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a
= *( (L
2
-a
2
)/2a) * V /I
Where
a
= Apparent Resistivity in ohm-m L = Distance between centre point and current electrode
V = Potential difference in milli volts a = Distance between Potential electrode
I = Current input in milli amps O = VES location
Resistivity Data Interpretation
The apparent resistivity (a) is calculated using the above equation and the field resistivity data, shown in Table 1
(APPENDIX 1.1), was plotted on log-log graph of 62.5 mm modulus between electrode separation (L) on X-axis and
apparent resistivity (a) on Y-axis for each Vertical Electrical Sounding data. A freehand curve is drawn by joining all the
points, which is the field resistivity curve, is shown in Figure 4(a). The increase or decrease of resistivity with electrode
separation (depth) depends on the thickness and resistivity of the subsurface layers. Normally, the field curves are smooth
and any sudden change in the resistivity at one or two reading are taken as spurious values and the curve is smoothened.
Estimation of Aquifer Volume Using Geophysical and GPS Studies for a Part of Mehadrigedda Reservoir 159
Catchment, Visakhapatnam, India - A 3-Dimensional Modelling Approach Using GIS
Figure 4: (a) Field Resistivity Curve at VES Location (b) Subsurface Lithological Vertical Cross-Section
No. 19 (Chintala Agraharam Village) Along Traverse A-A'
Field curves are matched with the set of theoretical curves prepared for two layer, three layer and multi layer
cases prepared by Orellana and Moony (1966) and broadly 3 to 4 layers are demarcated, which are classified into top soil,
weathered rock, fractured rock and hard rock. Other than the curve matching, field curves are also interpreted visually as
per the hydrogeological and topographical conditions of the area. The locations of the VESs are referred with respect to
(w.r.t.) Mean Sea Level (MSL), using DGPS data, and the corresponding elevations for weathered, fractured and hard rock
surfaces are determined, which are shown in Table 2 (APPENDIX 1.2).
In order to have an illustration of subsurface lithology, vertical cross sections are prepared by selecting the VES in
a linear direction (Figure 5 (a)), choosing three traverses in west- east direction (A-A', B-B' and C-C') and three traverses in
south- north direction (D-D', E-E' and F-F '). The vertical cross section along the traverse A-A' is shown in Figure 4(b). In
total, 50 numbers (Figure 5 (a)) of VES data has been interpreted and the subsurface lithological information is also
collected from the quarrying pits and rock outcrops exposed over the hill slopes, in and around the study area, for
extrapolating the layers up to the basin boundary.
Figure 5: (a) VES Locations Map with Traverses in East-West (A,B,C) and North-South (D,E,F) Directions
(b) TIN of the Weathered Rock Surface Showing the Elevations w.r.t MSL
Generation of 3-Dimensional Models
Resistivity of a formation is influenced by the type of formation material, degree of weathering of the rock,
160 T. Venkateswara Rao, D. Ramprasad Naik, V. Venkateswara Rao
& C. Janardhana Swamy
percentage of water saturation and quality of fluid filled in the pore space. 3-Dimensional models (TIN) are generated from
the interpreted resistivity data, using ArcGIS 3D Analyst module, for weathered rock (Figure 5 (b)), fractured rock
(Figure 6 (a)) and hard rock (Figure 6 (b)) surfaces.
Figure 6: (a) TIN of the Fractured Rock Surface and (b) TIN of the Hard Rock Surface Showing the
Elevations w.r.t MSL
VOLUME ESTIMATION OF THE AQUIFER SYSTEM
The volumetric difference calculated between the topographic surface TIN and hard rock surface TIN, using TIN
Difference utility in ArcGIS - 3D Analyst module, resulted 993.44 x 10
6
m
3
of water holding / yielding zone.
Figure 7: (a) Raster GRID Map of the Topographic Surface and (b) Raster GRID Map of the hard rock surface
Showing the Elevations w.r.t MSL
However, being a network of triangular features with every triangle having the unique properties of slope, aspect
and constantly changing elevation, as a function of the terrain characteristics that it represents over the entire feature, a TIN
cannot be directly used for statistical operations such as subtractions, which are necessary when the differences between
two surface features are to be extracted. To overcome this problem, the TIN is converted into a GRID format, in which
each pixel represents a constant elevation.
A GRID is a plain surface represented as rows and columns of raster cells. Each cell (pixel) in such matrices has a
value, which is represented by a digital number. If the digital numbers are referring to the terrain elevations of an area, t he
GRID map therefore represents the topography of that area. The GRID maps, being matrices of numbers, facilitate
Estimation of Aquifer Volume Using Geophysical and GPS Studies for a Part of Mehadrigedda Reservoir 161
Catchment, Visakhapatnam, India - A 3-Dimensional Modelling Approach Using GIS
performance of statistical functions like subtractions to extract elevation differences between two surfaces. Therefore, the
TINs of the topographic surface and the hard rock surface are converted into raster format, using TIN-to-Raster-
conversion function in 3-D Analyst module of ArcGIS, and the resultant GRID formats are shown in Figure 7(a) and
Figure 7(b) respectively.
ISOPACH GENERATION
Isopachs are the lines joining the points of equal thickness of the different units used generally to represent the
subsurface layers. The thickness of the overburden at any location in the area is the difference between the topographic
surface elevation and the hard rock surface elevation.
Figure 8: Isopach Map of the Aquifer Showing the Thickness of the Water Yielding Zone
The elevation value that a given raster cell represents in the hard rock surface of the area, if subtracted from the
value of the corresponding cell in the topographic surface, yields the thickness of the overburden at that location.
