1

Topic : Lubrication

Function of a lubricant
A lubricant will reduce friction and wear, it will keep metal surfaces clean by
carrying away possible deposits and providing a seal to keep out dirt. A
lubricating oil will carry away the heat generated in bearings and gears, etc.,
preventing overheating, seizure and possible breakdown.

Three types of wear

1. Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear in an engine can be caused by
• rust particles finding their way between moving surface
• wear metal particles trapped between moving surface
• catalytic fines entering the combustion chamber with the fuel during
combustion

2. Adhesive wear
When piston reaches TDC, the boundary lubrication fails to protect the surfaces.
Spot heat builds up and metal to metal adhesion occurs. This results in metal
tear and hard particles scratching the well machined surface, leading to a
condition called scuffing.

3. Corrosive wear
Sulphuric acid formed during combustion corrode the liner surfaces.

ref to page 48 Diesel Engines 3rd Edition, A J Wharton

Lubrication of slow speed diesel engine

The lubrication of a slow speed cross-head engine involves three distinctly
different areas

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 2
Topic : Lubrication

3 lubrication of turbo chargers,

hydraulic governors, hydraulic exhaust
valve actuators and the turning gear.

2. Cylinder system lubrication which

takes care of the lubrication
between the liner and the piston rings.

Two stroke engines have either water

1 Circulating system
cooled or oil cooled pistons.
which takes care of the bearings
Engines with water cooled pistons may be
and moving parts in the crankcase.
lubricated with a straight mineral oil inhibited
with anti-rust and anti-oxidant additives (R &
O).
2 stroke diesel engine 1
For oil cooled pistons, a more sophisticated lubricant with detergency and a
high resistance to thermal and oxidation degradation is required. This is
because of the higher temperatures, the associated oxidation problems and the
tendency for carbonaceous material to build up on the underside of the piston
crown.

Most modern cross-head engines have oil cooled pistons. As a consequence,

most oil companies supply only a premium type crankcase oil, normally with a
TBN around 5, which can be used for both engine types.

Whatever the oil type, the dangers are the same, and these stem from
contamination of the oil from various possible sources.

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Topic : Lubrication

The Cylinder Lubricating System

The Cylinder lubricating system uses a different type of lubricant as the job it is
required to perform differs from that of the system oil.

a. Type of Oil Used in Cylinder Lubricating System

The cylinder lubricant must be of a higher viscosity so that it can form a good
lubricating film between the liner and the piston rings.

It must also withstand the heat variations in the combustion area and must deal
with the combustion products.

Under normal running conditions this oil will typically be an alkaline cylinder
lubricating oil of SAE 50 viscosity.

The alkalinity is indicated by the TBN (Total Base Number ) rating of the lubricant.
The TBN value most suitable for the cylinder lubricating oil depends largely on the
sulphur content of the fuel used. Typical values for sulphur content of 0.5 to 1%
may be between 20 to 25 TBN. For sulphur content over 1.5% the TBN number
may be 70 or higher.

b. Using the Correct Feed Rate for Cylinder Lubrication

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Topic : Lubrication

Once the correct lubricating oil is chosen the correct feed rate must be
established in accordance with the engine builder's recommendations.

The feed rate has a critical effect on good engine operation apart from the
question of oil consumption. With a too low feed rate the danger of the oil film
breaking down causing blow-by or additional wear is increased.

Too high a feed rate is a waste of lubricant and money. The correct feed rate will
allow the formation of the lubricating film between the liner and the rings and will
give maximum protection at the piston reversal points.
Cyl oil from tank
Burette

1/2 litre
Filling
valve

Cyl Lube oil pump

Cylinder oil to oil quills 1 gm / bhp /hr

The cylinder oil consumption burette is a useful means of checking the oil
consumption of individual lubricator boxes to help ensure that the oil is distributed
across the boxes as intended.

The volume between the two internal discs is 1/2 litres. Given the
temperature-density characteristics of the oil, the actual mass of the oil during

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its use in engine calibration can be calculated from the oil temperature. Calibration
time lies typically between 3 - 10 minutes depending on the oil consumption rates
and the speed/power of the engine, (if the oil feed drive is speed/power
dependent).

In slow speed operation, the use of heavy fuel oil with high sulphur content makes
the job of the cylinder lubricant very difficult. Even high alkalinity oils cannot hope
to neutralise all the sulphuric acids which are produced during combustion.

c. Acid Condensation in the combustion chamber

The cooling system must be operated so that the piston and cylinder liner
temperature is not dropped below the temperature at which the Sulphuric acid
may condense on the cylinder liner.

Acid condensation depends on:

• the engine combustion pressure

• the liner temperature
• the concentration of the sulphur oxides
• the humidity of the intake air.

