Environmental Monitoring and Assessment (2005) 105: 369389

DOI: 10.1007/s10661-005-4345-y c Springer 2005

AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA
S. K. CHAULYA
Central Mining Research Institute, Barwa Road, Dhanbad, India
(e-mail: chaulyask@yahoo.co.in)
(Received 5 April 2004; accepted 13 August 2004)
Abstract. This investigation presents the assessment of ambient air quality carried out at an open pit
coal mining area in Orissa state of India. The 24-h average concentrations of suspended particulate
matter (SPM), respirable particulate matter (RPM, particles of less than 10 maerodynamic diameter),
sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) and oxides of nitrogen (NO
x
) were determined at regular interval throughout
one year at 13 monitoring stations in residential area and four stations in mining/industrial area.
During the study period, the 24-h and annual average SPM and RPM concentrations exceeded the
respective standards set in the Indian ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) protocol in most of the
residential and industrial areas. However, the 24-h and annual average concentrations of SO
2
and
NO
x
were well within the prescribed limit of the NAAQS in both residential and industrial areas.
A management strategy is formulated for effective control of particulate matter at source and other
mitigative measures are recommended including implementation of green belts around the sensitive
areas.
Keywords: air pollution, green belt, impact assessment, management, monitoring
1. Introduction
Environmental impact of coal mining cannot be ignored but, to some extent, is
unavoidable (Chaulya and Chakraborty, 1995; Kumar, 1996; Tichy, 1996; Corti and
Senatore, 2000; Tripathi and Panigrahi, 2000; Baldauf et al., 2001; Collins et al.,
2001). Most major mining activities contribute directly or indirectly to air pollution
(Kumar et al., 1994; CMRI, 1998). Sources of air pollution in the coal mining areas
generally include drilling, blasting, overburden loading and unloading, coal loading
and unloading, haul roads, transport roads, stock yards, exposed overburden dumps,
coal handling plant, exposed pit faces and workshop (CMRI, 1998). These air
pollutants reduce air quality and this ultimately affects the people, ora and fauna
in and around mining areas (Chaudhari and Gajghate, 2000; Crabbe et al., 2000;
Wheeler et al., 2000; Nanda and Tiwary, 2001). The major air pollutants produced
by open pit mining are suspended particulate matter and respirable particulate
matter (Sinha and Banerjee, 1997; CMRI, 1998), which is in contrast to vehicular
emissions where lead and gaseous pollutants are the major concern (Meenalbal and
Akil, 2000; Almbauer et al., 2001).
The environmental impact of coal mining areas must be assessed by detailed
studies of air quality (Jones, 1993; Chaulya et al., 2000; Ferreira et al., 2000).
370 S. K. CHAULYA
Analysis of temporal and spatial variations of air pollutant concentration is also
essential. Where the concentration of air pollutants exceeded the standard limit,
effective mitigative measures including design of green belts can be devised for
sensitive areas (Kapoor and Gupta, 1984; NEERI, 1993; Shannigrahi and Agarwal,
1996; Sharma and Roy, 1997). In India the national ambient air quality standard
(NAAQS) was formulated in 1994 to assess and compare the air pollution level
for different areas (CPCB, 1998). Similar standards were also formulated by var-
ious international bodies, namely United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA), European Union (EU), World Health Organisation (WHO) and World
Bank (Table I).Considering the facts, a detailed study was carried out for assessment
and management of air quality at Lakhanpur area.
2. Study Site
The Lakhanpur area has recently been formulated in the Ib Valley Coalelds and
it lies in the Jharsuguda district of Orissa state (Figure 1). The area consists of
two opencast projects (OCP), namely Lakhanpur and Belpahar, which produced
2.82 and 4.15 Mt yr
1
during 19992000, respectively. The drainage of the area is
controlled by Ib River and its feeder streams. The geology of the area is mainly of
Lower Gondwana system.
The climate of the area is drytropical, andthere are four seasons, namelysummer
(MarchMay), rain (JuneAugust), autumn (SeptemberNovember) and winter
(DecemberFebruary). Meteorological data for a period of 27 years (19731999)
were collected from the Meteorological Station of the Indian Meteorological De-
partment (IMD) located at Jharsuguda (Figure 1). During the summer months the
temperature can reach 47

C and in winter months can fall to 10

C. Annual mean
maximum and minimum temperatures are 33.2 and 20.5

C, respectively (Table I).
Wind velocity in the area varies from 2.28 to 4.45 m s
1
with an average of 3.28
m s
1
. The annual calm period (wind velocity <0.6 m s
1
) for the area is 50 and
40% of total duration at 08:30 and 17:30 hours, respectively. The predominant
wind direction for the area is towards the south-west. The south-west monsoon is
the principal source of rainfall in the area, the average rainfall at the Jharsuguda
IMD station being 1400 mm yr
1
and these being on average 81 rainy days in a
year.
3. Methodology
3.1. SAMPLING
Monitoring stations were placed to evaluate air quality and plan any control mea-
sures. The 24-h average sampling and analysis were done twice in a week
for residential areas (buffer zone) and six times monthly for industrial areas
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 371
T
A
B
L
E
I
N
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
a
m
b
i
e
n
t
a
i
r
q
u
a
l
i
t
y
s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s
1
9
9
4
f
o
r
s
u
l
p
h
u
r
d
i
o
x
i
d
e
,
o
x
i
d
e
s
o
f
n
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
,
a
n
d
r
e
s
p
i
r
a
b
l
e
a
n
d
s
u
s
p
e
n
d
e
d
p
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
m
a
t
t
e
r
(
C
P
C
B
,
1
9
9
8
)
,
a
n
d
i
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
i
n
a
m
b
i
e
n
t
a
i
r
(

g
m

3
)
I
n
d
i
a
n
s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s
P
o
l
l
u
t
a
n
t
T
i
m
e
w
e
i
g
h
t
e
d
a
v
e
r
a
g
e
I
n
d
u
s
t
r
i
a
l
a
r
e
a
R
e
s
i
d
e
n
t
i
a
l
,
r
u
r
a
l
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
a
r
e
a
s
S
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e
a
r
e
a
U
S
E
P
A
E
U
W
H
O
W
o
r
l
d
B
a
n
k
a
S
O
2
A
n
n
u
a
l
a
v
e
r
a
g
e
b
8
0
6
0
1
5
8
0
8
0
4
0

