Dams

Structural philosophy and generic types of dams

The primary purpose of a dam may he defined as to provide for the safe retention and
storage of water. As a corollary to this every dam must represent a design solution
specific to the site circumstances The design therefore represents an optimum
balance of local technical and economic consideration at the time of construction.
Reservoirs are readily classified in accordance with their primary purpose, e.g.,
irrigation. water supply. hydroelectric power generation. river regulation, flood control,
etc. Dams are of numerous types, and type classification is sometimes less clearly
defined. An initial broad classification into two generic groups can be made in terms of
the principal construction material employed.
1. Embankment dams are constructed of earthfill andor rockfill. !pstream and
downstream face shapes are similar and of moderate angle, giving a wide section
and a high construction volume relative to height
". #oncrete dams are constructed of mass concrete. $ace slopes are dissimilar,
generally steep downstream and near vertical upstream, and dams have relatively
slender profiles dependent upon the type.
The second group can he considered to include also older dams of appropriate
structural type constructed in masonry. The principal types of dams within the two
generic groups are identified in the table below.
Embankment dams are numerically dominant for technical and economic reasons,
and account for an estimated %&'()* of all dams built. +lder and simpler in
structural concept than the early masonry dam, the embankment utilised locally
available and untreated materials. As the embankment dam evolved it has proved
to be increasingly adaptable to a wide range of site environments in contrast,
concrete dams and their many predecessors are more demanding in relation to
foundation conditions. Additionally they have also proved to be dependent upon
relatively advanced and e,pensive construction skills and plant.
Group Type %
Embankment dams Earthfill
Rockfill
%".(
#oncrete dams
-including masonry
dams.
/ravity 11.0
Arch 1.1
2uttress 1.)
3ultiple arch ).1
Total 4arge5 dams
-6#+4D 1((%. 07,"0&
5Dams e,ceeding 1&m in height or in the case of dams of 1)'1&m height,
satisfying one of certain other criteria, e.g. a storage volume in e,cess of 1,1)
7
m
0
or a flood discharge capacity of over "))) m
0
s.
+ver 1()) were claimed by #hina and &1&( by the !8. These figures may be
compared with a worldwide total of &1(7 large dams recorded in 1(&).
Dams differ from all other ma9or civil engineering structures in a number of important
regards:
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every dam, large or small. is ;uite uni;ue: foundation geology,
material characteristics, catchment flood hydrology etc are each site specific.
dams are re;uired to function at or close to their design loading for
e,tended periods.
dams do not have a structural lifespan< they may, however, have a
notional life for accounting purposes, or a functional lifespan dictated by reservoir
sedimentation,
the overwhelming ma9ority of dams are of earth fill, constructed from
a range of natural soils< these are the least consistent of construction
Dam engineering draws together a range of disciplines, e.g. structural and fluid
mechanics, geology and geotechnics, flood hydrology and hydraulics, to a ;uite uni;ue
degree. The engineering of dams is especially dependent upon the application of
informed engineering 9udgment. in summary, dam engineering is a distinctive, broadly
based and specialist discipline. The dam engineer is re;uired to synthesise design
solutions, which, without compromise on safety, represent the optimal balance between
technical, economic and environmental considerations.
Embankment dam types and characteristics
The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from natural materials
e,cavated or obtained close by. The materials available are used to the best advantage
in relation to their characteristics as an engi neered bulk fill in defined =ones within the
dam section. The natural fill materials are placed and compacted without the addition of
any binding agent, using high capacity mechanical plant. Embankment construction is
conse;uently now am almost continuous and highly mechani=ed process, weather and
soil conditions permitting, and is thus plant intensive rather than labour intensive.
Embankment dams can be classified in broad terms as being earthfill or rockfill dams.
The division between the two embankment variants is not absolute, many dams utilising
fill material of both types within appropriately designated internal =ones. 8econdary
embankment dams and a small minority of larger embankments may employ a
homogeneous section, but in the ma9ority of instances embankments employ an
impervious =one or core combined with supporting shoulders which may be of relatively
pervious material. The purpose of the latter is entirely structural, providing stability to the
impervious element and to the section as a whole.
Embankment dams can one of many types. depending upon how they utilise the
available materials. The initial classification into earthfill or rockfill embankments
provides a convenient basis for considering the principal variants employed.
1. Earthfill embankments.
An embankment may he categorised as an earthfill dam if compacted soils account for
over &)* of the placed volume of material. An earthfill dam is constructed primarily of
selected engineering soils compacted uniformly and intensively in relatively thin layers
and at a controlled moisture content.
2. Rockfill embankments
6f the rockfill embankment the section includes a discrete impervious element of
compacted earthfill or a slender concrete or bituminous membrane The designation
rockfill embankment is appropriate where over &)* of The fill material may be classified
as rockfill. i.e. coarse grained frictional material. 3odern practice is to specify a graded
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rockfill. heavily compacted in relatively thin layers by heavy plant. The construction
method is therefore essentially similar to that for the earthfill embankment.
The terms =oned rockfill dam or earthfillrockfill dam are meant to describe rockfill
embankments incorporating relatively wide impervious =ones of compacted earthfill.
Rockfill embankments employing a thin upstream membrane of asphaltic concrete.
reinforced concrete or other manufactured material are referred to as decked rockfill
dams.
The variants of earthfill and rockfill embankments employed in practice are too
numerous to identify all individually. The embankment dam possesses many
outstanding merits which combine to ensure its continued dominance as a generic type.
