ASSIGNMENT 1st

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS (524)

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS (524)

Submitted to:

M.Asgar chaudhry

Submitted by:

Kashif Ali Khan

(0333-8442583)

Roll.NO : 508195371

Semester: Autumn 2008

MBA 2nd

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

Q. 1
Research performs distinct function to assist manager to enhance decisions making
process in the course of effectively gathering research? Elaborate this statement.

APPLYING RESEARCH IN DECISION-MAKING

Applying research:

No research team can control the extent to which target audiences apply their research
results — that is, factor the results into their decision-making. The best the team can do
is to present its results in a way that encourages these target audiences to take the
results into account.

In fact, the results from an individual research study are generally insufficient on their
own to directly determine a decision or course of action because the results of a single
study may provide an incomplete picture in the context of the overall body of research
on the topic.

However, the results of the study can have a range of broad effects on decision-making,
such as:

• Raising awareness of an issue or a problem;

• Helping identify policy alternatives;
• Providing a different perspective on the issue for policy makers;
• Contributing to a body of research on the same or similar topics that is likely to
have an increasing impact on future decisions; and
• Helping pave the way for establishing research evidence as a regular factor in
the decision-making process.
• The program in policy decision-making at McMaster University has developed
a tool to measure the impact of research that an organization funds or produces.

BUILDING CAPACITY TO USE RESEARCH RESULTS

Much work on knowledge exchange has focused on helping researchers introduce their work
into the decision-making process. Equally important is the need for decision making
organizations to be capable of using research in their decision-making.
 This capability involves an organization having the ability to find the research evidence
it needs, judge its reliability, quality, relevance, and applicability, adapt it into a useable
format, and apply it. The Foundation has developed a tool to help organizations assess their
ability to acquire and use research.

Training programs can help health system managers and executives acquire skills to
better incorporate research research into their day-to-day work. For example, the Executive
Training for Research Application (EXTRA) program aims to increase the skills of nurse and
physician managers and health service executives in incorporating research in decision-
making.

Teaching Research Research to a very diverse group of graduate students working

towards careers as research professionals raises a number of challenges. The students come
from different disciplines and a wide range of diverse educational, economic, social, and
cultural backgrounds and from several different countries. At the University of Pittsburgh,
students in the Research Research course are enrolled in one of three master’s or doctoral
degree programs at the School of Research Sciences: research science, library and research
science or telecommunications.

In addition, graduate students, and an occasional senior-level undergraduate student, from

other disciplines and schools, such as business, medicine, public and international affairs, as
well as students from other universities, such as Carnegie Mellon University, take the fifteen-
week course. Identifying and using models for ethical reflection and moral decision-making
requires drawing on materials from several disciplines and adapting those models for the
course. This paper will discuss some of the models used in the past, the advantages and
disadvantages of the model currently used

Basics of Marketing and Its Interface with Research

Marketing researchers need a broad understanding of marketing in order to communicate
and work effectively with marketing professionals. This first module provides knowledge
of marketing in terms of fundamental and critical functions.
Learning Objectives:

1. Define marketing as both a business function and a process.

2. Identify and define all of the major elements of marketing.
3. Explain the components of the marketing mix and product mix.
4. Define products and services and identify the marketing elements that differentiate
them.
5. Explain the product life cycle.
6. Explain the need for marketing advantage and its impact on business success.
7. Explain market segmentation, market positioning, sales forecasting and market
forecasting; their impact on marketing efficiencies; and their integration into
the strategic market planning process.
8. Describe the various approaches to product/service pricing and discuss the
development of pricing strategy.
9. Explain the relationship between marketing and marketing research in a
Typical business.
10. Explain the difference between a consumer and an organizational buyer in terms of
behavior and impact on marketing programs.
11. Discuss product accessibility, explain marketing channels, name several typical
channels for both consumer products and business products, and explain what is
meant by channel conflict.
12. Discuss the various ways to create customer awareness.
13. Discuss how customer service and customer satisfaction affect the various elements
of marketing.
14. Explain the differences and opportunities associated with domestic and international
marketing.
15. Discuss the societal and ethical dimensions of marketing.
16. Describe the role of the marketing professional in the corporate environment.
17. Apply marketing concepts and practices in marketing decision-making.
Q. 2 Being a researcher in manufacturing organization, how can you search the
opportunities and monitor the threats of your product.

