Wi-Fi, also spelled Wif or WiFi, is a local area wireless technology that allows
an electronic device to exchange data or connect to the internet using 2.4
GHz HF and ! GHz "HF radio waves. #he na$e is a trade$ar% na$e, and is a play on the audiophile ter$ Hi-Fi. #he Wi-Fi &lliance defnes Wi-Fi as any 'wireless local area networ% (W)&*+ products that are ,ased on the -nstitute o. /lectrical and /lectronics /ngineers0 (-///+ 122.33 standards'.435 However, since $ost $odern W)&*s are ,ased on these standards, the ter$ 'Wi-Fi' is used in general /nglish as a synony$ .or 'W)&*'. 6nly Wi-Fi products that co$plete Wi-Fi &lliance interopera,ility certifcation testing success.ully $ay use the 'Wi-Fi 7/8#-F-/9' trade$ar%. :any devices can use Wi-Fi, e.g., personal co$puters, video-ga$e consoles, s$artphones, so$e digital ca$eras, ta,let co$puters and digital audio players. #hese can connect to a networ% resource such as the -nternet via a wireless networ% access point. "uch an access point (or hotspot+ has a range o. a,out 22 $eters (;; .eet+ indoors and a greater range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can co$prise an area as s$all as a single roo$ with walls that ,loc% radio waves, or as large as $any s<uare %ilo$etres achieved ,y using $ultiple overlapping access points. 9epiction o. a device sending in.or$ation wirelessly to another device, ,oth connected to the local networ%, in order to print a docu$ent. Wi-Fi can ,e less secure than wired connections (such as /thernet+ ,ecause an intruder does not need a physical connection. We, pages that use "") are secure ,ut unencrypted internet access can easily ,e detected ,y intruders. =ecause o. this, Wi-Fi has adopted various encryption technologies. #he early encryption W/>, proved easy to ,rea%. Higher <uality protocols (W>&, W>&2+ were added later. &n optional .eature added in 222?, called Wi-Fi >rotected "etup (W>"+, had a serious @aw that allowed an attac%er to recover the router0s password.425 #he Wi-Fi &lliance has since updated its test plan and certifcation progra$ to ensure all newly certifed devices resist attac%s.122.33 technology has its origins in a 3A1! ruling ,y the " Federal 7o$$unications 7o$$ission that released the -": ,and .or unlicensed use. 4B5 -n 3AA3, *78 7orporation with &#C# 7orporation invented the precursor to 122.33 intended .or use in cashier syste$s. #he frst wireless products were under the na$e Wave)&*. #he 122.33 standard uses a large nu$,er o. patents held ,y $any diDerent organizations.445 "o$e have du,,ed 9utch engineer Eic Hayes the '.ather o. Wi-Fi' due to his involve$ent in negotiating the initial standards within the -/// while chairing the wor%group.4!54;5 #he &ustralian radio-astrono$er Fohn 60"ullivan developed a %ey patent used in Wi-Fi as a ,y-product in a 7"-86 research proGect, 'a .ailed experi$ent to detect exploding $ini ,lac% holes the size o. an ato$ic particle'.4?5 -n 3AA2 and 3AA;, &ustralian organization 7"-86 (the &ustralian 7o$$onwealth "cientifc and -ndustrial 8esearch 6rganisation+ o,tained patents415 .or a $ethod later used in Wi-Fi to 'uns$ear' the signal.4A5 -n 3AAA, the Wi-Fi &lliance .or$ed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trade$ar% under which $ost products are sold.4325 -n &pril 222A, 34 technology co$panies agreed to pay 7"-86 H2!2 $illion .or in.ringe$ents on 7"-86 patents.4335 #his led to &ustralians la,elling Wi-Fi as an &ustralian invention,4325 though this has ,een the su,Gect o. so$e controversy.43B54345 7"-86 won a .urther H222 $illion settle$ent .or Wi-Fi patent-in.ringe$ents in 2232 with glo,al fr$s in the nited "tates re<uired to pay the 7"-86 licensing rights esti$ated to ,e worth an additional H3 ,illion in royalties.433543!543;5 #he na$e4edit5 #he ter$ Wi-Fi, co$$ercially used at least as early as &ugust 2222,43?5 was coined ,y a ,rand-consulting fr$ called -nter,rand 7orporation. #he Wi-Fi &lliance had hired -nter,rand to deter$ine a na$e that was 'a little catchier than 0-/// 122.33, 9irect "e<uence0'.431543A54225 >hil =elanger, a .ounding $e$,er o. the Wi-Fi &lliance who presided over the selection o. the na$e 'Wi-Fi', also stated that -nter,rand invented Wi-Fi as a play on words with Hi- Fi, and also created the Wi-Fi logo. #he Wi-Fi &lliance used the 'nonsense' advertising slogan '#he "tandard .or Wireless Fidelity' .or a short ti$e a.ter the ,rand na$e was invented, leading to the $isconception that Wi-Fi was an a,,reviation o. 