Republic of the Philippines

CEBU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Main Campus
Corner MJ Cuenco Ave. and R. Palma St., Cebu City
Website: http:!!!.ctu.edu.ph "mail: information#ctu.edu.ph
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Fundamentals o Resea!"#
Co$e!a%e o! Finals
&#at is Resea!"#'
2A combination of investi3ation of past !or4 and effort in the present that !ill help others in the future5
A set of opposites
o .un and frustration
o Small steps and lar3e insi3hts
o 6uildin3 on others7 !or4 and contributin3 your o!n !or4
.indin3 or developin3 somethin3 ne! that chan3es the !orld
(uantitati$e $s) (ualitati$e Resea!"#
8uantitative 9 use of statistical, formulaic or numerical analysis to 3enerate results
o Main approach: analysis: causal determination, prediction, 3enerali;ation of findin3s
o Results: 2$his solution is %< better5
8ualitative 9 not =uantitative: use of non-numeric techni=ues
o Main approach: discovery: illumination, understandin3, e/trapolation to similar circumstances
o Results: 2$his is a ne! !ay of solvin3 our problem5
S"ope o Resea!"#
>aries by level of !or4
Ph.?. students 9 contribution e/pected at !orld level: e.3.
o bac43round investi3ation on all past !or4
o ma4e meanin3ful addition to !orld 4no!led3e
@nder3raduate students 9 contribution can be at local to national to !orld level: e.3.
o bac43round investi3ation at university up to !orld level
o ma4e meanin3ful addition to university up to !orld level of 4no!led3e
&#at Isn*t Resea!"#'
Playin3 !ith technolo3y
6oo4 report
Pro3rammin3 proAect
?oin3 !hat others have already done
Bo!ever, each of these can be done as part of research
&#o +oes Resea!"#'
Craduate Students
o Masters ?e3ree &lo!er standard*
o Ph.?. ?e3ree &hi3her standard*
Researchers at universities
o Post-?octoral students
o .aculty members
Researchers in industry
o Research scientists
o Many other technical !or4ers
@nder3raduate students &li4e you*
Dndividuals
$eams
$eams almost al!ays ma4e the process easier
o ?ivision of labor
o .eedbac4 from team members
o "ach member can !or4 to o!n stren3ths
Resea!"# ,!o"ess -Met#odolo%./
Dnitial Ddea
6ac43round Dnvesti3ation
Refinement of Ddea
Core Wor4
o Dnvesti3ation and ?evelopment
o ?ocumentation
o Prototype &if appropriate*
"valuation
Ddentification of .uture Wor4
Presentation
Not included in the examination
These are just important things that you must know.
Initial Idea
Stems from critical thin4in3
, E P a 3 e
6e on the loo4out for and open to seein3 problems
o Caps in frame!or4
o Repetitive behavior that7s sli3htly different &and can be 3enerali;ed*
o Manual solutions &that can be automated*
o Dnele3ant solutions
As4 =uestions
o 2Ds somethin3 missin3 hereF5
o 2Can this be done in a better !ayF5
o 2Ds there a need for a ne! approachF5
Should be an area you7re interested in, as:
o Gou7ll be spendin3 a lot of time !ith it
o Dt !on7t al!ays be easyfun to continueH
Ba"0%!ound In$esti%ation
Civen an idea, need to determine:
o Bas this !or4 been done previouslyF
o What similar !or4 has been done leadin3 up to this pointF
o Bo! is any previous !or4 distin3uished from !hat D7m plannin3 to doF
o What 3roup of people !ill be positively impacted by the researchF
$ools
o Iiterature Revie! usin3 library resources &e.3. online databases such as ACM and D""", popular ma3a;ines*
o WWW search
Reinement o Idea
6ased on bac43round investi3ation, need to refine idea
Dssues:
o Precision 9 focus on precisely identifyin3:
Problem
Possible solutions &pluralJ*
o Scope 9 need to 2build fences5
What7s an essential part of this !or4F &fence in*
What7s tan3ential, additional, or for any other reason best left for latersomeone elseF &fence out*
Co!e &o!0 1 In$esti%ation and +e$elopment
Provide yourself !ith infrastructure
o e=uipment soft!are
o additional 4no!led3e &23et up to speed5*
?o the !or4
o "/perimentation &scientific process*
o ?evelop opinions
o Ioo4 for better !ays of solvin3 problem
Can you 3enerali;eF
Can you develop a frame!or4F
o ?iscuss, brainstorm
o Reevaluate as you proceed
Ioo4 for improvements, chan3es to your ori3inal ideas
Co!e &o!0 1 +o"umentation
%eed to document as you 3o
o ?on7t !ant to lose any information
,. Maintain a Aournal for day-to-day thou3hts
o Can be paper, electronic, ...
o Keep it !ith you at all times
%ever 4no! !hen 3ood ideas !ill hit
). Keep an updated tas4 list
o .ocus on accomplishin3 somethin3 each !or4 session
(. Write up your !or4
o Periodically, !rite a fe! pa3es on a subset of your !or4
Summari;e !or4, accomplishments, problems
o At end, !rite up a summary document
Can be based on steps discussed here
Co!e &o!0 1 ,!otot.pe
%eed to demonstrate the merit of your ideas
Df !or4 is non-theoretical, do this throu3h a developed system
o %o need to build the entire system
o Just need to demonstrate the value of the core ideas
E$aluation
Perhaps the most difficult partH.
