CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDIES

DAIRY TECHNOLOGY DIVISION

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
KARNAL -132001







FEBRUARY 5 - MARCH 6, 2002















Lecture Compendium














The Fourteenth Short Course







Organised under the aegis of

Centre of Advanced Studies
in Dairy Technology






February 5 March 6, 2002










Advances in Fat-Rich Dairy Products
Dairy Technology Division
National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR)
Karnal -132 001


Head, Dairy Technology Division
& Director, CAS (DT)

Dr. G.R. Patil



Course Coordinator
Dr. B.B. Verma


















Editing & Compilation

Dr. A.A. Patel
Dr. V.K. Gupta
Dr. Sudhir Singh
Mr. A.K. Singh





Cover Design & Page Layout

Dr. B.B. Verma
R.B. Verma
Mr. Aniruddha Kumar






ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

No part of this lecture compendium may be reproduced or use
in any form without the written permission of the Director,
NDRI, Karnal


FOREWORD

Dairy Technology Division of this Institute, under the Centre of Advanced Studies Programme, has done
a very commendable service to the State Agricultural Universities and ICAR Institutes by offering thirteen short
courses for training their academic staff. Through these efforts a large number of the teaching faculties of the
SAUs and Research Scientists engaged in the National Agricultural Research System have been exposed to the
latest developments in the field of Dairy Technology. In this manner, the Dairy Technology Division has fulfilled
the task assigned by the Education Division of the ICAR for dissemination of the expertise available at various
departments of the National and International repute. The Centre of Advanced Studies is now ready to offer 14
th

short course of 30 days duration entitled Advances in Fat Rich Dairy Products. The course intends to provide
insight and awareness to the teachers involved in teaching the UG/PG students about the advancements in the
field so that they can transmit the new knowledge to their students. A phenomenal growth of the dairy industry
has taken place since 1971 with an annual increase of 4-7 % in milk production, as a result of which India has
become the largest producer of milk in the world. The increasing milk production, though has boosted the
confidence of our planners, dairy/animal R & D workers, milk producers and dairy entrepreneurs and has offered
lot of opportunities, but at times, the problem of handling surplus milk needs to be ably tackled. Indian dairy
industry, over the years, has been converting surplus milk for the manufacture of fat rich dairy products,
especially ghee and butter, and skim milk powder because of several environmental, technological and
economical reasons. More than one third of the total milk production is being utilized for the production of ghee
and butter where in milk lipids the most expensive constituents of milk are concentrated and preserved. Milk
lipids play many diverse roles, some of which are essential for human health. Many of the desirable flavour and
textural attributes of dairy products are due to their lipid components, consequently, butter fat has, traditionally,
been highly valued. Significance of fat can also be realized from the fact that the consumers perception of food
quality is largely based on the percievable rich taste. Unfortunately, milk lipids are subject to chemical and
enzymatic alterations which can cause flavour defects referred to as oxidative and hydrolylic rancidity,
respectively. The storage stability of high fat products are strongly influenced by these changes. High proportion
of saturated fatty acids in butterfat has been the subject of controversies in recent years, particularly in their
possible role in aggravating coronary heart diseases.

Considerable progress has been made in different areas of fat-rich dairy products, such as development of
continuous ghee and butter making equipment, fractionation of butter fat for different uses, milk fat spreads,
nutritive health aspects of butterfat, microstructure and preservation of fat rich dairy products. All these and other
related basic aspects have been effectively discussed in the lecture compendium by the subject experts. It is
hoped that the compendium so ably brought out by the course organizers will serve as a reference work of
immense importance to the participants of the course.




(B.N. MATHUR)
DIRECTOR
















ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


We express our gratefulness to the ICAR for having recognized the Dairy Technology Division of this
Institute as a Centre of Advanced Studies based on the excellent performance in the VIII Plan and subsequent
renewal of the programme during the IX Plan period. I express my gratitude to Dr. (Mrs.) Tej Verma, DDG
(Education) and Dr. H.S. Nainawate, ADG (HRD-II), ICAR, New Delhi for taking keen interest in this
programme and timely release of funds.

I am grateful to Dr. B.N. Mathur, our Director who has always taken keen interest in all the activities by
the Division and encouraged me to perform to the expectations of the ICAR and NDRI, in addition to providing
all the infrastructural facilities for the smooth and successful conduct of this course.

