco, Jr
2
. & Rhoda A. Namoco
2

1
AMA Computer Learning Center of Butuan City, Inc.
Butuan City, Philippines

2
Mindanao University of Science and Technology
Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines
Computer Learning Center (ACLC) College of Butuan
City to evaluate its performance. The constraints modeling
covers the teachers preference to course, time slots, days
and preferred rooms. It does not cover the room distance
constraint and any other unidentified constraints. The
algorithm is tested to the timetabling problem instances of
the ACLC, which has 23 sections, 200 plus of possible
subjects, 30 teachers, 800 plus students to be scheduled
about eight consecutive periods a day for six days.

The Course Timetabling Problem
The Course Timetabling Problem (CTP) is gener-
ally based on the study of Daskalaki, Birbas and Housos
(2003), which takes responsibility for the assignment of
courses, teachers and students to the time periods of a
week. This study takes into account all functional rules
imposed by a given school system, which is typical for
higher educational institutions.
In this study, six (6) parameters are considered as
the basic structural elements for the present approach.
These are the following:
A. The day of the week on which a course may be
scheduled.
B. The time period of a day on which a period of a
course may be scheduled. In this approach, a time
period is a combination of any half-hour period
from 7:30 a.m. till 9:00 p.m.
C. The students who are grouped according to their
course for which a t imetable is designed.
D. The teacher that could be the professor, lecturer or
other teaching staff who is going to teach a
course in the timetable. It is assumed that the
assignment of courses to teachers precedes the
timetabling process.
E. The courses to be scheduled for a given set of
groups of students.
F. The classrooms that may be available for schedul-
ing courses for a given set of group of students.

When thinking of a good timetable, there is a
need to consider several types of conditions to be met
though these conditions are not of the same magnitude. It
has distinguished these conditions as constraints. The
timetabling constraints are divided into two categories:
hard and soft constraints.

Hard constraints cannot be violated physically.
There are also other constraints which belong into this
category because of several reasons, for example, institu-
tional rules. In this study, the hard constraints considered
are as follows:
A. Every member of the teaching staff shall be as-
signed to one course, one group of students and
one classroom at a t ime.
B. For every group of students there should be no
conflicts between courses because students can-
not attend to more than one course at a time.
C. All courses in the curriculum of each student year
should be in the timetable considering the exact
number of teaching periods.
D. Each course should be scheduled for as many
teaching periods as the curriculum of each
group of students requires.
E. A course requiring a session of consecutive
periods should be exactly assigned exactly on
a given day.
F. Each person in the teaching staff should be as-
signed as many teaching periods as his/her
weekly teaching load requires.
G. A course requiring a session of consecutive
periods should be assigned exact ly the re-
quired number of periods on a given day.
H. Room capacity constraints must be respected.
No room will take more than its capacity.
I. Course taught by a specific teacher to a speci-
fied student group should be assigned to a
given period in a given day.

On the other hand, soft constraints are condi-
tions that are helpful but not essential to timetable. The
more these conditions are satisfied, the better the timeta-
ble will be, as they are generally preferences and they
do not represent physical conflict. These constraints
may be violated if there is no other feasible solution
available. In this study, the soft constraints considered
together with the corresponding penalty costs are shown
in Table 1.
The objective function for the CTP is to mini-
mize the number of violat ions of the soft constraints. As
much as possible, the objective function must respect
all requests by these structural elements e.g. (teacher,
rooms, students section, course), while ensuring that no
hard constraints. However, the soft constraints are
weighted depending on its quality or cost. Hence, asso-
ciated with these soft constraints are penalty costs for
every occurring violation. The constraints satisfying all
the college and university course scheduling conditions,
when placed in a programming model, are capable of
returning feasible solutions, i.e. assignments that do not
violate any of the basic rules. However, certain assign-
ments are preferable than the others and the improve-
ment of the suggested solutions can be determined by
looking at the corresponding objective function value.