'Wireless Fidelity'4315 42354225 #he yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certifcation o. a product .or interopera,ility.4235 *on-Wi-Fi technologies intended .or fxed points such as :otorola 7anopy are usually descri,ed as fxed wireless. <ernative wireless technologies include $o,ile phone standards such as 2G, BG 4G or )#/. Wi-Fi certifcation4edit5 "ee alsoI Wi-Fi &lliance #he -/// does not test e<uip$ent .or co$pliance with their standards. #he non-proft Wi-Fi &lliance was .or$ed in 3AAA to fll this void J to esta,lish and en.orce standards .or interopera,ility and ,ac%ward co$pati,ility, and to pro$ote wireless local-area-networ% technology. &s o. 2232, the Wi-Fi &lliance consisted o. $ore than B?! co$panies .ro$ around the world.42B54245 #he Wi-Fi &lliance en.orces the use o. the Wi-Fi ,rand to technologies ,ased on the -/// 122.33 standards .ro$ the -///. #his includes wireless local area networ% (W)&*+ connections, device to device connectivity (such as Wi-Fi >eer to >eer a%a Wi-Fi 9irect+, >ersonal area networ% (>&*+, local area networ% ()&*+ and even so$e li$ited wide area networ% (W&*+ connections. :anu.acturers with $e$,ership in the Wi-Fi &lliance, whose products pass the certifcation process, gain the right to $ar% those products with the Wi-Fi logo. "pecifcally, the certifcation process re<uires con.or$ance to the -/// 122.33 radio standards, the W>& and W>&2 security standards, and the /&> authentication standard. 7ertifcation $ay optionally include tests o. -/// 122.33 dra.t standards, interaction with cellular-phone technology in converged devices, and .eatures relating to security set-up, $ulti$edia, and power-saving.42!5 *ot every Wi-Fi device is su,$itted .or certifcation. #he lac% o. Wi-Fi certifcation does not necessarily i$ply that a device is inco$pati,le with other Wi-Fi devices. -. it is co$pliant or partly co$pati,le, the Wi-Fi &lliance $ay not o,Gect to its description as a Wi-Fi device4citation needed5 though technically only certifed devices are approved. #he Wi-Fi &lliance $ay or $ay not sanction derivative ter$s, such as "uper Wi-Fi, coined ,y the " Federal 7o$$unications 7o$$ission (F77+ to descri,e proposed networ%ing in the HF #E ,and in the ". ses4edit5 & stic%er indicating to the pu,lic that a location is within range o. a Wi-Fi networ%. & dot with curved lines radiating .ro$ it is a co$$on sy$,ol .or Wi- Fi, representing a point trans$itting a signal.42;5 #o connect to a Wi-Fi )&*, a co$puter has to ,e e<uipped with a wireless networ% inter.ace controller. #he co$,ination o. co$puter and inter.ace controller is called a station. &ll stations share a single radio .re<uency co$$unication channel. #rans$issions on this channel are received ,y all stations within range. #he hardware does not signal the user that the trans$ission was delivered and is there.ore called a ,est-eDort delivery $echanis$. & carrier wave is used to trans$it the data in pac%ets, re.erred to as '/thernet .ra$es'. /ach station is constantly tuned in on the radio .re<uency co$$unication channel to pic% up availa,le trans$issions. -nternet access4edit5 & Wi-Fi-ena,led device can connect to the -nternet when within range o. a wireless networ% which is confgured to per$it this. #he coverage o. one or $ore (interconnected+ access pointsJcalled hotspotsJcan extend .ro$ an area as s$all as a .ew roo$s to as large as $any s<uare %ilo$etres. 7overage in the larger area $ay re<uire a group o. access points with overlapping coverage. 