Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
X
100
X
50
1
h
2
1
X
50
2 8q X
100
2 8s
h
1
s #
h
2
2q
X
100
X
P
where q 1 p and s p (with p P/100, as dened in
Fig. A1). [Note that the h
2
equation in McBride (2005) has an X
50
on the denominator, but that should be X
P
.] The values of X
0
,
X
50
, X
P
, X
100
, h
1
and h
2
dene the Hockey-stick distribution
from which random samples may be drawn. Linear interpo-
lation between the distributions breakpoints is used. Note
that unlike many other pathogen concentration distributions
used in QMRA, the Hockey-stick has an upper bound, obtained
via expert judgment. This can be seen as advantage given that
high proportions of risk can be generated from statistical
sampling of the distributions tail.
Appendix B. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.06.001.
r e f e r e n c e s
Abramowitz, M., Stegun, I., 1972. Handbook of Mathematical
Functions. Dover, New York.
Akin, E.W., 1981. A review of infective dose data and other enteric
microorganisms in human subjects. In: Presented at the U.S.
EPA Symposium on Microbial Health Considerations of Soil
Disposal of Domestic Wastewaters, Norman, OK.
Ashbolt, N.J., Schoen, M.E., Soller, J.A., Roser, D.J., 2010. Predicting
pathogen risks to aid beach management: the real value of
quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Water
Research 44 (16), 4692e4703.
Black, R.E., Levine, M.M., Clements, M.L., Hughes, T.P., Blaser, M.J.,
1988. Experimental Campylobacter jejuni infection in humans.
Journal of Infectious Diseases 157 (3), 472e479.
Bollaerts, K., Aerts, M., Faes, C., Grijspeerdt, K., Dewulf, J.,
Mintiens, K., 2008. Human salmonellosis: estimation of dose-
illness from outbreak data. Risk Analysis 28 (2), 427e440.
Byappanahalli, M.N., Whitman, R.L., Shively, D.A., Nevers, M.B.,
2010. Linking nonculturable (qPCR) and culturable enterococci
densities with hydrometerological conditions. Science of the
Total Environment 408, 3096e3101.
Cabelli, V.J., 1983. Health Effects Criteria for Marine Recreational
Waters. Technical Report. EPA 600/1-80-031. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC.
Cabelli, V.J., Dufour, A.P., McCabe, L.J., Levin, M.A., 1982.
Swimming-associated gastroenteritis and water quality.
American Journal of Epidemiology 115 (4), 606e616.
Calderon, R.L., Mood, E.W., Dufour, A.P., 1991. Health effects of
swimmers and nonpoint sources of contaminated water.
International Journal of Environmental Health Research 1,
21e31.
Chappell, C.L., Okhuysen, P., Langer-Curry, R., Widmer, G.,
Akiyoshi, D., Tanriverdi, S., Tzipori, S., 2006. Cryptosporidium
hominis: experimental challenge of healthy adults. American
Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 75 (5), 851e857.
Chase-Topping, M., Gally, D., Low, C., Matthews, L.,
Woolhouse, M., 2008. Super-shedding and the link between
human infection and livestock carriage of Escherichia coli O157.
Nature ReviewsjMicrobiology 6, 904e912.
Cheung, W., Chang, K., Hung, R., Kleevens, J., 1990. Health effects
of beach water pollution in Hong Kong. Epidemiology and
Infection 105 (1), 139e162.
Coleman, M.E., Marks, H.M., Golden, N.J., Latimer, H.K., 2004.
Discerning strain effects in microbial doseeresponse data.
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 67, 667e685.
Colford Jr., J.M., Wade, T.J., Schiff, K.C., Wright, C.C., Grifth, J.F.,
Sandhu, S.K., Burns, S., Sobsey, M., Lovelace, G.,
Weisberg, S.B., 2007. Water quality indicators and the risk of
illness at beaches with nonpoint sources of fecal
contamination. Epidemiology 18 (1), 27e35.
Colford Jr., J.M., Schiff, K.C., Grifth, J.F., Yau, V., Arnold, B.F.,
Wright, C.C., Gruber, J.S., Wade, T.J., Burns, S., Hayes, J.,
McGee, C., Gold, M., Cao, Y., Noble, R.T., Haugland, R.,
Weisberg, S.B., 2012. Using rapid indicators for Enterococcus to
assess the risk of illness after exposure to urban runoff
contaminated marine water. Water Research 46 (7),
2176e2186.
