UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

HIGH LIGHTS
1.

Ultrasonic Wave Energy

Energy Z A2

Energy

Z
A

(1)

Energy

(2)

A = Amplitude

P = Pressure of piezoelectric Crystal

Z = Acoustic Impedance
A = Amplitude
P = Pressure of piezoelectric Crystal
P ZA

(3)

(Note : Two questions may come from these formulas)

2.

Elastic force
=
The force keeps the atoms of a body in a defined pattern
Sound
=
Vibration transmitted point to point
Sound waves are also called elastic wave or mechanical wave. Related Terms with sound A, E, P, V
Velosity depends on elastic cons. & density (Note : Question may come from this concept)
Frequency of a given sound is always constant

Wave Mode
a.

Longitudinal / Compressional / Pressure (VL)

In this mode propagation of wave is parallel to the dispersion of automs.

b.

Transverse / Shear (VT)

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Only exist in solid, wave propagation perpendicular to this dispersion of atoms.
Polimarisation is possible only in shear wave.
VT

0
.
5
V

__________ (4)

3.

Surface wave / Reyleigh Wave (VR)

Partical Motion of surface wave is elliptical
As the depth increased the degree of energy decreased drastically.
Penetrates upto one wave length

VR = 0.9 VT
4.

________ (5)

Plate Wave / Lamb Wave

This kind of wave is being generated by special method. Better to consult ASM Vol. 17 for
details.
This is of two type
Symmetrical Plate Wave
Upsymmetrical Plate
Wave
Velosity of plate wave depends
on
Type of lamb wave
Frequency
Thickness
Elastic constant & Density
Z =
RE =

VxD

_____________ (6)

(Z2-z1)2
(Z2+z1)2

_____________ (7)

Medium
Water / Persfex
Water / Al
Water / Steel
dB

=
ZC
Zc
Zp

RE
0.1
0.7
0.9

20 log10(A2/A1) (8)
ZP x Zm
=
=
geometrical means of Zp & Zm
=
Impedance of Probe
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TE
0.9
0.3
0.1

UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

Zm
Zc

=
=

Impedance of Metal
Impedance of Couple

Acoustic Mismatch (Z2-Z1)

RE increases

Unit of Z = kg/m2s
[Elastic Arisotropy & Acoustic Arisotropy]
Concept:
When layer of couplant is less than , the energy loss depends on the layer of couplant.
At couplant thickness /4, the maximum transmission is taken place
At couplant thickness /2, the minimum transmission is taken place
SNELLS LAW
Sin1
=
V1

Sin
2
V2

1. Concept of Critical Angle

Condition - (1)
Longitudinal wave generates in the probe which in the
second media (material to be tented) produces two different wave mode (VL & Vs)

Condition - (2)

c1 is called 1st Critical Angle

ie.

Sinc1
=
VL1

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Sin9
00
VL2

UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

Sinci

V1
V2

10

Condition - (3)

c2 is called 2nd Critical Angle

Ie.

Sinc2
=
=

Sinc2

VL1
V1
V2

Sin9
00
VL2
11

i
When V2 > V1 beam will be DIVERGED in second media

i
When V2 < V1 beam will be DIVERGED in second media
Concept of lensed probe (Mainly used in Immersion Testing)

VL (LENSE)

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VL VW
(Water)

12

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VL (LENSE)
VL VW
(Water)

13

n
n1

14

OFF-SET DISTANCE FINDING METHOD

AB = D
OA = D/2 = R
AC = MN = OFFSET DISTANCE = X

Sin
ie.

