Chapter 1

American Revolution (1775-83)

The American Revolution is the single most important event in American history. Not only did
it create the United States, but it defined most of the persistent values and aspirations of the
American people. The noblest ideals of Americans the commitments to freedom, equality,
constitutionalism, and the well being of ordinary people came out of the Revolutionary era.
The Revolution gave Americans the consciousness that they were a people with a special destiny
to lead the world toward liberty.
Gordon Wood
Europe and America
The impact of Renaissance and Reformation movements in sixteenth Century in Europe galvanized the
spirit of individual independence and made people more adventurous. Long standing beliefs were tested
and the acceptance of challenging long held beliefs became acceptable. The decline of feudalism in
Europe during this period had far reaching consequences in the economic, political and cultural fabric of
European society. Both political and economic developments of this period stimulated people at Europe
to explore and conquer new countries.
The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration, was a period starting in the early 15
th

century and continuing to the 17
th
century during which Europeans explored Africa, the Americas, Asia
and Oceania. America was discovered and colonized by Europeans during this period.
Discovery of America: The New World
The period between sixteen and eighteenth century is characterized as a time when European Nations
began exploring the world by sea in search of trading partners, new goods, and new trade routes. The
main reason for exploring the new routes by sea was the fact that the Turks, the arch rivals of Europeans,
had conquered Constantinople and the eastern Mediterranean, and controlled the land routes to Asia.
This not only blocked the route to Asia but also blocked access to North Africa and the Red Sea -- two
very important trade routes to the Far East. Therefore a new sea route was needed which could act as a
viable trading channel with Asia.
In addition, some explorers set sail to simply learn more about the world. Whatever their reasons though,
the information gained during the Age of Exploration significantly helped in the advancement of
geographic knowledge. The European countries during this period were also in the pursuit of larger
empire, find spices and other riches, and expand Christianity.
During this Age of Discovery were the renowned voyages of Christopher Columbus financed by the king
of Spain. These voyages started as an endeavor to unearth a trade route to Asia by sailing west to find
the shortcut to the Indies. Columbus and his crew reached the island of Hispaniola after three months in
the Atlantic Ocean. Although Columbus believed he had reached Asia, he had actually discovered the
entire continent of North America. Thus A New World was discovered by Columbus although accidently!
In 1500 Amerigo Vespucci was successful in preparing the maps of Atlantic Ocean and Asia which
proved very useful both for the trade and navigation purposes. His efforts were really of great significance
for the western world.

Colonization of Americas
The Colonization of America was made possible by the voyages and discoveries of the early explorers
who came from the great sea-faring nations of Europe. During the sixteenth century (1500's) the work of
the Colonization of America was left almost entirely to Spain. Their program of colonization was
concentrated on South America but the Spanish also explored the regions of New Mexico and Texas and
had established the Spanish colony of St. Augustine, in Florida
As the Spanish empire grew, explorers forced native populations into slavery and to convert to
Christianity. Soon the other competing European Nations started the colonization of North America.
France claimed of much of Canada and the north Atlantic coast. England too established its first
settlement in the New World at Roanoke Island, North Carolina. Soon England and France became the
major contesting colonial powers in America as the Spains days of greatness were gone. The
Colonization of South America also had a significant presence from the Portuguese.
Columbian Exchange
The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange. The potato,
the pineapple, the turkey, dahlias, sunflowers, magnolias, maize, chilies, and chocolate went
East across the Atlantic Ocean. Smallpox and measles but also the horse and the gun traveled
west.
There were a few diseases which were introduced by Europeans and were very new to the
people of New World. Some of these diseases took the form of epidemics and proved
detrimental for the local population.
13 British Colonies
There were Thirteen British Colonies in America on the Atlantic coast of North America founded between
1607 (Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). These were Delaware, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia,
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Hampshire, New York, and
Rhode Island. These were the colonies later rebelled against the colonial rule of Britain and came to be
known as United States of America.
A large number of immigrants from Europe in general and Britain in particular settled in these colonies.
Apart from Britain, France, Germans, Scotland and Ireland also swelled the population of these colonies.
The population of settlers in these colonies had grown from a few thousands in early 17
th
century to about
2 millions by 1760. Along with the increase in population, the westward expansion of these colonies was
also the hallmark of this period. They have extended their territories inland to between 240 and 320
kilometers from eastern coastline. This frontier moved continually westwards over the 19th century
creating a society which was more democratic and American than it had been during British colonial rule.