Couch, R.B., Cate, T., Douglas Jr., R.G., Gerone, P.J., Knight, V.,
1966a. Effect of route of inoculation on experimental
respiratory viral disease in volunteers and evidence for
airborne transmission. Bacteriological Review 30 (3), 517e531.
Couch, R.B., Cate, T., Fleet, W.F., Gerone, P.J., Knight, V., 1966b.
Aerosol-induced adenoviral illness resembling the naturally
occurring illness in military recruits. American Review of
Respiratory Diseases 93 (4), 529e535.
Couch, R.B., Knight, V., Douglas Jr., R.G., Black, S.H., Hamory, B.H.,
1969. The minimal infectious dose of Adenovirus Type 4, the
case for natural transmission by viral aerosol. Transactions of
the American Clinical and Climatological Association 80,
205e211.
Fig. A1 e The Hockey-stick empirical distribution.
wa t e r r e s e a r c h 4 7 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 5 2 8 2 e5 2 9 7 5294
Cox, P., Grifth, M., Angles, M., Deere, D., Ferguson, C., 2005.
Concentrations of pathogens and in animal feces in the
Sydney watershed. Applied and Environmental Microbiology
71 (10), 5929e5934.
de Roda Husman, A.M., Lodder, I.W.J., Rutjes, S.A., Schijven, I.F.J.,
Teunis, P.F.M., 2009. Long-term inactivation study of three
enteroviruses in articial surface and groundwaters, using
PCR and cell culture. Applied and Environmental Microbiology
75 (4), 1050e1057.
Desmarais, T.R., Solo-Gabrielle, H.M., Palmer, C.J., 2002. Inuence
of soil on fecal indicator organisms in a tidally inuenced
subtropical environment. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology 68, 1165e1172.
DAngelo, L.J., Hierholzer, J.C., Keenlyside, R.A., Anderson, L.J.,
Martone, W.J., 1979. Pharyngoconjunctival fever caused by
Adenovirus Type 4: report of a swimming pool-related
outbreak with recovery of virus from pool water. Journal of
Infectious Diseases 140 (1), 42e47.
Dorevitch, S., Li, A., Liu, L., Scheff, P.A., 2010. Measuring Water
Ingestion Among Water Recreators. Draft Report Version 1.2.
Project PATH5R09. WERF, Alexandruia, VA.
Dorevitch, S., Panthi, S., Huang, Y., Li, H., Michalek, A.M.,
Pratap, P., Wroblewski, M., Liu, L., Scheff, P.A., Li, A., 2011.
Water ingestion during water recreation. Water Research 45
(5), 2020e2028.
Dufour, A.P., 1984. EPA Health Effects Criteria for Fresh
Recreational Waters. United States Environmental Protection
Agency, Toxicology and Microbiology Division, Cincinnati, OH.
EPA-600/1-84-004.
Dufour, A.P., Evans, O., Behymer, T.D., Cantu , R., 2006. Water
ingestion during swimming activities in a pool: a pilot study.
Journal of Water Health 4 (4), 425e430.
Dufour, A.P., Wade, T., Kay, D., 2012. A review of
epidemiological studies on swimmer health effects
associated with potential exposure to zoonotic pathogens
in bathing beach water (Chapter 11). In: Bartram, J.,
Bos, R., Dufour, A. (Eds.), Animal Waste, Water
Quality, Human Health. World Health Organization/
International Water Association Publishers, Geneva/
London.
Dulbecco, R., 1988. The nature of viruses (Chapter 44), pp. 1e26.
In: Dulbecco, R., Ginsberg, H.S. (Eds.), Virology. J.B. Lippincott
Company, Philadelphia, USA, p. 400.
Evans, O.M., Wymer, L.J., Behymer, T.D., Dufour, A.P., 2006. An
observational study determination of the volume of water
ingested during recreational swimming activities. In: National
Beaches Conference, Niagara Falls, NY.
Ferguson, C., de Roda Husman, A.M., Altavilla, N., Deere, D., 2003.
