1

Chapter - 1
Introduction



1.1 Variable Speed Drive:
Rotational industrial loads require operation at any one of a wide
range of operating speeds. Such loads are generally termed as variable
speed drives or adjustable speed drives. The variable speed drive systems
are also an integral part of automation. They help to optimize the process
to reduce the investment costs, energy consumption, and energy cost.
The system efficiency can be increased by the introduction of variable
speed drive operation in place of constant speed operation 1, !".
There are three basic types of variable speed drive systems# electrical
drives, hydraulic drives and finally mechanical drives. $n this thesis, only
electrical drives are focused. %rives employing electric motors are &nown
as electrical drives. 'loc& diagram of an electric variable speed drive
system is shown in (ig 1.1. $t consists of three basic components# the
electric motor, the power electronic converter and the control system.
The electric motor is connected directly or indirectly )through gears* to
the load. The power electronic converter controls the power flow from
power supply to the motor by appropriate control of power

!
semiconductor switches. The recent advances in power semiconductor
devices and converter topologies, electric variable speed drives are
witness a revolution in a wide variety of applications such as machine
tools and robotics drives, fans, pumps, compressors, paper mill, steel
industries, automation, traction applications, ship propulsion and
cement mills.


Fig.1.1. Block diagram of an electric variable peed drive !tem

1." Claification of Variable Speed Drive:
+ccording to the type of electric motor, the electric variable speed
drives can be classified into two categories.
1. %, motor drives
!. +, motor drives
Power Supply
Power Electronic
Converter
Gear System
Drive Control Unit
Load
Supervisory Control System
Electric
Motor

-
1.".1 DC #otor Drive:
Traditionally, separately e.cited %, machines are the obvious choice
for applications in variable speed drives, where good dynamic response
and steady state performance are required. The control of a separately
e.cited dc motor is very straightforward, because of the commutator
within the motor. The commutator and brush allow the developed torque
of the motor to be proportional to the armature current if the field
current is held constant. The dc machines also have the e.cellent
dynamic performance over a wide range of operating conditions due to
inherent decoupling between field flu. and armature current.
+pplications are used in steel industries, robotic drives, printers,
machine tools, te.tile and paper industries, etc. /n the other hand, dc
machines are inherently bul&y, require frequent maintenance, have low
torque0to0weight ratio, in addition to having commutation problems.
1oreover, the mechanical commutator limits the ma.imum applicable
voltage to about 12334 and the ma.imum power capacity to a few
hundred &ilowatts. The commutator also limits the ma.imum armature
current and its rate of change.
1."." $C #otor Drive:
+, motors e.hibit highly coupled, nonlinear and multi variable
structures as opposed to much simpler decoupled structures of
separately e.cited %, motors. The +, motors have a number of
advantages# light weight, ine.pensive and have low maintenance

5
compared with %, motors. They require control of frequency, voltage and
current for variable speed applications. 6owever, the advantages of +,
drives outweigh the disadvantages. +, drives replace the %, drives in
many domestic and industrial applications. The +, motor drives can be
classified into two categories.
1. $nduction motor drives
!. Synchronous motor drives
1.".".1 Induction #otor Drive:
The three phase induction motors drives can be classified into two
types, namely
Squirrel0cage induction motor drives
Slip0ring induction motor drives
'oth the motors are electrically equivalent as long as attention is
confined to the fundamental sine0waves of voltage, current, flu., etc
e.cept the former has rotor0winding terminals permanently shorted
inside the motor. $n case of slip0ring induction motor, the terminals of
the rotor three0phase winding are e.ternally available to the user.
1.".".1.1 S%uirrel-cage Induction #otor Drive:
The 7i&ola Tesla e.hibited a crude type of three0phase induction
motor at the (ran&fort e.hibition of 1891. +n improved construction,
with a distributed stator winding and a cage rotor, was built by %olivo
%obrowols&y in conjunction with the 1aschinenfabri& /erli&on and
described in 189-. This motor is the most widely used motor in the

2
industry. Traditionally, it has been used in constant and variable speed
drive applications that do not cater for fast dynamic processes. 'ecause
of recent development of several new control technologies, such as vector
control, sensorless control and direct torque control )%T,*, the situation
is changing rapidly. Squirrel0cage induction motors are much cheaper
and more rugged than the dc motor. They require little maintenance.
They can be designed as totally enclosed motors to operate in dirty and
e.plosive environments. +ll these features ma&e them attractive for use
in industrial drives. The some of speed control methods are listed below,
which are widely used.
Scalar control
4ector control or (ield /riented ,ontrol )(/,*
Sensorless control
%irect Torque ,ontrol )%T,*
1.".".1." Slip-ring Induction #otor Drive:
The slip0ring induction motors with three rotor slip rings have been
used in adjustable speed drives for many years. $n early slip0ring
induction motor drives, adjustable speed is achieved by dissipating the
energy in e.ternal resistances, connected to the slip0ring terminals of the
rotor. 1odern slip0ring induction motor drives use an inverter to recover
the power from the rotor circuit, feeding it bac& to the supply system. So,
the speed control methods employed for slip0ring induction motor drives
are