The most important can be summari=ed as follows:
1. the suitability of the type to sites in wide valleys and relatively steep sided
gorges alike:
". adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions, ranging from competent
rock to soft and compressible or relatively pervious soil formations:
0. the use of natural materials, minimising the need to import or transport large
;uantities of processed materials or cement to the site:
1. sub9ect to satisfying essential design criteria, the embankment design is
e,tremely fle,ible in its ability to accommodate different fill material e.g. earthfills
andor rockfills. if suitably =oned internally:
&. the construction process is highly mechani=ed and is effectively continuous:
7. largely in conse;uence of &, the unit costs of earthfill and rockfill have risen
much more slowly in real terms than those for mass concrete<
>. properly designed, the embankment can safely accommodate an appreciable
degree of settlement deformation without risk of serious cracking and possible
failure.
The relative disadvantages of the embankment dam are few. The most important include
an inherently greater susceptibility to damage or destruction by overtopping, with a
conse;uent need to ensure ade;uate flood relief and a seperate spillway, and
vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or foundation.
Concrete dam types and characteristics
The principal variants of the modern concrete dam are defined overleaf:
Graity dams
A concrete gravity dam is entirely dependent upon its own mass for stability The gravity
profile is essentially triangular, to ensure stability so to avoid overstressing of the dam
or its foundation 8ome gravity dams are gently curved in plan for aesthetic or other
reasons. And without placing any reliance upon arch action for stability ?here a
limited degree of arch action is deliberately introduced in design allowing a rather
slimmer profile, the term arched or arch'gravity dam may be employed
!uttress dams
6n structural concept the buttress dam consists of a continuous upstream face supported
at regular intervals by downstream buttresses The solid head or massive buttress dam,
is the most prominent modern variant of the type, and may be considered for conceptual
purposes as a lightened version of the gravity dam.
"rch dams
The arch dam has a considerable upstream curvature 8tructurally it functions primarily
as a hori=ontal arch. Transmitting the ma9or portion of the water 6oad to the abutments nr
valley sides rather than to the floor of the valley A relatively simple arch i e with
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hori=ontal curvature only and a constant upstream radius. 6t is structurally more efficient
than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing the volume of concrete re;uired. A
particular derivative of the simple arch dam is the cupola or double curvature arch dam.
The cupola dam introduces comple, curvature in the vertical as well as the hori=ontal
plane it is the most sophisticated of concrete dams, being essentially a dome or
shell structure, so is e,tremely economical in concrete. Abutment stability is critical to
the structural integrity and safety of both the cupola and the simple arch
#ther concrete dams
A number of less common variants of the ma9or types of concrete dams is illustrated in
$ig can also be identified They include hollow gravity, decked buttress. flat slab
-Aburse. buttress, multiple arch, multiple cupola dams. The type names are self
e,planatory, and the structural percentage of each as a derivative of one or other of the
principal types is obvious from the figures
The characteristics of concrete dams are outlined below with respect to the ma9or types,
i.e. gravity, massive buttress and arch or cupola dams #ertain characteristics are shared
by all or most of these types: many are however, specific to particular variants. 3erits
shared by most concrete dams include the following:
Arch and cupola dams e,cepted, concrete dams are suitable to the site topography
of wide or narrow valleys alike, provided that a competent rock foundation is
accessible at moderate depth -@& m..
#oncrete dams are not sensitive to overtopping under e,treme flood conditions.
#oncrete dams can accommodate a crest spill way if necessary over their entire
length, provided that steps are taken to control downstream erosion and possible
undermining of the dam. The cost of a separate spillway and channel are therefore
avoided.
+utlet pipework. valves and other ancillary works are readily and safely housed in
chambers or galleries within the dam.
The inherent ability to withstand seismic disturbance without catastrophic collapse
is generally high.
The cupola or double curvature arch dam is an e,tremely strong and efficient
structure. given a narrow valley with competent abutments.
Type'specific characteristics are largely determined through the differing structural
modus operandi associated with variants of the concrete dam. 6n the case of
gravity and buttress dams. for e,ample, the dominant structural response is in
terms of vertical cantilever action.
The reduced downstream contact area of the buttress dam imposes significantly
higher local foundation stresses than for the e;uivalent gravity structure. 6t is
therefore a characteristic of the former to be more demanding in terms of the
;uality re;uired of the underlying rock foundation.
The structural behaviour of the more sophisticated arch and cupola variants of
the concrete dam is predominantly arch action. with vertical cantilever action
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secondary. 8uch dams are totally dependent upon the integrity of the rock
abutments and their ability to withstand arch thrust without e,cessive yielding. 6t
is conse;uently characteristic of arch and cupola dams that consideration of their
suitability is confined to a minority of sites in relatively narrow steep sided valleys
or gorges, i.e. to sites with a width: height ratio at the dam crest level generally
not e,ceeding 1'&.
A comparison of the general characteristics of concrete dams with those of the
embankment dam suggests the following inherent disadvantages for the former.
#oncrete dams are relatively demanding with respect to foundation conditions.
re;uiring sound and stable rock
#oncrete dams re;uire processed natural materials of suitable ;uality and
;uantity for aggregate, and the importation to site and storage of bulk cement and
other materials.
Traditional mass concrete construction is relatively slow, being labour intensive
and discontinuous. and re;uires certain skills, e.g. for formwork. concreting. etc.
#ompleted unit costs for mass concrete. i.e. cost per cubic metre. are very much
higher than for embankment dams, typically by an order of magnitude or more.
This is seldom counterbalanced by the much lower volumes of concrete re;uired
in a dam of given height.
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