Fate and transport of surface water pathogens in watersheds.
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 33,
299e361.
Ferley, J.P., Zmirou, D., Balducci, F., Baleux, B., Fera, P.,
Larbaigt, G., Jacq, E., Moissonnier, B., Blineau, A., Boudot, J.,
1989. Epidemiological signicance of microbiological pollution
criteria for river recreational waters. International Journal of
Epidemiology 18 (1), 198e205.
Fleisher, J.M., Fleming, L.E., Solo-Gabriele, H.M., Kish, J.K.,
Sinigalliano, C.D., Plano, L., Elmir, S.M., Wang, J.D.,
Withum, K., Shibata, T., Gidley, M.L., Abdelzaher, A., He, G.,
Ortega, C., Zhu, X., Wright, M., Hollenbeck, J., Backer, L.C.,
2010. The BEACHES study: health effects and exposures from
non-point source microbial contaminants in subtropical
recreational marine waters. International Journal of
Epidemiology 39 (5), 1291e1298.
Fontaine, M., Guillot, E., 2003. An immunomagnetic separation-
real-time PCR method for quantication of Cryptosporidium
parvum in water samples. Journal of Microbiological Methods
54, 29e36.
French, N., Barrigas, M., Brown, N., Ribiero, P., Williams, N.,
Leatherbarrow, H., Birtles, R., Bolton, E., Fearnhead, P., Fox, A.,
2005. Spatial epidemiology and natural population structure of
Campylobacter jejuni colonizing a farmland ecosystem.
Environmental Microbiology 7, 1116e1126.
French, N.P., Marshall, J., Mohan, V., 2011. Campylobacter in Food
and the Environment: New and Emerging Data on Typing of
Campylobacter Strains in Animals, Environmental Matrices and
Humans. Final report 07-10436. Molecular Epidemiology and
Public Health Laboratory, Massey University, Palmerston
North, New Zealand. Prepared for the New Zealand Food
Safety Authority and Ministry for the Environment. http://
www.foodsafety.govt.nz/elibrary/industry/examining-link-
with-public-health/new-and-emerging-data-on-typing-of-
campylobacter.pdf.
Fuhrman, J.A., Liang, X., Noble, R.T., 2005. Rapid detection of
enteroviruses in small volumes of natural waters by real-time
quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 71 (8), 4523e4530.
Gerba, C.P., Rose, J.B., Haas, C.N., Crabtree, K.D., 1996. Waterborne
rotavirus: a risk assessment. Water Research 30 (12),
2929e2940.
Gutierrez-Aguirre, I., Steyer, A., Boben, J., Gruden, K., Poljsak-
prijatelj, M., Ravnikar, M., 2008. Sensitive detection of multiple
Rotavirus genotypes with a single reverse transcription real-
time quantitative PCR assay. Journal of Clinical Microbiology
46 (8), 2547e2554.
Guy, R.A., Xiao, C., Horgen, P.A., 2004. Real-time PCR assay for
detection and genotype differentiation of Giardia lamblia in
stool specimens. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42 (7),
3317e3320.
Haas, C.N., 2002. Conditional doseeresponse relationships for
microorganisms: development and application. Risk Analysis
22 (3), 455e463.
Haas, C.N., Rose, J.B., Gerba, C.P., 1999. Quantitative Microbial
Risk Assessment. Wiley, NY.
He, J.-W., Jiang, S., 2005. Quantication of enterococci and human
Adenoviruses in environmental samples by real-time PCR.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 (5), 2250e2255.
Hewitt, J., Leonard, M., Greening, G.E., Lewis, G.D., 2011. Inuence
of wastewater treatment process and the population size on
human virus proles in wastewater. Water Research 45 (18),
6267e6276.
Hijnen, W.A.M., Schijven, J.F., Bonne, P., Visser, A., Medema, G.J.,
2004. Elimination of viruses, bacteria and protozoan oocysts
by slow sand ltration. Water Science and Technology 50 (1),
147e154.
Hill, V.R., Kahler, A.M., Jothikumar, N., Johnson, T.B., Hah, D.,
Cromeans, T.L., 2007. Multistate evaluation of an
ultraltration-based procedure for simultaneous recovery of
enteric microbes in 100-litre tap water samples. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 73 (13), 4218e4225.