6utdoor pu,lic Wi-Fi technology has ,een used success.ully in wireless $esh networ%s in )ondon, K. Wi-Fi provides service in private ho$es, ,usinesses, as well as in pu,lic spaces at Wi-Fi hotspots set up either .ree-o.-charge or co$$ercially, o.ten using a captive portal we,page .or access. 6rganizations and ,usinesses, such as airports, hotels, and restaurants, o.ten provide .ree-use hotspots to attract custo$ers. /nthusiasts or authorities who wish to provide services or even to pro$ote ,usiness in selected areas so$eti$es provide .ree Wi-Fi access. 8outers that incorporate a digital su,scri,er line $ode$ or a ca,le $ode$ and a Wi-Fi access point, o.ten set up in ho$es and other ,uildings, provide -nternet access and internetwor%ing to all devices connected to the$, wirelessly or via ca,le. "i$ilarly, there are ,attery-powered routers that include a cellular $o,ile -nternet radio$ode$ and Wi-Fi access point. When su,scri,ed to a cellular phone carrier, they allow near,y Wi-Fi stations to access the -nternet over 2G, BG, or 4G networ%s. :any s$artphones have a ,uilt-in capa,ility o. this sort, including those ,ased on &ndroid, =lac%=erry, =ada, i6" (i>hone+, Windows >hone and "y$,ian, though carriers o.ten disa,le the .eature, or charge a separate .ee to ena,le it, especially .or custo$ers with unli$ited data plans. '-nternet pac%s' provide standalone .acilities o. this type as well, without use o. a s$artphoneL exa$ples include the :iFi- and Wi=ro-,randed devices. "o$e laptops that have a cellular $ode$ card can also act as $o,ile -nternet Wi-Fi access points. Wi-Fi also connects places that nor$ally don0t have networ% access, such as %itchens and garden sheds. 7ity-wide Wi-Fi4edit5 Further in.or$ationI :unicipal wireless networ% &n outdoor Wi-Fi access point -n the early 2222s, $any cities around the world announced plans to construct city-wide Wi-Fi networ%s. #here are $any success.ul exa$plesL in 2224, :ysore ,eca$e -ndia0s frst Wi-Fi-ena,led city. & co$pany called WiFiy*et has set up hotspots in :ysore, covering the co$plete city and a .ew near,y villages.42?5 -n 222!, "unnyvale, 7ali.ornia, ,eca$e the frst city in the nited "tates to oDer city-wide .ree Wi-Fi.4215 :inneapolis has generated H3.2 $illion in proft annually .or its provider.42A5 -n :ay 2232, )ondon, K, :ayor =oris Fohnson pledged to have )ondon-wide Wi-Fi ,y 2232.4B25 "everal ,oroughs including West$inster and -slington4B35 4B25 already have extensive outdoor Wi-Fi coverage. 6Mcials in "outh Korea0s capital are $oving to provide .ree -nternet access at $ore than 32,222 locations around the city, including outdoor pu,lic spaces, $aGor streets and densely populated residential areas. "eoul will grant leases to K#, )G #eleco$ and "K #eleco$. #he co$panies will invest H44 $illion in the proGect, which will ,e co$pleted in 223!.4BB5 7a$pus-wide Wi-Fi4edit5 :any traditional college ca$puses in the nited "tates provide at least partial wireless Wi-Fi -nternet coverage. 7arnegie :ellon niversity ,uilt the frst ca$pus-wide wireless -nternet networ%, called Wireless &ndrew, at its >itts,urgh ca$pus in 3AAB ,e.ore Wi-Fi ,randing originated.4B454B!54B;5 -n /urope $any universities colla,orate in providing Wi-Fi access to students and staD through the eduroa$ international authentication in.rastructure. -n 2222, 9rexel niversity in >hiladelphia ,eca$e the nited "tates0 frst $aGor university to oDer co$pletely wireless -nternet access across its entire ca$pus.4B?5 #he Far /astern niversity in :anila is the frst university in the >hilippines to i$ple$ent a ca$pus-wide Wi-Fi coverage. 