These are some following search through which opportunities and monitor the threats of
product can be searched out

 Investment projects and analysis

 Operational research
 International Research Business Policy
 Managerial accounting
 Marketıng research.

The objectives of the research, described as

• Developed a better understanding of themselves (in the ongoing endeavor to

• “Know thyself”);
• Learned how to identify an issue, reflect on it (which is ethics) and make a decision
that is moral;
• Engaged in reflective thinking and careful choice of words, which result in civil
discourse;
• Developed an understanding of the art and science of applied ethics as related to
the main challenges currently confronting the Information Profession.

Marketıng Research:

Introduction to Marketing Research and Problem Definition; Marketing Research

Process; Problem Formulation; Research Design: Exploratory, descriptive and causal
research designs; Data Collection Methods: secondary and primary data, surveys,
observation and experiments; Data Collection Forms; Questionnaire design and forms;
Probability sampling and nonprobability sampling: Simple random sampling, stratified
sampling, quota sampling, cluster sampling; Marketing Research Fields: Product
Research, Advertising Research, Pricing Research, Branding Research; Measurement:
Types of scales, nominal scales, ordinal scales, interval scales, ratio scales and other
scales, reliability and validity of scales; Data Analysis Preliminary Steps: Editing,
coding, tabulation; Data Analysis Methods: Univariate, bivariate and multivariate
methods, Hypotheses testing, Kolmogorov-smirnov, chi-square, regression, analysis of
variance; Preparing and Presenting Written and Oral Research Reports.

Operational Research:

Fundamental concepts and properties concerned by non-linear programming, convexity

and concavity; Analytical and numerical solutions for non-linear models with single
and multiple variables, Conditions of Kuhn-Tucker; Programming with integers;
Capital budgeting, Loading problem, Selection of warehouse place problem,
Distribution problem, Traveling salesman problem. Usage of integer variable for model
development; Solution approaches in integer programming; Branch and bound
technique, Solution of 0-1 linear-integer model; Dynamic programming; Multi level
 decision problems, finite level number problems. Decision under risk and indefiniteness
environments;

International Research:

Marketing researchers in a global society must face the challenges of working with
diverse cultures and varying levels of social and economic development. This optional
module highlights specific demands and opportunities that arise from the international
context.

Learning Objectives:

1. Describe the environmental factors that affect international research and show how
each may impact the steps in the research process.
2. Discuss the problems and various approaches involved in the management of
international research projects, including the coordination of fieldwork.
3. Give examples of secondary data sources available for international research and
what should be taken into account when using them.
4. Identify the issues that make sampling a challenge in international research.
5. Describe how persons of different socioeconomic types can be identified and
classified for sampling and data-interpretation purposes and why different methods may
be required in different countries.
6. Explain why qualitative research plays a crucial role in international research and
give examples of differences among countries when using qualitative methods
internationally.
7. Describe the use (including availability and appropriateness) of telephone, personal,
mail, and electronic survey methods in different countries.
8. Discuss the special challenges of executing experimental (causal) research in an
international setting.
9. Identify problems in designing questionnaires for international research and describe
the best ways of translating a questionnaire into one or more foreign languages.
10. Identify the main problems that affect measurement and scaling in international
research and how these may affect the choice of response scales. Discuss procedures
for establishing equivalence of scales and measures.
11. Describe the variety of issues that affect interpretation of the results of international
research and some of the tools to deal with them.
12. Explain the different ethical and legal issues that apply in different parts of the
world and how these may affect research projects.

