CHAPTER 04

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results obtained on the methodology stated on Chapter 03 are presented in this chapter.
Results of subsurface soil profile obtained based on destruction and non-destruction site
investigations are presented.

4.1 The geotechnical engineering aspect of Galle Fort
4.1.2 Soil profile based on Electrical Resistivity (ER) Survey
In order to investigate more details about the soil profile and foundation type of the rampart,
electrical resistivity survey was carried out in northern and western parts of the rampart. Table
4.1 shows the resistivity contour maps obtained after completing the survey and by analysing
with RES2DINV software.
In these contour maps, different colour scales show the layers having different values of
resistivity. The colour scale is not the same for every survey. Therefore the used colour scale for
each survey line is presented beneath every contour map. The values obtained during the
survey can be varied due to several facts such as porosity, degree of saturation, ionic
concentration, mineral type and structure of the soil. Also noise around the surveying area and
the high voltage lines give some effect for the results. The results obtained from resistivity
survey and interpretations of results are presented in Table 4.1.








Resistivity
line
Results and description
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4.1.2 Wash Boring



















Figure 4.6(a) Sub surface soil profiles at northern part of the rampart (Bore hole 1 & 2)
Figure 4.6(b) Sub surface soil profiles at western part of the rampart (Bore hole 3)

4.2 The water resources planning and management

The Galle Fort drainage system consisted of 185 manholes, 8 outlets and 4.5 km of drains.
During the research, the details of each an individual component of the system was gathered.
Manholes
Totally there are 185 manholes to the underground drainage system. Following table (Table 1)
gives a list of streets and the number of manholes in each street.
In the past most of the covers were made of granite. They were square shaped with a
rectangular hole of about 15x5 cm in the center. The hole was used to lift the stones by the help
of a hook. Until today, old manholes are still used in the drainage system. About 75 manhole
covers have been replaced with concrete covers.

Table 1 list of manholes in the drainage system
Street name Number of manholes
Lighthouse street 42
Pedlar street 40
Church Street 24
Layn Baan Street 21
Parawa Street 11
Layn Baan Cross Street 9
Rampart Street 9
Chando Street 7
Great ModaraBey Street 7
Small cross street 5
New Lane II 4
Church Cross Street 3
Small Modera Bay Street 3







Types of manholes




Fig 3 Stone-Slab Cross Section
Until today, old manholes are still used in the drainage system. About 75 manhole covers have
been replaced with concrete covers.
Road Development Authority had developed three types of manhole covers. The details of the
covers are given below.







Fig 4 Manhole Type I












Fig 5 Manhole Type II and III

Table 2 Predominent manhole types in streets
Predominent manhole type Streets
Type I(Fig 7) Small modera bay street, Layn baan Cross
street, Small cross street and New Lane II
Type II(Fig 8) Church Cross Street, Great modara bey
street, Chando Street and Rampart Street
Type III(Fig 9) Lighthouse Street, Pedlar Street, Church
Street and Layn Baan Street







Fig 6 Manhole Type I Fig 7 Manhole Type II






Fig 8 Manhole Type III


Outlets
After the constructing a rampart right around the peninsula, there was no way for the storm
water to drain out. As such there was requirement to construct outlets to drain the storm water
out of the area. A total of 9 outlets were constructed during colonial era. A description of these
outlets is given below.

Figure

Outlet Portuguese Dutch British
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Outlet 1
There is a pile of sand in front of the outlet. The sand pile may be a result of the two break
waters that were constructed few meters away of the outlet. The presence of the sand pile
prevents smooth flow of waste water into the sea. When the sea is high water flows over the
sand bar and gets into the waste water pool.There are two solutions to this problem. First is to
manually remove the pile of sand. Second one is to extend the outlet pipe through the
breakwater. In the present, rocks are laid on it. Even though this outlet is functioning well it is
partially blocked with a silt layer.




