1

INTRODUCTION
The oil venture is so expensive that each phase of the entire operation from
exploration to production is carefully monitored and skillfully analyzed before
the next phase is embarked upon. Just as a detailed analysis of data from
exploration survey is necessary for decision on drilling a wild cat, it is also vital
before completing a well to evaluate the reservoir properly. This evaluation will
reveal whether the reservoir contains oil and if it does, whether the reserve and
productivity are in commercial quantity. ven if the reservoir is an ideal one far
production, other factors may yet preclude completion. !uring the period of
prolonged oil glut when oil companies are producing far below their full
capacity, many companies, especially the big ones simply "cap# the well after
evaluation, postponing the completion.
$ometimes the decision to complete can be very difficult if the result of
reservoir evaluation indicated only marginal gain or if the result is even
ambiguous.
%hether a well is productive or not the aim of an abandonment procedure is to
seal the hold safely at minimum cost. & good practice dictates that an open hold
should not be abandoned uncased or uncemented.
The hold can be encased to the bottom of the well filling the bottom to an
adequate height with cement as shown in 'ig. 1.1
The alternative is to fill the entire open well with cement as shown in fig. 1.(.
The choice between these tow methods will depend on which method works out
cheaper for a particular well. %hen cement fill is the chosen option care must
be taken to assess whether the formation at the bottom of the well can carry the
weight of he cement. )f the formation is too soft to withstand the cement weight
then the option of casing the well is chosen.
*nce the hole has been safely secured as described earlier, the casing is finally
sealed on the surface and then abandoned without installing such surface
facilities as well head or +hristmas tree.
,owever, if all conditions are favourable for producing the then immediately
after an evaluation of newly drilled well, %-- +*./-T)*0 procedures
start. )n practice1 the operation technically carried out under well completion
may vary slightly from one company to another. 2enerally the drilling team
ends its phase fo operation once the oil string has been cemented. %ell
completion sometimes called work over operation include perforating, tubing
installation, acidizing, hydrofracturing, sand control and installation of
(
subsurface equipment. %ell completion is more apt for describing these
operations on a new well. %ork over operations refers more appropriately to an
identical work done an oil well.
3efore a new well is completed, it is carefully logged to determine the integrity
and height of cement. +ompletion follows only if the logging results are
satisfactory.
TYPES OF COMPLETION
There are two broad methods of well completion. *ne is the open hold or bare
foot completing and the other is lined hole completion.
3efore penetrating the zones suspected to be oil reservoirs, further drilling is
stopped. The hole is then cased and cemented. *nce the cement is properly set
drilling of the productive zone is carried out. The hole produced is neither cased
more cemented, as shown in fig. (.1. &n open hole exposes a greater well
surface area of the pay zones which enhances the production rate. 3are foot
completion saves casing and perforating expenses especially when a high
number of developments well is being drilled in a new known reservoir.
,owever an open hole passing through more than one productive zone posses a
problem when the well later needs stimulating. )t then becomes very difficult to
isolate a particular zone requiring treatment.
The second method of well completion is to continue a drilling operation
through the production zone. & casing can then run through the zones to the
bottom of the well as shown in fig. (.(a. &fter cementing the casing it is
perforated to create access between the bolehold and the reservoir.
&lternatively the casing can be stopped above the pay zone and then be
completed with a liner as shown in fig. (.(b. The liner is cemented and
perforated. The liner can also be either slotted or made up of a screen as shown
in fig. (.(c. & slotted line or a screen is 0*T cemented.
They are used where the formation is unconsolidated and tends to produce sand.
The details shall be discussed under sand control. ,owever as mentioned
earlier, the perforated liner is cemented and it is absolutely important that its
cement sheath should be continuous. )f the sheath contains any cracks or voids
then a communication channel may likely be established between zones.
4
COMPLETION FLOW CONFIGURATIONS
'rom the drilling log the number and location of the oil bearing reservoirs are
known the drill stem test 5!$T6 yields information of reservoir size, pressure
and likely production rate. *ne the full range of the necessary data is available,
completion engineers now face the task of choosing the best type of flow
configuration to use. The scheme use for flowing a single reservoir is obviously
different from that used for flowing well of multiple pay zone.
Single Completion
The following methods can be used to flow a well of single zone, with casing