Boston with a population of 15000 and Philadelphia with a population of 20000 become the emerging
centers during that period.
A commercial revolution which commenced in the middle eighteenth century led to a considerable
expansion in American imports and exports. The value of imports from Britain rose from less than a
million pounds in 1747 to nearly 4.5 million pounds by 1772. The process of commercial change which
was mainly because of expansion in internal trade and use of paper money enabled people of "middling
rank" to break away from traditional patron-client relationships. The religious revival known as the Great
Awakening also weakened traditional authority and the position of the gentry and the established
Anglican clergy. The existence of American philosophical society including several other institutions of
higher education, including Harvard and Yale was testimonial of the fact that the intellectual life was
thriving.







Political condition of America on the eve of the
revolution
There was a stark difference between the political conditions prevailing in Europe and in America. The
higher strata of society in colonial America wielded much less economic and political power vis-a-vis
Britain. On the other hand the majority of American farmers owned their own land unlike in Britain which
had a majority of marginal tenants and landless agricultural workers.
Two-thirds of the white colonial population owned land in America while only one-fifth of the population
owned land in Britain. The relative weakness of the aristocracy, the existence of a large body of land
owning farmers, the absence of a large indigenous population and the possibility of acquiring land by
westward movement imparted a strong republican flavor to the politics of the 18
th
century America.
The British legacy of parliamentary politics and constitutional monarchy inspired the American Revolution
to a great extent. Since a huge chunk of European settlers in these 13 colonies were from Britain they
were already exposed to parliamentary politics of their home land. The settlers were independent minded
and intrepid.
Much political power had been delegated to America from Britain in these colonies. In all the colonies
people voted for the representatives to make up popular institutions like legislative assemblies. These
institutions pass laws on taxation, defense etc. There was an arrangement for military governor in all the
colonies, except five. The governor was the representative of British monarch had extensive powers like
such as making appointments and vetoing laws and ruled the country with the iron hand. Thus unlike in
the other colonies of Britain in Asia and Africa, where it took decades for the indigenous people to get
inspired by the modern ideologies like limited government, parliamentary politics and constitutional
monarchy the stage was already set in the case of America.
Apart from Britain the people who went to America were Germans, Swiss, Dutchmen, Scotsmen and
Irishmen. Some of them even did not speak English and had their own interests in trade and agriculture.
Their social systems were even different from those of Englishmen living in England. They were mostly
criminals and had been exiled for political offences.
Rivalry between the colonial powers
The two great European powers of the time i.e. Britain and France were arch rivals in America, Asia and
Africa in order to extend their political influence and make new colonies. The conflict evolved into a series
of maritime wars between two European powers as they sought to expand their own empires at the
expense of the others. These conflicts came to have a big impact on how English and French spread
around the world.
From the 1650s, the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers. The 13
colonies of Britain in America from north and west were surrounded by the French colonies. The French
had settled in the province of Canada to the North, and controlled Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, the
wealthiest colony in the world.
In the early 1750s, French expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought France into armed
conflict with the British colonies. This culminated into Seven Year War (1756-63) between the two
European powers. It is also known as French India War in Northern America. The name refers to the two
main enemies of the British colonists: the royal French forces and the various Indigenous forces allied
with them.
Apart from Britain and France, their respective allies and colonies in Europe, Asia and America got
involved in this war. The war escalated from a regional affair into a world-wide conflict for example in India
the hostilities was manifested in the form of Carnatic War wherein the English and French companies and
their regional allies in India got involved.
In the Seven Year War, the French forces got the support of the native tribes of America; on the other
hand the 13 colonies sided with Britain. Representatives of the colonies met at Albany Congress in 1754
and advocated for a union of the British colonies in North America for their security and defense against
the French. The Albany Congress also an adopted proposal of Benjamin Franklin to establish a colonial
union. George Washington the first President of United States played a dynamic role in this war.
Washington never gained the commission in the British army but he gained valuable military, political, and
leadership skills. After Seven Years War George Washington had become the first in war, first in peace
and first in the hearts of his countrymen.
Causes of American Revolution
Basic contradiction: The most significant cause the American Revolution was the basic
contradiction between the interests of the metropolis and the colony. The colonial powers have all along
been responsible for this, as these continued to exploit their colonies much to the annoyance and
displeasure of their people. Apart from this the political awakening has been gradually coming in every
part of the world. This is what happened in America as well.