For this short course on Advances in Fat Rich Dairy Products we are thankful to the guest speakers from
Dairy Industry, State Agricultural Universities and the ICAR Institutes who contributed the lectures in time and
travelled in all the way to Karnal in such a cold weather to share their valuable expertise with the participants. I
must convey my special thanks to our faculty for timely submission of lectures and for actively participating in
conduct of theory and practical classes. The faculty of other division particularly, Dairy Chemistry, Dairy
Microbiology Division, Computer Centre, Dairy Engineering needs special mention for helping us in this
endeavour.

Successful conduct of any programme requires the efforts of a team of active workers. Though all the
staff of D.T. Division, Scientists, Technical Officers and other staff contributed in one way or other for the
conduct of this course, special appreciation needs to be made for Dr. B.B. Verma, Senior Scientist and Course Co-
ordinator, Dr. A.A. Patel, Dr. S.K. Kanawjia, Dr. Dharam Pal, Sh. F.C. Garg, Dr. Sunil Sachdeva, Dr. R.S. Mann,
Dr. Sudhir Singh, Sh. A. K. Singh, Sh. Aniruddha Kumar, Mr. R.B. Verma and Mr. Tanveer Alam for their help
in preparation of the compendium, purchase of the material required for the course and arranging boarding and
lodging of the participants. The help rendered by Mr. Lakhvinder Singh for word processing and logistic support
during the course is sincerely acknowledged. I am thankful Mr. A.K. Sharma, Dairy Supdtt. and all technical staff
of Exp. Dairy and Library for helping us in smooth conduct of practical training of the participants.






(G.R. PATIL)
Head, Dairy Technology Division
and Director, CAS(DT)


















Committees for organisation of the short course




Organising Committee


Dr. G.R. Patil Course Director
Dr. A.A. Patel Member
Dr. R.S. Mann Member
Dr. S.K. Kanawjia Member
Dr. Dharam Pal Member
Dr. B.B. Verma Course Coordinator





Receiption Committee Technical Committee

Dr. S.K. Kanawjia Chairman Dr. A.A. Patel Chairman
Dr. D.K. Sharma Member Dr. V.K. Gupta Member
Dr. D.K. Thompkinson Member Dr. Sudhir Singh Member
Dr. (Mrs.) Latha Sabikhi Member Dr. R.R.B. Singh Member
Mr. A.K. Singh Member






Hospitality Committee Purchase Committee

Dr. R.S. Mann Chairman Dr. Abhay Kumar Chairman
Dr. G.K. Goyal Member Dr. Dharam Pal Member
Dr. C.N. Pagote Member Mr. F.C. Garg Member
Dr. Sunil Sachdeva Member























1 Status of fat-rich dairy products Dr. G.R. Patil 1
2 Chemical characteristics of cow and
buffalo milk fats
Dr. B.S. Bector 6
3 Physical characteristics of milk fat Dr. A. A. Patel 12
4 Developments in cream separator Prof. I.K. Sawhney 18
5 Cream and consumer cream products Dr. C. N. Pagote 22
6 Developments in preservation of cream Dr. R. R. B. Singh 30
7 Technology of butter manufacture-
conventional process
Dr. B.B. Verma 38
8 Developments in continuous butter making Dr. Abhay Kumar 46
9 Additives in fat rich dairy products Dr. Sudhir Singh 51
10 Biotechnological developments in
enhancement of butter flavour
Dr. R. K. Malik &
Naresh Kumar
56
11 Imitation butter and related products Mr. A.K. Singh 62
12 Rheology of butter-technical considerations
and measurements
Dr. G. R.Patil

69
13 Dairy spreads Dr. P.S. Prajapati 76
14 Application of electron microscopy in fat
rich dairy products
Dr. D.N. Prasad &
Dr. S.K.Tomar
87
15 Anhydrous milk fat-butter oil F.C. Garg 92
16 Milk fat fractionation Dr. T. Rai 96
17 Properties and utilization of fractionated
milk fat
Dr. Sumit Arora 101
18 Application of fat modification techniques
for improving the usability of milk fat
Dr. D.K. Sharma 110
19 Alternative sources of milk fat for
recombined milk
Dr. B. D. Tiwari

117
20 Industrial practices in production and Dr. Dharam Pal 121
CONTENTS


preservation of ghee
21 Developments in continuous ghee making Dr. A.K. Dodeja 128
22 Regional preferences for flavour of ghee
and methods for simulation
Dr. G. S. Rajorhia 134
23 Utilization of sour/curdled milk for ghee
making
Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta 138
24 Developments in the packaging of butter
and ghee
Dr. G.K. Goyal 144
25 Ghee flavour and its simulation-a review Dr. (Mrs.) B.K. Wadhwa 149
26 Quality evaluation of butter and ghee Dr. Sunil Sachdeva 153
27 Fat constants- basic principle, their
determination and significance in quality
control of ghee
Prof. K.L. Arora 158
28 Cholesterol and its management:
facts and figments
Dr. (Ms) Latha Sabikhi