6
0
5
0
2
4
h
o
u
r
s
c
1
2
0
8
0
3
0
3
6
5
2
5
0
1
0
0

1
5
0
1
5
0
N
O
x
A
n
n
u
a
l
a
v
e
r
a
g
e
b
8
0
6
0
1
5
1
0
0
2
0
0

2
4
h
o
u
r
s
c
1
2
0
8
0
3
0

1
5
0

S
P
M
A
n
n
u
a
l
a
v
e
r
a
g
e
b
3
6
0
1
4
0
7
0
7
5
1
5
0
6
0

9
0
8
0
2
4
h
o
u
r
s
c
5
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
2
6
0
3
0
0
1
5
0

2
3
0
2
3
0
R
P
M
A
n
n
u
a
l
a
v
e
r
a
g
e
b
1
2
0
6
0
5
0
5
0
4
0
5
0
5
0
2
4
h
o
u
r
s
c
1
5
0
1
0
0
7
5
1
5
0
5
0

1
5
0
a
M
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
a
i
r
s
h
e
d
c
a
t
e
g
o
r
y
.
b
A
n
n
u
a
l
a
r
i
t
h
m
e
t
i
c
m
e
a
n
o
f
1
0
4
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
i
n
a
y
e
a
r
,
t
w
i
c
e
a
w
e
e
k
,
2
4
h
o
u
r
l
y
a
t
u
n
i
f
o
r
m
i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
.
c
2
4
h
o
u
r
l
y
v
a
l
u
e
s
s
h
o
u
l
d
b
e
m
e
t
9
8
%
o
f
t
h
e
t
i
m
e
i
n
a
y
e
a
r
,
h
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
2
%
o
f
t
h
e
t
i
m
e
i
t
m
a
y
e
x
c
e
e
d
b
u
t
n
o
t
o
n
t
w
o
c
o
n
s
e
c
u
t
i
v
e
d
a
y
s
.
372 S. K. CHAULYA
Figure 1. Location of the study site and sampling stations.
(core zone/mining area) during the year from September 1998 to August 1999.
The sitting of 17 air sampling stations (thirteen in the buffer zone and four in
the core zone, Figure 1) was based on prevailing micro-meteorological conditions
and availability of infrastructure. Details of sampling stations along with the re-
spective sources of air pollution and activities during sampling are given in Table
II.Concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) and lead (Pb) were below detectable
limits or negligible as per the bi-monthly monitoring report (CMRI, 1999) for the
area during September 1997 to August 1998 and because of this CO and Pb con-
centrations were not measured in the present study. Suspended particulate matter
(SPM) including PM
10
(particulate matter <10 m aerodynamic diameter) or res-
pirable particulate matter (RPM), sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) and oxides of nitrogen
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 373
TABLE II
Details of sampling locations, probable sources of air pollution, sample recovery and summary of
24-h average SPM and RPM concentrations exceeding the standard limit
% of recovered
samples exceeding the
NAAQS 1994
Station Sources of Total number % of sample
code Location air pollution of samples recovery SPM RPM
Residential area (Buffer zone)
A1 Tingismal village 1, 2 104 91 50 0
A2 Khaliapalli village 1, 2 104 94 0 0
A3 Soldia village 1, 2 104 90 0 0
A4 Ubuda village 1, 2 104 92 0 0
A5 Kusuraloi village 1, 2 104 93 4 0
A6 Banjipalli village 1, 2 104 93 0 0
A7 Chharla village 1, 2 104 90 25 0
A8 Training institutes
hostel
2 104 91 63 46
A9 Khadam village 1, 2 104 92 42 0
A10 Bandhbahal colony 1, 4 104 93 50 42
A11 Darlipalli village 1 104 94 21 0
A12 Jurabaga village 1, 2 104 91 50 0
A13 Kusuraloi village 2 104 93 0 0
Industrial area (Core zone)
A14 Project ofce of
Lakhanpur OCP
2 72 90 48 67
A15 Coal handling plant
(CHP) of
Lakhanpur OCP
1, 2, 3 72 91 64 89
A16 CHP of Belpahar
OCP
1, 2, 3 72 92 61 85
A17 Central excavation
workshop (CEWS)
of Belpahar OCP
1, 2 72 91 40 56
Note. 1: area sources (re area/ exposed dump/ exposed pit surface/ stockyard/ coal handling plant/
workshop/ railway siding/ domestic coal burning, etc.); 2: line source (transport road/ haul road/
unpaved road, etc.); 3: point sources (drilling/ blasting/ dozing/ loading/ unloading, etc.) and 4:
other sources (other industry/ commercial activity, etc.).
(NO
x
) were sampled by high volume samplers (HVS; Model APM 460 of Envi-
rotech Instrument Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India) with an average ow rate >1.1
m
3
min
1
and having gaseous sample collection attachments. The 24-h average
samples were obtained following the NAAQS protocol of the Central Pollution
Control Board, New Delhi (CPCB, 1998). Pre-weighted rubber cup and glass bre
lter of Whatman were used for measurement of SPM and RPM concentrations,
374 S. K. CHAULYA
respectively. The exhaust gas was used after having passed the SPM/RPM hivol
for collection of gaseous samples. SO
2
and NO
x
were collected by bubbling the
samples in a specic absorbing solution (sodium tetrachloromercurate for SO
2
and
sodium hydroxide for NO
x
. The impinger samples were put in ice boxes immedi-
ately after sampling and transferred to a refrigerator until analyzed.
The HVS having RPM and gaseous attachment were kept on the single storied
houses roof-top, approximately 3 m (0.3 m) height above ground, at all the
monitoring stations. The height of sampling for a particular monitoring station was
same throughout the study period. The HVSwere regularly calibrated for the proper
measurement of air pollutants. Samples were collected at regular intervals, and a
minimum of eight samples for residential area and six samples for industrial area
were collected within a month. During the study period there were no signicant
change in the climate within a month, and mining, allied activities and sources of air
pollution were almost uniform in the area. Therefore, the number of samples was
representative of a complete month both for residential and industrial areas. All the
samples were not accepted when errors were observed and the percentage of sample
recovery ranged from 9094% (Table II). The recovered samples were considered
as actual total measurements for analysis and impact assessment of air quality.
3.2. ANALYSIS
SPM and RPM were measured by difference in weight of cup and lter paper using
electronic balance of Mettler, Switzerland; SO
2
by the improved West and Gaeke
method with ultra-violet uorescence, and NO
x
by the Jacob-Hochheiser modied
method (Na-Arsenic) with gas phase chemiluminescence using Spectronic 20D of
Milton Roy, UK (Stern, 1968; CPCB, 1998). The 24-h average data measured for
all the monitoring stations during one year were statistically analysed following Ott
(1995) and annual averages of the air pollutants were calculated for each station.
The 24-h and annual average concentrations of air pollutants were compared with
the NAAQS protocol to quantify the air quality status in the study area. The
monitoring stations were grouped into six categories by comparing the percentage