Business policy:

Definition and relations of strategy, policy, programme, tactic and budget; Definition
and Components of Strategic Management; Strategic Management in Modern
Management; The Process of Strategic Management, The Choosing and Delegation of
Strategists; Strategic Analysis; Analyzing the External Environment; The Identification
 of Opportunities and Threats; Analyzing the Internal Environment; The Identification
of Strenghts, Weakness and Distinctive Competence; Strategic Orientation; Business
Mission, Business Vision, Goals and Objectives of Business; Foundation Strategies;
Subordinate Strategies; Corporate Strategies; Business Strategies; Competition
Strategies; Investment Strategies; Entry Strategies; Exit Strategies; Mergers and
Acquisitions Strategies; Implementation of Strategies; Controlling the Strategies.

Managerial Accounting:

An Overview of Managerial Accounting, Cost Terms and Classifications, Cost-

Volume-Profit Analysis, Variable Costing:A Tool for Management, Profit Planning,
Flexible Butgets and Overhead Analysis, Relevant Costs for Decision Making, Capital
Budgeting Decisions, Profitability Analysis.

Investment Projects and Analysis:

Conceptual Foundations of Investment and Investment Projects, Preperation and

Development Process of Investment Projects, Market Analysis,Technical Analysis,
Financial Analysis, Evaluation of Investment Projects: Static and Dynamic Methods in
Evaluation of Investment Projects, Risk Analysis in Evaluation of Investment Projects:
The Methods Used in Evaluation of Risky Investment Projects, Evaluation of
Investment Projects in Inflationary Conditions:Discounting Nominal Net Cash Flows
with Nominal Discount Rate and Discounting Real Net Cash Flows with Real Discount
Rate, Evaluation of Investment Projects with Macro Viewpoint, Incentive Matters in
Evaluation of Investment Projects.

Q. 3 Develop a correlation between concept, hypothesis and theory. Discuss the

significant features and classifications of developing theory?

Theory:

A theory is a causal chain, or statements of a causal chain, which have been proven
logically/mathematically to be true. In other words, a statement is made about a causal
relationship ("X because Y" or "X therefore Y") and that statement is tested. Evidence
is gathered and presented regarding the statement, and evaluated; this might include the
results of observation or experiment, but in all cases evidence must be grounded in the
objective, external world.

Hypothesis:

A hypothesis is an unproven theory - e.g. it is a statement of a causal chain or

relationship, perhaps (one hopes) including an explanation of why it is likely to be true.
It has not, however, been subject to definitive or rigorous testing! If I stated "The sky is
blue because blue dye evaporates the fastest and humans have made lots of dye in their
history so that the sky is permeated with predominantly blue dye," that's a hypothesis.
 A hypothesis differs from a research question; it is more specific and makes a
prediction. It is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables. The major difference between a research question and a hypothesis is that a
hypothesis predicts an experimental outcome. For example, a hypothesis might state:
"There is a positive relationship between the availability of flexible work hours and
employee productivity."
Hypotheses provide the following benefits:

1. They determine the focus and direction for a research effort.

2. Their development forces the researcher to clearly state the purpose of the research
activity.
3. They determine what variables will not be considered in a study, as well as those
that will be considered.
4. They require the researcher to have an operational definition of the variables of
interest.

The worth of a hypothesis often depends on the researcher's skills. Since the hypothesis is the
basis of a research study, it is necessary for the hypothesis be developed with a great deal of
thought and contemplation. There are basic criteria to consider when developing a hypothesis,
in order to ensure that it meets the needs of the study and the researcher. A good hypothesis
should:

1. Have logical consistency. Based on the current research literature and knowledge
base, does this hypothesis make sense?
2. Be in step with the current literature and/or provide a good basis for any
differences. Though it does not have to support the current body of literature, it is
necessary to provide a good rationale for stepping away from the mainstream.
3. Be testable. If one cannot design the means to conduct the research, the hypothesis
means nothing.
4. Be stated in clear and simple terms in order to reduce confusion.