166
29 Rancidity in fat rich dairy products and its
prevention
Dr. D.K. Sharma 173
30 Renovation of oxidised butter fat Dr. M.P. Bindal 179
31 Recent trends in detection of adulterants in
milk fat
Dr. Dharshan Lal 183
32 Medicinal value of ghee Dr. S. K. Kanawjia 192
33 Nutritional attributes of milk fat Dr. Vinod K. Kansal 202
34 Fat-rich dairy powders Dr. Sitaram Prasad 208
35 Developments in processing and utilization
of ghee-residue
Dr. B.B.Verma 214
36 Application of systat statistical software
packages to dairy research
Dr. D.K.Jain & Adesh K.
Sharma
219
37 Multimedia presentation: a modern
technique for effective teaching
Adesh K. Sharma 233
38 Search techniques for printed and
online
information sources for dairy research
Y.K. Sharma and B.P. Singh

240










LIST OF PARTICIPANTS


1. Mr. S.H. Qureshi
Asstt. Professor
Deptt. Of Dairy & Food Technology
Maharana Pratap University of Agrilculture
& Technology
Udaipur-313001 (Rajasthan)


2. Dr. (Mrs.) Manorama
Sr. Asstt. Professor
College of Dairy Technology
I.G.K.V., Krishak Nagar
Raipur-492012

3. Mr. Kamble Dinkar Keshav
Asstt. Prof.
Deptt. Of Animal & Dairy Science
College of Agriculture
Kolhapur-416004

4. Mr. Awatirak Manik Ganogi
Astt. Prof.
Deptt. Of Animal Husbandry & Dairying
College of Agriculture, Ambajogai
Distt. Beed-431517

5. Dr. Mukesh Jaghubhai Solankey
Assc. Prof.
Dairy Technology Deptt.
SMC College of Dairy Science
GAU, Anand Campus
Anand-388110 (Gujarat)

6. Mr. Sunil Kumar Magaubhai Patel
Asstt. Prof.
Dairy Engineering Deptt.
SMC College of Dairy Science
GAU Anand Campus,
Anand-388110 (Gujarat)

7. Dr. Vivek Sharma
Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001


8. Dr. Jai Singh Yadav
Lecturer
Deptt. Of Animal Husbandry & Dairying
J.V. College, Baraut, Bagpat (U.P)



9. Mr. Bhagat Singh
Lecturer in Animal Husb. & Dairying
Govt. P.G. College
Sawai Madhopur-322001 (Rajasthan)

10. Dr. Rajan Sharma
Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

11. Sh. Shinde Anant Tatesaheb
Deptt. Of Animal Husbandary & Dairy Science
College of Agrilculture
Latur (Maharashtra)

12. Sh. V.K. Mairal
Asstt. Professor
Deptt. Of Animal Husbandry & Dairy Science
College of Agriculture
Latur (Maharashtra)

13. Dr. Devesh Gupta
Asstt. Prof. (A.H & Dairying)
J.V.C. Baraut
Shantipuram Gali No. 2
Nehru Road, Baraut (Baghpat) U.P

14. Mr. Charanjiv Singh
Lecturer
Deptt. Of Food Technology
SLIET, Longowal (Sangrur) Pb.

15. Dr. Shalik Gram Shukla
Sr. Lecturer
A.H. & Dairying
R.M.P. (PG) College, Narsan
Haridwar-249406

16. Dr. Pramod Kumar Omre
Jr. Research Officer
Deptt. Of Process & Food Engg.
College of Technology
Pant Nagar-263145

STATUS OF FAT-RICH DAIRY PRODUCTS
IN INDIA AND ABROAD






Dr. G.R. Patil
Head
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Milk production in India has been increased steadily during the last five years at a rate
of 4 - 4.5% annually, culminating in India surpassing the America in 1998-99 to become
world leader in milk production with 74 million tones. India has maintained its position since
then by producing 77 million tones of milk in 1999-2000. Of this, buffalo milk accounts for
roughly 52% while cow milk makes of most of the balance. About 12% of the total milk
produced in the country is processed in 567 dairy factories for conversion into milk and milk
products, valued at Rs. 69.34 crores annually. Presently, the organized dairy sector has been
penetrating more vigorously the milk and milk product market in India, which had been the
exclusive zone of the unorganized sector. Verma et al. (1999) have studied the productivity
performance of dairy industry across the country & have registered an annual growth of
17.14% for the country as a whole with highest market share of 23.49% by Maharashtra
followed by Gujarat (17.22%). They suggested that management & inputs and product mix
contribute significantly in productivity realization and efforts should be made to industry
more viable. Considering the importance given to fat and popularity of fat-rich dairy
products, these products can find place in viable product mix.