of SPMor RPMconcentration with the respective standard limit for each particular
area. The categories of SPM or RPM concentration with respect to the relevant
standard limit were: very good (050%), good (>5075%), fair (>75100%), poor
(>100125%), very poor (>125150%) and dangerous (>150%).
Linear regression analysis was carried out to derive the best t equation and
correlation coefcient between measured SPM and RPM concentrations (Tayanc,
2000). Temporal and spatial variations of particulate matters were analysed fol-
lowing Christakos and Hristopulos (1996), Vyas and Christakos (1997), Christakos
and Vyas (1998), Panago et al. (1998), Christakos (1998 and 2000), Christakos
and Serre (2000) and Cristakos et al. (2001 and 2002). Temporal variation of
SPM and RPM concentrations were evaluated to establish the seasonal trend us-
ing polynomial regression analysis and to obtain the line of best t (Monn et al.,
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 375
1995; Tayanc, 2000; Salvador et al., 2001; Jones et al., 2002; Triantafyllou and
Kassomenos, 2002; Triantafyllou et al., 2002; Triantafyllou, 2003).
3.3. INTERPOLATION AND PREDICTION OF SPM
Kriging, the optimum interpolation technique was used to obtain the spatial dis-
tribution of SPM concentration over the one-year period. The idea behind kriging
being to make inferences from unobserved value of a random process from data
observed at known spatial locations (Tayanc, 2000). A detailed explanation of
the kriging method is available in the various literatures (Delner and Delhomme,
1975; Journel and Huijbregts, 1978; Cressie, 1991; Tayanc, 2000; Triantafyllou,
2001).
To predict the reduction in annual average SPMconcentration after implementa-
tion of various control measures in the study area, emission rate for different mining
and allied activities were calculated based on the empirical formulae developed by
CMRI (1998) and Chaulya et al. (2002). The validated air quality model, fugitive
dust model (FDM) was used for modelling exercise (Ermak, 1977; Horst, 1977;
California Department of Transportation, 1979; Hanna et al., 1982; USEPA, 1995;
Chaulya et al., 2003). FDM was run for the study area utilising the mine plan of
the mines (for locating different activities), activity-wise emission rate and hourly
average meteorological data. From the modelling exercise, annual average SPM
concentration due to mining and allied activities at the 17 receptor locations was
predicted. The receptor locations were selected such that those were the exactly
same sampling stations where present monitoring was carried out. The predicted
values at the receptor locations were added to the regional background level to
get the total predicted annual average SPM concentration. Regional background
data was the average of the annual monitored data in upwind direction with re-
spect to the mine. The predicted values were rectied to overcome the model error
as per the validation study carried out by Chaulya et al. (2003). The difference
between the present and predicted annual average SPM concentrations were cal-
culated for the 17 receptor locations to assess the expected pollution reduction in
the area after implementation of all the suggested control measures. Finally, the
reduction in annual average SPM concentrations at the seventeen sampling stations
were interpolated by the kriging technique as discussed earlier to visualise the post
management scenario in the study area.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. SPM CONCENTRATION
The annual average SPMconcentration at all the monitoring stations in the residen-
tial area was much higher than the permissible limit of 140 g m
3
and it ranged
376 S. K. CHAULYA
Figure 2. Variation of SPM concentrations in the residential area with annual average, 24-h average
maximum, minimum and 95th percentile values, and comparison with the threshold value.
from 164.7 g m
3
(A6) to 318.6 g m
3
(A8) (Figure 2).The A4, A5, A6 and
A13 monitoring stations categorized as poor, the A8, A10 and A12 stations as
dangerous and all other stations as very poor. The 24-h average SPMconcentra-
tions varied between 72.3 g m
3
(A6) and 497.1 g m
3
(A8). The 24-h average
readings never exceeded the standard limit at the A2, A3, A4, A6 and A13 stations
during the study period; however, they did elsewhere, 4 (A5) to 63% (A8) of the
total measurements exceeding the standard limit (Table II).
The annual average SPM concentrations in the industrial/mining area varied
from 511.0 (A14) to 598.6 g m
3
(A16) (Figure 3),and it was higher than the
threshold limit of 360 g m
3
at all the monitoring stations. The A14 and A17
stations categorized as very poor, and the A15 and A16 stations as dangerous.
The 24-h average SPM concentrations ranged from 338.8 (A14) to 799.8 g m
3
(A15). The percentage of measurements of the 24-h average SPM concentration
that exceeded the standard limit was found to vary between 51 (A17) and 75%(A15
and A16).
4.2. RPM CONCENTRATION
The annual average RPM concentrations in the residential area were more than the
prescribed limit of 60 g m
3
at the A1, A9 and A12 monitoring stations (cat-
egorized poor), the A10 station (categorized very poor) and the A10 station
(categorized dangerous), whereas they it was below the permissible limit at other
monitoring stations (categorized fair) (Figure 4).The range of annual average
RPM concentrations was between 53.2 (A6) and 101.4 g m
3
(A8). The 24-h
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 377
Figure 3. Variation of SPM concentrations in the industrial area with annual average, 24-h average
maximum, minimum and 95th percentile values, and comparison with the threshold value.
Figure 4. Variation of RPM concentrations in the residential area with annual average, 24-h average
maximum, minimum and 95th percentile values, and comparison with the threshold value.
average RPM concentrations were found to vary between 40.8 (A9) and 171.9 g
m
3
(A8). The 24-h average RPM concentrations never exceeded the prescribed
limit except at the A8 and A10 monitoring stations (42 and 46% of total measure-
ments, respectively).
The annual average RPM concentrations in the industrial/mining area were
more than the prescribed limit of 120 g m
3
at all the four monitoring stations