So, to help the lubricant in neutralising the acid, the engineer must ensure that
the temperature of the scavenge air should be maintained in accordance with the
manufacturers' recommendation. Too low a scavenge air temperature will
result in condensation with the risk of moisture entering the cylinders; too high a
scavenge air temperature will adversely affect the combustion characteristics of
the engine.

Engine Run-in
Critical to this lubrication area is the way the engine has been run-in
at commissioning. A good run-in procedure will create a good wear-in of the
cylinder liner and piston ring. A good gas seal is obtained between them whereby
a thin oil film provides reliable and effective lubrication.
Module : MT3001, AMR Stage A 6-6
Topic : Lubrication

The period and method of running in should be decided upon in accordance

with the engine manufacturer's recommendation. Even if only new rings have
been fitted the running in procedures should be as near as possible to that
recommended for new engines.

The running-in recommendation may specify the use of a particular type of

lubricant and the feed rate should be high. After running in, the normal
cylinder oil will be used and the feed rate gradually adjusted until the
recommended feed rate is reached.

So, the cylinder lubricating oil must create a lubricating film between the
piston ring and the liner, and must maintain effective lubrication. It must also
combat corrosive wear. The use of the correct lubricant and the correct feed
rate for the engine load will help to achieve the best result from the lubricant.

Lubrication Of Medium Speed Trunk Piston Engine

In medium speed diesel the

cylinder is open to the crank
case. This means that
contamination of the crank case
oil by combustion products
requires the oil to be different in
character to that which may be
used in a slow speed engine.
Generally, the lubricant must:

* create and maintain

effective lubrication
between moving
components under high
mechanical and thermal
loads;

* transport solid
contaminants from the
cylinder to the cleaning
devices, such as filters and
centrifuges;

* withstand heat; fight contamination, corrosion and wear; resist

oxidation and thermal breakdown; keep the engine clean.

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Module : MT3001, AMR Stage A 6-7
Topic : Lubrication

Bearing Lubrication
The addition of the slightest trace of lubricant to a bearing modifies the friction
force appreciably. The two most important properties of a lubricant would be
oiliness and viscosity. Oiliness is a form of bond between molecules of
lubricant and material surface in which the lubricant is adsorbed by the
material. The adsorbed film is very thin and once formed is very difficult to
remove, which is most advantageous, in this respect colloidal pension
graphite is a very successful additive. If a layer of finite thickness lubricant
exists without material contact, then friction is determined by viscosity, if the
layer is only a few molecules thick then oiliness is the main factor.

Viscosity is for liquids virtually as coefficient of friction is for solids

dv
F= nA-----
dy

where F= the viscous force required to move one plate over another with a
velocity dv when the area of the plate is A,
thickness of lubricant between surfaces = dy,
n= viscosity coefficient.

Boundary Lubrication ... figure on next page

Boundary friction is the condition between contact high spot (of a microscopic
nature) while the low areas between are separated by a finite lubricant layer.
In this state the thickness of the oil film is so small that oiliness becomes the
predominant factor. This lubrication condition could be said to exist in some
top end bearings, guides, etc.

Hydrodynamic lubrication..... figure on next page

Film lubrication, or hydrodynamic lubrication, is the condition whereby the
bearing surfaces are completely separated by an oil layer. The load is taken
completely by the oil film, the film thickness is greater at inlet (initial point in
direction of rotation) than at outlet, the pressure at inlet increases quickly,
remains fairly steady having a maximum value a little to the outlet side of
bearing center line, and then decreases quickly to zero at outlet. This form of
lubrication is ideal but can only be satisfied in certain types of bearing, simple
examples such as high speed journal bearings, as turbine bearings, or plane
surfaces that can pivot to allow wedge oil film to allow for load, speed,
viscosity, etc., effects, as in Michell bearings.

Note that fluid film lubrication applies for most bearings of high speed engines
but a guide shoe is a case of boundary lubrication.

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 unstable region
boundary
Module
lubrication : MT3001, AMR Stage A 6-8
Topic : Lubrication
hydrodynamic lubrication

Coefficient
of friction

viscosity x speed
pressure

Factors Affecting hydrodynamic Lubrication

1. Viscosity of Lubricant
The higher the viscosity the greater the tendency towards hydrodynamic
lubrication. Obviously the type of lubricant-oil, water or grease- and the
temperature are important. Temperature can be increased by insufficient
lubricant circulation to remove heat generated in a bearing.- This could be
caused by clearances being too small and/ or insufficient supply of oil.

2. Relative speed of surfaces

The higher the relative speed the greater the tendency towards hydrodynamic
lubrication.
Increasing a journal or crank pin diameter and retaining the same rotational
speed as before will increase relative speed.
In reciprocating engines the oscillatory motion of the crosshead and
guideshoe means that there is a tendency in these units towards boundary
lubrication as the relative speed goes from a maximum to zero. This is one of
the reasons why crosshead lubrication may be a problem.