Our strength lies in the fact that we are the largest producer of buffalo milk in the
world. Buffalo milk is better suited for the manufacture of fat-rich dairy products as
compared to cow milk due to its higher fat, bigger size of globules and higher production of
solid fat leading to the higher yield, lesser low of fat in buttermilk or skim milk, easier
separation of cream or butter and better texture (Sindhu, 1996). The manufacture of fat rich
dairy products such as cream butter, ghee, butter-oil, cream powder, butter powder, butter
spreads, Malai and Makkhan from buffalo milk has been reviewed extensively by Gokhale et
al (2001). The present status of production, trade, consumption, etc. in India and abroad in
briefly discussed in this presentation.

2.0 PRODUCTION OF FAT-RICH DAIRY PRODUCTS

In 1998-99 the production of butter in India amounted to 26000 tonnes and production
of ghee was 48000 tonnes, which was lower than the production in 1997-98 (Butter: 30000
tonnes & ghee 52000 tonnes). The world butter production including anhydrous milk fat
(AMF) etc. remained stable since 1998 and this trend will continue in 2000 at 4.2 million
tones. More will be produced in United States, New Zealand and possibly Russia because
milk production is increasing in these countries. This growth, however, will be offset by
reductions in other countries and the E.V. In 1998-99, butter production remained almost the
same after a decline in previous years (Table-1)


2
Table 1: Dairy Butter Production

000 t 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
EU 15
1)
1 809.3 1 815.1 1 762.2 1687.4 1 701.2
Iceland 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5
Switzerland 41.2 39.6 39.7 40.5 34.9
Norway 20.7 19.4 24.1 22.6 22.9
Baltic States
2)
50.0 59.2 63.8 59.2 41.2
Bulgeria
1)
2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
Czech Republic 72.3 68.9 61.9 65.4 65.4
Slovakia 16.0 15.0 14.5 16.5 16.3
Slovenia 1.9 2.0 1.9 3.1 4.1
Poland 122.8 129.7 136.5 141.2 133.0
Romania 16.1 13.4 9.2 9.0
Hungary 15.7 10.8 9.4 13.0 13.8
Russia 421.0 310.0 277.0 271.0 257.4
Ukrine 161.4 116.5 79.0 76.0 72.0
Belarus 60.8 61.8 70.8 72.8
Croatia 2.4 3.0 2.6 2.4 3.7
Canada 92.5 93.2 89.7 85.9 88.6
Mexico 15.2 12.7 15.0 15.0
USA 568.8 525.9 520.7 529,8 578.4
Argentina 51.3 52.2 49.0 49.0 687.0
Brazil 85.0 85.0 90.0
Chile 6.7 6.5 9.6 11.2 141.5
Uruguay 13.0 14.5 15.0 16.4
China
3)
3.4 3.5 3.5 4.0 5.0
India
3)
26.0 36.3 33.2 31.2
India
1)
- - 80.8 82.0 74.0
Iran
3)
3.3 5.4 5.0 - -
Israel 4.2 4.2 4.7 4.7 5.0
Japan 80.3 86.3 87.2 88.9 85.3
South Africa 14.1 8.1 10.8 17.3 10.5
Australia
4)
153.1 157.8 164.2 186.9 190.1
New Zealand
1.4)
277.5 351.0 344.0 339.0 360.0

1)
Incl. Butteroil in butter equivalent.
2)
Extonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
3)
Table Butter.
4)
Dairy years ended June or May of the following

3.1 TRADE IN FAT-RICH DAIRY PRODUCTS

The international trade in dairy products is continuing to grow. The long-term growth
trend was interrupted in 1998 and 1999 by the economic crisis in many parts of the world.
These crises particularly affected emerging markets for dairy products such as south-east
Asia, Latin America or Russia. The world trade in butter is also recovering again (Table 2 &
3) with regard to future market development, it is really a question of whether the trade

3
volume in future years will continue to follow the long-term downward trend or if it will
stabilize at certain level. It is true that market access arrangements will have stabilizing
influence. New Zealand is the major exporter of butter/butter oil followed by EV & Australia
(Table-2). Russia continues to be the major importer followed by Egypt (Table-3) & Indias
trade of Fat-rich dairy products in the international market is negligible.