(Figure 5),the A14 and A17 monitoring stations being in the very poor category,
378 S. K. CHAULYA
Figure 5. Variation of RPM concentrations in the industrial area with annual average, 24-h average
maximum, minimum and 95th percentile values, and comparison with the threshold value.
and the A15 and A16 stations in the dangerous category. The range of annual av-
erage RPMconcentrations was between 164.2 (A14) and 193.5 g m
3
(A16). The
24-h average RPMconcentrations varied from102.5 (A14) to 425.6 g m
3
(A17).
The percentages of readings exceeding the 24-h average threshold limit of 150 g
m
3
ranged from 56 (A17) to 89% (A15) of the total measurements (Table II).
4.3. SO
2
AND NO
x
CONCENTRATIONS
The annual average SO
2
concentrations among all the monitoring stations ranged
between 23.3 (A6) and 36.8 g m
3
(A12), being well belowthe threshold limits of
60 (residential) and 80 g m
3
(industrial). The 24-h average SO
2
concentrations
were between 16.0 (A6) and 55.2 g m
3
(A12), well within the standard limits
of 80 (residential) and 120 g m
3
(industrial). The SO
2
in the residential areas
derivedfromopenburningof rawcoal andother domestic andcommercial activities.
The annual and 24-h average NO
x
concentrations were found to be well within the
prescribed limit at all the monitoring station in the study area and the range of
annual average NO
x
concentrations lying between 23.9 (A2 and A3) and 41.9 g
m
3
(A12). The 24-h average NO
x
concentrations varied from 19.0 (A1, A3 and
A4) to 58.1 g m
3
(A12).
4.4. SPATIO-TEMPORAL VARIATIONS
The temporal variations of SPMand RPMtted third order polynomial trend (aver-
age correlation coefcient (R
2
) of 0.77 0.17 for SPM and 0.85 0.10 for RPM).
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 379
Figure 6. Linear regression of annual average SPM and RPM concentrations for the seventeen
monitoring stations.
The correlation coefcient between SPMwith RPMwas 0.86 (0.12). On average
the RPM in the ambient air of the mining area constituted 31.94 (1.76)% of the
SPM, the best t equation being y = 0.3326x 3.5469 (correlation coefcient of
0.99) (Figure 6). Linear regression analysis was also performed between concen-
trations of NO
x
and SO
2
, and the correlation coefcient of NO
x
with SO
2
was 0.57
(0.20).
The concentration of particulate matter at most of the monitoring stations
reached a maximum during winter and was at its minimum in the rainy season; this
is similar to the reports by various researchers (Soni and Agarwal, 1997; CMRI,
1999; Ghose and Majee; 2000; Nanda and Tiwary, 2001; Reddy and Ruj, 2003) for
Indian coal mining areas, and Karaca et al. (1995) and Tayanc (2000) for Istanbul
in Turkey. However, for certain urban areas maximal concentrations of particu-
late matters are observed in summer season (Crabbe et al., 2000; Ferreira et al.,
2000; Meenalbal and Akil, 2000; Almbauer et al., 2001). The average monthly
production rate was almost uniform throughout the study period. Therefore, the
reason for temporal or seasonal variations was only related to the meteorological
parameters. In winter, anti-cyclonic conditions prevailed, which was characterised
by calm or light winds and restricted mixing depth due to a stable or inversion at-
mospheric lapse rate, resulting in little dispersion or dilution of pollutants, which,
in its turn, helped in the build-up of pollution concentrations to the higher levels.
Monsoon experienced the lowest SPM and RPM levels because of the wash-out of
air borne particulates and other gaseous pollutants by intermittent precipitation. It
was also observed that in general the SPM and RPM levels tended to decrease with
increasing relative humidity.
380 S. K. CHAULYA
The strong correlation between SPM and RPM indicates that the concentration
of RPM, which is the main concern for human health affects (Wheeler et al., 2000;
Baldauf et al., 2001), would be useful for benchmarking the RPM concentration
without eld measurement for any open pit coal mining area with similar conditions,
by knowing the SPM concentration. Coal transportation was the main source of
SPMgeneration as reported by various researchers (Sinha, 1995; Soni and Agarwal,
1997; Ghose and Majee, 2000; Chaulya et al., 2003). Based on the dust samples
analysis of the mining area by differential thermal analyser, it was reported that an
average of 78 (6)% of dust was of coal origin (CMRI, 1999). This indicates that
major share of dust pollution in the study area was frommining and allied activities.
Maximal concentrations of SPM and RPM found in the mining area (Figure 7a)
and levels gradually diminished with increasing distance due to transportation,
deposition and dispersion of particles as analysed by different researchers (Ermak,
1977; Horst, 1977; Hanna et al., 1982; Chaulya et al., 2002). The dispersion of
particulate matter tended to be towards the south-west, which followed the annual
predominant wind direction of the area (Chaulya et al., 1998; Corti and Senatore,
2000; Baldauf et al., 2001).
The annual and 24-h average SPM and RPM concentrations were compared
with the national ambient air quality standards (health related) of United Sates
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1992 and 1996). The annual average
SPM concentration was higher at all the monitoring stations than the prescribed
limit of 75 g m
3
, whereas 24-h average concentration exceeded the standard
limit of 260 g m
3
at few stations during summer and winter seasons. Similarly,
the annual average RPM concentration was above the threshold limit of 50 g m
3
at all the monitoring stations. The 24-h average RPM concentration was higher
than the standard limit of 150 g m
3
at few stations during winter and summer
seasons. The annual and 24-h average SO
2
and NO
x
concentrations were well
within the standard limit at all the monitoring stations.
In general, the 24-h and annual average SPMand RPMconcentrations were also
higher thanthe USEPA, EU, WHOandWorldBankstandards (Table I) at most of the
monitoring stations, whereas SO
2
and NO
x
concentrations at all the stations were
also well within the international standards. Therefore, an effective action plan is
required to control and manage air pollution in the residential areas surrounding the