Therefore, raster analysis of subtraction was performed using these two GRID formats, by subtracting the hard rock surface
(Figure 7 (b)) from the topographic surface (Figure 7 (a)) of the study area and the thickness values were classified in
ArcGIS, by grouping all the cells into 5 classes. The output is a GRID surface with each raster cell in it representing the
thickness of the water yielding zone in the area (Figure 8).
RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS
There is a large potential for subsurface storage, notably in areas with deep groundwater tables and no risks for
collateral problems such as water logging. The thickness of the water bearing formations i.e., weathered and fractured rock
zones has increased from the foot hill regions to the low lying areas of the study area. Over the hill slopes and hill ridges,
hard rock is present immediately below the top soil. Even though there is few fractured rock zones noticed over the hill
slopes, these may not contain aquifer system but may guide the rainwater to percolate from the top soils into the aquifer
system down below. However, the hill slopes are useful to retain rainwater for some time and release it into the aquifer
system existing down below the foot hill region. Therefore this zone is considered to be suitable for constructing harvesting
162 T. Venkateswara Rao, D. Ramprasad Naik, V. Venkateswara Rao
& C. Janardhana Swamy
structures, like contour trenches. Isopach map reveals that the thickness of the water yielding zone is within 20 meters
range in the hilly and pediment zones whereas the maximum thickness of more than 60 meters is in the central parts of the
area, which is supposed to be high groundwater potential zone.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1.1
Table 1: Vertical Electrical Sounding data at VES Location No.19
Potential Electrode
Separation (a/2 in m)
Current Electrode
Separation (L in m)
Configuration
Constant
( (L
2
-a
2
)/2a)
Current
(mA)
Voltage
(mV)
Apparent
Resistivity
(Ohm-m)
0.5 1 2.36 27.6 890 76.10
2 11.77 26.5 142 63.07
3 27.47 30.0 69.0 63.18
5 77.71 27.2 21.0 60.00
1.0 7 153 31.6 12.3 59.55
7 75.36 31.5 24.1 57.66
10 155.4 33.5 13.1 60.77
13 263.7 24.4 6.0 64.84
16 401.9 20.4 3.3 65.01
2.0 20 626.4 20.3 2.3 70.97
20 310.8 20.1 4.4 68.04
25 487.4 16.1 2.4 72.66
3.0 30 703.3 16.6 1.8 76.26
30 466.2 15.1 2.4 74.10
35 636.3 16.21 2.2 86.36
5.0 40 832.6 21.1 2.1 82.87
40 494.5 20.7 3.3 78.83
50 771 25.2 2.9 88.73
7.0 60 1122.5 18.5 1.5 91.01
60 796.43 18.4 2.4 103.88
70 1088.01 16.5 1.7 112.10
10.0 80 1424.43 14.4 1.5 148.38
80 989.1 14.0 1.9 134.24
90 1256 19.9 1.9 119.92
100 1554.3 18.2 1.4 119.56
APPENDIX 1.2
Table 2: Elevation Data of Surface and Subsurface Layers w.r.t. MSL (m)
VES
Location
Surface
Weathered
Rock
Fractured
Rock
Hard
Rock
1
22.02 19.02 12.02
-27.98
2
23.30 21.80 17.30
-16.70
3
42.64 41.64 22.64
2.64
4
40.00 37.00 25.00
-20.00
5
24.52 21.52 14.52
-25.48
6
31.18 28.18 1.18
-58.82
7
63.85 62.85 57.85
43.85
8
53.97 51.97 45.97
23.97
9
40.74 36.74 15.74
-39.26
Estimation of Aquifer Volume Using Geophysical and GPS Studies for a Part of Mehadrigedda Reservoir 163
Catchment, Visakhapatnam, India - A 3-Dimensional Modelling Approach Using GIS
Table 2: Contd.,
10
42.12 39.12 22.12
-37.88
11
45.91 44.91 35.91
-24.09
12
68.57 62.57 48.57
28.57
13
77.06 74.06 67.06
47.06
14
53.86 51.86 33.86
-16.14
15
80.00 79.00 79.00
70.00
16
44.29 40.29 24.29
-5.71
17
32.00 30.00 22.00
-18.00
18
52.92 49.92 27.92
-27.08
19
23.21 21.21 8.21
-36.79
20
23.32 22.32 17.32
3.32
21
41.76 38.76 21.76
-28.24
22
22.02 20.02 12.02
-27.98
23
31.80 28.80 21.80
-18.20
24
80.00 78.00 78.00
70.00
25
200.00 198.00 198.00
198.00
26
70.00 68.00 68.00
60.00
27
80.00 78.00 78.00
70.00
28
230.00 228.00 228.00
228.00
29
90.00 88.00 88.00
80.00
30
290.00 287.00 287.00
287.00
31
130.00 128.00 128.00
120.00
32
170.00 168.00 168.00
160.00
33
90.00 88.00 80.00
60.00
34
290.00 288.00 288.00
288.00
35
80.00 78.00 70.00
30.00
36
280.00 277.00 277.00
277.00
37
150.00 147.00 147.00
135.00
38
150.00 148.00 148.00
140.00
39
90.00 88.00 80.00
60.00
40
280.00 277.00 277.00
277.00
41
90.00 88.00 88.00
82.00
42
240.00 238.00 238.00
238.00
43
270.00 267.00 267.00
267.00
44
80.00 78.00 78.00
74.00
45
31.00 26.00 15.00
-29.00
46
20.00 15.00 0.00
-40.00
47
22.00 19.00 -3.00
-48.00
48
15.00 11.00 -5.00
-35.00
49
15.00 12.00 5.00
-15.00
50
120.00 117.00 117.00
100.00
164 T. Venkateswara Rao, D. Ramprasad Naik, V. Venkateswara Rao
& C. Janardhana Swamy
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