Hypothesis Testin:

A basic fact about testing hypotheses is that a hypothesis may be rejected but that the
hypothesis never can be unconditionally accepted until all possible evidence is
valuated. In the case of sampled data, the information set cannot be complete. So if a
test using such data does not reject a hypothesis, the conclusion is not necessarily that
the hypothesis should be accepted.

The null hypothesis in an experiment is the hypothesis that the independent variable has
no effect on the dependent variable. The null hypothesis is expressed as H0. This
hypothesis is assumed to be true unless proven otherwise. The alternative to the null
hypothesis is the hypothesis that the independent variable does have an effect on the
dependent variable. This hypothesis is known as the alternative, research, or
experimental hypothesis and is expressed as H1. This alternative hypothesis states that
the relationship observed between the variables cannot be explained by chance alone.
 There are two types of errors in evaluating a hypotheses:

• Type I error: occurs when one rejects the null hypothesis and accepts the
alternative, when in fact the null hypothesis is true.
• Type II error: occurs when one accepts the null hypothesis when in fact the null
hypothesis is false.

Because their names are not very descriptive, these types of errors sometimes are confused.
Some people jokingly define a Type III error to occur when one confuses Type I and Type
II. To illustrate the difference, it is useful to consider a trial by jury in which the null
hypothesis is that the defendant is innocent. If the jury convicts a truly innocent defendant,
a Type I error has occurred. If, on the other hand, the jury declares a truly guilty defendant
to be innocent, a Type II error has occurred.

Hypothesis testing involves the following steps:

1) • Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses.

2) • Choose the appropriate test.
3) • Choose a level of significance (alpha) - determine the rejection region.
4) • Gather the data and calculate the test statistic.
5) • Determine the probability of the observed value of the test statistic under
6) the null hypothesis given the sampling distribution that applies to the
7) chosen test.
8) • Compare the value of the test statistic to the rejection threshold.
9) • Based on the comparison, reject or do not reject the null hypothesis.
10) • Make the marketing research conclusion.

Hypothesis Testing Process:

Hypothesis testing is a systematic method used to evaluate data and aid the decision-
making process. Following is a typical series of steps involved in hypothesis testing:

1. State the hypotheses of interest

2. Determine the appropriate test statistic
3. Specify the level of statistical significance
4. Determine the decision rule for rejecting or not rejecting the null hypothesis
5. Collect the data and perform the needed calculations
6. Decide to reject or not reject the null hypothesis
Theories:

Theories are nets cast to catch what we call “the world”: to rationalize, to explain, and
to master it. We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer.

Karl R. Popper

Theory and Song

A fact without a theory

Is like a ship without a sail,
Is like a boat without a rudder,
Is like a kite without a tail.
A fact without a figure is a tragic final act,
But one thing worse in this universe
Is a theory without a fact.

• A coherent set of general propositions used as principles of explanation of the apparent

relationships of certain observed phenomena.
• A key element in our definition is the term proposition.
• Before a proposition can be explained, the nature of theoretical concepts must be
understood.

Two Purposes of Theory

• Prediction: It allows the theorist to predict the behavior or characteristics of one

phenomenon from the knowledge of another phenomenon’s characteristics.
• Understanding: To predict phenomenon, we must have an explanation of why
variables behave as they do. Theories provide these explanations.

Discuss the significant features and classifications of developing theory?

Developing Theory

Continental drift was hotly debated off and on for decades following Wegener's death
before it was largely dismissed as being eccentric, preposterous, and improbable. However,
beginning in the 1950s, a wealth of new evidence emerged to revive the debate about
Wegener's provocative ideas and their implications. In particular, four major scientific
developments spurred the formulation of the plate-tectonics theory: (1) demonstration of
the ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor;

1. Confirmation of repeated reversals of the Earth magnetic field in the geologic past;
2. Emergence of the seafloor-spreading hypothesis and associated recycling of oceanic
crust; and
3. Precise documentation that the world's earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated
along oceanic trenches and submarine mountain ranges.
 The subject was revolutionized in 1962 by Morley's PhD thesis. Morely, introduced,
among other fundamental concepts, a new dimension function (generalizing Krull's
dimension). The following decades witnessed at least two more revolutions: Shelah
introducing classification theory and Hrushovski and Zilber developing Geometric model
theory. I will survey some of the early results. In the remaining time, I will discuss what is
probably the 4th revolution; Challenges and recent results in developing classification
theory for Abstract Elementary Classes which is a context that is separated from language
and definability and that should have more applications to core mathematics. In my
presentation I will not assume any knowledge of mathematical logic.