:
Rotor resistance control
Slip power recovery schemes )Static ;ramer drive < Static
Scherbius drive*
=enerally, slip0ring induction motors are used for high power
applications where a small speed range is required.
1."."." S!nchronou #otor Drive:
The speed of synchronous motors with constant rotor e.citation is
determined by the stator supply frequency and the number of poles. So,
a variable frequency static inverter can e.tend its operation as a variable
speed drive. The main applications are gearless rolling mills, mine hoists,
traction, etc.
$n this thesis, main attention is given to squirrel0cage induction motor
drives only.
1.& Control Strategie for S%uirrel-cage Induction #otor:
$nduction motors are &nown as wor&horses of industry. These are
most widely used motors due to their lower cost, rugged construction
and high power to volume>weight ratio. ?hen operated directly from the
ac line voltage, induction motor operates nearly at constant speed.
6owever by means of power electronic converters, it is possible to change
the speed of an induction motor. @ven though the induction motors are
desirable, their speed control is not as straight forward as that of a dc
motor. Therefore, it was natural for the researchers to thin& of ways,
which would ta&e the induction motor control closer to that of a dc

A
motor. The various speed control methods, which are used to control the
speed of induction motors discussed in this section.
1.&.1 Volt'()

f
v
Control of Induction #otor:
The volts>6z control of induction motor is by far the most popular
method of speed control because of its simplicity, and these types of
motors are widely used in industry !, -". $n this control, for adjustable
speed applications, supply frequency is varied. 6owever, voltage is
required to be proportional to frequency so that the flu. remains
constant, neglecting the stator resistance drop. 6ence, in this method,
f
v
is held constant. $n steady state operation, the machine air gap flu.
is appro.imately related to
f
v
. +s the frequency nearly approaches zero,
near zero speed, the magnitude of the stator voltage also tends to zero
and this low voltage is absorbed by the stator resistance. Therefore, at
low speed by injecting the boost voltage, the stator resistance drop is
compensated, so that rated air gap flu. and hence the full load torque is
available up to zero speed. +t steady state operation, if load torque is
increased, the slip increases within stability limit and a balance will be
maintained between the developed torque and the load torque.
*roblem +ith Volt'() Control:
$f the supply voltage to the inverter fluctuates, the air gap flu. will
vary.

8
+lso, increase in stator resistance with temperature results in
variation in air gap flu.. 6ence, in constant
f
v
control scheme
the air gap flu. may drift as a result, torque sensitivity with slip
frequency or stator current will vary. $f correct
f
v
ratio is not
maintained, the flu. may be wea& or may saturate.
Torque pulsations are present at low speeds owing to presence of
fifth, seventh and eleventh and higher harmonics.
'ecause of the presence of low frequency harmonics, the motor
losses are increased at all speeds causing the derating of the
motor.
These drawbac&s can be overcome with the help of vector control
technique where an induction motor is controlled on the same principles
as a separately e.cited dc motor in which torque component and the flu.
component are decoupled.
1.&." Vector Control of Induction #otor:
$n 19A1, (. 'lasch&e proposed a scheme, which aims at the control of
induction motor li&e a separately e.cited dc motor, called (ield /riented
,ontrol )(/,* or vector control. +s in the dc machines, torque control in
ac machines is achieved by controlling the motor currents. 6owever, in
contrast to a dc machine, current phasor has to be controlled. This is the
reason for the terminology Bvector controlC. $n the vector control, the
induction motor is analyzed in a synchronously rotating reference frame

9
where the sinusoidal variables appear as dc quantities. The torque and
the flu. components are identified and controlled independently to
achieve a good dynamic response. 4ector controlled techniques
incorporating fast microprocessors and %SDs have made possible the
application of induction motors for high performance applications where
traditionally only dc drives were applied. 6owever, it should be noted
that#
$n dc machines, the armature current and main flu. distribution
are fi.ed in space and where the torque can be established by
independently controlling the e.citation flu. and armature current.
?here as in ac machine, it is much more difficult to realize this
principle because these quantities are coupled and are stationary
with respect to the stator and rotor. They also depend on modulus,
frequency and phase angles of stator current.
There are essentially two general methods of vector control !".
They are#
1. %irect vector control or (eedbac& method, developed by (.
'lasch&e
!. $ndirect vector control or (eedforward method, developed by
;. 6asse.
These two methods are differently essential by how the unit vector is
generated for the control.


13
1.&.".1 Direct Vector Control of Induction #otor:
The direct vector control depends on the generation of unit vector
signals from the stator or rotor flu. signals. The air0gap flu. signals can
be measured directly or estimated from the stator voltage or current
signals. $n these systems, rotor speed is not required for obtaining rotor
field angle information. 6ere, the actual motor currents are converted to
synchronously rotating frame currents using par& transformation. The
resulting dc quantities are compared with the reference d0a.is and q0a.is
components. The outputs of the controllers are used to generate the
pulsewidth modulated signals for switching the devices in the inverter
bridge feeding the motor. The main disadvantages of this method are#
%irect method of rotor flu. estimation depends on the machine
parameterE the rotor resistance variation, especially, becomes
dominant due to the temperature variation and s&in effect.
The direct method of vector control can be applied typically above
13F of the base speed because of difficulty in accurate flu. signal
synthesis at low speeds.
6ence, due to these disadvantages, normally indirect method of vector
control is preferred.
1.&."." Indirect Vector Control of Induction #otor:
$n this method, the unit vector signal that transforms the
synchronously rotating stator voltages into stationary frame signals has
been generated from the speed signal and slip signal. The drive can easily

11
be operated from zero speed to constant power field0wea&ening region. $t
is the most popular vector control method in industry. The main
disadvantages of this method are#
The machine parameter variation affects the slip gain, and
correspondingly, both static and dynamic performances of the
drive are affected.
The on0line tuning for parameter variation is more difficult.
The control methods discussed so far require a speed sensor for
closed operation. The speed sensor has several disadvantages from
standpoint of drive cost, reliability and noise immunity. The torque is
controlled indirectly.
1.&.& Senorle Vector Control of Induction #otor:
Sensorless vector control of an induction motor drive essentially
means vector control without any speed sensor !, 5". 6ere the
terminology BsensorlessC refers to only the speed and shaft sensors. $t is
possible to estimate the speed signal from machine terminal voltages and
currents. The speed estimation methods can generally be classified as
follows#
Slip calculation
%irect synthesis from state equations
1odel referencing adaptive system )1R+S*
Speed adaptive flu. observer
@.tended &alman filter )@;(*

1!
Slot harmonics

1any of the sensorless techniques depend on the machine
parameters, temperature, saturation levels, etc.