o 6est if can sho! others are already usin3 your !or4
8uantitative
o $est your prototype
o What improvements e/ist over currently available alternativeF
o Bo! much of an improvement do you seeF
8ualitative
o What can you do no! that couldn7t be done beforeF
o What are the benefits of your solutionF
) E P a 3 e
Identii"ation o Futu!e &o!0
Belps you or3ani;e any future efforts
Belps others build on your !or4
Sources:
o What you e/cluded in your idea refinement
o %e! problems that have surfaced durin3 your !or4
,!esentation
Dt7s not a contribution to the field if no one 4no!s about it or can use it
Presentation?issemination
o Conferences, Journals, Web
e.3. %ational @nder3raduate Research conference
o Papers, $al4s, Poster Sessions
e.3. @W"C and @W System Research ?ays
End
OVERVIE& OF RESEARCH METHO+OLOGIES
(ualitati$e Resea!"#
o "thno3raphy, Case Study, Crounded $heory, Autobio3raphy, Participatory Action Research, Phenomenolo3y &a philosophical
movement that describes the formal structure of the obAects of a!areness and of a!areness itself in abstraction from any claims
concernin3 e/istence &)*: the typolo3ical classification of a class of phenomena Lthe phenomenolo3y of reli3ionM* &each 3rounded in
a specific discipline and philosophical assumptions*
(uantitati$e Resea!"#
o Survey methods, "/periments
Mi2ed Met#ods
o ?ra! from =ualitative and =uantitative methods
(uantitati$e
A =uantitative approach is one in !hich the investi3ator primarily uses post-positivist claims for developin3 4no!led3e &i.e. cause and effect
thin4in3, reduction to specific variables and hypotheses and =uestions, use of measurement and observation, and the test of theories*. &Cres!ell, )''(,
p.,N*
Resea!"# (uestions
(ualitati$e
o Dn =ualitative study, in=uirers state research =uestions, not obAectives &i.e. specific 3oals for the research* or hypotheses &i.e.
predictions that involve variables and statistical tests*. &C., )''(, p.,'O*
o "/ample: Bo! do students use pro3ram development toolsF
C#a!a"te!isti"s o (ualitati$e Resea!"#
$a4es place in the natural settin3
@ses multiple methods that are interpretive
Ds emer3ent rather than ti3htly prefi3ured
.undamentally interpretive &role of researcher as interpreter*
Researcher vie!s social phenomena holistically
Researcher systematically reflects on !ho he or she is in the in=uiry and is sensitive to ho! or her personal bio3raphy and ho! it shapes the
study
Researcher uses comple/ reasonin3 that is multifaceted, iterative, and simultaneous
Researcher adopts and uses one or more strate3ies of in=uiry
Resea!"# Met#ods
Dntervie!s
.ocus 3roups
Participant observation &field notes*
>ideo
$e/t and Dma3e analysis &documents, media data*
(UALITIES OF A GOO+ RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
,. >alidity
). Reliability
(. @sability
Validit. 9 means the de3ree to !hich a test or measurin3 instrument measures !hat it intends to measure.
"/. Who is the 3oddess of beautyF
Pf the ,'' students in Mytholo3y, N' or N' percent ans!ered 2>enus5 as the 3oddess of beauty and ,' or ,' percent ans!ered 2?iana5 as the
3oddess of beauty. Bence, N' percent of the responses is valid because the correct ans!er is 2>enus5.
Ii4e!ise, the validity of a measurin3 instrument has to do !ith its soundness, what the test or =uestionnaire measures its effectiveness, and ho!
!ell it could be applied.
T.pes o Validit.3
Content Validit. 9 means the e/tent to !hich the content or topic of the test is truly representative of the content of the course.
( E P a 3 e
o Illust!ation3
.or e/ample, a researcher !ishes to validate a =uestionnaire in Science. Be re=uests e/perts in Science to Aud3e if the items
measure the 4no!led3e, s4ills, and values supposed to be measured. Another !ay of testin3 content validity is for the e/perts to
chec4 if the test items or =uestions represent the 4no!led3e, s4ills, and values su33ested in the Science course content.
Con"u!!ent Validit. 9 Dt is the de3ree to !hich the test a3rees or correlates !ith a criterion set up as an acceptable measure.
o Illust!ation3
.or Dnstance, a researcher !ishes to validate a Mathematics achievement test he has constructed. Be administers this test to a
3roup of Mathematics students. $he result of this test is correlated !ith an acceptable Mathematics test !hich has been previously
proven as valid. Df the correlation is 2hi3h,5 the Mathematics test he has constructed is valid.
,!edi"ti$e Validit. 9 Dt is determined by sho!in3 ho! !ell predictions made from the test are confirmed by evidence 3athered at some
subse=uent time.
o Illust!ation3
Suppose the researcher !ants to estimate ho! !ell a hi3h school student may be able to do in colle3e course on the basis of ho!
!ell he has done on tests he too4 in hi3h school subAects. $he criterion measured a3ainst !hich the test scores are validated and
obtained are available after a lon3 period of interval.
Const!u"t Validit. 9 Dt is the e/tent to !hich the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.
o Illust!ation3
Suppose a researcher !ishes to establish the validity of an D8 &Dntelli3ence 8uotient* usin3 SCRD$ &Safran Culture-Reduced
Dntelli3ence $est*. Be hypothesi;es that pupils !ith hi3h D8 also have hi3h achievement and lo! D8, lo! achievement. Be, therefore,
administers both SCRD$ and achievement tests to t!o 3roups of pupils !ith hi3h and lo! D8, respectively. Df the results sho! that
those !ith hi3h D8, have hi3h scores in the achievement tests and those !ith lo! D8 have lo! scores in the achievement tests, the
test is valid.
Relia4ilit. 9 means the e/tent to !hich a research instrument is dependable, consistent and stable &Meriam, ,N1O*. Dn other !ords, the test a3rees !ith
itself. Dt is concerned !ith the consistency of responses from moment to moment. "ven if a person ta4es the same test t!ice, the test yields the same
results. Bo!ever, a reliable test may not always be valid.