9irect co$puter-to-co$puter co$$unications4edit5 Wi-Fi also allows co$$unications directly .ro$ one co$puter to another without an access point inter$ediary. #his is called ad hoc Wi-Fi trans$ission. #his wireless ad hoc networ% $ode has proven popular with $ultiplayer handheld ga$e consoles, such as the *intendo 9", >lay"tation >orta,le, digital ca$eras, and other consu$er electronics devices. "o$e devices can also share their -nternet connection using ad hoc, ,eco$ing hotspots or 'virtual routers'.4B15 "i$ilarly, the Wi-Fi &lliance pro$otes a specifcation called Wi-Fi 9irect .or fle trans.ers and $edia sharing through a new discovery- and security- $ethodology.4BA5 Wi-Fi 9irect launched in 6cto,er 2232.4425 &dvantages and li$itations4edit5 & %eychain-size Wi-Fi detector &dvantages4edit5 Wi-Fi allows cheaper deploy$ent o. local area networ%s ()&*s+. &lso spaces where ca,les cannot ,e run, such as outdoor areas and historical ,uildings, can host wireless )&*s. :anu.acturers are ,uilding wireless networ% adapters into $ost laptops. #he price o. chipsets .or Wi-Fi continues to drop, $a%ing it an econo$ical networ%ing option included in even $ore devices.4citation needed5 9iDerent co$petitive ,rands o. access points and client networ%-inter.aces can inter-operate at a ,asic level o. service. >roducts designated as 'Wi-Fi 7ertifed' ,y the Wi-Fi &lliance are ,ac%wards co$pati,le. nli%e $o,ile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will wor% anywhere in the world. Wi-Fi >rotected &ccess encryption (W>&2+ is considered secure, provided a strong passphrase is used. *ew protocols .or <uality-o.-service (W::+ $a%e Wi-Fi $ore suita,le .or latency-sensitive applications (such as voice and video+. >ower saving $echanis$s (W:: >ower "ave+ extend ,attery li.e. )i$itations4edit5 "pectru$ assign$ents and operational li$itations are not consistent worldwideI &ustralia and /urope allow .or an additional two channels ,eyond those per$itted in the " .or the 2.4 GHz ,and (3N3B vs. 3N33+, while Fapan has one $ore on top o. that (3N34+. & Wi-Fi signal occupies fve channels in the 2.4 GHz ,and. &ny two channel nu$,ers that diDer ,y fve or $ore, such as 2 and ?, do not overlap. #he o.t- repeated adage that channels 3, ;, and 33 are the only non-overlapping channels is, there.ore, not accurate. 7hannels 3, ;, and 33 are the only group o. three non-overlapping channels in *orth &$erica and the nited Kingdo$. -n /urope and Fapan using 7hannels 3, !, A, and 3B .or 122.33g and 122.33n is reco$$ended.4citation needed5 /<uivalent isotropically radiated power (/-8>+ in the / is li$ited to 22 d=$ (322 $W+. #he current 0.astest0 nor$, 122.33n, uses dou,le the radio spectru$O,andwidth (42 :Hz+ co$pared to 122.33a or 122.33g (22 :Hz+. 4citation needed5 #his $eans there can ,e only one 122.33n networ% on the 2.4 GHz ,and at a given location, without inter.erence toO.ro$ other W)&* traMc. 122.33n can also ,e set to use 22 :Hz ,andwidth only to prevent inter.erence in dense co$$unity.4citation needed5 8ange4edit5 "ee alsoI )ong-range Wi-Fi Wi-Fi networ%s have li$ited range. & typical wireless access point using 122.33, or 122.33g with a stoc% antenna $ight have a range o. B! $ (33! .t+ indoors and 322 $ (BB2 .t+ outdoors. -/// 122.33n, however, can $ore than dou,le the range.4435 8ange also varies with .re<uency ,and. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz .re<uency ,loc% has slightly ,etter range than Wi-Fi in the ! GHz .re<uency ,loc% which is used ,y 122.33a and optionally ,y 122.33n. 6n wireless routers with detacha,le antennas, it is possi,le to i$prove range ,y ftting upgraded antennas which have higher gain in particular directions. 6utdoor ranges can ,e i$proved to $any %ilo$eters through the use o. high gain directional antennas at the router and re$ote device(s+. -n general, the $axi$u$ a$ount o. power that a Wi-Fi device can trans$it is li$ited ,y local regulations, such as F77 >art 3! in the ". 9ue to reach re<uire$ents .or wireless )&* applications, Wi-Fi has .airly high power consu$ption co$pared to so$e other standards. #echnologies such as =luetooth (designed to support wireless >&* applications+ provide a $uch shorter propagation range ,etween 3 and 322$4425 and so in general have a lower power consu$ption. 6ther low-power technologies such as Pig=ee have .airly long range, ,ut $uch lower data rate. #he high power consu$ption o. Wi-Fi $a%es ,attery li.e in $o,ile devices a concern. 