1.&., Direct -or%ue Control of Induction #otor:
$n the mid 1983s the %irect Torque ,ontrol )%T,* principle was
developed by Ta&ahashi and 7oguchi for low and medium power
applications and %irect Self ,ontrol )%S,* principle was established by
%epenbroc& for high power applications. +s the name suggests, %T, or
%S, regulates the motor torque and flu. directly. $n the %T, approach,
the reference torque and reference flu. are compared to the estimated
motor torque and the estimated stator flu. respectively, both employing
hysteresis controllers. The torque and flu. hysteresis controller output
logic signals are evaluated in an optimal switching logic table to generate
the inverter switching device gate signals. The generation of inverter
switching state is made to restrict the stator flu. and electromagnetic
torque errors within the respective flu. and torque hysteresis bands and
to obtain the fastest torque response and highest efficiency at every
instant. The %T, scheme is found to be very promising and valuable as
compared to (/,. 'ut, %T, has few drawbac&s such as more steady
state ripple in flu., torque and current and variable switching frequency
due to hysteresis bands.

1-
1., .iterature /evie+ and State of the $rt $ement:
1.,.1 Introduction:
The one and a half century of progress in the electric machines field,
about three quarters of a century of progress in the power electronics
field, and about half a century of progress in the micro0
electronics>macro0electronics and control fields are inherited in the state
of the art pulsewidth modulated voltage source inverter )D?104S$*
drives. Since they involve various disciplines of engineering and there
has always been a strong demand for them in the mar&et, D?104S$
drives have continuously drawn the attention of many researchers all
around the world. +mong the various D?104S$ drives, the induction
motor drives with cage type machines have found wide range of
applications and have become the wor&horse of industry due to their
simplicity and ruggedness. These motors can be fed from current source
inverters ),S$* or voltage source inverters )4S$*, and used as variable
speed drives. Recent advances in semiconductor technology have led to
new generations of fast0acting power semiconductor switches li&e =T/s,
1/S(@Ts, $='Ts, and more recently $=,Ts. The performance and
characteristics of these switches strongly favor the 4S$ topology over the
,S$ one. This has been a major reason for 4S$ fed induction motor drives
becoming more popular than ,S$ fed induction motor drives. Dulsewidth
1odulation )D?1* strategies are required for switching the devices in a

15
4S$ appropriately to generate variable voltage, variable frequency, -0
phase +, required for the variable speed induction motor drive.
(ollowing a brief review of the various control techniques for induction
motor drives and state of the art %T, of induction motor drives will be
described and the fundamental contributions to the area will be
discussed in detail.
1.,." Control -echni%ue for Induction #otor Drive:
The various speed control techniques for three0phase squirrel cage
induction motors are
,onstant 4olts per 6ertz ,ontrol
(ield /riented ,ontrol )(/,* or 4ector ,ontrol
Sensorless 4ector control
%irect Torque ,ontrol )%T,*
1.,.".1 Contant Volt per (ert) Control:
The bloc& diagram of volts per hertz control of induction motor is
given in (ig. 1.!. $n this method, the inverter output voltage is varied
proportionally to the reference frequency such that constant stator flu. is
maintained. $n an induction motor drive, this operating mode results in
shunt speed0torque characteristics )linear portion of the torque0speed
curve*, yielding low slip frequency and therefore high energy efficiency
and good speed regulation. Therefore, the method gained wide
acceptance in many industrial and residential induction motor drive

12
speed regulation applications as given by '.;. 'ose !", R. ;rishnan -",
%.+. 'radley et al :" and '. 1o&rytz&i A08".



Fig. 1." 0pen-loop volt per hert) peed control of induction motor
The performance of the f v control is not satisfactory, because the
rate of change of voltage and frequency has to be low. + sudden
acceleration or deceleration of the voltage and frequency can cause a
transient change in the current, which can result in drastic problems.
1oreover, they e.hibit limited speed response, poor load torque
disturbance characteristic, and inferior low speed characteristics. Some
efforts were made to improve f v control performance, but none of these
improvements could yield a f v torque controlled drive systems and this
made %, motors a prominent choice for variable speed applications. $n
$1
%iode
'ridge
Rectifier
G
,
Sine
Triangle
D?1
=
+
+
4o
4
H
I
H
+,
supply