mines, where the people are directly exposed to a high concentration of particulate
matter.
5. Management Strategy
5.1. CONTROL AT SOURCE
The air quality of the Lakhanpur area has deteriorated and implementation of ef-
fective control measures is needed. Apart from the regular environmental control
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 381
Figure 7. Spatial distribution of annual average SPMconcentrations (g m
3
): (a) during the present
condition and (b) reduction from the present level during the post management scenario.
382 S. K. CHAULYA
TABLE III
Suggested mitigative measures at different locations of Lakhanpur area
Station code Location Additional recommended control measures
A1 Tingismal village R3, R8, R9, R11
A2 Khaliapalli village R3, R8, R9, R11
A3 Soldia village R3, R8, R9, R11
A4 Ubuda village R3, R8, R9, R11
A5 Kusuraloi village R3, R8, R9, R11
A6 Banjipalli village R3, R8, R9, R11
A7 Chharla village R1R3, R8, R9, R11
A8 Training institutes hostel R1R3, R8, R11
A9 Khadam village R3, R8, R11
A10 Bandhbahal colony R3, R8, R11
A11 Darlipalli village R3, R8, R9, R11
A12 Jurabaga village R1R3, R8, R11
A13 Kusuraloi village R3, R8, R9, R11
A14 Project ofce of Lakhanpur OCP R1R3, R8R11, R14, R15
A15 CHP of Lakhanpur OCP R1R13, R16
A16 CHP of Belpahar OCP R1R13, R16
A17 CEWS of Belpahar OCP R1R13, R16
Key: R1: check/ stop overloading of trucks/ dumpers; R2: use of covered transportation; R3:
regular cleaning of roads; R4: remote control sprinkling system on haul road and transport
road; R5: effective use and maintenance of sprinkling system; R6: arrangement for additional
sprinkling system; R7: regular maintenance of all heavy earth moving machinery and other
machinery; R8: vehicular emission norms to be strictly enforced; R9: all major roads to be
metalled and properly maintained; R10: application of chemical binder in the haul road; R11:
regular watering on haul road, transport road and other roads; R12: mechanical dust aerators/
collectors to be installed wherever possible; R13: crushers of coal handling plants to be enclosed
and dust control equipment should be deployed; R14: old inactive overburden dumps to be
properly reclaimed and revegetated biologically using both grass and plant species; R15: active
overburden dumps to be properly wetted to avoid wind erosion; and R16: implementation of
greenbelt around different mining activities.
measures adopted by the mining company, a few additional measures might aid
the control of air pollution at source (Table III). CMRI (1999) provided details of
control measures and the technical reasons for the recommendation of a particular
measure for a specic site.
Restriction of trucks/dumpers speed and overloading, and regular road cleaning
are essential in order to control dust pollution from transportation, together with
regular water spraying on roads. Washing of dumpers/trucks wheels/body at an
appropriate distance from site entrance, loading and unloading in area protected
from wind, minimization of drop heights, use of sheet or cover on loaded vehicles,
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 383
and application of water sprays/sprays curtains to moisten transported material are
also essential.
At almost all the locations, the sprinkling system was observed to be faulty.
Regular maintenance/repair of the sprinkling system and construction of a more
effective sprinkling system, alongwith application of binding agents/chemicals on
the unpaved roads are required. In addition, unpaved roads should be converted to
black-topped roads, with regular maintenance/repair of roads to maintain compact-
ness, gradient and drainage, sweeping of paved roads, and the imposition of speed
limits on trucks and other vehicles. Biological reclamation of overburden dumps
and wastelands is also desirable. Dust collecting devices for point sources should
be installed along with insisting on good maintenance. Effective control measures
at the coal handling plant, excavation area and overburden dumps should also be
implemented to mitigate the SPM emission at source.
Haul and transport roads are the major sources of particulate matters (around
80% of total emission) in the study area. Transported materials fall on the road
during plying/running of dumpers/trucks due to overloading and jerking. Subse-
quently, fallen materials are being crushed during frequent movements of heavy
earth moving machinery. This result into deposition of huge amount of dust on
roads in addition to settling of dust emitted in the atmosphere due to various min-
ing activities. Movements of vehicles on these dusty roads lead to emission of
huge amount of dust which ultimately creates major air pollution problem in the
mining area. For effective control, the dust has to be collected from the road
surface and deposited in a solid form in an eco-friendly manner, and this can be
achieved by utilising a road dust collecting system. The system will be used for
collecting of huge quantity of dust being accumulated on the haul and transporta-
tion roads of the mining area as well as public roads. The road dust extracted by
the system would minimize the concentrations of SPM and RPM in the mining
and urban areas. Moreover, the coal dust extracted from haul roads of the coal
mines and making it into a solid form would be used for various economic pur-
poses which will add a further advantage to the technique as well as to the mining
industry.
5.2. GREEN BELT DEVELOPMENT
A new approach adopted in recent years has involved the growth of green plants
around the source of pollution. A green belt is the mass plantation of pollutant-
tolerance trees (evergreen and deciduous) for the purpose of mitigating the air
pollution in an effective manner by ltering, intercepting and absorbing pollutants
(Sharma and Roy, 1997). The capacity of plants to reduce air pollution is well
known (NEERI, 1993; Sharma and Roy, 1997; Shannigrahi and Sharma, 2000).
Optimum green belt development, including factors such as distance of green belt
from source, width and height of green belt, may be achieved using an existing
green belt attenuation model (Kapoor and Gupta, 1984; Chaulya et al., 2001).
384 S. K. CHAULYA
The likely effectiveness of a green belt in attenuating the pollution is given by the