Today we live in a developing theory in which the time taken for people to move between
continents has been significantly reduced and in which Internet and other connections make
instant connections possible. The business response of large business organizations has to
recognize that they now operate in a global market place and to develop appropriate
strategies. A global strategy is an organizational plan that takes into account these new
global realities.

For example, in food manufacture companies like Nestle, Kellogg's, and Cadbury
Schweppes they have developed global distribution and marketing networks, based on
power brands i.e. market leading brands that are recognizable in nearly every country in the
world.

Q. 4 Discuss in detail the research data procedure. Elaborate the nature and types of
primary and secondary data sources.

Data Collection Methods:

The procedures and devices used to obtain primary data vary depending on the
sampling and measurement requirements. Data collection is a key part of the research
plan and frequently represents the biggest cost of primary research.

Objectives:

1. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research.

2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of commonly-used qualitative research
techniques.
3. Describe the pros and cons of direct questioning, observation and in-market
experiments.
4. Demonstrate how to construct an observational research project.
5. Discuss how to set up and conduct an in-market experiment.
6. Discuss the pros and cons of using surveys to obtain market information.
7. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the three basic methods of direct
questioning as well as combination methods (e.g., Phone-mail, phone-disk, etc.).
8. Describe the uses and the advantages and disadvantages of diary panels, store audits,
electronic data generators in marketing research.
 9. Describe the basic approaches and methods for merging data from different sources.
4. Identify the major design differences between phone, mail, and personal interview
questionnaires.
5. Describe the various ways to measure buyer activities and thought processes - scales,
ratings, rankings - and differentiate the strengths and weaknesses of each.
6. Discuss the appropriateness of the various data collection methods for addressing
different populations and different measurement tasks.
7. Describe the proper design and use of concept boards, videos, and other visual aids
in surveys.
8. Describe the design and proper use of computerized data collection instruments and
distinguish between computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI) and computer-
assisted personal interviews.
9. Discuss variations in measurement instruments that are influenced by cultural and
country-of-origin differences

Data Collection Skills:

In the course of implementing surveys, panels, and audits, it is necessary to overcome

the barriers inherent in obtaining primary data about buyer behavior and buyer thought
processes. Professional data collection skills minimize sources of error, delay, and
falsification of data.

Objectives:

1. Explain in detail the main elements of the data collection plan.

2. Describe the main considerations for training data and collection professionals.
3. Differentiate between individual and group interviews, describe the strengths and
weaknesses of each, and describe the typical uses of both types of interviews.
4. Understand and describe the processes and procedures for improving response rates.
5. Identify sources of non-sampling error in the data collection process.
6. Describe the processes for minimizing non-sampling error in the data collection
process.
7. Describe when pre-coding questionnaires is appropriate and explain the process for
pre-coding questionnaires.
8. Explain the purpose of the interviewer briefing and explain in detail the elements that
go into a proper interviewer briefing.
9. Discuss the various interviewing procedures and standards for different interviewing
techniques.
10. Describe the verbal and non-verbal skills required to control the interviewing
process (rapport, verbatim delivery, pronunciation and grammatical correctness,
clarifying and probing, recording, neutrality, and handling difficult respondents).
11. Describe the questioning and recording techniques relevant to specific types of
questions (open-ended, closed-ended, verbal and numerical scales, constant sum
allocations, etc.).
Data Analysis:

Understanding of the data analysis procedures will help you to:

• Appreciate the meaning of the scientific method, hypotheses testing and statistical
significance in relation to research questions
• Realize the importance of good research design when investigating research questions
• Have knowledge of a range of inferential statistics and their applicability and
limitations in the context of your research
• Be able to devise, implement and report accurately a small quantitative research project
• Be capable of identifying the data analysis procedures relevant to your research project
• Show an understanding of the strengths and limitations of the selected quantitative
and/or qualitative research project
• Demonstrate the ability to use word processing, project planning and statistical
computer packages in the context of a quantitative research project and report
• Be adept of working effectively alone or with others to solve a research question/
problem quantitatively.