1:
printing press applications, pac&aging applications, servo applications
with very high resolution position control etc, where precise control is
mandatory, the performance of f v drives is not satisfactory. $n such
type of applications, traditionally %, motor drives have been employed
with a shaft encoder. Typical application areas of f v drives are pumps,
ventilation systems, etc. which have passive torque0speed characteristics
and no precise speed regulation requirement.
1.,."." Vector Control:
$n the volts per hertz control, the voltage and frequency are the basic
control variables of the induction motor. $n a voltage fed drive, both the
torque and air gap flu. are functions of voltage and frequency. This
coupling effect is responsible for the sluggish response of the induction
motor and moreover, the system is easily prone to the instability.
6owever, the continuous progress in induction motor control theory,
power electronics, and digital signal processors yielded the modern
vector controlled induction motor drives 9012" which can match the
performance and reliability characteristics of dc drives and cost less. The
invention of vector control, which is also &nown as decoupling,
orthogonal, transvector or field oriented control )(/,* in the beginning of
19A3s, and the demonstration that an induction motor can be controlled
li&e a separately e.cited dc motor, brought a renaissance in the high0
performance speed control of induction motor drives. 1odern vector
controlled squirrel cage induction motor drives meet the demanding

1A
performance criteria of most high performance speed control
applications. $n the vector control method, an ac machine is controlled
li&e a separately e.cited dc machine. This analogy is e.plained by '.;.
'ose !" as in (ig. 1.-.

Fig. 1.& 1a2 Separatel! e3cited dc motor 1b2 vector controlled
induction motor.

$n a dc machine, neglecting the armature demagnetization effect and
field saturation, the torque is given by
f a t e
I I k T J = )1.1*
?here
a
I is the armature or torque component of current and
f
I is the
field or flu. component of current. $n a dc machine, the control variables
a
I and
f
I can be considered as orthogonal or decoupled KvectorsL. $n
normal operation, the field current is set to maintain the rated field flu.
a
I f
I
)a*
$1
4ector
,ontrol

$nverter
H
qs
i
H
ds
i
)b*

18
and torque is changed by changing the armature current. Since the
current
f
I or the corresponding field flu. is decoupled from the
armature current, the torque sensitivity remains ma.imum in both
transient and steady state operations. This mode of control can be
e.tended to an induction motor also if the machine operation is
considered in a synchronously rotating reference frame where the
sinusoidal variables appear as dc quantities. $n (ig. 1.- the induction
motor with inverter and vector control is shown with two control inputs,
H
ds
i and
H
qs
i . The currents
H
ds
i and
H
qs
i are the direct0a.is component and
quadrature0a.is component, respectively, of the stator current, where
both are in a synchronously rotating reference frame. $n vector control
H
ds
i is analogous to the field current
f
I and
H
qs
i is analogous to the
armature current
a
I of a dc machine. Therefore, the torque can be
e.pressed as

H H H
J M
ds qs t qs m t e
i i k i k T = = )1.!*
Thus the similarity between the production of the electromagnetic
torque in a compensated dc machine and in symmetrical, smooth air gap
induction machine has been established. 6owever, it should be noted
that#
$n dc machines, the armature current and main flu. distribution
are fi.ed in space and where the torque can be established by
independently controlling the e.citation flu. and armature current.

19
?here as in an induction machine, it is much more difficult to
realize this principle because these quantities are coupled and are
stationary with respect to the stator and rotor. They also depend
on modulus, frequency and phase angles of stator current.
The search for simple control schemes, similar to those used for dc
machines has led to the development of Kvector controlled schemesL.
There are essentially two general methods of vector control. They are#
%irect vector control or %irect (ield /riented ,ontrol )%(/,*
$ndirect vector control or $ndirect (ield /riented ,ontrol )$(/,*
These methods are differentiated on how the unit vector signals are
generated from stator, rotor or air0gap flu. signals. The %(/, method
was presented by (. 'lasch&e 9" and it employs flu. sensors. The $(/,
method was presented by ;. 6asse 13" and it employs a shaft encoder to
close the speed loop.
$n (/,, the magnetizing flu. and torque producing components of the
stator currents are properly and independently distributed both during
steady state and dynamic conditions. +s e.plained by %.?. 7ovotny and
T.+. Gipo 11" and Ri& ?. %e %onc&er and %.?. 7ovotny 1!", by
regulating each component independently with a high performance
current controller, the drive torque can be controlled in the same precise
manner as the %, machine. Since installing flu. sensors in the stator or
the air gap of a machine is difficult, and the operation is not reliable, the
%(/, method is practically rarely employed in its original form.

!3
@mploying flu. observers, the %(/, method provides high performance
torque control, in particular in the high speed region where the stator
resistance voltage drop is small compared to the stator @1( and the
stator flu. observer is highly accurate. The stator flu. oriented %(/,
method is attractive for traction, spindle tool etc, applications which
require operation in a wide field wea&ening region. 6owever, near zero
speed the stator flu. observer estimator error becomes substantial due to
the dominance of the stator resistive voltage component over the nearly
zero @1( and the %(/, method looses performance. $n a large number
of applications requiring high performance in the low speed operating
region the rotor flu. oriented $(/, method is utilized.
?ith accurate parameter adaptation, the $(/, based induction
machine drives can provide servo performance in a wide speed region.
Since the torque regulation quality of an (/, induction motor drive is
mainly dependent on the current controller accuracy and bandwidth,
high performance motion control requires high performance current
regulators. The hysteresis type current controllers which have superior
dynamic performance have not gained acceptance in motor drives due to
the difficulty in controlling their switching frequency and significant
waveform distortion. @mploying high switching frequency $='T devices
and high performance digital signal processors or microprocessors, high
performance current controlled drives provide high torque>speed
bandwidth, hence high motion quality. 6igh performance (/, drives