Britain adopted mercantilist policies in colonial America which were designed to promote British economic
interests mainly in the form of a favorable balance of trade. Various Navigation Acts of 165 1, 1660 and
1663 ensured that trade was carried only in British or colonial ships; that most European goods had to
pass through Britain before entering the American colonies; that certain goods like tobacco and rice
declared enumerated goods could be shipped only in Britain; that bounties would be paid for the
production of certain enumerated goods to promote British economic self-sufficiency. Moreover colonies
were not allowed to export manufactured goods under various Acts effecting wool and woolen textiles in
1699, the hat industry in 1732 and iron products in 1750.
Geographical constraints: The distance of the colonies from Great Britain created an
independence that was hard to overcome. Those willing to colonize the new world generally had a strong
independent streak desiring new opportunities and more freedom.
Political factors: British government usually deployed Governors in American colonies. These
governors ruled these colonies with an iron hand and took many tyrannical measures without caring for
the sentiments of the people. This was bound to repel and because of their repressive policies, the
people became both repulsive and revengeful. Grenville, the then Prime Minister passed the Navigation
and the Molasses Acts imposing several limitations on the colonies. He wanted that the colonies should
also contribute some money for their protection but this policy very much offended the colonies. This
British government perhaps did not realize the gravity of the situation and continued with the taxes. This
resulted in great resentment in America.
On the other hand the 13 colonies of Britain in America were much advanced in terms of political
ideologies and institutions vis--vis their Asian and African counterparts. The existence of colonial
legislatures enjoyed many powers and were in many ways independent of the crown. The legislatures
were elected institution and had the legitimate power to levy taxes, muster troops, and pass laws. Over
time, these powers became rights in the eyes of many colonists. When they were curtailed by the British,
conflict ensued.
European settlers in America were inspired by the ideas related to the Enlightenment. Many of the
revolutionary leaders of these colonies were inspired by the writings and ideas thinkers like Thomas
Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the Baron de Montesquieu. From these writings, the
founders gleaned the concepts of the social contract, limited government, the consent of the governed,
and separation of powers.
During the Seven Years War, England had conquered the eastern parts of the rivers, Ohio and
Mississippi. But after the war was over (1763) and peace restored, the people of these colonies wanted
status quo ante. But England wanted to retain these places as was prize. In order to implement this
decision she began to plan to have an effective control over the territories lying east of the Ohio and the
Mississippi rivers. This area became a bone of contention between the colonists and England and proved
another cause responsible for Revolution.
Prior to the defeat of France in the Seven Year War, the settlers in America were engulfed by the French
possessions in America also called New France. These 13 colonies were under the invariable threat of
French invasion from northern and western parts. Thus they were dependent on the British support
against the imperial France. Nonetheless after the Seven Year War the fear of French invasion passed
into the oblivion and so was the dependency on Britain.
Economic factors: Britain won the Seven Year War, but her engagement in the war proved
extremely detrimental in the financial context. By 1763 the British government had an extreme shortage of
money. British government wanted that the people of the colonies should raise huge amounts to write off
the debts and expenses of Seven Years War. For this the argument advanced was that the war was
fought on behalf of the colonies. The colonies were not prepared to bear this financial burden, whereas
the British government was bent up collecting these funds.
Religious factors: The majority of the English people believed in Anglican Church of England
whereas the people in American colonies followed Puritanism. There were thus clear religious differences
between the two.
Ideological factors: The ideological movement known as the American Enlightenment was a critical
precursor to the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the
concepts of liberalism, republicanism and fear of corruption. Collectively, the acceptance of these
concepts by a growing number of American colonists began to foster an intellectual environment which
would lead to a new sense of political and social identity.
The eighteenth century Enlightenment produced ideas which undermined traditional beliefs and social
relationships in a variety of ways. By adopting enlightenment ideas the ruling elites and those in authority
undermined their own authority whether as rulers magistrates, masters and fathers. A revolution against
patriarchy took place simultaneously with a general growth of republican ideas. With the growth of
commercialization in the 18th century contracts which had been based on patriarchal relationships
between husbands and wives or masters and apprentices in an earlier period were replaced by contracts
which were positive bargains between two equal parties representing specific transactions rather than
social relationships. The widespread adoption of the language of modem legal contractualism made it
easier for the American colonists to break with the mother country and the patriarchal authority of the
British king.