Outlet 2
Figure 11: Map of Outlets
Figure Outlet 1 present view and initial view
Outlet number two also had a sand bar in front of the outlet. However unlike the sand bar in
front of the outlet num 1, this would have been easily removed by hand. Currently water in this
outlet drain is almost stagnant. Currently this outlet is in very good condition.










Outlet 3

The cross section of this outlet is horse shoe shaped. The invert is made of dressed granite with
small radius. Presently outlet exit is blocked by a coffer dam. Enquiries made revealed that this
coffer dam was built to prevent waste water spilling to the sea. This outlet is located near a
bathing area. This mechanism doesnt seem to prevent the bathing area getting polluted.
Currently this outlet is structurally in good shape. However hydraulically is not functioning well
because the mouth is blocked with dead corals.








Figure Outlet 3 present view and initial view
Figure Outlet 2 present view and initial view












Outlet 4
This is one of the few original outlets which were constructed by Dutch in 1700 alone with the
construction of the rampart. Currently this outlet is completely blocked with sand and dead
corrals. As such the water is stagnant near the tail end of the pipe. Theres no escape path for
waste water as all drains are blocked. Outlet 4 is the tallest of all outlets, constructed with flat
bottom. Outlet 4 is the highest of all outlets and built in the flat whitish bricks of the Dutch time.
The last 3 meters of the outlet drain are built in rocks, corrals and bricks, similar to ramparts
rampart themselves. Further up, the whole channel is lined. Bricks are visible where the lining
has fallen off.









Figure Outlet 4 present view and initial view

Figure Outlet 4 present view and initial view


Outlet 5
The cross section is horse shoe shaped with flat invert. This outlet has been reconstructed by
British. The flat invert suggests this outlet is designed to carry waste and storm water. The
walls and vault are built with standard bricks. The bricks were seems to be very old but
structurally sound. Outlet exit is completely blocked with dead coral and sand. This needs
extensive cleaning. However the mortar might come out in the process of cleaning and hence
need to be replaced. If not done so theres a danger of collapse.














Outlet 6
The cross section of this outlet is very much similar to the outlet 3. The vault is made of
standard black color bricks. This had been built by Dutch and substantially modified by British
in 1885. The center of the invert has been modified by British to convey sewer water. This
modification included semicircular dressed granite bricks. Currently this outlet is also completely
blocked with dead corrals and sand. It looks like the tidal movement is responsible for the
blockage.

Figure Outlet 5 present view and initial view











Figure Outlet 6 present view and initial view

Outlet 7
This is the only outlet that is clean and also washed by the sea. At low tide, the water falls down
about 1 meter to the sea bottom. This height is obviously enough to keep the outlet clean. It is
built in rock end corrals that are certainly the original ones, as they are heavily weathered by the
course of time. Near the exit, two portions of the top are broken and need to be attended to. The
invert is flat and plastered with 2-4 cm gravels and mortar. The same type of material had been
used by British for road construction. This is an original Dutch outlet, later slidly modified by
British.









Figure Outlet 7 present view and initial view

Outlet 8
This outlet is designed carry a small discharge. The invert is plastered. At the sea side, 2m
before the exit theres an iron gate made of vertical steel bars. Distance between these bars is
18 cm. This makes it impossible a person to enter. This has been done for security reasons.
Currently the channel of this outlet is filled with dead corals. This outlet is made by granite and
corals. Considering the structure of the outlet, it can be concluded that this outlet is an original
Dutch outlet.



Outlet 9
The cross section of this outlet is rectangular shape with a circular arch. Theres a pile of sand
near the outlet and also at the outlet theres vegetation which indicates the poor maintenance.
Exit of this outlet is partially blocked by sand and dead corals. However water seems to be
draining through the opening. This outlet used to drain Hospital Street but no longer in use. It
looks like after 1980ies this outlet has been abounded. The water which was draining through
this outlet had been diverted to outlet 8. The reason for abounding outlet 9 is not clear. It may
be possible that of the outlet 9, is due to presence of a bathing area near the outlet.






Figure Outlet 8 present view and initial view











Underground and surface drainage system
There are more than 15 streets in the Galle Fort and 13 streets have the underground drains.
According to the leveling data collected, the flow direction of the drains were assumed as below.