8esearchers have developed a nu$,er o. 'no new wires' technologies to provide alternatives to Wi-Fi .or applications in which Wi-Fi0s indoor range is not ade<uate and where installing new wires (such as 7&#-;+ is not possi,le or cost-eDective. For exa$ple, the -#-# G.hn standard .or high speed )ocal area networ%s uses existing ho$e wiring (coaxial ca,les, phone lines and power lines+. <hough G.hn does not provide so$e o. the advantages o. Wi-Fi (such as $o,ility or outdoor use+, it0s designed .or applications (such as ->#E distri,ution+ where indoor range is $ore i$portant than $o,ility. 9ue to the co$plex nature o. radio propagation at typical Wi-Fi .re<uencies, particularly the eDects o. signal re@ection oD trees and ,uildings, algorith$s can only approxi$ately predict Wi-Fi signal strength .or any given area in relation to a trans$itter.44B5 #his eDect does not apply e<ually to long-range Wi-Fi, since longer lin%s typically operate .ro$ towers that trans$it a,ove the surrounding .oliage. #he practical range o. Wi-Fi essentially confnes $o,ile use to such applications as inventory-ta%ing $achines in warehouses or in retail spaces, ,arcode-reading devices at chec%-out stands, or receivingOshipping stations. :o,ile use o. Wi-Fi over wider ranges is li$ited, .or instance, to uses such as in an auto$o,ile $oving .ro$ one hotspot to another. 6ther wireless technologies are $ore suita,le .or co$$unicating with $oving vehicles. 9ata security ris%s4edit5 #he $ost co$$on wireless encryption-standard, Wired /<uivalent >rivacy (W/>+, has ,een shown to ,e easily ,rea%a,le even when correctly confgured. Wi-Fi >rotected &ccess (W>& and W>&2+ encryption, which ,eca$e availa,le in devices in 222B, ai$ed to solve this pro,le$. Wi-Fi access points typically de.ault to an encryption-.ree (open+ $ode. *ovice users ,eneft .ro$ a zero-confguration device that wor%s out-o.-the-,ox, ,ut this de.ault does not ena,le any wireless security, providing open wireless access to a )&*. #o turn security on re<uires the user to confgure the device, usually via a so.tware graphical user inter.ace (G-+. 6n unencrypted Wi-Fi networ%s connecting devices can $onitor and record data (including personal in.or$ation+. "uch networ%s can only ,e secured ,y using other $eans o. protection, such as a E>* or secure Hypertext #rans.er >rotocol over #ransport )ayer "ecurity (H##>"+. -nter.erence4edit5 For $ore details on this topic, see /lectro$agnetic inter.erence at 2.4 GHz. Wi-Fi connections can ,e disrupted or the internet speed lowered ,y having other devices in the sa$e area. :any 2.4 GHz 122.33, and 122.33g access- points de.ault to the sa$e channel on initial startup, contri,uting to congestion on certain channels. Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive nu$,er o. access points in the area, especially on the neigh,oring channel, can prevent access and inter.ere with other devices0 use o. other access points, caused ,y overlapping channels in the 122.33gO, spectru$, as well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio ("*8+ ,etween access points. #his can ,eco$e a pro,le$ in high-density areas, such as large apart$ent co$plexes or oMce ,uildings with $any Wi-Fi access points. &dditionally, other devices use the 2.4 GHz ,andI $icrowave ovens, -": ,and devices, security ca$eras, Pig=ee devices, =luetooth devices, video senders, cordless phones, ,a,y $onitors, and (in so$e countries+ &$ateur radio all o. which can cause signifcant additional inter.erence. -t is also an issue when $unicipalities4445 or other large entities (such as universities+ see% to provide large area coverage. Hardware4edit5 "tandard devices4edit5 &n e$,edded 8outer=oard 332 with .F)-8":& pigtail and 8!2 $ini >7- Wi-Fi card widely used ,y wireless -nternet service providers (W-">s+ in the 7zech 8epu,lic 6"=8i9G/ BG* N 122.33n &ccess >oint and :#"OG": Gateway in one device &n &theros Wi-Fi * dra.t