Hornick, R.B., Greisman, S.E., Woodward, T.E., DuPount, H.L.,
Dawkins, A.T., Snyder, M.J., 1970. Typhoid fever: pathogenesis
and immunological control. New England Journal of Medicine
283 (13), 686e691.
Jonsson, N., Gullberg, M., Lindberg, A.M., 2009. Real-time
polymerase chain reaction as a rapid and efcient alternative
to estimation of Picornavirus titers by tissue culture infectious
dose 50% or plaque forming units. Microbiology and
Immunology 53, 149e154.
Kageyama, T., Kojima, S., Shinohara, M., Uchida, K., Fukushi, S.,
Hoshino, F.B., Takeda, N., Katayama, K., 2003. Broadly reactive
and highly sensitive assay for Norwalk-like viruses based on
real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. Journal of
Clinical Microbiology 41 (4), 1548e1557.
Kay, D., 2009. EPIBATHE Accessible Report. Project 022618, EU
Framework 6. University of Wales. http://intranet.iges.aber.ac.
wa t e r r e s e a r c h 4 7 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 5 2 8 2 e5 2 9 7 5295
uk/les/DRAFT%20Accessible%20report%20Epibathe%2012_
05_09.pdf.
Lake, R., Horn, B., Ball, A., 2011. Campylobacter in Food and the
Environment: Examining the Link with Public Health. Pathway
attribution. Client Report FW10007. A Report for the New
Zealand Food Safety Authority and Ministry for the
Environment. ESR: Christchurch Science Centre. http://www.
foodsafety.govt.nz/elibrary/industry/examining-link-with-
public-health/campylobacter-in-food-and-the-environment-
pathway-attribution.pdf.
Leruez-Ville, M., Minard, V., Lacaille, F., Buzyn, A., Abachin, E.,
Blanche, S., Freymuth, F., Rouzioux, C., 2004. Real-time blood
plasma polymerase chain reaction for management of
disseminated Adenovirus infection. Clinical Infectious
Diseases 38, 45e52.
Leskinen, S.D., Lim, D.V., 2008. Rapid ultraltration concentration
and biosensor detection of Enterococci from large volumes of
Florida recreational water. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology 74 (15), 4792e4798.
Malorny, B., Hoorfar, J., Hugas, M., Heuvelink, A., Fach, P.,
Ellerbroek, L., Bunge, C., Dorn, C., Helmuth, R., 2003. Inter-
laboratory diagnostic accuracy of a Salmonella specic PCR-
based method. International Journal of Food Microbiology 89,
241e249.
Marion, J.W., Lee, J., Lemeshow, S., Buckley, T.J., 2010. Association
of gastrointestinal illness and recreational water exposure at
an inland U.S. beach. Water Research 44 (16), 4796e4804.
Matthews, J.E., Dickey, B.W., Miller, R.D., Felzer, J.R., Dawson, B.P.,
Lee, A.S., Rocks, J.J., Kiel, J., Montes, J.S., Moe, C.L.,
Eisenberg, J.N.S., Leon, J.S., 2012. The epidemiology of
published Norovirus outbreaks: a review of risk factors
associated with attack rate and genogroup. Epidemiology and
Infection 140 (7), 1161e1172.
McBride, G.B., 1993. Discussion of Health effects of swimmers
and nonpoint sources of contaminated water, by Calderon
et al. International Journal of Environmental Health Research
3, 115e116.
McBride, G.B., 2005. Using Statistical Methods for Water Quality
Management: Issues, Problems and Solutions. John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
McBride, G.B., Salmond, C.E., Bandaranayake, D.R., Turner, S.J.,
Lewis, G.D., Till, D.G., 1998. Health effects of marine bathing in
New Zealand. International Journal of Environmental Health
Research 8 (3), 173e189.
McBride, G., Ball, A., French, N., Harper, S., Lake, R., Elliott, S.,
Marshall, J., van der Logt, P., 2011. Campylobacter in Food and
the Environment: Examining the Link with Public Health.
NIWA/ESR/Massey University. Report to the New Zealand
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and the Ministry for the
Environment. http://www.foodsafety.govt.nz/elibrary/
industry/examining-link-with-public-health/campylobacter-
in-food-and-the-environment.pdf.