size greater than 11.74cm 57.8 in.6
1. Caing Flo!" Fig. #.$
This is for wells that are capable of high production rate with medium
pressures.
#. Caing An% T&'ing Flo! Fig. #.(
The tubing enhances ability to control the well. 'or instance, it can be used
to circulate the well. $ometimes this method can be manipulated to have
separated flow. )f the tubing is lowered below the casing perforations then
oil is produced through the tubing while gas is produced through the
annulus.
$. P&mping Well Fig. #.)
This method is used to lift a well which cannot flow under its own energy.
(. T&'ing Flo! Fig. #.*
The tubing installed together with a production packer near the producing
zone. The packer seals the casing 9 tubing annulus from well fluids. *ther
subsurface equipment such as chokes, safety valves and regulators are
installed in the tubing.
). Ga Li+e Well. Fig. #.,
This is an alternative artificial lift method to well pumping. 2as lifting is
usually preferred in fields with abundance of gas such as the 0igerian
oilfields. 0o single oil company in 0igeria is known to use such other
method as suckered pumping.
*. Alte-nate Completion Fig. #..
This method is used to complete a well with two zones which is to be
produced one after the other. %ith this method the lower zone is produced
first. %hen it is depleted it is plugged of with cement. The tubing is then
7
perforated in the section opposite the upper reservoir. The tubing is specially
reinforced in this region to withstand the eroding impact of oil :ets from the
reservoir.
,. Con/ent-i/ 0ill St-ing Completion
This method facilitates the use of higher pressure than the casing can stand
for the purpose of killing trouble some high pressure well. 'or the same
material the same wall thickness smaller diameter pipes stand higher
pressures than pipes with bigger diameter.
;. T!o T&'ing St-ing Completion Fig. #.11
)n wells that have sulphur, paraffin alphaltene, salt and scale deposition
problems, there may be need to in:ect some treating chemical down hole.
Two separate strings connected with a circulating head are used to in:ect
chemicals down hole. The inside of these tubing may have to be specially
coated if the treating chemical is corrosive.
2. 3ig4 Rate" Lo! P-e&-e Completion Fig. #.11
)f a well has a high rate but low pressure it is necessary to present the fluid
with the widest flow cross sectional area to cut down on pressure loss. $o the
fluid may flow simultaneously through the tubing and the annulus up to a
point close to the surface where the production packer and tubing safety
valve are located. The packer diverts the fluid through the ported nipple into
the tubing past the packer and then through an upper ported nipple the tubing
casing flow is continued to the surface.
MULTIPLE FLOW COMPLETION
%hen a well contains a several pay zones, different types of completion
configurations can be used depending on the nature of the well and desired
production ob:ective. The following configurations can be used to complete a
well with multiple pay zones.
1. $ingle packer and tubing completion. 'ig. (.1( this method is used when
a well has two pay zones to be produced simultaneously and separately.
<sing the packer the lower zone is produced through the tubing while the
upper zone is produced through the annulus. ,owever, only the lower
formation can be artificially lifted if the need for its arises simultaneously
for the two zones. &nnulus flow has a tendency to corrode the casing.
(. Two packer, single tubing completing or gross over dual completion. 'ig.
(.14 this technique make it possible to switch flow from any of two pay
zones either from tubing to annulus flow or vice visa. This is achieved by
the use of a cross over or regular flow choke.
8
4. /rorated, single tubing dual completion. 'ig. (.17 when flow rate from
each formation is fixed either by legislation or by operational
requirement, then two specially sized beans or orifices are placed in the
tubing string. <sing two packers and dual flow chokes the two zones are
produced simultaneously through the tubing string. The pay zone with the
lower pressure will be assisted to flow by the pressure of the other pay
zone. The two zones can be gas lifted.
7. /arallel dual completion. 'ig (.18 by using two packers and two tubing
strings, two pay zones can be produces separately and can be separately
gas=lifted. 3ecause of the need to pull two strings during work over
maintenance, this method is very expensive.
8. 'our zones alternate dual completion. 'ig. (.1> when only two zones out
of four are to be produced simultaneously, two tubing strings and four
packers can be used as shown in fig. (.1>. <sing the longer tubing the
first zone is produced off with cement. The tubing is then perforated
opposite the second zone. $imilarly the shorter tubing is used to produce
the third zone. &t depletion the third zone is blocked off with cement.
The tube is perforated opposite the top most formation.
>. Three zones and three strings completion. 'ig. (.1? by using three
packers and three tubing strings, three pay zones of a well can be
completed as shown in fig. (.1?. This enables the production and control
of each zone independently. ,owever, the installation of three tubing is