adaptor with ,uilt in =luetooth on a "ony Eaio / series laptop "= wireless adapter & wireless access point (W&>+ connects a group o. wireless devices to an adGacent wired )&*. &n access point rese$,les a networ% hu,, relaying data ,etween connected wireless devices in addition to a (usually+ single connected wired device, $ost o.ten an /thernet hu, or switch, allowing wireless devices to co$$unicate with other wired devices. Wireless adapters allow devices to connect to a wireless networ%. #hese adapters connect to devices using various external or internal interconnects such as >7-, $ini>7-, "=, /xpress7ard, 7ard,us and >7 7ard. &s o. 2232, $ost newer laptop co$puters co$e e<uipped with ,uilt in internal adapters. Wireless routers integrate a Wireless &ccess >oint, /thernet switch, and internal router fr$ware application that provides -> routing, *&#, and 9*" .orwarding through an integrated W&*-inter.ace. & wireless router allows wired and wireless /thernet )&* devices to connect to a (usually+ single W&* device such as a ca,le $ode$ or a 9") $ode$. & wireless router allows all three devices, $ainly the access point and router, to ,e confgured through one central utility. #his utility is usually an integrated we, server that is accessi,le to wired and wireless )&* clients and o.ten optionally to W&* clients. #his utility $ay also ,e an application that is run on a co$puter, as is the case with as &pple0s &ir>ort, which is $anaged with the &ir>ort tility on :ac 6" Q and i6".44!5 Wireless networ% ,ridges connect a wired networ% to a wireless networ%. & ,ridge diDers .ro$ an access pointI an access point connects wireless devices to a wired networ% at the data-lin% layer. #wo wireless ,ridges $ay ,e used to connect two wired networ%s over a wireless lin%, use.ul in situations where a wired connection $ay ,e unavaila,le, such as ,etween two separate ho$es. Wireless range-extenders or wireless repeaters can extend the range o. an existing wireless networ%. "trategically placed range-extenders can elongate a signal area or allow .or the signal area to reach around ,arriers such as those pertaining in )-shaped corridors. Wireless devices connected through repeaters will suDer .ro$ an increased latency .or each hop, as well as .ro$ a reduction in the $axi$u$ data throughput that is availa,le. -n addition, the eDect o. additional users using a networ% e$ploying wireless range- extenders is to consu$e the availa,le ,andwidth .aster than would ,e the case where ,ut a single user $igrates around a networ% e$ploying extenders. For this reason, wireless range-extenders wor% ,est in networ%s supporting very low traMc throughput re<uire$ents, such as .or cases where ,ut a single user with a Wi-Fi e<uipped ta,let $igrates around the co$,ined extended and non-extended portions o. the total connected networ%. &dditionally, a wireless device connected to any o. the repeaters in the chain will have a data throughput that is also li$ited ,y the 'wea%est lin%' existing in the chain ,etween where the connection originates and where the connection ends. *etwor%s e$ploying wireless extenders are also $ore prone to degradation .ro$ inter.erence .ro$ neigh,oring access points that ,order portions o. the extended networ% and that happen to occupy the sa$e channel as the extended networ%. #he security standard, Wi-Fi >rotected "etup, allows e$,edded devices with li$ited graphical user inter.ace to connect to the -nternet with ease. Wi-Fi >rotected "etup has 2 confgurationsI #he >ush =utton confguration and the >-* confguration. #hese e$,edded devices are also called #he -nternet o. #hings and are low-power, ,attery-operated e$,edded syste$s. & nu$,er o. Wi-Fi $anu.acturers design chips and $odules .or e$,edded Wi-Fi, such as Gain"pan.44;5 9istance records4edit5 9istance records (using non-standard devices+ include B12 %$ (2B? $i+ in Fune 222?, held ,y /r$anno >ietrose$oli and /s)a8ed o. Eenezuela, trans.erring a,out B := o. data ,etween the $ountain-tops o. /l Rguila and >latillon.44?54415 #he "wedish "pace &gency trans.erred data 422 %$ (2;2 $i+, using ; watt a$plifers to reach an overhead stratospheric ,alloon.44A5 2d=i vs. !d=i vs. Ad=i 6$ni &ntennas4edit5 #o achieve greater distance coverage, the higher the d=i, the .urther the distance it is a,le to proGect. /$,edded syste$s4edit5 /$,edded serial-to-Wi-Fi $odule -ncreasingly in the last .ew years (particularly as o. 222?