attenuation factor, which is dened as the ratio of mass ux reaching a particular
distance in the absence of the green belt, to the mass ux reaching the same distance
in the presence of the green belt (Kapoor and Gupta, 1984). However, the selection
of tree species that can be grown around a mining site is very important. Plants
differ considerably with reference to their pollution sensitivity, some being highly
sensitive and others hardy and tolerant (Shannigrahi and Agarwal, 1996; Sikarwar
et al., 1998; Chaulya et al., 2001).
Selection of species: A green belt with a variety of native species is preferable
to maintain species diversity, rational utilisation of nutrients and for maintaining
the health of the trees. Air pollution tolerance indices (APTI) and the expected
performance indices (EPI) of plant species are the important parameters for selec-
tion of species. APTI of tree species may be calculated by means of the formula
proposed by Singh and Rao (1983): APTI = [A(T + P) + R]/10. Where, A is the
ascorbic acid content in mg g
1
of dry weight, T is total chlorophyll in mg g
1
fresh weight, P is pH of leaf extract, and R is relative water content (%). On the
basis of the air pollution tolerance index and some relevant phyto-socio-economic
characters, performance index (EPI) of plant species may be calculated. Trees
may be graded as best, excellent, very good, good, moderate, poor and very poor
categories (Chaulya et al., 2001). Species belonging to the rst four categories
are recommended for planting. Plant species having an EPI more than 60% are
selected to include the characteristics, namely (i) native in nature to sustain in the
micro-climatic, soil and human interaction, (ii) trees growing up to 10 mor more in
height with thick perennial foliage, and (iii) fast growing plant species which can
attain their full height in a short period of time.
India has a host of native plant species which can serve as good lter for various
types of air pollutants (SPM, SO
2
and NO
x
). It is however important to select plants
that can tolerate the local climatic conditions. The plant species selected for the
development of green belt and retardation of air pollutants are as follows: (i) for
SPM [Butea monsperma (Palas), Spathodea companulata (Sapeta), Fiscus infecto-
ria (Pakur), Cassia stula (Amaltas), Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam) and Casia
siamea (Minjari)]; (ii) for SO
2
[Pterospermum acerifolium (Muchkun), Bauhinia
variegate (Kanchhar), Bambusa spp. (Bans), Delbergia sisoo (Sisum), Ecalyptus
spp. (Eucalyptus), Cassia siamea (Minjari) and Zizyphus jujube (Ber)] and (iii)
for NO
x
[Bauhinia variegate (Kanchhar), Zizyphys jujube (Ber), Syzigium cuminii
(Jamun), Mimusops elengi (Bakul), Eucalyptus spp. (Eucalyptus), Pterospermum
acerifolium (Muchkun) and Mangifera indica (Aam)].These plant species will be
grown around highly polluting sources like CHP, ofce complex, workshop, pit
boundary, dumping yard and along both sides of roads. Plantation may be done as
per the technique described by Chaulya et al. (2001). The developed green belts
will help to control and check the dust on the surface, the leaves and bark, and
can also tolerate SO
2
and NO
x
(gaseous pollutants) effectively (Sikarwar et al.,
1998).
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 385
5.3. POLICY ISSUE
In addition to the above air pollution control measures, there is a need for strict
enforcement of existing air pollution laws to bring down the air pollutants level
within the NAAQS and enforcement of compliance monitoring mechanism by var-
ious statutory bodies like Central and State Pollution Control Boards, Indian Bureau
of Mines, and Ministry of Environment and Forests. For effective implementation
and monitoring of air control measures proper motivation and willingness of politi-
cians are also essential. Government of India has recognised the fact and recently
a task force is constituted to modify the existing rules and regulations for better
management of environmental quality in the mining areas and strengthen the mech-
anisation for effective implementation and monitoring of the environmental control
measures at various mining areas in India.
5.4. POST MANAGEMENT SCENARIO
A quantitative assessment of the expected pollution reduction is made as per the
methodology described earlier. Figure 7a illustrates the present annual average
SPM concentration and Figure 7b depicts the reduction (i.e. present minus post
management values) in annual average SPM concentration in the study area due to
implementation of various mitigative measures to control air pollution at sources as
well as development of greenbelts. The SPMconcentrationreductioninthe ambient
air was predicted to be varied from3035%of present level. The problemof health
hazard related to air pollution will also be greatly reduced for the living being
located in and around the mining area. Utilising the road dust collecting system,
huge amount of coal dust deposited on the haul roads will be converted into solid
form which will be used for various economic purposes. Thus, by implementing
the system, wastage of coal will be reduced and further add an economic advantage
for the coal mining industry and the saved amount may be utilised for welfare of
the tribal in the region.
6. Conclusions
SPM and RPM were the major sources of emission from various open pit mining
activities, whereas emissions of SO
2
and NO
x
were negligible. The annual and
24-h average concentrations of SPM and RPM were higher than the NAAQS at
most of the places both in the mining and residential areas. Temporal variations
of SPM and RPM tted polynomial trends well and a good correlation existed
between them as per the linear regression analysis. In open pit coal mining areas
with similar conditions, the linear regression of SPM with RPM may be used for
benchmarking the concentration of one type of particulate matter by knowing the
level of the other.
386 S. K. CHAULYA
Air quality in the Lakhanpur area has exceeded the standard limit in-spite of
regular environmental control measures adopted by the mining company. A few
more additional measures are required at the respective sensitive sites to control
generation of particulate matters at source and a green belt should also be developed