McCullough, N.B., Eisele, C.W., 1951a. Experimental human
salmonellosis. I. Pathogenicity of strains of Salmonella
meleagridis and Salmonella anatum obtained from spray-dried
whole egg. Journal of Infectious Diseases 88, 278e289.
McCullough, N.B., Eisele, C.W., 1951b. Experimental human
salmonellosis. III. Pathogenicity of strains of Salmonella
Newport, Salmonella Derby and Salmonella Bareilly obtained
from spray-dried whole egg. Journal of Infectious Diseases 89,
209e213.
McCullough, N.B., Eisele, C.W., 1951c. Experimental human
salmonellosis. IV. Pathogenicity of strains of Salmonella
pullorum obtained from spray-dried whole egg. Journal of
Infectious Diseases 89, 259e266.
Medema, G.J., Teunis, P.F.M., Havelaar, A.H., Haas, C.N., 1996.
Assessment of dose response relationship of Campylobacter
jejuni. International Journal of Food Microbiology 30, 101e111.
Mena, K.D., Gerba, C.P., 2008. Waterborne adenovirus. Reviews in
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 198, 133e167.
MfE/MoH, 2003. Microbiological Water Quality Guidelines for
Marine and Freshwater Recreational Areas. Ministry for the
Environment and Ministry of Health, Wellington, New
Zealand. http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water/
microbiological-quality-jun03/.
Miller, W.A., Lewis, D.J., Lennox, M., Pereira, M.D.G.C., Tate, K.W.,
Conrad, P.A., Atwill, E.R., 2007. Climate and on-farm risk
factors associated with Giardia duodenalis cysts in storm runoff
from California coastal dairies. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology 73, 6972e6979.
Nogva, H.K., Bergh, A., Holck, A., Rudi, K., 2000. Application of the
5-nuclease PCR assay in evaluation and development of
methods for quantitative detection of Campylobacter jejuni.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66 (9), 4029e4036.
Okhuysen, P.C., Chappell, C.L., Crabb, J.H., Sterling, C.R.,
DuPont, H.L., 1999. Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium
parvum isolates for healthy adults. Journal of Infectious
Diseases 180 (4), 1275e1281.
Okhuysen, P.C., Rich, S.M., Chappell, C.L., Grimes, K.A.,
Widmer, G., Feng, X., Tzipori, S., 2002. Infectivity of a
Cryptosporidium parvum isolate of cervine origin for healthy
adults and Interferon-g knockout mice. Journal of Infectious
Diseases 185, 1320e1325.
Palisade Corporation, 2009. @RISK. Advanced Risk Analysis for
Spreadsheets, V.5.5.0. Neweld, New York.
Pant, A., Mittal, A.K., 2008. New protocol for the enumeration of
Salmonella and Shigella from wastewater. Journal of
Environmental Engineering 134 (3), 222e226.
Payne, A.F., Binduga-Gajewska, I., Kauffman, E.B., Kramer, L.D.,
2006. Quantitation of aviviruses by uorescent focus assay.
Journal of Virology Methods 134, 183e189.
Pond, K., 2005. Water Recreation and Disease Report: Plausibility
of Associated Infections: Acute Effects, Sequelae and
Mortality. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Puig, M., Jofre, J., Lucena, F., Allard, A., Wadell, G., Girones, R.,
1994. Detection of adenoviruses and enteroviruses in polluted
waters by nested PCR amplication. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 60, 2963e2970.
Pru ss, A., 1998. A review of epidemiological studies from
exposure to recreational water. International Journal of
Epidemiology 27, 1e9.
Rajal, V.B., McSwain, B.S., Thompson, D.E., Leutenegger, C.M.,
Kildare, B.J., Wuertz, S., 2007a. Validation of hollow ber
ultraltration and real-time PCR using bacteriophage PP7 as
surrogate for the quantication of viruses from water
samples. Water Research 41, 1411e1422.
Rajal, V.B., McSwain, B.S., Thompson, D.E., Leutenegger, C.M.,
Wuertz, S., 2007b. Molecular quantitative analysis of human
viruses in California stormwater. Water Research 41,
4287e4298.