"/. Who is the 3oddess of loveF
Pf the 1' students in Mytholo3y, 1' or ,'' percent ans!ered 2>enus5 as 3oddess of love. Dn statistical sense, the responses are reliable for it is
consistent, but not valid for there is no veracity or truthfulness of the ans!er because the 3oddess of love is 2?iana5. Bence, it is reliable but not valid.
Ii4e!ise, a reliable test or research instrument is not al!ays valid even if it may be reliable.
Met#ods in Testin% t#e Relia4ilit. o a Good Resea!"# Inst!ument
$here are four methods in testin3 the reliability of a 3od research instrument. $hese methods are:
,. test-retest method,
). parallel-forms method
(. split-half method
4. internal consistency method
Test-retest method. Dn this method, the same instrument is administered t!ice to the same 3roup of subAects and the correlation coefficient is
determined.
?isadvanta3es:
a* !hen the time interval is short, the respondents may recall their previous responses and this tends to ma4e the correlation coefficient hi3h:
b* !hen the time interval is lon3, such factors as for3ettin3, unlearnin3, amon3 others, may occur and may result in lo! correlation of the test:
c* re3ardless of the time interval separatin3 the t!o administrations, other varyin3 environmental conditions such as temperature, li3htin3, noise,
and other factors may affect the correlation coefficient of the research instrument.
Parallel-forms ethod. Parallel or e=uivalent forms of a test may be administered to the 3roup of subAects, and the paired observations correlated. 2Dn
estimatin3 reliability by the administration of parallel or e=uivalent forms of a test, criteria parallelism is re=uired.5 $he t!o forms of the test must be
constructed so that the content, type of item, difficulty, instructions for administration, and many others are similar but not identical.
"/. .or instance, 2convert O 4ilometers to meters5 in .orm A is parallel or e=ual to 2convert O, ''' meters to 4ilometers5 in .orm 6. moreover, these
t!o forms should have appro/imately the same mean and variability of scores.
!plit-half ethod. $he test in this method may be administered once, but the test items are divided into t!o halves. $he common procedure is to divide a
test into odd and even items. $he most common procedure is to divide a test into odd and even items. $he t!o halves of the test must be similar but not
identical in content, number of items, difficulty, means, and standard deviations. "ach student obtains t!o scores, one on the odd and the other on the
even items in the same test. $he scores obtained in the t!o halves are correlated. $he result is reliability coefficient for a half test.
"nternal-consistency ethod. $his method is used !ith psycholo3ical tests !hich consist of dichotomously scored items. $he e/aminee either passes or
fails in an item. A score of , &one* is assi3ned for a pass and ' &;ero* for failure.
Usa4ilit. 9 means the de3ree to !hich the research instrument be satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers, supervisors and school mana3ers
!ithout undue e/penditure of time, money and effort. Dn other !ords, usability means practicability.
Fa"to!s to +ete!mine Usa4ilit.
,. Ease of administration. $o facilitate the administration of a research instrument, instruction should be complete and precise. As a rule, 3roup
tests are easier to administer than individual tests. $he former is easier to administer because directions are 3iven only once and the
instrument is simultaneously administered to a 3roup of students, thus savin3 time and ener3y on the part of the e/aminer or researcher.
). Ease of scoring. Dt depends on the follo!in3 aspects:
Construction of a test in the obAective type.
Ans!er 4eys are ade=uately prepared.
Scorin3 directions are fully understood.
+ E P a 3 e
6y and lar3e, scorin3 is easier !hen all subAects are instructed to !rite their responses in one column in numerical form or letter form and
!ith separate ans!er sheets for their responses.
(. Ease of interpretation and application. Results of test are easy to interpret and apply if tables are provided.
+. #ow cost. Dt is more practical if the test is lo! cost material-!ise. Dt is more economical also if the research instrument is of lo! cost and can be
reused by future researchers.
O. Proper mechanical make-up. A 3ood research instrument should be printed clearly in an appropriate si;e for the 3rade or year level for !hich
the instrument is intended.
"/. .or instance, if the research instrument is test, the font si;e of Crades one to three is bi33est, i.e., font si;e ,Q: Crades four to
si/, font si;e ,0: secondary students, font si;e ,+: and colle3e students, font si;e ,).
RESEARCH +ESIGNS
A research desi3n encompasses the method and procedures employed to conduct scientific research.
$here are four 4inds of research desi3ns. $hese desi3ns are:
1. Bistorical 9 the study is focused in the past &what was*
2. ?escriptive 9 the study is focused in the present condition &what is*
3. "/perimental 9 is on the future &what will be*
4. Case study 9 is for the past, present and future
,u!pose o Resea!"# +esi%n
$o provide ans!ers to research =uestions
$o control variance
HISTORICAL +ESIGN
%evins &,N1Q* defines history as 2any inte3rated narrative or descriptive past events or facts !ritten in a spirit of critical in=uiry for the !orld
truth5
$iblical %esearch is an e/ample of %evins7 definition of historical research.
Dn ,N10, .un4 and Wa3nalls defined history as 2branch of 4no!led3e concerned !ith past events, especially those involvin3 human affairs.5
Cood and Scates &,N1)* defined history as 2search for 4no!led3e and the truth5
&istorical %esearch is a scientific critical in=uiry of the !hole truth of past events usin3 the critical method in the understandin3 and
interpretation of facts !hich are applicable to current issues and problems.
&istorical %esearch is both science and art. Dt is scientific and the narration thereof is an art. Bistory differs from the natural sciences because
it is based upon the reports of observations !hich cannot be repeated, althou3h similar events may occur. @nli4e in natural sciences, it based
on e/perimentation.