in and around the polluting sources. With the implementation of additional control
measures at appropriate sites, the air qualityinthe studyarea couldbe brought within
the national ambient air quality protocol threshold limit. Constructive measures
at political level are essential to create motivation for implementation of various
control measures and also to reduce the air pollution level in the mining area. This
wouldleadtoaneco-friendlyminingandbetter habitat for all those livinginthe area.
Acknowledgments
Author is grateful to Drs. M. K. Chakraborty, M. Ahmad and R. S. Singh, and
Mr. A. K. Chowdhury, Scientists, Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad, In-
dia, for necessary help in conducting the eld study and preparing the manuscript.
Author is also thankful to M/s Mahanadi Coalelds Limited, Sambalpur, for spon-
soring this study and providing necessary facilities.
References
Almbauer, R. A., Piringer, M., Baumann, K., Oettle, D. and Sturm, P. J.: 2001, Analysis of the daily
variations of winter time air pollution concentrations in the city of Graz, Austria, Environ. Monit.
Assess. 65(12), 7987.
Baldauf, R. W., Lane, D. D. and Marote, G. A.: 2001, Ambient air quality monitoring network design
for assessing human health impacts from exposures to airborne contaminants, Environ. Monit.
Assess. 66(1), 6376.
California Department of Transportation: 1979, CALINE3-A Versatile Dispersion Model for Pre-
dicting Air Pollutant Levels Near Highways and Arterial Streets, Ofce of Transportation Lab-
oratory Department of Transportation, State of California, Sacraments, California 95807, No.
FAWA/CA/TL-79/23, USA.
Central Mining Research Institute (CMRI): 1998, Determination of Emission Factor for Various Open
pit Mining Activities, GAP/9/EMG/MOEF/97, Environmental Management Group, Dhanbad,
India.
Central Mining Research Institute (CMRI): 1999, Annual Environmental Monitoring Report for
Lakhanpur Area, GC/EMG/94/9899, Environmental Management Group, Dhanbad, India.
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): 1998, Pollution Control Acts, Rules and Notications,
Pollution Control Series PCL/2/1992, Volume I, 6th edn., Member Secretary, Delhi, India.
Chaudhari, P. R. and Gajghate, D. G.: 2000, Assessment of air pollution effect on plants a review,
Indian J. Environ. Protect. 20(12), 925933.
Chaulya, S. K. and Chakraborty, M. K.: 1995, Perspective of New National Mineral Policy and En-
vironmental Control for Mining Sector, in G. S. Khuntia (ed.), Proceedings of National Seminar
on Status of Mineral Exploitation in India, New Delhi, India, pp. 114123.
Chaulya, S. K., Ahmad, M., Singh, R. S., Bandyopadhyay, L. K., Bondyopadhay, C. and Mondal, G.
C.: 2003, Validation of two air quality models for indian mining conditions, Environ. Monit.
Assess. 82, 2343.
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 387
Chaulya, S. K., Chakraborty, M. K. and Singh, R. S.: 1998, Air pollution monitoring and modelling
technique for open pit mine, Environ. Geochem. 2(1), 3542.
Chaulya, S. K., Chakraborty, M. K. and Singh, R. S.: 2000, Prediction of air pollution for
a proposed open pit coal mine, Trans. Inst. Min. Metal. (Sect. A: Min. Ind.) 109, A118
A124.
Chaulya, S. K., Chakraborty, M. K. and Singh, R. S.: 2001, Air pollution modelling for a proposed
limestone quarry, Water Air Soil Pollut. 126, 171191.
Chaulya, S. K., Chakraborty, M. K., Ahmad, M., Singh, R. S., Bondyopadhay, C., Mondal, G. C.
and Pal, D.: 2002, Development of empirical formulae for determination of emission rate from
various open pit coal mining operations, Water Air Soil Pollut. 140, 2155.
Christakos, G. and Hristopulos, D. T.: 1996, Characterization of atmospheric pollution using stochas-
tic indicators, Atmos. Environ. 30(30), 38113823.
Christakos, G. and Serre, M. L.: 2000, BME analysis of spatiotemporal particulate matter distribu-
tions in North Carolina, Atmos. Environ. 34, 33933406.
Christakos, G. and Vyas, V.: 1998, A composite spatiotemporal study of ozone distribution over
Eastern United States, Atmos. Environ. 32(16), 28452857.
Christakos, G., Bogaert, P. and Serre, M. L.: 2002, Temporal GIS, SpringerVerlag, New York.
Christakos, G., Serre, M. L. and Kovitz, J.: 2001, BME representation of particulate matter distribu-
tions in the state of California on the basis of uncertain measurements, J. Geophys. Res. 106(D9),
97179731.
Christakos, G.: 1998, Spatiotemporal information system in soil and environmental science,
Geoderma 85(23), 141179.
Christakos, G.: 2000, Modern Spatiotemporal Geostatistics, Oxford University Press, New York.
Collins, M. J., Williams, P. L. and MacIntosh, D. L.: 2001, Ambient air quality at the site of a former
manufactured gas plant, Environ. Monit. Assess. 68(2), 137152.
Corti, A. and Senatore, A.: 2000, Project of an air quality monitoring network for industrial site in
Italy, Environ. Monit. Assess. 65(12), 109117.
Crabbe, H., Beaumont, R. and Norton, D.: 2000, Assessment of air quality, emissions and manage-
ment in a local urban environment, Environ. Monit. Assess. 65(12), 435442.
Cressie, N. A. C.: 1991, Statistics for Spatial Data, Wiley, New York.
Delner, P. and Delhomme, J. P.: 1975, Optimum Interpolation by Kriging, in J. C. Davis and
M. J. McCullagh (eds.), Display and Analysis of Spatial Data, Wiley, London, pp. 96114.
Ermak, D. L.: 1977, An analytical model for air pollutant transport and deposition from a point
source, Atmos. Environ. 11, 231237.
Ferreira, F., Tente, H., Torres, P., Carboso, S. and Palmaoliveira, J. M.: 2000, Air quality monitoring
and management in Lisbon, Environ. Monit. Assess. 65(12), 443450.
Ghose, M. K. and Majee, J.: 2000, Assessment of dust generation due to open pit coal mining an
Indian case study, Environ. Monit. Assess. 61(2), 255263.
Hanna, S. R., Briggs, G. A. and Hosker, R. P. Jr.: 1982, Handbook on Atmospheric Diffusion,
DOE/TIC-11223, Technical Information Centre, U.S. Department of Energy.
Horst, T. W.: 1977, Asurface depletion model for deposition froma Gaussian plane, Atmos. Environ.
11, 4146.
Jones, T., Blackmore, P., Leach, M., Matt, B. K., Sexton, K. and Richards, R.: 2002, Characterisation
of airborne particles collected within and proximal to an open pit coalmine, South Wales, U.K.,