+, e$,edded Wi-Fi $odules have ,eco$e availa,le that incorporate a real-ti$e operating syste$ and provide a si$ple $eans o. wirelessly ena,ling any device which has and co$$unicates via a serial port.4!25 #his allows the design o. si$ple $onitoring devices. &n exa$ple is a porta,le /7G device $onitoring a patient at ho$e. #his Wi-Fi-ena,led device can co$$unicate via the -nternet. 4!35 #hese Wi-Fi $odules are designed ,y 6/:s so that i$ple$enters need only $ini$al Wi-Fi %nowledge to provide Wi-Fi connectivity .or their products. -n Fune o. 2234 #exas -nstru$ents introduced the frst &8: 7ortex-:4 with an on,oard dedicated WiFi :7, the "i$ple)in%#$ 77B222. 9evelopers are now a,le to design /$,edded syste$s to connect to the -nternet o. #hings (-o#+ using a single chip. :ultiple access points4edit5 -ncreasing the nu$,er o. Wi-Fi access points provides networ% redundancy, support .or .ast roa$ing and increased overall networ%-capacity ,y using $ore channels or ,y defning s$aller cells. /xcept .or the s$allest i$ple$entations (such as ho$e or s$all oMce networ%s+, Wi-Fi i$ple$entations have $oved toward 'thin' access points, with $ore o. the networ% intelligence housed in a centralized networ% appliance, relegating individual access points to the role o. 'du$,' transceivers. 6utdoor applications $ay use $esh topologies. *etwor% security4edit5 :ain articleI Wireless security #he $ain issue with wireless networ% security is its si$plifed access to the networ% co$pared to traditional wired networ%s such as /thernet, with wired networ%ing one $ust either gain access to a ,uilding (physically connecting into the internal networ%+ or ,rea% through an external frewall. #o ena,le Wi- Fi, one $erely needs to ,e within the wireless range o. the Wi-Fi networ%. :ost ,usiness networ%s protect sensitive data and syste$s ,y atte$pting to disallow external access. /na,ling wireless connectivity reduces security i. the networ% uses inade<uate or no encryption.4!254!B54!45 &n attac%er who has gained access to a Wi-Fi networ% router can initiate a 9*" spoofng attac% against any other user o. the networ% ,y .orging a response ,e.ore the <ueried 9*" server has a chance to reply.4!!5 "ecuring $ethods4edit5 & co$$on $easure to deter unauthorized users involves hiding the access point0s na$e ,y disa,ling the ""-9 ,roadcast. While eDective against the casual user, it is ineDective as a security $ethod ,ecause the ""-9 is ,roadcast in the clear in response to a client ""-9 <uery. ¬her $ethod is to only allow co$puters with %nown :&7 addresses to Goin the networ%,4!;5 ,ut deter$ined eavesdroppers $ay ,e a,le to Goin the networ% ,y spoofng an authorized address. Wired /<uivalent >rivacy (W/>+ encryption was designed to protect against casual snooping ,ut it is no longer considered secure. #ools such as &ir"nort or &ircrac%-ng can <uic%ly recover W/> encryption %eys.4!?5 =ecause o. W/>0s wea%ness the Wi-Fi &lliance approved Wi-Fi >rotected &ccess (W>&+ which uses #K->. W>& was specifcally designed to wor% with older e<uip$ent usually through a fr$ware upgrade. #hough $ore secure than W/>, W>& has %nown vulnera,ilities. #he $ore secure W>&2 using &dvanced /ncryption "tandard was introduced in 2224 and is supported ,y $ost new Wi-Fi devices. W>&2 is .ully co$pati,le with W>&.4!15 & @aw in a .eature added to Wi-Fi in 222?, called Wi-Fi >rotected "etup, allows W>& and W>&2 security to ,e ,ypassed and eDectively ,ro%en in $any situations. #he only re$edy as o. late 2233 is to turn oD Wi-Fi >rotected "etup,4!A5 which is not always possi,le.