The Course of Events
No taxation without representation
The British Parliament controlled colonial trade and implemented the taxing of imports and exports since
1660. The colonist objected the right of British Parliament to impose taxes on the American colonies. The
logic behind this objection had its basis in the English Revolution of 17
th
century. In the 17
th
century in
Britain, the Parliament (House of Commons) became gradually powerful institution and objected the
legitimacy of those Acts passed by Kings related to the taxation in which the consent of Parliament was
not taken. The champions of Parliamentary politics in England were of the view that since Parliament
was elected body and the representative of the people so it should have the exclusive rights related to
taxation. The colonists were of the view that since British parliament did not have representation of
American colonies, principally it should not make the taxation laws for them. By making the taxation laws
for the American colonies, the British Parliament is actually defying the principles and legacy on which it
itself rests.
American colonist came up with the slogan of No taxation without representation. According to the
revolutionaries the lack of representation in the British Parliament was a clearly a violation of the rights of
the colonists. Thus, taxation and all other laws that affected the colonists directly and indirectly were not
constitutional at all. During the American Revolution, there were only a few British citizens that were
represented and they were not even a part of the colonies. The phrase summarizes the sentiments that
caused the English Civil War, as told by John Hampden.
The British, on the other hand, supported the concept of virtual representation, which was based on the
belief that a Member of Parliament virtually represented every person in the empire and there was no
need for a specific representative from Virginia or Massachusetts etc.
The following were the taxation laws which were opposed by the colonists:
S.No
Name of the
Law
Year Details
1 Navigation Acts 1651
A series of Acts that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between
England and its colonies.
2 Molasses Act 1733
Forcing the colonists to buy the more expensive sugar from the British West
Indies instead.
3 Currency Act 1751, 1764 Restricted the emission of paper money by the colonies of North America
4 Stamps Act 1765
Act required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on
stamped paper produced in London
5 Townshend Acts 1767
To raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so
that they would be independent of colonial rule
6 Tea Act 1773
To reduce the massive surplus of tea held by the financially troubled British
East India Company in its London warehouses
The annoyance of the Americans at the imposition of import duties became so alarming by 1773 that Lord
North compelled the Parliament to pass an Act repealing all duties except that on tea. This duty, which
was calculated to bring in little more than three hundred pounds a year. It was retained merely to assert
the right of England to tax its colonies.
Thus it was the principles of taxation which was involved in the import duties and not the actual amount
which would come to the treasury. This was very much objected by the people of America. The resistance
of tax gradually changed into open defiance and lawlessness.
In 1773, Lord North bargained with the East India Company to carry a large quantity of tea to Boston. On
its arrival in the harbor of the town a number of America youths, disguised as Indians boarder the tea
ships broke open the tea cheats and poured tea into the sea. This is known as Boston Tea Party. At this
time the representatives of Massachusetts collected at Concord against the orders of the British
Government.
The outrage perpetrated by the American youths was intolerable for England. This was taken as an
unpardonable offence and thus the British government was roused to take strong action against the
Americans accordingly the following two Acts were passed as the punitive measures. These Acts are also
popularly known as Intolerable Acts. The Acts passed were as:
1. Boston Part Act: By this the port was ordered to be closed. All its trade was transferred to the port of
the New Salem which was quite in the neighborhood. This was a punitive measure to punish the
colonies for their annoyance to the Government at what had happened at Boston.
2. Massachusetts Government Act: According to this Act, Massachusetts was deprived of the right
of electing representatives to all in the Assembly. The Act annulled the old charter of the colony.
Public liberties like holding meetings etc were curtailed. The American rioters were to be tried in
England and not in America.
General Congress at Philadelphia
The punitive Acts or the Intolerable Acts, as mentioned above, seriously terrified the colonies and they
had an authentic fear that the other colonies might as well face the same fate. A Congress was convened
by the colonies (also known as General Congress at Philadelphia) to decide the future course of action.
Congress issued by a Declaration of Rights and declared that the recent Acts passed by the British
Government were an infringement of their basic rights. The Congress also accepted a declaration
forbidding the import of goods from England until the grievances of the Colonies were redressed.
Revolutionary War
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775 and they declared themselves
the government. They also named George Washington Commander in Chief of the newly organized
Continental Army. The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and other troops that
remained under control of the individual states.

After repeated pleas to the British monarchy for intervention with Parliament, any chance of a
compromise ended when the Congress were declared traitors by royal decree, and they responded
by declaring the independence of a new sovereign nation, the United States of America, on July 4,
1776.On July 4th, 1776, Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence.