!1
have been successfully employed in industrial and servo drive
applications which are summarized by T. ;ume and T. $wa&ane 1-". The
evolution of (/, drives from concept to industrial products and
successful applications has been summarized by ?. Geonard in 15012"
in detail.
1.,.".& Senorle Vector Control:
Sensorless vector control induction motor drive essentially means
vector control without any shaft encoder or speed sensor. +n incremental
shaft mounted speed encoderE usually an optical type is required for
closed loop speed or position control in vector controlled drives. + speed
encoder is undesirable in a drive because it adds cost and poses
reliability problems, besides the need for a shaft e.tension and mounting
arrangement. To reduce total hardware comple.ity, cost and to increase
mechanical robustness, it is desirable to eliminate speed and position
sensors in vector0controlled drives. %rives operating in hostile
environments or in high speed drives speed sensors cannot be mounted.
To replace the sensor, the information of the rotor speed is e.tracted
from measured stator voltages and currents at the motor terminals.
,ontinuing research has concentrated on the elimination of the speed
sensor at the machine shaft without deteriorating the dynamic
performance of drive control system. Speed estimation is an issue of
particular interest with induction motor drives where the mechanical
speed of the rotor is generally different from the speed of the revolving

!!
magnetic field. The advantage of speed sensorless induction motor drives
are reduced hardware comple.ity, lower cost, reduced size of the drive
machine, elimination of the sensor cable, better noise immunity,
increased reliability and less maintenance requirements.
The pioneering wor& in the shaft encoderless motor speed control area
was reported by R. NOtten and =. 1aeder in 198- 1:". They employed
the induction motor fundamental model to estimate the slip frequency
and the bac& emf of the machine and provided a closed loop controller to
regulate the slip such that superior dynamic performance could be
obtained in a wide speed region, including the field wea&ening region.
+lthough a large variety of shaft encoderless control methods have been
reported from that time to the present date, only a few found practical
applications, which are given by '.;. 'ose !", Deter 4as 5", Tsugutoshi
/thani et al 1A", ,. $las et al 18" and N. 6oltz 190!3".
1.,."., State of the $rt D-C of Induction #otor Drive:
$n addition to vector control systems, instantaneous torque control
yielding fast torque response can also be obtained by employing %irect
Torque ,ontrol )%T,* !1, !-" or %irect Self ,ontrol )%S,* !!, !5". +s
the name suggests, the %T, method regulates the motor torque and flu.
directly. $n the mid 1983s the %T, principle was developed and
discussed by $sao Ta&ahashi and T.7oguchi !1" for low and medium
power applications and %S, principle was established by 1. %epenbroc&
!!" for high power applications. $n this thesis, the attention is mainly

!-
focused on the %T, scheme. $n the %T, approach, the reference torque
is compared to the estimated motor torque and the reference stator flu.
is compared to the estimated stator flu., both employing hysteresis
controllers. The torque and flu. hysteresis controller output logic signals
are evaluated in an optimal switching logic table to generate the inverter
switching device gate signals. The generation of inverter switching state
is made to restrict the stator flu. lin&age and electromagnetic torque
errors within the respective flu. and torque hysteresis bands and to
obtain the fastest torque response and the highest efficiency at every
instant. The %T, scheme is found to be very promising and valuable as
compared to (/,. 1oreover, using the %T, it is possible to obtain a good
dynamic control of the torque without any speed sensors or position
sensors on the machine shaft. Thus, %T, can be considered as
sensorless type control techniques.
$n %T,, the stator flu. can be calculated from the motor terminal
voltages and stator resistance. 4ariations in the stator resistance result
in significant errors in the stator flu., especially at low speeds. This
problem can be overcome by using the slip relation from indirect rotor
flu. field orientation to locate the position of the rotor flu.. The rotor flu.
position is then used to locate the position of the stator flu.. +lso, the
motor speed and rotor resistance are used to calculate the position of the
stator flu. at low speeds. ?ith this, the advantages of %T, scheme are
maintained over the entire speed range as e.plained by Thomas =.

!5
6abetler et al !2". 1oreover, the robust start and improved operation in
the zero speed region can be achieved easily by introducing the
additional carrier signal to the torque comparator input as given by
;azmier&ows&i and ;asprowicz !:".
Thus, unli&e (/,, %T, operates with closed torque and flu. loops but
without current controllers. $n spite of its simplicity, %T, allows a good
torque control in steady state and transient operating conditions to be
obtained. 1oreover, %T, has simple and robust control structure and is
not sensitive to rotor parameters. + review of recently used %T,
algorithms for 4S$ fed induction motor drives has been presented and
discussed by =iuseppe S. 'uja and 1arian D. ;azmier&ows&i !A". +
detailed comparison between (/, and %T,, emphasizing advantages
and disadvantages are provided by %omenico ,asadei et al !8" and
concluded that %T, might be preferred for high dynamic applications.
6ence, the %T, scheme was introduced in commercial products by +sea
'rown 'overi )+''* and therefore created wide interest. This is very
significant industrial contribution and it has been stated by +'' that
%T, is the latest ac motor control method and it can be considered to be
ne.t generation motor control technologies. Therefore, %T, has gaining
more industrial applications such as high performance applications,
electric vehicle applications, etc as e.plained by Deter 4as 5", Names 7.
7ash !9", De&&a Tiitinen and Surandra -3" and Nawad (iaz et al -!".