Data Types and Sources

Secondary Data:

Before going through the time and expense of collecting primary data, one should check for
secondary data that previously may have been collected for other purposes but that can be
used in the immediate study. Secondary data may be internal to the firm, such as sales
invoices and warranty cards, or may be external to the firm such as published data or
commercially available data. The government census is a valuable source of secondary
data.
 Secondary data has the advantage of saving time and reducing data gathering costs. The
disadvantages are that the data may not fit the problem perfectly and that the accuracy may
be more difficult to verify for secondary data than for primary data.

Some secondary data is republished by organizations other than the original source.
Because errors can occur and important explanations may be missing in republished data,
one should obtain secondary data directly from its source. One also should consider who
the source is and whether the results may be biased.

• There are several criteria that one should use to evaluate secondary data.
• Whether the data is useful in the research study.
• How current the data is and whether it applies to time period of interest.
• Errors and accuracy - whether the data is dependable and can be verified.
• Presence of bias in the data.
• Specifications and methodologies used, including data collection method,
response rate, quality and analysis of the data, sample size and sampling
technique, and questionnaire design.
• Objective of the original data collection.
• Nature of the data, including definition of variables, units of measure, categories
used, and relationships examined.

Primary Data:

Often, secondary data must be supplemented by primary data originated specifically for the
study at hand. Some common types of primary data are:

• Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.

• Psychological and lifestyle characteristics.
• Attitudes and opinions.
• Awareness and knowledge - for example, brand awareness.
• Intentions - for example, purchase intentions. While useful, intentions are not a
reliable indication of actual future behavior.
• Motivation - a person's motives are more stable than his/her behavior, so motive is a
better predictor of future behavior than is past behavior.
• Behavior.

Primary data can be obtained by communication or by observation.

Communication involves questioning respondents either verbally or in writing. This

method is versatile, since one needs only to ask for the information; however, the response
may not be accurate. Communication usually is quicker and cheaper than observation.
Observation involves the recording of actions and is performed by either a person or some
mechanical or electronic device.

Observation is less versatile than communication since some attributes of a person may not
be readily observable, such as attitudes, awareness, knowledge, intentions, and motivation.
Observation also might take longer since observers may have to wait for appropriate events
 to occur, though observation using scanner data might be quicker and more cost effective.
Observation typically is more accurate than communication.

Personal interviews have an interviewer bias that mail-in questionnaires do not have. For
example, in a personal interview the respondent's perception of the interviewer may affect
the responses

Types and Sources of Secondary Data

Sales data:

All organizations collect information in the course of their everyday operations. Orders
are received and delivered, costs are recorded, sales personnel submit visit reports,
invoices are sent out, returned goods are recorded and so on. Much of this information
is of potential use in marketing research but a surprising amount of it is actually used.

Financial data:

An organization has a great deal of data within its files on the cost of producing,
storing, transporting and marketing each of its products and product lines. Such data
has many uses in marketing research including allowing measurement of the efficiency
of marketing operations.

Transport data:

Companies that keep good records relating to their transport operations are well placed
to establish which are the most profitable routes, and loads, as well as the most cost
effective routing patterns. Good data on transport operations enables the enterprise to
perform trade-off analysis and thereby establish whether it makes economic sense to
own or hire vehicles, or the point at which a balance of the two gives the best financial
outcome.