$he purpose is to collect, verify, synthesi;e evidence to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. Dt uses primary sources,
secondary sources, and lots of =ualitative data sources such as lo3s, diaries, official records, reports, etc. $he limitation is that the sources
must be both authentic and valid.
Dnvolves studyin3 some aspect of the past
Uses o Histo!i"al Resea!"#
$he uses of historical research are as follo!s:
1. Bistorical research is useful in researchin3 throu3h the past for solutions to contemporary problems and needs.
2. Dt is used to thro! li3ht on the present.
3. Dt 3ives people a sense of continuity of the past to the present.
4. Dt enables the communities to 3rasp their relationship !ith the past to the current issues.
O. Dt chronicles events of endurin3 !orth !hich confer upon the individual consciousness of unity and the feelin3 of importance of human
achievement.
Histo!i"al Resea!"# Steps
$he historical method of research applies to all fields of study because it encompasses their: origins' growth' theories' personalities' crisis'
etc.
6oth =uantitative and =ualitative variables can be used in the collection of historical information.
Pnce the decision is made to conduct historical research, there are steps that should be follo!ed to achieve a reliable result.
Ma5o! Steps o Histo!i"al Resea!"#
$he three steps of historical research are as follo!s: &Cood and Scates, ,N1)*
,. Collection of data, !ith consideration of documents and remains or relics of primary and secondary sources, of biblio3raphical procedure,
and or3ani;ation of materials.
). Criticism of the data collected, includin3 the processes of e/ternal criticism and internal criticism
3. Presentation of the facts in readable form involvin3 problems of organi(ation' composition' exposition' and interpretation.
C#a!les Bus#a and Step#en Ha!te! detail si2 steps o! "ondu"tin% #isto!i"al !esea!"#3
,. $he reco3nition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain historical 4no!led3e.
). $he 3atherin3 of as much relevant information about the problem or topic as possible.
(. Df appropriate, the formin3 of hypothesis that tentatively e/plains relationships bet!een historical factors.
+. $he ri3orous collection and or3ani;ation of evidence, and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of information and its sources.
O. $he selection, or3ani;ation, and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence, and the dra!in3 of conclusions
O E P a 3 e
0. $he recordin3 of conclusions in a meanin3ful narrative.
Sou!"es o Histo!i"al Resea!"#
,!ima!. Sou!"es
$here are t!o maAor sources of historical research. $hese are: &,* documents and &)* remains.
,. )ocuments: $hese include school directives, court decisions, e/ecutive and other official records, personal materials ne!spaper and
periodicals.
E2amples o S"#ool +i!e"ti$es3
Prders
Memoranda
Circulars
Constitution
Ia!s
Charters
E2e"uti$e and ot#e! oi"ial !e"o!ds3
Proceedin3s of administrative officers and bodies
Reports of school surveys
Annual reports
Courses of study
Course syllabioutlines
Catalo3ues
Prospectuses
,e!sonal mate!ials3
Autobio3raphies
6io3raphies
Ie3al instruments e/ecuted by individuals such as contracts' wills' and deeds.
). %emains: $hese include the physical plant' e*uipment' apparatus' teaching aids and devices of buildings or furnishing' forms of diplomas
and certificates' textbooks and reference books.
Se"onda!. Sou!"es
$he secondary sources are histories of education, biblio3raphies, encyclopedia and many others.
Dn some historical studies, it is necessary to start !ith secondary sources if primary sources are not yet available. .or instance, in ma4in3 up a list
old Mathematics te/tboo4s, encyclopedia, available articles and biblio3raphies on the subAect !hich are secondary sources may be needed aside from
aside from other Mathematics te/tboo4 as primary sources.
+ESCRI,TIVE +ESIGN
Dn descriptive design, the study focuses at the present condition. $he purpose is to find ne! truth. $he truth may have the different forms such as
increased =uantity of 4no!led3e, a ne! 3enerali;ation or a ne! 2la!,5 an increased insi3ht into factors !hich are operatin3, the discovery of a ne!
causal relationship, a more accurate formulation of the problem to be solved, and many others.
+es"!ipti$e !esea!"#es a!e $alua4le in3
,. Providin3 facts on !hich scientific Aud3ments may be based
). Providin3 essential 4no!led3e about the nature of obAects and persons
(. .or closer observation into the practices, behavior, methods and procedures
+. Playin3 a lar3e part in the development of instruments for the measurement of many thin3s
Dnstruments that are employed in all types of descriptive research as data-3atherin3 instruments:
a* 8uestionnaires
b* $ests
c* Dntervie!s
d* Chec4lists
e* Score cards
f* Ratin3 scales
3* Pbservation of schedules
O. .ormulatin3 of policies in the local, national, or international level
T.pes o +es"!ipti$e Resea!"#
$here are nine types of descriptive research:
,. ?escriptive-survey
). ?escriptive-normative
(. ?escriptive-status
+. ?escriptive-analysis
O. ?escriptive-classification
0. ?escriptive-evaluative
1. ?escriptive-comparative
Q. Correlational survey
N. Ion3itudinal survey
+. )escriptive-survey
$his type is suitable !herever the subAect vary amon3 themselves and one is interested to 4no! the e/tent to !hich the different
conditions and situations are obtained amon3 these subAects. $he !ord survey si3nifies the 3atherin3 of data re3ardin3 the present conditions.
A survey is useful:
a* Providin3 the value of facts
b* .ocusin3 the attention on the most thin3s to be reported.
,. )escriptive-normative survey
0 E P a 3 e
Cood and Scates &,N1)* stressed that 2the term normative is sometimes used because surveys are fre=uently made to ascertain the
normal or typical condition for practice, or to compare local test results !ith a state or national norm. Dn the descriptive-normative survey, the
resultsfindin3s of the study should be compared !ith the norm.