usually a very difficult packer is not used. )n that case the topmost zone is
produced through the casing annulus.
?. tubingless completion The petroleum industry has always reacted to
economic recessions in the industry by devising cheaper operational
techniques. The tubingless completion is one such technique that was
devised during the recession period of the late fifties. )n this completion
method the well bore size is much reduced in size with the casing about
?.4cm.
;. 'or a single zone, completion is a shown in fig. (.1;. 3y installing
macaroni tubing as shown in fig. (.1@. & well can be installed fig. (.(A
shows a tubingless.
@. Triple completion the oriented perforation of the macaroni tubing is used
to avoid damaging ad:oining tubings. This method not reduces the initial
investment cost but also reduces the cost of well servicing and work over.
)t is also used for completing single or multiple zone gas fields.
!esign factors for completion methods
/roducing mechanismB
The three basic types of reservoir drive mechanisms are solution gas drive,
water drive and gas cap expansion drive.
>
)n solution gas drive the behaviour is similar to that of a cocked champagne
bottle. %hen the bottle is uncocked the liquid 5wine6 is produced by the
expansion of gas dissolved in the liquid. &s in the champagne bottle the solution
gas reservoir undergoes a rapid pressure decline with production. xcessive
draw downs can cut down oil production in this mechanism. The pay zone of a
solution drive can be given a selective perforation or a blanket perforation. $ee
fig. 7.1
)n water drive reservoir water flow in, to take the space occupied by oil which is
moving to the well bore for production. /ressure decline for this mechanism is
relatively small.
)n gas cap reservoir the drive is due to the expansion of the layer of gas on top
of the oil layer.
'ig. 7.( and fig. 7.4 show the type of perforations suitable for water drive
reservoir and gas cap reservoirs. ,owever this limited interval perforation can
be of disadvantage in a heterogeneous reservoir that is a reservoir with layers of
different permeabilities in one pay zone.
)f the perforation coincides with the zone of high peameability, then water or
gas encroachment can come earlier than if the whole interval was perforated.
+ompletion efficiencyB
The efficiency of completion is an assessment of how far the productive
potential of a reservoir is adversely affected by the nature of completion.
ffect of partial penetration
Table 7.1 and fig 7.7 are derived fromt eh work of .uskat 546 and show that the
productive capacity of a partially penetrated well is dependent on the degree of
penetration. 'or the same fraction of penetration the productivity ratio decreases
as bed thickness increases. 'or instance at 8AC penetration, productivity ratio is
A.; for a (A ft, reservoir bed A.?1 for a 7A ft, bed and A.>; for a >A ft bed. The
reason for this may be that as the bed thickness increases the effective distance
for upward mobility of fluid to the well bore increases thereby increasing too
resistance to flow. $imilarly decrease in percentage penetration increases
distance in flow path and consequently increase resistance to flow. )nfact partial
penetration has effect on the productivity and bottom hole pressure of the well
similar to that of skin damage. $kin damage is damage to the permeability of
the pay zone in a thin layer region immediately around the well bore covering
the whole vertical distance penetrated by the well. Therefore partial penetration
lowers the bottom hole pressure.
ffects of other factors on completion efficiencyB
The other factors that can affect the productive efficiency of completion areB
a6 Tubing sizeB for a given bottom hole pressure flow rate increase with
increase in size of tubing and decrease with decrease in tubing size. )n
?
pipe sizing parameters such as gasDliquid ratio, fluid density, fluid
viscosity, surface tension and kinetic energy are considered. &s 2-E
increases the required 3,/ decreases. &s fluid viscosity increases the
required 3,/ increases.
)ncrease in surface tension requires increase in 3,/. Finetic energy effect
increases slightly the required 3,/.
b6 +hokeB the subsurface choke can be installed at several depths in the well
for the purposes of control on flow rate. +hokes have very remarkable
effect on pressure requirement. !ecrease in choke size increases the
3ottom ,ole /ressure requirements to maintain constant flow. The
chokes on the surface line have similar effect.
c6 'low lineB the size of the surface flow line also affect the pressure
requirements of a well for constant. !ecrease the size of the flow line
increases the pressure requirements for a constant flow.
d6 $eparator pressureB increase in separator pressure has a dramatic
reducing effect on production rate.
The over all completion efficiencyB
The over all completion efficiency is determined by the cumulative effect of the
penetration, tubing, subsurface chokes surface flow line and chokes and
separator pressure. ,owever separator pressure is not usually a factor that can
be altered as this is usually determined effect on other wells that go into the
same separator.
!TE.)0&T)*0 *' /E*!<+T)G)TH E&T)* I<&T)*0
!arcy law
F J Iu-
&K/
/wi
/r
h
/wo /wf
,i