Skirmishes between British troops and colonial militiamen in Lexington and Concord in April 1775 kicked
off the armed conflict, and by the following summer, the rebels were waging a full-scale war for their
independence.
France entered the American Revolution on the side of the colonists in 1778, turning what had essentially
been a civil war into an international conflict. France bitterly resented its loss on the Seven Years War
and sought revenge; it also wanted to keep Britain from becoming too powerful. French ruler saw the
revolution as an opportunity to strip Britain of their North American possessions in retaliation for France's
loss of Canada a decade before. French money, munitions, soldiers and naval forces proved essential to
America's victory over the Britain.
The Declaration of Independence
We hold these truths to be self evident; that all men are created equal; that they are
endowed by the Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and
the pursuit of happiness.
These united colonies are and ought to be independent; they are absolved from all allegiance
to the British Crown; and all political connections between them and the State of Great
Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved.
The following were the important battles fought during this period:
S.No Name of the Battle Year Results
1 Battle of Lexington April 1775 American victory
2 Battle of Bunker Hill June 1775 British victory
3 Battle of Long Island August 1776 British victory
4 Battle of Harlem Heights Sept. 1776 American victory
5 Battle of Saratoga October 1777 American Victory
6 Battle of Monmouth June 1778 No result
7 Battle of the Chesapeake Sept. 1781 French Naval victory
8 Battle of Yorktown October 1781 Franco-American victory
A French naval victory just outside Chesapeake Bay led to a siege by combined French and Continental
armies that forced a second British army to surrender at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781. Fighting continued
throughout 1782, while peace negotiations began..

The factions in the American Revolution
People of 13 British Colonies in America were not a homogeneous group. During the American
Revolution they were divided into following categories:
Patriots: Popularly known as "Patriots", "Whigs", "Congress-men", or "Americans". They
belong to different socio-economic status and classes but the commonality among them was that
they wanted to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in
terms of rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue on the part of the
citizens.
Loyalists: "Loyalists", "Tories", or "King's men" were typically older, less willing to break with
old loyalties, often connected to the Church of England, and included many established
merchants with strong business connections across the Empire, as well as royal officials
Neutrals: A minority of American population tried to stay nonaligned in the war. They came to
known as Neutrals




Significance of American Revolution
The American Revolution proved to be important not only for the 13 colonies which gained freedom from
Britain, but it also propagated the modern ideas of liberty, equality and republicanism in European nations
and their colonies. The impact of Revolution was not just confined to the political life and related
institutions but it explicitly and/or implicitly shaped the socio-economic dynamics of the society as well.
Political
All the 13 colonies in North America freed themselves from the yoke of the Britain. For the first time in the
history of mankind a written Constitution came into force which explicitly talked about equality and rights.
Americans succeeded in establishing themselves as an independent country. In due course of time they
grew strong and had deep influence on the social, political and intellectual life of people everywhere. The
world civilization was considerably effected and politically balance of power changed which effected world
politics.
Revolution led to the growth of mass participation in politics and the emergence of the free market based
on the ideals of economic development and political equality. American Revolution gave a big blow to
monarchical society and aristocratic privileges.
The loss of American colonies shaped the colonial policy of England. By this defeat
England learnt that if old colonial policy was continued, she might lose other colonies in the same way
too. As a result England came to follow liberal policy towards her colonies. Thus the new policy of
England amply compensated the loss of American colonies. England now gave economic and political
independence to the colonies to a large extent and ensure that grievances of these people were
redressed and removed without loss of time and to their satisfaction.
Economic
American Revolution gave the impetus to the policy of liberalism and free trade. It was realized that the
principles of free trade and commercial monopoly were opposed to each other. The erstwhile
conservative policy of denial of economic independence to colonies was considerably relaxed. The policy
of economic interference was relaxed.
Social
American Revolution not only ended feudal forms of land tenure but supported more enlightened attitude
towards the family. After the Revolution the patriarchal control of men over their wives declined, the latter
gaining the right to hold property separately and to make contracts and do business in the absence of
their husbands.
The equal rights of widows and daughters were recognized in matters concerning inheritance and
possession of property. Prior to the War they had no rights except to raise families, but they did gain little
rights afterwards. Women now gained the power to be able to divorce their husbands if they chose to,
something they never could've done before. However, this power was only available in certain colonies
and the woman would lose most of her property to the man.