,
Dn a descriptive normative survey, one 3athers and analy;es information about !hat is 3oin3 on at the present time. Dt is an in-depth type
of survey that 3ets to the root of !hat is 3oin3 on at any 3iven time. A lar3e 3roup of a population is included !ith this type of survey.
Comparisons are them made based on the findin3s of the survey. $he survey could be used to determine differences bet!een those in a
nei3hborhood or school.
-. )escriptive-status
$his approach to problem-solvin3 see4s to ans!er =uestions to real facts relatin3 to e/istin3 conditions. $his techni=ue of =uantitative
description !hich determines the prevailin3 conditions in a 3roup of cases of study.
Several descriptive-status studies stress current conditions !ith the assumption that thin3s !ill chan3e. $hey cover many traits or
characteristics of the 3roup.
.. )escriptive-analysis
$his method determines or describes the nature of an obAect by separatin3 it into its parts. Dts purpose is to discover the nature of thin3s.
)
?escriptive analysis is used to describe the attributes of a system. A typical procedure is to first identify the attributes present, and then
rate these attributes. Ma3nitude estimation can be used to correlate each of the attributeRs relative contribution to the final system. Pne !ay to
achieve this is to use preset or a3reed upon conditions or terminolo3ies
/. )escriptive-classification
$his method is employed in natural science subAects, namely: 6iolo3y, 6otany, Soolo3y, Phycolo3y, Dchthyolo3y, Concholo3y, and the li4e.
$he specimens collected are classified from phylum species
0. )escriptive-evaluative
$his desi3n is to appraise 1assess' evaluate2 carefully the !orthiness of the current study.
(
$he descriptive method ta4es measures from an e/istin3 population. Pne e/ample of a descriptive statistic is the number of 3irls and the
number of boys in your local school.
Dnferential statistics ta4es measurements from a sample population and then ma4es inferences on the population as a !hole. So usin3
the above e/ample, one 4no!s ho! many 3irls and boys are in the local: by ta4in3 an inferential measurement, it may be predicted ho! many
3irls or boys are in any 3iven school in the !orld usin3 inferences.
3. )escriptive-comparative
$his is a desi3n !here the researcher considers t!o variables &not manipulated* and establishes a formal procedure to compare and
conclude that one is better than the other.
+
A simple descriptive research desi3n is used !hen data are collected to describe persons, or3ani;ations, settin3s, or phenomena. With a
comparative descriptive desi3n, the researcher describes t!o or more 3roups of participants.
4. 5orrelational-survey
$his is desi3ned to determine the relationship of t!o variables &T and G* !hether the relationship is perfect, very hi3h, hi3h, mar4ed, or
moderate, sli3ht or ne3li3ible. Perfect positive correlations !ith a value of ,.' seldom happen, same !ith perfect ne3ative correlation. Dn
perfect positive correlation, all individual performances in T and G have the same positions. Df he tops in $est T he also tops in $est G: and if he
is lo!est in $est T he is li4ely lo!est in $est G. "n perfect negative correlation, all individual performances in T and G have the opposite
positions. Df he tops in $est T he is lo!est in $est G: if he is lo!est in $est T, he tops in $est G.
6. #ongitudinal !urvey
$his involves much time allotted for investi3ation of the same subAects of t!o or more points in time.
O
$he survey is one of the most !idely used methods of data collection in the social sciences. Survey methods and practices, !hich have
evolved rapidly !ith the development of computers, constitute a po!erful tool for collectin3 data from multiple units. $he ability to sample and
collect data on a lar3e number of units ma4es surveys a cost effective method for achievin3 3enerali;able results. When used in lon3itudinal
desi3ns, surveys enable researchers to study lar3e samples across multiple time periods !ith minimal e/pense relative to other data collection
methods. Ion3itudinal surveys have the advanta3e of yieldin3 data that is amenable to multivariate statistical analysis.
Key =uestions that must be ans!ered by a researcher interested in applyin3 survey research technolo3y in a lon3itudinal desi3n include:
?oes the subAect matter lend itself to a surveyF
Df a survey is appropriate, !ill repeated measures adversely affect the =uality of the dataF
What survey method is best for the research applicationF
Will unit attrition be mana3eableF
E6,ERIMENTAL +ESIGN
"/perimental desi3n is a problem-solvin3 approach that the study is described in the future on what will be !hen variables are carefully controlled
or manipulated. "/perimental desi3n can be a basic, applied, or developmental research. $his type of research involves the 1Ms, namely:
Manpo!er &competent*
Money
1
Iaurentina Paler-Calmorin and Melchor A. Calmorin, Research Methods and $hesis Writin3 Second "dition &Re/ 6oo4 Store, Dnc., )''1*, pp. 1,.
2
"bid, p. 1).
3
"bid, p. 1(.
4
"bid.
5
"bid, p. 1+.
1 E P a 3 e
Methods
Materials
Machinery
Moment of time
Mar4etin3
"/perimental research is 3iven priority by research institutions in 3ivin3 of research 3rants-in-aid because research outputs can be converted into
SM"s &Small and Medium "nterprises*, thus, help:
Bouse!ives
Rural fol4s
Put-of-school youths
@nemployed adults and 3raduates
$o:
Au3ment their income
Alleviate 1ease' lessen2 poverty
Dmprove their =uality of life
Moreso, it helps the austerity measures of the Philippines.
"/perimental research has distinct limitations !hen used in the fields of:
"ducation
Sociolo3y
Psycholo3y
$o conduct an e/periment means to try in order to see !hat happens. Dn other !ords, in an e/periment, it involves trial-and-error method until the
result is successful.