Storage data:

The rate of stock turn, stock handling costs, assessing the efficiency of certain
marketing operations and the efficiency of the marketing system as a whole. More
sophisticated accounting systems assign costs to the cubic space occupied by individual
products and the time period over which the product occupies the space.
 SOURCE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

PRIMARY SOURCE SECONDARY SOURCE

Lincoln's Gettysburg Address Garry Wills' book Lincoln at Gettysburg: The
Words That Remade America
The poem "Field Work" by Seamus "A Cold Eye Cast Inward: Seamus Heaney's
Heaney Field Work." by George Cusack in New
Hibernia Review (2002 Autumn), pp. 53-72.
The figures for Ithaca College found in a An article in the Ithacan entitled "Study finds
table of "Number of Offenses Known to eastern colleges often conceal campus crime"
the Police, Universities and Colleges" in
the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports, 2002
The lyrics of 2 Live Crew's album As The article "Discouraging "Objectionable"
Nasty As They Wanna Be Music Conent: Litigation, Legislation,
Economic Pressure, and More Speech" found in
Communications & the Law, April 2003
discussing 2 Live Crew's lyrics.
Cynthia Scheibe's doctoral dissertation An article in Parents Magazine discussing
on the developmental differences in experts' views on the harm of lying to children
children's reasoning about Santa Claus about Santa Claus
The text of Barack Obama’s keynote An editorial in The New York Times entitled
address to the Democratic National Everybody Loves Obama
Convention, found in The New York
Times
Q. 5 Analyze logically data acquiring legitimacy relating to internal and external
analysis? What special problems do open-ended questions have and how can these be
reduced? In what situations the open-end question is most useful?

Analysis of the Internal and External Data

External Environment Data:

Opportunities Measures to enforce them

The existence of good
relationships with a
group of civil society
leaders.
The existence of positive
and constructive
relationships with all the
Ministries.
The existence of strong
relationships with
representatives of
international donor
agencies and other
countries.
The existence of a strong
opportunity for the
Ministry to become the
point of reference for
civil society.
• Continue working with these leaderships and improve
relationships with them by developing appropriate
mechanisms including coordination committees.
• Encourage common development programs and projects
with these NGOs.
• Activate the Inter Ministerial Coordinating Committee.
• Strive to specify the role of the ministries to avoid
duplication and repetition.
• Continuous coordination with these institutions and
donor countries' representatives in various forms.
• Work to obtain funding for the Ministry's, and for NGO,
projects and include these NGOs in the various Ministry's
programs through annual reports, website newsletters and
leaflets.
• Disseminate the presidential decree, clarifying it.· Set
practical mechanisms and programs to implement this
decree.
• Intensify activities with other ministries to apply and
respect the terms of the decree.
External Environment:
Threats/Risks
Absence of clear official
guidelines for civil work.
Refusal of some NGOs to work
and to coordinate with the
Ministry.
Some NGOs refuse to abide by
the Presidential Decree.
Absence of a special internal
system for NGOs
Failure to fundraise for the
necessary resources to implement
the Ministry's plans and projects.
Appearance of political or
development contradictions
between the PNA and NGOs or
between funding agencies which
limits and effects the Ministry's
work.
Continuous regression of
financial aid to NGOs.
Continuous domination and
control of most of the available
funding by a small group of
Measures to overcome them
• Increase number of activities and programs so as to become
a reference point.
• Continuous work with ministries and political leaders to
define guidelines and to specify roles and duties between
various ministries.
• Enhance and strengthen the role of networks and unions.
• Clarify and convince NGOs of the Ministry's mission and
objectives to develop civil society.
• Strengthen and enhance coordination committees between
the Ministry and NGOs.
• Work in a professional and subjective manner with all
organizations.
• Enhance the role of the inter ministerial coordination
committee.
• Focus on the importance of complementarity and
coordination, and on role and duty division.
• Complete the internal system and start applying it.
• Develop a strategic plan to raise funds.
• Have constant democratic dialogue, cooperation and
coordination between all parties through effective
mechanisms.
• Invite NGOs in planning, implementing and organizing
development policies, plans and projects.
• Encourage civil society and the private sector to contribute
in supporting and development NGO programs.
• Continue to encourage donor countries to provide support to
NGOs.
• Encourage the PNA to provide the necessary support for the
continuation of NGO' work.
• Encourage NGOs to be self-reliant in funding their
programs, and to encourage them to reducing and streamline
their administrative costs.
• Encourage voluntary work in NGOs and in society.
• Encourage international agencies to distribute their funding
among NGOs and between the main development sectors.
NGOs.
• Develop NGOs' capacity for fund-raising.