!2
Though %T, has high dynamic performance, it has few drawbac&s
that can be summarized as high current, torque and flu. ripple, variable
switching frequency due to hysteresis controllers and high noise level at
low speeds, etc. The effect of torque and flu. hysteresis band amplitudes
on the performance of induction motor drive has been studied by %.
,asadei et al --" and Nun0;oo ;ong et al -50-2". The amplitude of the
flu. hysteresis band mainly affects the motor current distortion in terms
of low order harmonics. Small flu. hysteresis bands lead to sinusoidal
current waveforms, while small torque hysteresis bands allow smoothed
torque to be generated. /n the other hand, small hysteresis bands
usually determine high switching frequency thereby increasing the
switching losses. 1oreover, the switching frequency of the torque
controller has a pea& value at medium speed due to the effect of bac&
emf, while that of the flu. controller is proportional to operating speed
-2". The analytical determination of the relationships between the
applied voltage vector and the corresponding torque and flu. variations
is given by %. ,asadei et al -:", from which, it has been observed that
the effects produced by a voltage vector are strongly dependent on both
rotor speed and voltage vector direction relative to the rotor flu.. The
ma.imum torque variation is obtained by applying a voltage vector along
the direction perpendicular to the rotor flu. vector. Thus, the presence of
torque and flu. hysteresis bands in %T, causes ripples in stator current,
stator flu. and torque that results in more harmonics in the line current.

!:
To increase the dynamic performance of %T, and to decrease the
ripple in torque, various switching control strategies had been proposed
in the literature. The effect of the applied voltage on the torque response
is strongly dependent on rotor angular speed. To tac&le the problem of
stator flu. drooping at low speeds, to reduce the harmonic contents in
the stator current and to reduce the switching frequency, the method of
Kvariable switching sectorsL for %T, has been proposed by ,= 1ei et al
-A". To reduce the ripple in torque further, a series of switching control
strategies have been presented by @. =alvan et al -8" and =. @scobar et
al -9". $n conventional %T, ),%T,*, which was proposed by Ta&ahashi,
the selected voltage vector is not always the best one since only the
sector is considered where the flu. lin&age space vector lies without
considering its accurate location. +s the ,%T, has a fewer number of
selectable voltage vectors, it causes higher ripples in the flu. and torque.
To overcome this problem, a unified flu. control )P(,* method for %T,
has been developed by Noon 6young Ryu et al 53". $n P(,, a voltage
space vector is calculated for a deadbeat action and a minimum0distance
vector selection scheme replaces the switching vector loo&0up table to
minimize the flu. and torque ripples. 1oreover, torque ripple can be
reduced, by applying a suitable voltage vector from the switching table
for the time interval needed by the torque to reach the upper or lower
limit of the band, where the time interval is calculated from a suitable
modeling of the torque dynamics as e.plained by 4anja +mbroQiR et al

!A
51". This method is also &nown as band0constrained technique in which,
depending on the inverter voltage vector and the operating conditions,
the time interval may e.tend over several sampling periods. Therefore,
the inverter switching frequency settles automatically to the minimum
value.
7ow a days, the intelligent controllers li&e fuzzy, neuro and neuro0
fuzzy controllers play a major role in industrial applications. To improve
the dynamic performance of torque and flu., stator resistance
estimation, stator flu. estimation, tuning procedure, etc, intelligent
control algorithms given by Sayeed +. 1ir et al 5!", $.=. 'ird and 6.
Selaya %e Ga Darra 5-", (atiha Sidani and Rachid 55", Guis Romeral et
al 52" and Dawel S. =rabows&i et al 5:" can be implemented to the %T,
algorithm. +s there are no sector borders, there is no current and torque
distortion caused by the sector changes. %uring the low speed region
also, the performance can be improved by using fuzzy logic or neuro0
fuzzy controllers.
+ substantial reduction in torque, flu. and current ripples could be
obtained using the discrete space vector modulation )%S41* algorithm
developed by %. ,asadei et al 5A" and Tin ?ei et al 58". %S41 uses
prefi.ed time intervals within a cycle period that results more number of
voltage vectors with respect to those used in conventional %T,. The
increased number of voltage vectors allows the definition of more
accurate switching tables in which the selection of voltage vectors is

!8
made according to the rotor speed, the flu. error and torque error. $n
%S41, one sampling time period is divided into BmC equal time intervals.
/ne of the 4S$ voltage vectors is applied in each time interval. The
number of voltage vectors, which can be generated is directly related to
BmC. 6owever, a good compromise between the errors compensation and
the comple.ity of the switching tables is achieved by choosing m U - 5A0
58". Psing %S41 algorithm with three equal time intervals, -:
synthesized non0zero voltage vectors are obtained. $f the stator flu.
vector is assumed to be in first sector, then 19 voltage vectors can be
used. Then, different voltage vectors are chosen for different speed
ranges. + fuzzy logic controller can be designed to select synthesized
voltage vectors in %S41 based %T, 58". Thus, %S41 allows the
performance of %T, scheme in terms of flu. and torque ripple and
current distortions to be improved without increasing the comple.ity of
the power circuit and the inverter switching frequency.
To overcome the problem of variable switching frequency, and torque
ripple, few controllers have been proposed in the literature 59023". This
can be done in two ways. $n first method, the optimal switching instant is
calculated at each switching cycle to satisfy the ripple minimum
condition based on the instantaneous torque slope equations. $n second
method the conventional three0level torque hysteresis comparator is
replaced by a new controller, which consists of two triangular waveform
generators, two comparators and a D$ controller. To operate the %T,

!9
algorithm with constant switching frequency and to reduce the torque
ripple few methods have been proposed in 21".
$n recent years, to overcome the problem of ripples and varying
switching frequency a voltage modulation algorithm, which is &nown as
Space 4ector Dulsewidth 1odulation )S4D?1* has been used in the
literature 2!0:8". The recently reported S4D?1 algorithm 280:A" has
become very popular over the last decade. $n this method, the reference
is provided as a voltage space vector, which is sampled once in every
subcycle and an average voltage vector equal to the sampled reference
voltage vector is generated by time0averaging of the different voltage
vectors produced by the inverter. The S4D?1 is a superior D?1
technique for three phase inverter drives compared to the traditional
regularly sampled triangular comparison technique. Space vector
approach has the advantages of lower current harmonics and a possible
higher modulation inde. compared with the three phase sinusoidal
modulation method and ease of digital implementation.
+ novel scheme was reported by Thomas =. 6abetler et al 2!" that
calculate the inverter switching pattern directly in order to control the
torque and flu. in a dead beat fashion over a constant switching period.
This is accomplished by calculating the voltage space vector required to
control the torque and flu. on a cycle0by0cycle basis using the calculated
flu. and torque errors sampled from the previous cycle and estimated
value of the bac& @1( in the machine.