Rendtorff, R.C., 1954. The experimental transmission of human
intestinal protozoan parasites. II. Giardia lamblia cysts given in
capsules. American Journal of Hygiene 59, 209e220.
Rendtorff, R.C., Holt, C.J., 1954. The experimental transmission of
human intestinal protozoan parasites. IV. Attempts to
transmit Entamoeba coli and Giardia lamblia by water. American
Journal of Hygiene 60, 327e338.
Rose, J.B., Gerba, C.P., 1991. Use of risk assessment for
development of microbial standards. Water Science and
Technology 24 (2), 29e34.
Schets, F.M., Schijven, J.F., de Roda Husman, A.M., 2011. Exposure
assessment for swimmers in bathing waters and swimming
pools. Water Research 45 (7), 2392e2400.
Schiff, G.M., Stefanovic, G.M., Young, E.C., Sander, D.S.,
Pennekamp, J.K., Ward, R.L., 1984a. Studies of Echovirus-12 in
volunteers: determination of minimal infectious dose and the
wa t e r r e s e a r c h 4 7 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 5 2 8 2 e5 2 9 7 5296
effect of previous infection on infectious dose. Journal of
Infectious Diseases 150 (6), 858e866.
Schiff, G.M., Stefanovic, G., Young, B., Pennekamp, J.K.,
1984b. Minimum human infective dose of enteric virus
(Echovirus 12) in drinking water. Monographs in Virology
15, 222e228.
Schoen, M.E., Ashbolt, N.J., 2010. Assessing pathogen risk to
swimmers at non-sewage impacted recreational beaches.
Environmental Science and Technology 44 (7), 2286e2291.
Seitz, S.R., Leon, J.S., Schwab, K.J., Lyon, G.M., Dowd, M.,
McDaniels, M., Abdulhad, G., Fernandez, M.L.,
Lindesmith, L.C., Baric, R.S., Moe, C.L., 2011. Norovirus
infectivity in humans and persistence in water. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 77 (19), 6881e6888.
Sinclair, R.G., Jones, E.L., Gerba, C.P., 2009. Viruses in recreational
water-borne disease outbreaks: a review. Journal of Applied
Microbiology 107 (6), 1769e1780.
Soller, J.A., Bartrand, T., Ashbolt, N.J., Ravenscroft, J., Wade, T.J.,
2010a. Estimating the primary etiologic agents in recreational
freshwaters impacted by human sources of fecal
contamination. Water Research 44 (16), 4736e4747.
Soller, J.A., Schoen, M.E., Bartrand, T., Ravenscroft, J.E.,
Ashbolt, N.J., 2010b. Estimated human health risks from
exposure to recreational waters impacted by human and non-
human sources of fecal contamination. Water Research 44
(16), 4674e4691.
Stevenson, A.H., 1953. Studies of bathing water quality and
health. American Journal of Public Health 43, 529e538.
Teunis, P.F.M., 2009. Uncertainty in dose response from the
perspective of microbial risk (Chapter 6). In: Cooke, R.M. (Ed.),
Uncertainty Modeling in Dose Response. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
Teunis, P.F.M., Havelaar, A., 2000. The beta-Poisson model is not a
single hit model. Risk Analysis 20 (4), 513e520.
Teunis, P.F.M., Havelaar, A.H., Medema, G.H., 1995. A Literature
Survey on the Assessment of Microbiological Risk for Drinking
Water. Report no. 734301006. RIVM, Bilthoven, The
Netherlands.
Teunis, P.F.M., Moe, C.L., Liu, P., Miller, S.E., Lindesmith, L.,
Baric, R.S., Le Pendu, J., Calderon, R., 2008. Norwalk virus: how
infectious is it? Journal of Medical Virology 80, 1468e1476.
Teunis, P.F.M., van den Brandhof, W., Nauta, M., Wagenaar, J., van
den Kerkhof, H., Van Pelt, W., 2005. A reconsideration of the
Campylobacter doseeresponse relation. Epidemiology and
Infection 133, 583e592.
Teunis, P.F.M., van der Heijden, O.G., van der Giessen, J.W.B.,
Havelaar, A.H., 1996. The DoseeResponse Relation in Human
Volunteers for Gastrointestinal Pathogens. RIVM Report No.