T.pes o E2pe!imental +esi%n
,. Sin3le-3roup desi3n
). $!o-3roup desi3n
(. $!o-pair-3roup desi3n
+. Parallel-3roup desi3n
O. Counterbalanced or Iatin s=uare desi3n
0. Complete randomi;ed desi3n
1. Randomi;ed complete bloc4 desi3n
Q. Correlational desi3n
N. Pre-test-post-test 3roup desi3n
7) Sin%le8%!oup desi%n. $his desi3n involves a sin3le treatment !ith t!o or more levels.
Sin3le-Croup ?esi3n Sample on the "ffect of .ish Meal as Supplement .eed upon the Gield of Mudcrab &!. serrata* Cultured in the .ishpond
Fis# Meal
T!eatment -T/
Yield o Mud"!a4 (S. serrata)
0%
Repli"ations
, ) (
$, &O<* / / /
$) &,'<* / / /
$( &,O<* / / /
Sin3le-Croup ?esi3n Sample on the "ffectiveness of $eachin3 "n3lish usin3 $hree Methods to Sin3le Croup of .isheries Students as SubAects of S@Cs
in Re3ion N &Western Mindanao*
Met#ods o Tea"#in% En%lis#
Students
Met#od One Met#od T9o Met#od T#!ee
S"o!es -67/ S"o!es -67/ S"o!es -67/
7 / / /
: / / /
; / / /
< / / /
= / / /
> / / /
? / / /
@ / / /
A / / /
7B / / /
77 / / /
7: / / /
7; / / /
7< / / /
7= / / /
7> / / /
7? / / /
7@ / / /
7A / / /
:B / / /
:7 / / /
:: / / /
:; / / /
:< / / /
:= / / /
:) T9o8%!oup desi%n. Dn this desi3n, t!o comparable 3roups are employed as e/perimental and control 3roups or t!o comparable 3roups are both
e/perimental 3roups.
Q E P a 3 e
Suppose an investi3ator !ants to conduct a study on 3ro!th rate of cultivatin3 "ucheuma usin3 broadcasting and lantay methods.
6roadcastin3 method of cultivatin3 "ucheuma is control 3roup because this method has been practiced or e/isted for =uite a lon3 time. #antay
method is e/perimental method because this is novel or ne!.
$!o-Croup ?esi3n Sample on the Cro!th Rate of Cultivatin3 "ucheuma usin3 6roadcastin3 &Control Croup* and Iantay &"/perimental Croup*
Methods.
Resea!"# Stations B!oad"astin% Met#od -Cont!ol G!oup/
0%
Lanta. Met#od -E2pe!imental G!oup/
0%
, / /
) / /
( / /
+ / /
O / /
0 / /
1 / /
Q / /
N / /
,' / /

$!o-Croup ?esi3n Sample &6oth "/perimental Croups* on the .lavor Acceptability of Mil4fish and Coatfish Iuncheon Meat & .ictitious ?ata *
,anelists
Fla$o! o A""epta4ilit.
Mil0is#
Lun"#eon Meat
Goatis#
Lun"#eon Meat
7 A @
: @ @
; A @
< @ @
= @ @
> @ @
? A A
@ @ @
A @ @
7B A @
77 A @
7: @ @
7; A A
7< @ @
7= @ @
;) T9o8pai! %!oup desi%n. $his desi3n is an elaboration of the t!o-3roup desi3n !herein there are t!o control 3roups and t!o e/perimental 3roups.
$!o-Pair Croup ?esi3n Sample on the Acceptability of Canned Mil4fish 6one Meal in Salmon and .rench Styles !ith and !ithout Sea >e3etable
,anelists
Canned Mil0is# Bone Meal
Cont!ol G!oup
-&it#out Sea Ve%eta4le/
E2pe!imental G!oup
-&it# Sea Ve%eta4le/
7
Salmon St.le
:
F!en"# St.le
7
Salmon St.le
:
F!en"# St.le
7 / / / /
: / / / /
; / / / /
< / / / /
= / / / /
> / / / /
? / / / /
@ / / / /
A / / / /
7B / / / /
77 / / / /
7: / / / /
7; / / / /
7< / / / /
7= / / / /
7> / / / /
7? / / / /
7@ / / / /
7A / / / /
:B / / / /
:7 / / / /
:: / / / /
:; / / / /
Sample of $!o-Pair Croup ?esi3n on the "ffectiveness of $eachin3 Iiterature @sin3 $!o Conventional Methods &Control* and $!o Modern Methods
&"/perimental* to Computer Students in Re3ion >D &Western >isayas*
Students
Met#ods o Tea"#in% Lite!atu!e
Con$entional Met#ods Mode!n Met#ods
A B C +
S"o!es -6A/ S"o!es -6B/ S"o!es -6C/ S"o!es -6+/
7 / / / /
: / / / /
; / / / /
< / / / /
= / / / /
> / / / /
? / / / /
N E P a 3 e
@ / / / /
A / / / /
7B / / / /
77 / / / /
7: / / / /
7; / / / /
7< / / / /
7= / / / /
7> / / / /
7? / / / /
7@ / / / /
7A / / / /
:B / / / /
:7 / / / /
:: / / / /
:; / / / /
:< / / / /
:= / / / /
<) ,a!allel8%!oup desi%n. $his is a desi3n in !hich t!o or more 3roups are used at the same time !ith only a sin3le variable &control 3roup*
manipulated or chan3ed. $he e/perimental 3roup varies !hile the parallel 3roup serves as control for comparative purposes.
Sample of Parallel-Croup ?esi3n on the Acceptability of Canned Commercial Iiver Spread, Mil4fish 6one Meal Spread and Coatfish 6one Meal Spread.