;
/wf J /wo L /wi
(
/ress J /ress 2r x h
/wo = /wi J 2r 5/ressure grad6
h
/wo J /wi L h2r /wi J /wo = h2r
/wf J /wo L 5/wo = hp
gr
6 J /wo = h2r
( (
hD, J Cpenetration
Fo- Ra%ial Flo!
I J ?.A; khK/
3
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<o )n 5re
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Drw6
Initial +lo!
I
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1

3
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<o )n 5reDrw6 NOTE5
K/ J /r = /wf
I J h K/ )n 5re6
I
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, K/
1
)n 5re
y
Drw6
Fo- pa-tial Penet-ation5 Fo- F&ll Penet-ation
/wf J /wo = h2r /wf J /wo = ,2i
( (
$ubstituting back, I J h /r = /wo L 2rh )n reDrw
I
o
, (
/r = /wo L 2r, )n re
y
Drn
(
@
!TE.)0&T)*0 *' /E*!<+T)G)TH E&T)* I<&T)*0 'E*.
/&ET)&- /0TE&T)*0 M '<-- /0TE&T)*0 '-*% E&T
I<&T)*0$
/wi
/r
h
/wo /wf
,
%ell
'ormation
Fo- Ra%i/al Flo!5
'low rate for partial penetration
I J ?.A; k h K / NNNNNNNNNN 5&6
<
o
3
o
)n 5re
y
Drw6
Flo! -ate +o- +&ll penet-ation
Io J ?.A; F , K /
1
NNNNNNNNNNN 536
3
o
<o )n 5reDrw6
K/ J /r = /wfNNNNNNNNNNNN. 516
/wf J /wo L /wi NNNNNNNNNN. 5(6

(
3ut press J press grad. 52r6 x h
i.e. /wo = /wi J 2r x h
B. /wi J /wo = 2rh NNNNNNNNNNNN.. 546
/ut eqtn. 546 )nto 5(6
B. /wf J /wo L /wo = 2rh J /wo = 2rh
( (
/wf J /wo = 2rh. NNNNNNNNNN. 576
(
/ut eqtn 576 into 516
1A
K/ J /r = /wo L 2rh NNNNNNNNN.. 586
(
!ividing eqtn &D3
I J ?.A; F h K / x 3
o
<
o
)n 5re
y
Drw6
I
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3
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<
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)n 5re
y
Drw6 ?.A; F , K /
1

I J h K / )n 5reDrw6
NNNNNNNNN. 5>6
I
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, K /1

)n 5re
y
Drw6
I J h K/ )n 5reDrw6 NNNNNNN.. 5?6
I
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, K/
1
)n 5re
y
Drw6
$ubstitute eqtn 586 into eqtn 5?6 for the partial and full penetration
I J h /r = /wo L 2rh )n reDrw
I
o
, (
/r = /wo L 2rh )n re
y
Drn
(

'raction
penetration
for bed C
/E*!<+T)G)TH E&T)* IDI* '*E !)''E0T T,)+F0$$ *' /&H
O*0
(Aft 7Aft >Aft ;Aft 1AAft 1(Aft
.1A .(@ .(4 .(A8 .1@8 .1;4 .1?1
.(AC .7> .4;8 .47 .4(@ .418 .4A8
4AC .8@ .8A8 .7? .77> .744 .7(1
7AC .?1 .>18 .8; .887 .84; .8(4
8AC .; .?1 .>; .>8