284 550 002, Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, PO Box 1, NL-
3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
Till, D., McBride, G., Ball, A., Taylor, K., Pyle, E., 2008. Large-scale
freshwater microbiological study: rationale, results and risks.
Journal of Water Health 6, 443e460.
Till, D., McBride, G.B., 2004. Potential public health risk of
Campylobacter and other zoonotic waterborne infections in
New Zealand (Chapter 12). In: Cotruvo, J.A., Dufour, A.,
Rees, G., Bartram, J., Carr, R., Cliver, D.O., Craun, G.F., Fayer, R.,
Gannon, V.P.J. (Eds.), Waterborne Zoonoses: Identication,
Causes and Control. World Health Organization (WHO). IWA
Publishing, London, UK.
U.S. EPA, 2005. Appendices to the Economic Analysis for the Final
Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, vol. II.
(HeU) Ofce of Water (4606-M). EPA 815-R-06-001.
U.S. EPA, 2012. Recreational Water Quality Criteria. Ofce of
Water, 820-F-12-058.
Viau, E.J., Lee, D., Boehm, A.B., 2011. Swimmer risk of
gastrointestinal illness from exposure to tropical coastal
waters impacted by terrestrial dry-weather runoff.
Environmental Science and Technology. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1021/es200984b.
Wade, T.J., Calderon, R.L., Sams, E., Beach, M., Brenner, K.P.,
Willliams, A.H., Dufour, A.P., 2006. Rapidly measured
indicators of recreational water quality are predictive of
swimming associated gastrointestinal illness. Environmental
Health Perspectives 114, 24e28.
Wade, T.J., Sams, E., Brenner, K.P., Haugland, R., Chern, E.,
Beach, M., Wymer, L., Rankin, C.C., Love, D., Li, Q., Noble, R.,
Dufour, A.P., 2010. Rapidly measured indicators of recreational
water quality and swimming-associated illness at marine
beaches: a prospective cohort study. Environmental Health 9
(66), 14.
Wang, D., Silkie, S.S., Nelson, K.L., Wuertz, S., 2010. Estimating
true human and animal host source contribution in
quantitative microbial source tracking using the Monte Carlo
method. Water Research 44 (16), 4760e4775.
Ward, R.L., Bernstein, D.L., Young, C.E., Sherwood, J.R.,
Knowlton, D.R., Schiff, G.M., 1986. Human Rotavirus studies in
volunteers: determination of infectious dose and serological
response to infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 154 (5),
871e880.
Wiedenmann, A., Kru ger, P., Dietz, K., Lo pez-Pila, J.M.,
Szewzyk, R., Botzenhart, K., 2006. A randomized controlled
trial assessing infectious disease risks from bathing in fresh
recreational waters in relation to the concentration of
Escherichia coli, intestinal enterococci, Clostridium perfringens,
and somatic coliphages. Environmental Health Perspectives
114 (2), 228e236.
Wolf, S., Williamson, W.M., Hewitt, J., Rivera-Aban, M., Lin, S.,
Ball, A., Scholes, P., Greening, G.E., 2007. Sensitive multiplex
real-time reverse transcription PCR assay for the detection of
human and animal Noroviruses in clinical and environmental
samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73 (17),
5464e5470.
Wolf, S., Hewitt, J., Greening, G.E., 2010. Viral multiplex
quantitative PCR assays for tracking sources of fecal
contamination. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76
(5), 1388e1394.
Wong, T., Whyte, R., Cornelius, A., Hudson, J., 2004. Enumeration
of Campylobacter and Salmonella on chicken packs. British Food
Journal 106, 642e650.
Wu, F.-C., Tsang, Y.-P., 2004. Second-order Monte Carlo
uncertainty/variability analysis using correlated model
parameters: application to salmonid embryo survival risk
assessment. Ecological Modeling 177, 393e414.
Zmirou, D., Pena, L., Ledrans, M., Letertre, A., 2003. Risks
associated with the microbiological quality of bodies of fresh
and marine water used for recreational purposes: summary
estimates based on published epidemiological studies.
Archives of Environmental Health 58 (11), 703e711.
wa t e r r e s e a r c h 4 7 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 5 2 8 2 e5 2 9 7 5297