Pto 13
Photo 13
AC
OA

X
R

=
X
R

Sin

Sin
=
VW
Sin

Sin
r
VM
VW
VM

15
Again,

OR
X
=
R
OR

Sin
r
VM
R

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Sin
r

16

Sin
r

17

OR
VW
VM

UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

xm = focal spot in metal

(Convergent beam with greater
refraction angle)

Focal spot in water

(Incase metal piece
is not placed inside
water; focal point
distance was FW)

xm

VW
VM

Fw-Xw

18

Fw = Focal Length in water

xw

= Water path
Nm

VW
VM

(Nw
Xm)X

19

Nm = Near filed in metal

Nw = Near Field in water

COME BACK TO LIMITED ANGLE ()

T = Thickness of pipe
i.e., ID = OD-2T

Sin

ID
OD

20

Sin

ID
OD

OD-2T
OD

1-

2T
OD

1-

2T
OD

or,
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UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

or,
T

OD
2

(Sin
1) X
x
ID

Sin

Sin

2x
OD

Sinr
VTM

Sin
LW

Again

21

X
OD/2

22

VLM = longitudinal Velocity in Water

VTM = Transverse Velocity in Hollowbar inside the water.
Sin

Sinr

VLW
VTM

23

Vw

24

or

IMMERSION METHOD

Min. water path

=

Material
Thickne
ss X

VM

Minimum
water path = 1/4t + of water when the immersed material is steel.
Acoustic Lense:

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Come Back to Snells Law:

Sin1
V1

Sin2
V2

= Velosity = Dist. (Thk) X Time

Velosity
Thickness

Or time =
ie.

VLW
Dist (W)

An example based on eqn.

VL Steel
Dist. Steel

25

25

Incase sound travels 10mm in water, what will be the equivalent traveling distance in steel.
VL Water
10

So, Dist. Steel =

VL Steel
Dist. Steel
10
10X6.0
1.5

VL Steel
VL Water

mm

m = 40 mm
m

PHASE REVERSAL
RP

Z1
Z2

Z2

Z1
Z2
+ wall
Z1

If Z2 < Z1 RP is ve & this is called phase reversal.

When Z2 < Z1 Wall is called Soft wall
When Z1 < Z2 this is called Hard wall

Phase Reversal takes place in soft wall condition

Radiofrequency (RF)

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UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

Hard Wall
Soft Wall (Phase Reversal)
Passage through material
Pure Absorption Due to
2.
3.

1.
Elastic Hystarasis
Thermal Condition
Internal Friction

Loss of Energy
Loss of Energy due to scatter at grain boundary
Energy e-(a x)
(1)
Loss of energy at scatter
Energy e-(e - s)x

(2)

Adding (1) & (2)

Energy & e-(a + s)x

(a + s) = attenuation coefficient
x = distance

(with distance increase, sensitivity decrease)

Sin/2

1.22

26

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D2
4

27

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Note: f2 f1 = Band Width

Quality
factor
(QF)

28

f0
f2
f1

Amplitude D2
Amplitude

(D=Probe Dia)
1
Dist2

Important Concept

GIVE ATTENTION TO FOLLOWING IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

E

D
Z

B
S

D
Z

B
S

Wa
ve
len
gth

Pene
tratio
n

Sc
atte
r at
Gra
in
Bo
und
ary

Sen
sitiv
ity

De
ad
Zo
ne

Ne
ar
Zo
ne

Be
am
Spr
ea
d

FREQUEN
CY
DIA OF
PROBE

Note:
E
EN
ER
GY

Scatter () Grain Size

Damping Pulse Lengh Pulse Energy
Due to damping pulse energy decreases and band width increases
Pulse width to half of the wave length is called the maximum damping
Highly damped probes called broad band probe
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SPE
ED

UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

Very high damped probes called sock wave probe.

Damping QF
Roof angle of TR probe dead zone effective range
TR probe has better signal to Noice Ratio
QF Penetration
For coarse Grain Higher Dampened probe Required
Broad Band Beam Required Broad Beam amplifier
Tighter or narrow beam probe is giving better lateral resolution
Higher the damping better depth resolution. Therefore broad band will have small pulse
length and provide better depth resolution
In shock wave probe, Dead zone is very less (about 2mm only), shock wave probe is very
high damping probe & best for surface resolution
Delay block is having better near surface resolution
Higher damping shorter the pulse duration, shorter the dead zone. Higher the damping,
Higher the band width and lower the QF, lower the dead zone, lower the pulse duration.