Canned Comme!"ial Li$e! Sp!ead and Fis# Bone Meal Sp!ead
,anelists
Cont!ol G!oup E2pe!imental G!oups
Comme!"ial Mil0is# Goatis#
7 / / /
: / / /
; / / /
< / / /
= / / /
> / / /
? / / /
@ / / /
A / / /
7B / / /
77 / / /
7: / / /
7; / / /
7< / / /
7= / / /
7> / / /
7? / / /
7@ / / /
7A / / /
:B / / /
:7 / / /
:: / / /
:; / / /
:< / / /
Sample of Parallel-Croup ?esi3n on the "ffectiveness of $eachin3 Mathematics @sin3 $raditional and $!o Modern Approaches
App!oa"#es o Tea"#in% Mat#emati"s
Students
Cont!ol G!oup
T!aditional
E2pe!imental G!oups
Mode!n App!oa"#es
A B C
S"o!es -6A/ S"o!es -6B/ S"o!es -6C/
7 / / /
: / / /
; / / /
< / / /
= / / /
> / / /
? / / /
@ / / /
A / / /
7B / / /
77 / / /
7: / / /
7; / / /
7< / / /
7= / / /
7> / / /
7? / / /
7@ / / /
7A / / /
:B / / /
:7 / / /
:: / / /
:; / / /
:< / / /
:= / / /
=) Counte!4alan"ed o! Latin sCua!e desi%n. $his desi3n is also called 5rotation desi3n.5 Dt involves an e/chan3e of t!o or more treatments ta4en by
the subAects durin3 the e/periment. $he arran3ement employed in the desi3n is Iatin s=uare in !hich variable is a form of s=uare occurrin3 once in
each ro! or column. $his is also called *uasi-experimental design.
,' E P a 3 e
Sample of Counterbalanced or Iatin S=uare ?esi3n in Culturin3 Crouper @sin3 .our Supplemental .eeds to .our .ish Ca3es
Sample of Counterbalanced or Iatin S=uare ?esi3n in $eachin3 6iolo3y @sin3 .our Methods of $eachin3 by .our Professors
>) Complete RandomiDed +esi%n -CR+/. $his is a desi3n in !hich a 3roup of test plants or animals is studied only once but subse=uent treatment is
applied to determine the cause of chan3e. $here is no control in this desi3n but the subAects !ill under3o randomi;ation process.
Sample of Complete Randomi;ed ?esi3n on the Gield of Mudcrab &!cylla serrata* @sin3 6read Meal as Supplemental .eed
E Supplemental
Feed pe!
Compa!tment
Samplin%
7 : ;
, &(<* / / /
) &O<* / / /
( &1<* / / /
+ &,'<* / / /
O &,O<* / / /
?) RandomiDed Complete Blo"0 +esi%n -RCB+/. $his e/perimental desi3n uses a 3roup of test plants and animals as subAects of the study !hich
are studied once but subse=uent treatments applied are replicated to determine the cause of chan3e. $here is control in this desi3n and the
subAects !ill under3o randomi;ation process.
Sample of Randomi;ed Complete 6loc4 ?esi3n &RC6?* in Culturin3 Abalone &Baliotis asinina* in .ish Ca3es @sin3 .ish Meal, Shrimp Meal, and .ish
Sila3e as Supplemental .eeds
Supplemental
Feeds
Repli"ations
7 : ;
.ish Meal / / /
Shrimp Meal / / /
.ish Sila3e / / /
@) Co!!elational +esi%n. $his e/perimental desi3n is used to determine the relationship of t!o dependent variables, T and G, on ho! they are
manipulated by the independent variable.
Sample of Correlational ?esi3n of Culturin3 Mil4fish &5hanos chanos* on the .ishpond @sin3 .ish Sila3e as Supplemental .eed
Mil0is#
&ei%#t -6/
-%!ams/
Len%t# -Y/
-"entimete!s/
, / /
) / /
( / /
+ / /
O / /
0 / /
1 / /
Q / /
N / /
,' / /
,, / /
,) / /
,( / /
,+ / /
,O / /
A) ,!e8test8,ost8test desi%n. $his desi3n involves the e/perimental 3roup and the control 3roup !hich are carefully selected throu3h randomi;ation
procedures. 6oth 3roups are 3iven pretest at the be3innin3 of the semester and posttest at the end of the semester. 6ut the control 3roup is
isolated from all e/perimental influences.
Sample of Pre-test and Post-test ?esi3n on the "ffect of $raditional and Modern Methods of $eachin3 Mathematics
Met#od o Tea"#in%
Pre -test Post-test
Mean &T,* Mean &T)*
$raditional &Control Croup* / /
Modern &"/perimental Croup* / /
CASE STU+Y +ESIGN
A case study desi3n is a problem solvin3 techni=ue !herein the study is described from the past, present, and future. Some !riters cate3ori;e this
under the descriptive method. 6ut it is more distinct if this techni=ue is placed in another desi3n !hich is independent from the other.
,, E P a 3 e
Case study desi3n is an intensive investi3ation of a particular individual, institution, community, or any 3roup considered as a unit !hich includes
the developmental, adAustment, remedial, or corrective procedure that suitably follo!s the dia3nose of the causes of maladAustment or of favorable
development.
$his desi3n is usually applied by:
3uidance counselors
mid!ives
nurses
physicians
psycholo3ists
educators
$he case study method is not only limited to conditions of maladAustment such as behavior problem, underprivile3ed community, substandard
institutions, but also to normal or !ell-adAusted individuals, !ell-or3ani;ed communities, or school !hich aid in understandin3 the normal situation or
!ell-adAusted condition.
T#e Case o Case Stud.