Environ. Monit. Assess. 75, 293312.
Jones, T.: 1993, The role of environmental impact assessment in coal production and utilisation,
Nat. Resour. Forum 17(3), 170180.
Journel, A. G. and Huijbregts, C. J.: 1978, Mining Geostatistics, Academic Press, London.
Kapoor, R. K. and Gupta, V. K.: 1984, A pollution attenuation coefcient concept for optimization
of Green Belt, Atmos. Environ. 18(6), 11071117.
388 S. K. CHAULYA
Karaca, M., Tayanc, M. and Toros, H.: 1995, The effects of urbanization on climate of Istanbul and
Ankara: A rst study, Atmos. Environ. 28B, 34113429.
Kumar, C. S. S., Kumar, P., Deshpande, V. P. and Badrinath, S. D.: 1994, Fugitive Dust Emis-
sion Estimation and Validation of Air Quality Model in Bauxite Mines, in G.S. Khuntia (ed.),
Proceedings of International Conference on Environmental Issues in Minerals and Energy
Industry, New Delhi, India, pp. 7781.
Kumar, U.: 1996, Coal scenario by 2001, in A.K. Bose (ed.), Proceedings of International Confer-
ence on Business and Investment Opportunities in Mining Industries, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi,
pp. 183194.
Meenalbal, T. and Akil, K.: 2000, Ambient air quality at selected sites in Coimbatore city, Indian
J. Environ. Protect. 20(1), 4953.
Monn, Ch., Braendly, O., Schaeppi, G., Schindler, Ch., Ackermann-Liebrich, U., Leuenberger, Ph.
and Sapaldia, T.: 1995, Particulate matter <10 m(PM
10
) and total suspended particulates (TSP)
in urban, rural and alpine air in Switzerland, Atmos. Environ. 29, 25652573.
Nanda, S. N. and Tiwary, S. N.: 2001, Concentration of SPMin the Burla-Hirakud-Sambalpur region
(Orissa), Indian J. Environ. Protect. 21(3), 193202.
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI): 1993, Workshop on Computer
Aided EIA of Industrial Project, Nagpur, India.
Ott, W. R.: 1995, Environmental Statistics and Data Analysis, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL,
USA.
Panago, P., De Zaiacomo, T., Scarcella, E., Bruni, S. and Calamosca, M.: 1998, Mutagenic activity
of total and particle-sized fraction of urban particulate matter, Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 3512
3516.
Reddy, G. S. and Ruj, B.: 2003, Ambient air quality status in Raniganj-Asansol area, India, Environ.
Monit. Assess. 89, 153163.
Salvador, P., Artinano, B., Alonso, D. G. and Querol, X.: 2001, Total suspended particles and PM
10
in ambient air in Madrid (Spain), J. Aerosolut. Sci. 32(1), S771S772.
Shannigrahi, A. S. and Agarwal, K. M.: 1996, An overview on optimal green belt development
around industrial project, Indian J. Environ. Protect. 17(4), 253261.
Shannigrahi, A. S. and Sharma, R. C.: 2000, Environmental factors in green belt development an
overview, Indian J. Environ. Protect. 20(8), 602607.
Sharma, S. C. and Roy, R. K.: 1997, Green belt - an effective means of mitigating industrial pollution,
Indian J. Environ. Protect. 17(10), 724727.
Sikarwar, S. S., Guha, S. and Singh, K. N.: 1998, Environmental pollution control through geo-
botanical means a case study of Manikpur Block, Korba Coaleld, M.P., India, Environ. Geol.
38(3), 229232.
Singh, S. and Rao, D. N.: 1983, Evaluation of Plants for their Tolerance to Air Pollution, in A.K.
Singh (ed.), Proceedings on Air Pollution Control, New Delhi, India, pp. 218224.
Sinha, S. and Banerjee, S. P.: 1994, A Method for Estimating Fugitive Particulate Emission from
Haul Roads in Open Pit Coal Mines and Mitigative Measures, in S.P. Banerjee (ed.), Pro-
ceedings of Second National Seminar on Minerals and Ecology, Dhanbad, India, pp. 217
227.
Sinha, S.: 1995, Quantication of fugitive particle emission from line source in surface coal mine
an approach, Indian J. Environ. Protect. 15(5), 339343.
Soni, D. K. and Agarwal, A.: 1997, Characterisation of dust emission in coal mining activities
case study, Indian J. Environ. Protect. 17(11), 80814.
Stern, A. C.: 1968, Air Pollution, Vol. II, Analysis, Monitoring and Surveying, 2nd edn., Academic
Press, London.
Tayanc, M.: 2000, An assessment of spatial and temporal variation of sulphur dioxide levels over
Istanbul, Turkey, Environ. Pollut. 107, 6169.
AIR QUALITY STATUS OF AN OPEN PIT MINING AREA IN INDIA 389
Tichy, J.: 1996, Impact of atmospheric deposition on the status of planted Norway sprince stands:
A comparative study between sites in Southern Sweden and the North Eastern Czech Republic,
Environ. Pollut. 93, 303312.
Triantafyllou, A. G. and Kassomenos, P. A.: 2002, Aspects of atmospheric ow and dispersion of
air pollutants in a mountainous basin, Sci. Total Environ. 297, 85103.
Triantafyllou, A. G., Kyros, E. S. and Evagelopoulos, V. G.: 2002, Respirable particulate matter at an
urban and nearby industrial location: Concentrations and variability, synoptic weather conditions
during high pollution episodes, J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 52, 287296.
Triantafyllou, A. G.: 2001, PM
10
pollution episodes as a function of synoptic climatology in a
mountainous industrial area, Environ. Pollut. 112, 491500.
Triantafyllou, A. G.: 2003, Levels and trends of suspended particles around large lignite power
station, Environ. Monit. Assess. 89, 1534.
Tripathi, A. K. and Panigrahi, G. P.: 2000, Assessment of air pollution due to SPM, SO
2
, NO
x
at
IRE Ltd., OSCOM Environment, Indian J. Environ. Protect. 20(12), 901905.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA): 1992, Air Quality Atlas, EPA400/K-92-002, Ofce
of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA): 1995, Users Guide for the Fugitive Dust Model
(FDM), Vol. I, Users Instruction, Region 10, 1200 sixth Avenue, Seattle, Washington.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA): 1996, Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter,
EPA/600/P-95/001F, Washington, DC.
Vyas, V. and Christakos, G.: 1997, Spatiotemporal analysis and mapping of sulphate deposition data
over the conterminous USA, Atmos. Environ. 31(12), 36233633.
Wheeler, A. J., Williams, I., Beaumont, R. A. and Manilton, R. S.: 2000, Characterisation of
particulate matter sampled during a study of childrens personal exposure to air borne particulate
matter in a UK urban environment, Environ. Monit. Assess. 65(12), 6977.
Reproducedwith permission of thecopyright owner. Further reproductionprohibited without permission.