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Table I-1
Properties Sensed or Typical Discontinuities Representative
Method Measured Detected Applications Advantages Limitations
X- and gamma-ray Changes in density from Voids, porosity, inclusions, Castings, forgings, weld- Detects internal dis- Cost; relative insensitivity
radiography voids, inclusions, incomplete penetration, ments, and assemblies continuities; useful to thin or laminar flaws
material variations, and cracks on a wide variety of such as fatigue cracks
and placement of materials; portable; or delaminations that
internal parts permanent record are perpendicular to the
radiation beam; health
hazard
Liquid penetrant Surface openings Cracks, porosity, laps, and Castings, forgings, weld- Inexpensive; easy to Discontinuity must be
examination seams ments, metallic and apply; portable open to an accessible
nonmetallic compo- surface; false indication
nents often occurs
Eddy current Changes in electrical Cracks, laps, seams, voids, Bars, rods, wire, tubing, Moderate cost; readily Conductive materials
examination and magnetic proper- and variations in alloy local regions of sheet automated; porta- only; shallow penetra-
ties caused by surface composition and heat metal, alloy sorting, ble; permanent tion; geometry sensitive;
and near-surface dis- treatment and thickness gaging record, if needed reference standards nec-
continuities essary
Microwave Anamolies in complex In dielectrics; disbands Glass-fiber-resin struc- Noncontacting; readily No penetration of metals;
examination dielectric coefficient; voids, and cracks; in tures; plastics; ceram- automated; rapid comparatively poor defi-
surface anamolies in metal surfaces; surface ics; moisture content; inspection nition of flaws
conductive materials cracks thickness measurement
Magnetic particle Leakage in magnetic Surface or near-surface Ferromagnetic products Stable; inexpensive Ferromagnetic materials
examination flux field caused by cracks, laps, voids, and such as weldments, only; surface prepara-
surface or near-surface nonmetallic inclusions castings, forgings, and tion may be required;
discontinuities extrusions, and other false indications often
basic steel products occur
Magnetic flux leakage Leakage in magnetic Surface or near-surface Ferromagnetic products Sensitivity to typical Ferromagnetic materials
examination flux caused by surface cracks, laps, voids, and such as weldments, discontinuities; only; proper magnetiza-
or near-surface discon- nonmetallic inclusions castings, forgings, and readily automated; tion of part sometimes
tinuities extrusions, and other moderate depth pen- difficult when parts do
basic steel products etration; perma- not have uniform cross
nenet record, if sections
needed
Ultrasonic examination Changes in acoustic Cracks, voids, porosity, lami- Weldments, plates, Excellent penetration; Requires acoustic cou-
impedance nation, delaminations and tubes, castings, forg- readily automated; pling to surface; refer-
inclusions ings, extrusions; thick- good sensitivity and ence standard required;
ness gaging good resolution; highly dependent upon
requires access to operator skill; relative
only one side, per- insensitivity to laminar
manent record, if flaws which are parallel
needed to the sound beam
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Article 5.2, Mandatory Appendix I
Comparison of Selected NDE Methods
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Table I-1 (Contd)
Properties Sensed or Typical Discontinuities Representative
Method Measured Detected Applications Advantages Limitations
Sonic examination Changes in acoustic Disbands, delaminations, Laminated structures; Simple to implement; Geometry sensitive; poor
impedance cracks, or voids honeycomb; small parts readily automated; definition
portable
Ultrasonic holography Same as ultrasonic Used primarily for evalua- Examination of a limited Produces a viewable Cost; limited to small
examination tion of discontinuities region of the structure image of discontinui- regions of the structure;
detected by other in each image ties poor definition com-
methods pared to radiography
Infrared testing Surface temperature; Voids or disbands in non- Laminated structures; Produces a viewable Cost; difficult to control
anomolies in thermal metallics; location of hot honeycomb; electric thermal map surface emissivity; poor
conductivity or surface or cold spots in thermally and electronic circuits; definition
emissivity, or both active assemblies insulated structures;
refractory-lined struc-
tures and machinery
Strain gages Mechanical strains Not used for detection of Stressstrain analysis of Low cost; reliable Insensitive to preexisting
discontinuities most materials strains; small area cover-
age; requires bonding
to surface
Brittle coatings Mechanical strains Not commonly used for Stressstrain analysis of Low cost; produces Insensitive to preexisting
detection of discontinui- most materials large area map of strains
ties strain field
Optical holography Mechanical strains Disbands; delaminations; Honeycomb; composite Extremely sensitive, Cost; complexity; requires
plastic deformation structure; tires; preci- produces a map of considerable skill
sion parts such as bear- strain field; perma-
ing elements nent record, if
needed
Acoustic emission Stress wave energy Cracks, structural anomo- Crack detection and loca- 100% volumetric Structure must be
generated by growing lies, leaks, also delamina- tion during proof test- examination in real loaded, to a higher level
flaws, areas of high tion, fiber fracture, and ing crack propagation, time, complicated than previous service
stress, leaks matrix failure in composite composite, struc- geometries, very loadings, sensors must
materials tures,metal structures, high sensitivity, per- be in contact with struc-
rotating equipment manent record, accu- ture
rate flaw location
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Article 5.2, Mandatory Appendix I
Comparison of Selected NDE Methods