The Adjacency Interchange Search Techni que
Based Automated Course Scheduling System
This study uses an algorithm called Adjacency
Interchange Search Technique, a neighborhood opera-
tor, to address the CTP. This technique uses the formu-
lated programming model for system implementation.
The algorithm is an improvement type local search
based framework algorithm and uses tabu list as a core
that allows modeling of a problem using constraint pro-
gramming primit ives. The algorithm will basically de-
cide depending on the neighborhood or the neighboring
solutions. The neighborhoods are created by the single -
move and simple move approach as shown in Figure 1.
Table 1. The Course Scheduling Penalty Cost Assignment
Figure 1. Schemat ic diagram of the search algorithm with heurist ic im-
provement.

In this study, the algorithm is tested to make a
schedule for 100 subjects of 10 sections that can be as-
signed to 11 classrooms and 1 computer laboratory of the
college. Figure 2 shows a sample timetable generated by
the course scheduling system. It presents that the sched-
uler respects the pre-assigned and forbidden timeslots (i.e.
Monday from 7:30am-12:00noon, Tuesday from 7:30am-
12:00noon). There are no conflicts between two or more
classes and required number of period is assigned (i.e.
BTN0002, require 5 hour per week and 2 rooms for 2
hours lectures and 3 hours laboratory). Continuity of time-
slots is also observe, for example, course BTN0007 is
required to have 3 hours per week, and one and half hour
per sessions which equal to 3 consecutive timeslots (i.e.
timeslots 13,14, and 15).
Figure 3 shows a sample teacher schedule having
no conflicting schedules between two or more course
load. The figure also shows that the required number of
periods is satisfied. The scheduler also respects other con-
straints such as course ranking and preference, desired
rooms and timeslots. Figure 4 shows a sample room
schedule generated by the automated course scheduler. It
can be seen that course is properly assigned without
crashes to other course schedules; every course schedule is
given enough time periods as required. It is observed that
the course assignment is even and there is no timeslot
wasted.
In Figure 5, the course BTN0005 is scheduled on
time slot 1, 2 and 3, thus violating soft constraints. As
shown in Figure 6, the students section has pre-
assignments and has forbidden time slots on Mondays to
Fridays from t ime slots 1 to 9 and those timeslots should
be avoided. However, the scheduler violated this pre-
assignment because there is no other available teacher to
handle the course. Moreover, the scheduler assigned a
teacher who also has pre-assignments. Furthermore, al-
though the student section forbids the assignments on Fri-
day slot 1, 2 and 3, the scheduler still violated it because
the scheduler prefers more the pre-assignments of the
teachers. Other factors that must be taken into considera-
tion for the course scheduling problem include the required
resources /facility such as rooms, laboratories, and the
field of expertise of faculty members.

#
Soft Constraint De-
scription
Elements Involved Cost
of
Pref-
erenc
e
1 Teachers preference to
teach particular course.
Teacher/ Course 25
be scheduled in a par-
ticular room.
Teacher/ Room 100
teach in a particular
time in a day.
Teacher 75
teach in a particular
group of students.
Teacher/ Section 50
5 Teachers/Rooms/
Sections/Course may
have assigned a forbid-
den periods or time
slots.
Teacher/ Room/
Section/ Course
200
6 Teachers may have
assigned a forbidden
periods or time slots.
Teacher 200
7 Rooms may have as-
signed a forbidden
Room/ 200
8 Course may have as-
signed a forbidden
Course 200
9 Teachers may have
assigned limit in the
number of each course
to teach.
Teacher 250
Figure 3. Sample t eacher t imet able generat ed by t he automat ed sched-
uling syst em.
Figure 4. Sample room t imet able generat ed by the automat ed scheduling
system.

Figure 5. Sample st udent t imet able violat ing soft constraint s
Figure 6. Sample teachers pre-assignment s

Figure 7. St udent sect ion schedule with unscheduled courses
Figure 7 shows the deficiency of faculty staff
to teach a course. It can be seen from the figure that the
first course schedule generation resulted to four (4) un-
scheduled subjects BTN0007, BTN005, BTN0013 and
BTN0014 respectively because there is no available
teacher to teach those courses. This is because the
teachers who are previously assigned to teach the same
course are already fully loaded or do not have available
time slots due to conflict on current loads. However, it
can be seen from Figure 8 that after assigning one fac-
ulty member to teach course BTN0013, the scheduler is
able to find a faculty member and assigned him/her to
course BTN0013.
This study considers six (6) soft constraints as
presented in the previous chapter. To obtain a feasible
timetable, all generated solutions must be valid; that is,
they do not violate any hard constraints otherwise they
are not considered as optimal. However, solutions vio-
lating soft constraints are still considered optimal pro-
vided they are properly weighted by calculating their
cost. Figure 8 shows the candidate solution with corre-
sponding penalty cost after scheduling course
BTN0007.
Figure 9 presents an unfeasible solution, show-
ing that a hard constraint is violated (value 1). Corre-
spondingly, the scheduler rejects the solution.