Figure Flow directions of the drains
Figure Outlet 9 present view and initial view


CHAPTER 05
CONCLUSION
The Portuguese initiated the construction of a fort in the Northern section of the rocky peninsula.
Initially, there were only three bastions. After the Dutch take over, they expanded the ramparts
around the peninsula. The modus of operandi, of building the rampart was as follows.
First identify approximate locations of bastions based on military requirements.
The prime purpose of constructing Galle Fort was to serve as a defence strategy. The bastions
were served as main guard points around the Fort and comprised with cannons and gun
storage facilities. Therefore the locations of the bastions had to be carefully selected. It should
act as a good view point to observe inland and the sea.
Select the exact locations for the bastions based on geological conditions.
After selecting a good place for constructing a bastion, a survey was carried out to see whether
it is geological feasible place. The Galle fort was constructed close to a marsh and still some of
the marshlands can be seen at the western area of the Fort. Therefore it was vital in
understanding whether this piece of land is thick enough to build a bastion.
Design and construct the bastions.
The shape of a bastion was changed accordingly to its need and costal belt shape. Some of the
selected land has to be filled with soil in order to maintain a good view to the bastion and to
maintain the consistency of ramparts.
Based on the topography, select the locations, for the outlets.
After constructing bastions, they were connected by ramparts. However before that the outlets
were constructed to dispose sewer and waste water.
Construct the outlets.
Closed the gaps between the bastions by building the rampart.
The summary of the construction details of the Galle Fort ramparts is listed in table .
Table 4.1 Construction summary
Era Constructions

Portuguese
(1505 1640)
Constructed three bastions namely Sun, Star and Moon bastion.
In the south the harbour was protected by a fence with spikes on
top.
In the north, a protective moat was constructed with a draw
bridge to enter the Fort.

Dutch
(1640 1796)
Expanded the fortification encircling the whole peninsula with 14
bastions.
Dutch further fortified the available Star, Sun and Moon Bastions.
They newly constructed 11 bastions namely Aurora, Akersloot,
Aswrt, Point Utrecht, Flagrock, Triton, Neptune, Clippenburg,
Aeolus, Commandment and Fishmark Bastions.

British
(1796 1948)
No major alterations were done by them to the Fortress itself, other than
the construction of the entrance on the esplanade side.

Portuguese era
There bastions were constructed during Portuguese era Sun, Moon and Star. According to the
history, initially Portuguese had used earth and palm trees to construct their first fortifications.
Portuguese were only concentrating on securing the Fort the Northern side not the sea side as
the Sinhalese kings who were the only enemies of the Portuguese, had no sea battle capability.
As such they were not interested in securing the Fort from sea side.
Based on the engineering investigations, it was revealed that the rampart is entirely constructed
on the bed rock. This avoids the undesirable settlement of this huge and heavy structure which
can be occurred with time.
During the construction of the northern ramparts Portuguese had used 6.0m fractured coral
layer. It can be concluded that northern ramparts are the oldest part of the Galle Fort ramparts.
Further rubble and coral masonry structure were used as the facing elements in order to protect
the structure by erosion. A cross section of the Portuguese construction of Northern ramparts is
shown in Figure.
According to the literature, Portuguese had utilized Flagrock bastion. This can be confirmed by
the map by Constantine de Sa in1620. There is a clear trace to the location of the
Flagrockbastion. Flagrock bastion was used to raise a flag to warn ships who were trying to
enter the port without permission.
During Portuguese era, there was moat in the Northern section of the Fort. The only entrance to
the inland a road with a draw bridge was located near the Sun bastion. This was described in
Baldaeus view of Portuguese Galle as In front of the three main bastions and their ramparts
which face north, is shown the ditch filled with water, separated from the sea by a causeway.
The Dutch map in 1710 confirms this detail (Figure 4.6).