3. Bearing Clearance
If this is too large the bearing 'knocks'. This impulsive loading increases
pressure between the surfaces and can cause boundary lubrication. If the
clearance is too small, overheating of the oil, Boundary lubrication and
possible seizure could result.

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Module : MT3001, AMR Stage A 6-9
Topic : Lubrication

4 Pressure, i.e. Bearing Load per Unit Area

If Load is high it can lead to boundary lubrication. For example If firing
pressure in the cylinder is high, due to incorrect fuel injection timing or
overload, then bearing pressure will increase, which can cause failure of oil
film and bearing damage.

Typical Bearing Pressures:

Crank pin bearings 91 bar (Max)

Top end bearings 138 bar (Max)
Guide shoes 5 bar (Max)
Michell thrust bearing 30bar(Max)

Journal Bearings

oil supply oil supply

slow fast
at rest

10o 10o

In above figure the amount of clearance and pin shift movement have been
much exaggerated for clarity. When movement first begins the pin climbs up
the journal bearing against the direction of rotation, the friction angle is O .
The layer of lubricant tends to be scraped off so boundary lubrication exists.
As speed increases the oil is dragged behind the pin by viscous action until
the oil film breaks through and separates the surfaces, the line of contact
having moved in the direction of rotation. film lubrication exists.

Certain definitions and general points are now considered:

Scuffing
Break down of the oil film between surfaces causes instantaneous
microscopic tack welding of a surface asperity nature. Further movement
causes tearing out of the material and the resultant condition is known as
scuffing. Most liable to be found when the lubrication film is difficult to
maintain, for example on turbine gear teeth and in l.C. engine cylinder liners.

Extreme Pressure Lubricant

Special additives to the oil to maintain oil film under most severe load
conditions and where film is difficult to maintain. Molybdenum disulphide
(moly slip) additive is often used. Such lubricants are used to prevent
scuffing.

Pitting
More a fatigue or a corrosion fatigue phenomena, usually the result of too
high contact pressures giving minute cracking at contact surfaces.

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Module : MT3001, AMR Stage A 6-10
Topic : Lubrication

Emulsion
Oil which is contaminated or has deteriorated in service will not separate
easily from water and may cause an emulsion in whole or in part.
Emulsification is associated with precipitation of sludge at an increasing rate,
such sludges are formed from accretion of resins and ashphaltenes. The oil
should have a good demulsibility when new and should retain this in service.

Oxidation
A bearing oil subject to oxidation due to a high 'heat load' on the oil in
circulation forms products in the oil which include polar compounds, for
example the fatty acids such as oleic in which the acidic group is polar.
Severe shaft and bearing corrosion can result. Polar substances have a
molecular structure such that one part of the molecule is electrically
negative with respect to the other part. This polar form tends to disperse
one fluid in the other and stabilise the emulsion and tends to favour
orientation at interfaces. Oxidation and corrosion products such as oxides of
iron etc., stabilise emulsions. Antioxidation additives or inhibitors restrict
polar molecule formation. Pure mineral oils normally have a high resistance to
oxidation.

Lacquering
Oxidation and corrosion products plus contamination products lead to
deposit. On high temperature regions hard deposits form thin lacquer layers
on pistons or heavier deposits for example on upper piston ring grooves of
IC. engines. Lacquer varnishes also form on piston skirts. On cooler surfaces
sludge of a softer nature is more liable to be deposited.

Corrosion of White Metal Bearings

White metals are tin based, i.e. they have a larger proportion of tin in the alloy
than any other metal. A typical composition could be 86% tin , 8.5%
antimony, 5.5% copper.
In the presence of an electrolyte, corrosion of the tin can occur forming
extremely hard, brittle, stannous and stannic oxides (mainly stannic oxide
SnO2). These oxides are usually in the form of a grey to grey/black coloured
surface layer on the white metal, either in local patches or completely
covering the bearing. The hardness of this brittle oxide layer could be as high
as twice that of steel and if it became detached, possibly due to fatigue
failure, serious damage to bearing and journal surfaces could occur.
The formation of the oxide layer is accompanied by an upward growth from
the white metal, which can considerably reduce clearance and could lead to
overheating and Seizure etc.
Factors which appear to contribute towards the formation of the tin oxides are

1. Boundary lubrication, e.g. starting conditions.

2. Surface discontinuities.

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Module : MT3001, AMR Stage A 6-11
Topic : Lubrication

3. Concentration of electrolyte, e.g. fresh or salt water or other contamination.

4. Oil temperature.

5. Stresses in the bearing metal.

Additives to the lubricating oil seem to offer some degree of protection, as

does centrifuging of the oil.

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