Evaluati on of the Automated Course Scheduling
System
The algorithm was coded in Visual Studio 6.0
and used MySQL as the database; the scheduling system
was tested on AMD Athlon Dual-Core Processor, 801
MHz and 1984MB RAM station under the Microsoft
XP Operat ing System. Table 2 summarizes the course
scheduling data sets used in the evaluation. The test
result shows that the CPU time increases simultaneously
depending on the number of subject and section. The
results also show that the system generates schedule that
satisfies all constraints and with no conflict ing schedule.
As can be observed from the table, there is an increase
in the average CPU t ime required when the number of
classrooms available increases. From data sets 1, 2 and
3, it is observed that the time required is the same, but
from 4 to 10 it is clear that as the number of courses that
needs to be scheduled, the Adjacency Interchange
Search Technique (AITS) outperformed Classical Local
Search Technique (CLST) in terms of CPU time.

Table 2. Summary of Results Comparing the Proposed
Algorithm and the Classical Local Search Technique.

Figure 8. Student section schedule after mapping a course
Figure 9. Candidate solution with penalty cost

Conclusions

In this study, the adjacency interchange search
technique, an improved single-move algorithm for
neighborhood approach, for course timetabling problem is
proposed. The algorithm significantly produces better
optimization results with acceptable runtime. It demon-
strates good scheduling scheme that prevents conflicts and
identifies priorities, t ime exempt ions, and subject prefer-
ences.

References

BURKE, EDMUND K. and PETROVIC, SANJA. 2002, Recent
Research Directions in Automated Timetabling, European
Journal of Operational Research EJOR, 2002.

COLORNI, ALBERTO, DORIGO, MARCO and MANIEZZO,
VITTORIO (1998) Metaheuristics for school timetabling.
Computational Optimisation and Applications, 9(3), 277
298.

COOPER, TIM B., KINGSTON, JEFFREY H. (1993), The solu-
tion of real instances of the timetabling problem. The
Computer Journal 36, 645-653 (1993)

COSTA, DANIEL (1994), A tabu search for computing an op-
erational timetable. European Journal of Operational Re-
search - EJOR, 76, 98 110.

DOWSLAND, KATHRYN A. (1997), Off-the-Peg or Made-to-
Measure? Timetabling and Scheduling with SA and TS.
PATAT 1997: 37-52

FELDMAN, RONEN. AND GOLUMBIC, MARTIN
CHARLES (1990), Optimization algorithms for schedul-
ing via constraint Satisfiability, The Computer Journal,
pp. 356-364, Aug. 1990.

GLOVER, FRED. AND LAGUNA, MANUEL (1997), Tabu
Search, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.

HERTZ, ALAIN (1991) Tabu search for large scale timetabling
problems. European Journal of Operational Research,
54, 39 47.

LOURENO, HELENA R., MARTIN O. AND STTZLE
THOMAS (2003), Iterated Local Search. In Handbook of
Metaheuristics, F. Glover and G. Kochenberger, (eds.),
Kluwer Academic Publishers, International Series in Op-
erations Research & Management Science, pp. 321-353.

LOURENO, HELENA R., MARTIN O. AND STTZLE
THOMAS, A beginners introduction to Iterated Local
Search. In Proceeding of the 4th Metaheuristics Interna-
tional Conference, Porto, Portugal, pp. 1-11.

Data
Sets
Adjacency Inter-
change Search Tech-
nique (AITS)
(Average CPU Time
in seconds)
Classical Local Search
Technique (CLST)
(Average CPU Time
in seconds)
1 1 1
2 3 3
3 5 5
4 7 8
5 13 15
6 27 30
7 41 45
8 54 58
9 64 68
10 74 79


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