What special problems do open-ended questions have and how can these be reduced? In
what situations the open-end question is most useful?

There are two styles of questions a fundraiser can use:

• Open-ended.
• Close-ended.

Open-Ended Questions:

Open up the conversation and cause the potential benefactor’s thinking to diverge and
expand. Sentences begin with ‘what’, ‘where,’ ‘who,’ ‘when’, and ‘how’. For example,
“What do you feel is the most important aspect of this proposed new concert hall in
terms of the community?”

An open-ended question cannot be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’. It allows the
fundraiser an opportunity to learn more about the potential benefactor and their motives
for considering giving a benefaction.

Open-ended questions also give the potential benefactor the chance to identify goals,
check the realities of the desired outcome and explore various options.

Within this broad based category there are a number of specific types of questions.
They include:

The Clarifying Question.

Open-ended clarification questions can encourage a potential benefactor into looking

beyond the obstacles to giving, and towards solutions and results. A familiar situation
in asking for the benefaction is when the benefactor is explaining some of the doubts he
or she feels about giving a very large sum of money to the organisation and in doing so
turns a process into a noun e.g. “I’m worried about the failure of the project”.
The use of a clarifying question can turn the noun back into a verb and express the
thought as a process. “In your opinion what part of the project is failing to meet the
projected targets?”
When the potential benefactor uses the words ‘it’ and ‘that’ in a sentence e.g. ‘I can’t
do it’ or ‘I don’t know about that’, the fundraiser can attempt to recover the deletions
with clarifying questions such as ‘What exactly can’t you do?’ and ‘What exactly don’t
you know about it?’
The Challenge Question:
Open-ended questions can often challenge a potential benefactor’s negative beliefs that
are blocking a successful ending to the solicitation process. Often they will use the
words ‘should’, ‘shouldn’t’, ‘must’, and ‘mustn’t’, in exploring options. When an open-
ended question challenges limiting beliefs it is often described as a challenge question.
If a potential benefactor makes the statement, ‘I would like to give to your project but I
don’t think it is possible at the moment’, the fundraiser can challenge the statement by
asking the question, ‘Just suppose you decided right now to support the project, what
would happen?’
Challenge questions can also be used when the potential benefactor uses words like
‘can’t’, or ‘unable’. ‘Just suppose you could, what would that be like’?

The Close-Ended Question:

Salespeople use close-ended questions when they want to bring a sales pitch to a
conclusion and have their clients reach a decision. Top fundraisers also use this type of
question when they begin to narrow the discussion and they want specific answers that
lead the benefactor to a commitment.
These questions are designed to bring to a close the ‘examining the possibilities phase’
of the solicitation and can be answered with a single ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Close-ended
questions begin with verbs such as ‘will’, ‘have’ did’, and contractions such as ‘aren’t’,
‘didn’t’, or ‘won’t’.
A fundraiser uses close-ended questions when they need to obtain a clear precise
answer. For example, “Would you like to start on this right away?” A close-ended
question forces the potential benefactor to take a position. “Does this make sense so
far?” demands a specific, clear answer.
In closing a solicitation, it is much safer to ask indirectly for a benefaction. If you were
dealing with a potential benefactor with a preferred visual representation you could say,
“If this looks good to you we will go ahead and focus on completing the forms for your
financial involvement in the project.” Or if the potential benefactor has a preferred
auditory representation you could use the following sentence, “If this sounds good to
you we will go ahead and discuss how you might be involved.”.