Cood and Scates &,N1)* present the follo!in3 steps as cycle of case study:
,. Reco3nition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investi3ated.
). Collection of data related to the factors or circumstances associated !ith the 3iven phenomenon.
(. ?ia3nosis or identification of casual factors as basis for remedial or developmental treatment
+. Application of remedial or adAustment measures
O. Subse=uent follo!-up to determine the effectiveness of the corrective or developmental measures applied.
SAM,LING +ESIGNS
Samplin3 is applicable if the population of the study is too lar3e especially the 1Ms 9 manpo!er, money, materials, machinery, methods, moment,
and mar4etin3 of the researcher 9 are limited. Dt is advanta3eous for him to use sample survey for it is economical rather than total population.
Bo!ever, the use of total population is advisable if the number of subAects is less than ,''. Df the population is e=ual to or more than ,'', it is
advisable to 3et the sample in order to be effective, efficient and economical in 3atherin3 data, provided ho!ever, that the sample is a representative
cross-section of the population and is scientifically selected.
Sampling may be defined as the method of 3ettin3 a representative portion of a population. $he term, population, is:
$he a33re3ate or total of obAects
Persons
.amilies
Species
Prders of plants or animals
T#e Ad$anta%es o Samplin%
$he advanta3es of samplin3 are as follo!s:
,. Dt saves time, money, and effort.
). Dt is more effective.
(. Dt is faster, cheaper, and economical.
+. Dt is more accurate.
O. Dt 3ives more comprehensive information.
+isad$anta%es o Samplin%
Df samplin3 desi3n has stren3th, it also has its !ea4nesses. $he disadvanta3es of samplin3 are as follo!s:
,. Sample data involve more care in preparin3 detailed subclassification due to small number of subAects.
). Df the samplin3 plan is not correctly desi3ned and follo!ed, the results may be misleadin3.
(. Samplin3 re=uires an e/pert to conduct the study in an area. Df this is lac4in3, the results can be erroneous.
+. $he characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population, for instance, teachers over (' years of teachin3 e/perience or teachers
!ith outstandin3 performance.
O. Complicated samplin3 plans are laborious to prepare.
T9o Finds o Samplin%
1. S"ientii" Samplin% 9 each member in the population is 3iven an e=ual chance of e=ual bein3 included in the sample.
2. Non8s"ientii" Samplin% 9 not all of the members in the population are 3iven an e=ual chance of bein3 included in the sample.
SCIENTIFIC SAM,LING
,. Restricted Random Samplin3
). @nrestricted Random Samplin3
(. Stratified Random Samplin3
+. Systematic Samplin3
O. Multista3e Samplin3
0. Cluster Samplin3
7) Rest!i"ted Random Samplin% 9 $his type of samplin3 desi3n involves certain restrictions intended to improve the validity of the sample. Bo!ever,
this desi3n is applicable only !hen the population bein3 investi3ated is homo3eneous 1all the same' uniform2. Restricted random samples dra!n
from homo3eneous population are li4ely to arrive at accurate values of the population characteristics.
:) Un!est!i"ted Random Samplin% 9 $his is the best random samplin3 desi3n due to no restrictions imposed, and every member in the population
has an e=ual chance of inclusion 1addition' enclosure2 in the sample.
;) St!atiied Random Samplin% 9 $his type of desi3n divides first the population into t!o or more strata. .or each stratum, the sample items are
dra!n at random.
,) E P a 3 e
<) S.stemati" Samplin% 9 Dn this type of desi3n, the individuals in the population are arran3ed in a methodical manner, for instance, alphabetical or
chronolo3ical &a3e, e/perience or academic ran4*, and the nth name may be selected in the construction of the sample.
=) Multista%e Samplin% 9 $his desi3n is done in several sta3es. Dt can be t!o-sta3e, three-sta3e, four-sta3e, five-sta3e, and many others dependin3
on the number of samplin3 to be used. Dn this desi3n, the population individuals are 3rouped into a hierarchy of units, and samplin3 is done
consecutively.
>) Cluste! Samplin% 9 Dn this type of scientific samplin3 desi3n, the population is 3rouped into clusters 1come together' bunch' and group2 or small
units.
NONSCIENTIFIC SAM,LING
Dn scientific samplin3 not all of the individuals in a population are 3iven e=ual chance of bein3 included as sample, hence subAectivity occurs.
$here are three types of nonscientific samplin3:
,. Purposive Samplin3
). Dncidental Samplin3
(. 8uota Samplin3
7) ,u!posi$e Samplin% 9 $his type of nonscientific samplin3 is based on selectin3 the individuals as samples accordin3 to the purposes of the
researcher as his controls. An individual is selected as part of the sample due to 3ood evidence that he is a representative of the total population.
Cenerally spea4in3, statisticians do not use this type of samplin3 desi3n because not all of the individuals are 3iven e=ual chance to be
included in the sample since the criteria are based on the purposes of the investi3ator.
:) In"idental Samplin% 9 $his type of samplin3 desi3n is 2applied to those samples !hich are ta4en because they are the most available.5 &Cuilford
and .ruchter, ,N1(*. $he investi3ator simply ta4es the nearest individuals as subAect of the study until the sample reaches the desired si;e.
;) (uota Samplin% 9 $his type of desi3n is popular in the field of opinion research because it is done by merely loo4in3 for individuals !ith the
re=uisite characteristics. $he samplin3 techni=ue is usually prepared by the main office !ith instructions to the field researchers to 3ather data from
samples that meet the prescribed criteria or characteristics.
Ree!en"e
Paler-Calmorin, Iaurentina and Calmorin, Melchor A. %esearch ethods and Thesis 7riting. Second "dition. Re/ 6oo4 Store, Dnc., )''1.
,( E P a 3 e