-3
To get constant switching frequency and to increase the inverter
switching frequency for the same sampling frequency, the symmetrical
regular sampled S41 technique was used by Ven0Shin Gai and Nian06o
,hen 2-" for inverter control of the %T, based drive. + new S(4, based
%T, was reported by %. ,asadei et al 25" along with a simple closed loop
flu. estimator to improve the drive performance in the very low speed
region, including zero speed. (urther, a simplified %T, algorithm based
on S4D?1 was reported by Gi.in Tang et al 2202:", in which instead of
the switching table and hysteresis controllers, a D$ controller and
reference flu. vector calculator )R(4,* were used to determine reference
stator flu. lin&age vector. The R(4, generates the reference flu. vector
according to the error in the torque, which is based on the current
estimated flu. lin&age vector. 1oreover, a special S41 pattern has been
used to reduce the switching frequency of the inverter. (urther, closed
loop digital control for both flu. and torque was implemented by ,ristian
Gascu et al 2A" in a S4D?1 based %T, to improve the transient
performance and steady state ripple and to preserve the robustness. +
sensorless hybrid %T, drive based on S4D?1 for high volume low cost
applications was reported by ,ristian Gascu and +ndrzej 1.
Trzynadlows&i 2A". $n this hybrid method, under the transient operating
conditions, the drive is controlled by using the classical bang0bang %T,
and in the steady state, using linear torque and flu. controllers, the
control system generates a reference voltage vector for the inverter.

-1
7ow a days, the attention is paid to determine the switching losses
of the inverter. The dependency of the switching losses of a bridge leg of a
D?1 converter system with a pulse rate was e.plored by Nohann ?.
;olar et al :5". The modern D?1 methods can be separated into two
groups. $n the continuous D?1 ),D?1* methods, the modulation waves
are always within the triangular pea& boundaries and within every
carrier cycle triangle and modulation waves intersect, and, therefore, on
and off switching occur. $n the discontinuous D?1 )%D?1* methods, the
modulation wave of a phase has at least one segment which is clamped
to the positive or negative dc rail for at most a total of 1!3
o
, therefore,
within such intervals the corresponding inverter leg discontinues
modulation. Since no modulation implies no switching losses, the
switching loss characteristics of ,D?1 and %D?1 methods are
different. 6ence, in recent years the attention is paid on the %D?1
methods. Several %D?1 methods have been reported in the literature
:50:8". + few carrier based %D?1 methods are reported by +hmet
6ava et al :20:A". +mong these, %epenbroc&Cs %D?11 and /gasawaraCs
%D?1 methods have gained recognition due to their low harmonic
distortion at high voltage utilization and the controllability of the
switching losses. Simple and powerful analytical and graphical carrier
based D?1 tools have been presented in :A". +lso, e.pressions for
harmonic distortion and switching loss factor )SG(* are given. 1oreover,
the performance characteristics of various D?1 methods have been

-!
compared. The switching loss and waveform quality indicate S4D?1 at
low modulation and %D?1 methods at the high modulation range have
superior performance. 'ased on this comparison, a high0performance
generalized %D?1 )=%D?1* method, with superior high modulation
operating range performance characteristics was presented in ::". The
=%D?1 algorithm is suitable for most high performance D?104S$ drive
applications. +lso, an algorithm combining =%D?1 and conventional
S4D?1 to ma.imize the drive performance in the whole modulation
range is developed. +lso, the relationship between zero sequence signal
and space vectors and the relationship between the distribution of zero
vectors and different carrier based D?1 modulators are systematically
investigated without dependence on the load. Then the e.pressions for
the continuous modulating signals for the switching devices of the 4S$
required to generate unbalanced three phase voltages are given by
/lorunfemi /jo :8". Then, for the generation of balanced and
unbalanced phase voltages, a =%D?1 scheme, in which the modulation
signals of the switching devices are inherently discontinuous, is reported
by /lorunfemi /jo :8". $n this method, by varying a parameter various
discontinuous modulating signals can be generated.
So far, a number of D?1 techniques have been discussed for 4S$ fed
induction motor drives. The techniques for the generation of D?1
waveforms can be broadly divided into#
/ffline D?1 generation techniques