During geo technical engineering investigations, the fact of the existence of the moat in front of
the rampart was also confirmed by examining the bed rock dipping pattern at the northern
entrance of the rampart. This moat was later closed down by the British.
Flagrock bastion
N
Sun bastion
Moat
Figure 4.6 - Portuguese map by Constantine de Sa, 1620










Dutch era
According to the literature surveyed, there was a moat located in the Northern part of the Fort.
This can be justified by the maps of early Dutch era.









Figure 4.7 - Cross section of the structure built by Portuguese.
Coral
Bed rock
Soft clay
Sandy clay
Weathered rock
Distance
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Port
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Northern Ramparts
Figure 4.7 - Galle as seen from the causeway by Steiger -1710 (Paranavithana, 2005)


Dutch rehabilitated the main three bastions with using granite and corals. According to the geo
technical engineering surveys carried out significant information were revealed about this
rehabilitation works.
Dutch had built a berm before raising the Portuguese ramparts up to 12.0m in the northern
section in order to increase the stabilize the rampart against rainfall induced slope failure.










Further, they have constructed weep holes and sloping top surface on the rampart walls to
reduce the rainfall infiltration to the soil structure. This will eventually decrease the development
of pore water pressure within the soil structure while increasing the slope stability.




Slope is supported by
the berm
Figure 4.8 Effect of the slope supported by berm
6m
6m
Laterite soil fill
Corals
Berm
(Laterite soil fill)
Figure 4.9 Cross section of top of the rampart
Rain water
Weep holes
Surface runoff






During geo technical investigations, some cavities were found in the western ramparts. Most
probably these cavities show the internal transport corridor between bastions within the rampart.
(Paranavithana, 2005).
Resistivity line

Description

Resistivity line 1

It can be seen that a very low resistivity soil of thickness 1.3m is on the
top surface of the northern rampart. It is underlained by medium
resistivity soil of thickness 4.7m. A soil having low resistivity of 62 is
underneath the medium resistivity soil. The block with very high
resistivity indicates either hard rock or air. According to geographical
situation in the area, this very high resistivity area consists of northern
main entrance of the Gall Fort. Therefore, very high resistivity depicts the
void of the arch bridge of northern rampart. The high resistivity (1000
5000 ) area surrounding the void illustrates the materials which were
used to construct the arch bridge of the rampart.

Resistivity line 2
According to ER data, it can be seen that electrical resistivity is
significantly vary along the test area, which implies that this area is
basically consists of a fill with different materials. Especially very close
to the rampart and Samanala bridge area, top surface consits of a low
resistivity soil. A stiff soil layer with medium resistivity can be obsereved
close to the Moon bastion. A pocket of low resistivity soil can be seen
about 13.0 m below the ground surface close to Moon bastion. A high
resistivity rock layer can be seen about 11.0 m below the ground surface
and which starts near the Moon bastion and extend towards
Samanalabridge.

Resistivity line 3

A thin low resistivity soil layer can be seen at the ground surface. It can
be noted that, close to the Star bastion, there are two pockets of very
high resistivity areas, which may very similar to air voids. Surrounding
there is a high resistivity area which represents the construction
materials of these two voids. In addition, two pockets of high resistivity
areas in the figure illustrate boulders presence in the rampart. Bulk of
the area is covered with medium resistivity soil as shown in figure. A
very low resistivity soil can be seen at a depth of about 12.0 m from the
ground surface.

Resistivity line 4

A low resistivity soil layer is present at the ground surface. Medium
resistivity soil layer is at a depth of about 10.0 m from the ground
surface. It can be noted that there is a very high resistivity area which
may be very similar to air voids is presence at very close to the
Clippenburg bastion
.













British era
During the British era, the administrative importance of Galle dwindled as they selected
Colombo as their capital (Kuruppu 1992). Therefore were new construction works not taken
place but the rehabilitation works were maintained.

Bed rock
Sandy clay
Weathered rock
Coral
Lateritic soil fill
Berm
Soft clay
Distance
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Figure 4.10 - Cross section of the structure after final fortification by Dutch

2 m
10 m
3.5m