GENERATION OF PULSE
1. Magnetostriction (40/50 kpsi)

2. EAMT probe
No need to touch the job
3. Phase Array
Photo
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4. Piezo electric effect

Piezo electric effect

Defecting ultrasound

Photo
QUARTS CLASICFICATION
1) Lithium Sulphate
2) Barium Titanate & Lead Zirconate Titanate > Ceramic Crystal
USING OF CERAMIC CRYSTAL
Ceramic crystals are made by powder metallurgy process. After the shaping of barium Titanate and
leas zinconate Titanate, the are gone through a high pressure and high temperature & under a high
electric field. This is called polling. Therfore by poling the crystals are oriented in manner as per the
figure. In an effect during the application of pressure they can contract & expand in longitudinal
direction.
In case they are not going through poling, the crystals are not kept in such manner and as a result
during the application of pressure (current), the expansion of different crystal particles will be in
different direction and ultimately there shall not be any generation of pulse.

Photo
This vibration is called the fundamental frequency if > 10t at fundamental frequency
then t = / 2
l

29
=

30

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
When n = 1, this is fundamental frequency & when n is other than l, it is called harmonic
tC

Vc
2fc

31

Vc = Velosity of sound in crystal material.

1.

Through Transmission
Max. intensity at fundamental frequency. Now a days it is trying to make all the probes at its
natural frequency.
t

=
n

f1

V
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n

f2
=

(
n
+
1
)

2
t

32

v
2
t

33

Photo
2.

Resonance
Resonance method used for the measurement even for low thickness other application of this
method is to check the bounding condition.

3. Pulse Echo (**)

Pulse Repetitions Rate It PRR is very high, ghost echo may appear (PRR, PRF)
Photo
PRR CALCULATION (IMMERSION TEST)
The reflected beam should be arrest by the probe.
Vel

Vscan =
Time =
Vscan =

Distance
Time

+d
tim
e1
PR
R

34
35

( +
d)

36

PR
R

Formula (36) is for one pulse but

generally minimum 3 pulse on interrogation are required. Therefore the modified formula is:
Time =

( + d) PRR
n

37

Note : n = No of Pulses
Again go back to clause 3 (**) above;
In order to avoid ghost echo next pulse should come after dying of the first echo.
Time between pulses
velocity
=

Distance
Time

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Vm =

T =

2 x thk job
Time

38

2xnx
tjob
Vm

39

Next Signal should appear after n echo taken place

T =

PRR =

2xnx
tjob
Vm

40

Vm
2xnx
tjob

41

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Internal Mode Conversion
Internal Mode conversion
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
So for root crack 600 probe should not be used but for lack of side wall fusion 600 probe is
ideal.
Beam profile of normal beam probe

PHOTO
Sound goes all the where due to interference
Constructive Interference at the nature axis
Beam profile is result of sound interference

Probe should have highest sensitivity at the centre

Transmission zone roughly two times the near zone
Beam profile

Sin r/2 =

K.
D

42
OR

Sin r/2 =

K.
D

V job
DC fc

43

At Near Field zone sensitivity is less as the location & size identification is critical.

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PHOTO

DGS (Dis. Gain, size) is a multiple DAG Curve.

In DGS, only FBH are used whereas in DAC SDH, notches, FBH are used.
In FBH

1mm
then

=
2mm

20%
=

80%

but in SDH, no formula exists. Only we can say instead of 1 mm in 2 mm amplitude will be increased.

A1
A2

20log

dB =

43

PHOTO
dB
2
6
20
26
44
60

Ration
1.25 : 1
2:1
6:1
19.9 : 1
158:1
1000:1

Why TR probe is not having any initial Echo

PHOTO

PHOTO

In Normal Beam initial pulse is going

directly to amplifier and also going from
normal beam. Due to its one part directly
transfer to amplifier, initial pulse is
appearing
But as per the second figure in TR probe,
no pulse can go directly to the amplifier. It
has to go through Transmitter to job to
Receiver to Amplifier. That is the reason
there is no initial echo.

PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
At position (1) which is the second multiple echo from the delay block and in that position no defect
When a separate circuit produce current
in phase & out phase, it changes the
damping characteristic. When it is in
phase with probe frequency, it shortend
the probe length or it increases the pulse
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height and the probe is dampened
When it is in reverse phase, it shortened the pulse height
PHOTO
Max. height at fundamental frequency
PHOTO
When it is dampened, Broad band
results with low quality frequency
PHOTO
Delay Back
PHOTO
Delay Thickness
PHOTO
At position (1) which is the second multiple echo from the delay block and in that position no defect
from the job is detectable, that is the reason delay blocks are used for a specific thickness which is
turn classified as equivalent thickness of material.
Reflector plate Echo Technique
For thin plate & composite section
PHOTO

PHOTO

In immension test, contour surface deliver broad pulses, therefore for better result focused probes
should be used during scanning of countour surfaces.
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO

Case 1
Case 2
Countour connection lesnse where the
countour of the probe is equal to the
curvature of the pipe.
This is also a countour corrective probe
This is a focusing probe
Line focusing probe

Paint Brush probe or Linear Mosaic probe

When multiple probes are in a line, this is called paint Brush probe / Mosaic probe.
THE CONFIGURATION OF A MOSAIC PROBE
PHOTO
Mosaic for a known area to be tested.
SCANNING SPEED CALCULATION (For Plate)
PHOTO

W = Width of the plate

L = Length
So area scanned / see = s x w
Total area = L x W
Time =

LxW
SxW
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Effective scan area = Probe area overlap

So, W = Probe overlap
SCANNING SPEED CALCULATION (BAR / TUBE)
PHOTO

Circumference Speed(Sc)
=
Linear Scanning Speed
(Sl) =
W = Scanning Index =
Time
Taken (T)
=

x D x RPM
W x RPM
(Probe
Overlap)

Diameter

S
L

47

A-SCAN
PHOTO

Synchronizer Circuit also called Timer Circuit / Clock Circuit. It controls the PRR
Pulser It gives a higher voltage pulse to the probe (-ve voltage). Voltage Range used before pulser to
delay next voltage.
Sweep circuit Range control is on the sweep circuit.
Receiver
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
Rejects cut off equal heights from all echos.
AMPLIFIER BAND WIDTH
The range of frequency a amplifier can control is called Amplifier Band with.
Amplifier Band width Narrow Band (2-4 Mhz)
Amplifier Band width Broad Band (0.5-4 Mhz)
Note: Amplifier width control is on the amplifier site & not change the probe frequency.
Broad band amplifier should use with the broad band width probe.
DYNAMIC RANGE OF DISPLAY
Ratio of defects that can be presented on the CRT called Dynamic Range of Display.
dB control helps to increase the dynamic range of display.
MONITER CIRCUIT / GATE CIRCUIT
To selectively monitor the part of the CRT and this is called Gating. Therefore two controls are the
Gate start control or Gate Central Control
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Gate width
Gate threshold It is a gate of ampude. Any defect amplitude beyond threshold will not make
audiosound.
Node Error
PHOTO

On amplification the cut of is shifted, this

is called nodal error. In order to avoid
nodal error, M/s. Should be calibrated on
the peak of the amplitude.

(Detail of other connections to pulser in A-Scan system)

In A-Scan Amplifier connected to vertical plate & sweep Generator is connected to Horizondal.
PRR circuit may be separate or the part of clock / synchronizer.
B-Scan
PHOTO

Sweep circuit is connected to vertical

axis. Therefore in B-Scan only sweep
line will be shown

X Position
Sensor shows the position of the probe on x axis
PHOTO
PHOTO

So B-Scanning gives the depth & size

along the scanning direction.

PHOTO

PHOTO

PHOTO

PHOTO

PHTO
Good depth information may be possible on latest m/s with multiple gating x and color coding.
C scan also called P-Scan
Scanning angle consideration during scan from a Taper Surface

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