--
/nline D?1 generation techniques
/ffline D?1 techniques are those where the switching instants of the
inverter are stored in the form of loo&up tables, which are previously
calculated and used. The online D?1 techniques are more common
where the fundamental cycle is divided into many subcycles in each of
which the volt0second balance is maintained. The online D?1
techniques can be further subdivided into two categories on the basis of
approach, namely the triangle comparison )T,* approach and the space
vector )S4* approach. $n the T, approach, three0phase modulating waves
are compared against a common triangular carrier to determine the
switching instants of the three phases. The most common and popular
modulating waves are sinusoidal waves. +ny triplen frequency
component can be added as zero sequence components to the -0phase
sinusoidal waves. The choice of these triplen frequency components is a
degree of freedom in this approach. $n the S4 approach, the voltage
reference is provided in terms of a revolving space vector. The magnitude
and the frequency of the fundamental component are specified by the
magnitude and frequency respectively of the reference vector. The
reference vector is sampled once in every subcycle. The inverter is
maintained in different states for appropriate durations such that an
average voltage vector equal to the sampled reference vector is generated
over the given subcycle. The inverter states used are the two zero voltage
vectors, and the two active voltage vectors, whose voltage vectors are the

-5
closest to the commanded voltage vector. The division of the zero voltage
vector duration between the two zero states is a degree of freedom in the
space vector approach. This division of zero vector time in a subcycle is
equivalent to adding a common0mode component to the -0phase average
pole voltages. The same D?1 waveform can be generated based on both
the approaches as e.plained by =. 7arayanan and 4. T. Ranganathan
:-".
The ripple in torque can also be decreased by using the multilevel
inverters. +n increase in the number of levels improves the torque quality
reducing the ripple amplitude. Therefore, by using the multilevel
inverters, the torque performance of direct torque control of induction
motor in high power and medium power applications can be improved as
e.plained by ;yo0'eum Gee et al :9", +. %amiano et al A3", Shuohui
Tan et al A1" and NosW RodrXguez A!". 'ut, in the multi level concept,
though the torque performance is improved, the cost and comple.ity will
be increased.
Though the loo&0up table based -0level inverter fed %T, drives give
good performance when compared with the loo&0up table based !0level
inverter fed %T, drives, it gives varying switching frequency operation of
the inverter and gives more harmonic distortion. To obtain constant
switching frequency operation and to achieve superior waveform quality,
various D?1 algorithms have been proposed in the literature. 7abae,
et.al. proposed a D?1 algorithm for neutral point clamped )7D,* -0level

-2
inverter in A-". 7owadays, the multilevel inverter fed drives are
becoming popular in many industrial and electrical vehicles applications
especially for medium and high power applications A50AA". + detailed
survey on the multilevel inverters and various topologies of the multilevel
inverters are discussed in AA". The waveform quality can be increased by
increasing the number of levels. 'ut, as the number of level increases,
the comple.ity involved in the D?1 algorithm and power circuit also
increases. To decrease the comple.ity involved in the D?1 algorithms for
a multilevel inverter, several simplified D?1 algorithms have been
proposed in the literature. + simplified S4D?1 algorithm has been
proposed for a three0level inverter by suing the concept of S4D?1
algorithm for a two0level inverter in A80A9". $n this algorithm, the
switching times can be calculated similar to a two0level inverter.
6owever, this algorithm requires angle and sector calculations, which
increases the comple.ity of the D?1 algorithm as the number of levels
increases.
To decrease the comple.ity of the S4D?1 algorithm, it is
necessary to avoid the angle and sector calculations. + simplified
approach for S4D?1 algorithm is proposed in 83", which uses
instantaneous phase voltages only for the calculation of gating times of
the inverter. The same approach is e.tended to the various
discontinuous D?1 algorithms along with the S4D?1 algorithm in 81".
6owever, these approaches are proposed for two0level inverters only. The

-:
same approach is e.tended to a n0level inverter in 8!". This algorithm
also uses instantaneous phase voltages only. 'y using the concept of
effective time, the algorithm is e.tended for multilevel inverters under
both linear and over modulation regions.
7owadays, many researchers have been focused their interest on
open0end winding induction motor drives in medium power applications.
The open0end winding induction motor drives offer many advantages
when compared with the normal drives. The open0end winding induction
motor drives fed by two inverters on either ends. 'y using the two !0level
inverters on both sides of the winding, the phase voltages can be
obtained similar to the three0level inverter. To control these two !0level
inverters, various D?1 approaches are presented in the literature 8-0
9!".
+mong the various D?1 algorithms, decoupled and nearest sub0
he.agonal centre D?1 )7S6,D?1* algorithm are popular approaches
for open0end winding induction motor drives. $n both the approaches,
the two inverters will be operated with 183 degrees phase shift. Though
the implementation of decoupled D?1 algorithm is simple, it gives more
harmonic distortion in line currents and voltages 91". 6ence, nowadays
the research interests have been focused on 7S6,D?1 algorithm. $n
8-", a loo&0up table based 7S6,D?1 algorithm has been presented.
6owever, this approach will generate large common mode voltage
variations. To overcome the drawbac&s of 7S6,D?1 algorithm, which is

-A
presented in 8-", various approaches have been proposed in the
literature 8:09!".
Thus, though the %T, offers good dynamic performance, it has few
drawbac&s such as steady state ripple in torque, flu. and current,
varying switching frequency and sensitive to load torque disturbances.
6ence alternatives must be e.plored to reduce the steady state ripple in
torque, flu. and current and memory size and to get constant switching
frequency. 1ainly, this research is focused on the various D?1
algorithms to overcome the problems of steady state ripple, switching
frequency variations and memory size. 1oreover, various simplified D?1
algorithms have been presented for multilevel inverters and open0end
winding induction motor drives.
1.4 Summar!:
Recently, the %T, is gaining popularity in the high0performance
applications due to its numerous advantages. 1oreover, the D?1
algorithms also attracting many researchers nowadays due to the
advantages of D?1 algorithms. + detailed literature survey and the state
of art of %T, drives and various D?1 algorithms have been presented in
this chapter.