Table 2: World Trade in Dairy Products (Exports)

000 t 1996 1997 1998 1999* 2000*
Butter/Butteroil
World 761 875 800 725 770
EU 189 219 164 158 150
USA 21 21 11 6 2
Australia 64 100 106 117 -
New Zealand 237 314 317 277 310
Other countries 250 221 202 170 -


Table 3: World Trade in Dairy Products (Imports)

000 t 1995 1996 1997 1998* 1999*
Butter/Butteroil
World 846 761 875 800 725
EU 72 96 92 96 100
Russia 246 126 190 83 38
Poland 0 0 5 1
Algeria 22 14 10 9
Egypt 49 50 38 35
Morocco 22 28 16 16
Mexico 20 19 25 27 27
Brazil 16 10 6 6
Iran 17 27 10 10
Jordon 22 15 15 15
USA 1 5 13 27 15


4.0 CONSUMPTION AT FAT-RICH DAIRY PRODUCTS

The long-term trend of butter consumption in the major areas of production and
consumption is characterized by a slight decline. In some cases, the declining trend has been
arrested, but not generally reversed. In the European Union, the demand from private
households in continuously falling, whereas the demand from catering outlets and food
services is growing one major factor for the stabilization of butter consumption is the
subsidized disposal of butter in special schemes for utilization in bakery, confectionery, ice-
cream and other food items.

The general impression is that butter is inevitably losing its market share to the yellow
fat market. This can not be confirmed since recent developments in countries such as Poland,

4
Argentina and some other show a partial recovery (Table 4). While the per capita annual
consumption of butter in some developed countries is an high as 6-8 kg, in India it is only
1.75 (largely in the form of ghee).

Table 4: Butter Consumption

000 t Kg per capita
1997 1998 1999 1997 1998 1999
Austria 37 38 38 4.6 4.7 4.7
Belgium/Luxembourg 64 61 - 6.3 6.1
Denmark 10 10 10 2.0 2.1 1.7
Finland 37 37 - 5.8 5.9 -
France 485 490 490 8.3 8.3 8.3
Germany 578 5525 548 7.1 6.8 6.7
Greece 9 10 - 0.9 1.0 -
Ireland 14 13 12 3.5 3.5 3.2
Italy 124 133 134 2.3 2.3 2.3
Netherlands 54 51 - 3.5 3.3 -
Portugal 16 16 - 1.6 1.6 -
Spain 22 22 - 1.0 1.0 -
Sweden 59 53 51 6.7 6.0 -
UK 182 172 188 3.1 2.9 3.2
European Union 1672 1609 1593 4.5 4.3 4.2
Norway 18 18 17 4.1 4.1 3.9
Switzerland 46 46 44 6.2 6.2 6.1
Iceland 1 1 - 4.4 4.4 -
Bulgaria 3 3 - 0.3 0.3 -
Croatia 4 2 - 0.8 0.5 -
Hungary 7 8 8 0.7 0.8 0.8
Poland 133 135 138 3.4 3.5 3.6
Slovakia 14 16 16 2.5 2.9 3.0
Estonia - 2 - - 1.7 -
Latvia 5 5 5 1.9 2.0 2.2
Russia - - - - - -
Ukraine 71 64 88 1.4 1.2 1.8
Canada 78 87 87 2.6 2.9 2.8
USA 503 515 545 1.9 2.0 2.2
Argentina 43 43 59 1.2 1.2 1.6
Australia 59 60 62 3.2 3.2 3.2
New Zealand 28 28 - 7.5 7.5 -
Japan 90 83 - 0.7 0.7 -
South Africa 12 14 11 0.3 0.3 0.3


5
Table 5: Butter Prices in Selected Countries

US$/kg
1999 2000
Argentina 1.80 1.60
Australia - 1.17
Canada 4.10 4.62
Croatia 4.07 3.67
EU 3.28 3.16
Norway 3.05 2.90
Poland 2.01 2.61
USA 2.14 2.94
South Africa - 2.76
Slovakia 2.11 2.08
World market (fob Western
Europe)
1.30 1.48


5.0 PRICES OF HIGH FAT-PRODUCTS

The prices of butter in the World market has increased in 2000 to US $ 1.48/kgs. From US $
1.30 in 1999.

6.0 REFERENCES

Gokhale, A.J., Upadhyay, K.J. & Pandya, A.J. (2001). Fat-rich dairy products from buffalo milk. Indian
Dairyman 53 (3) : 17-25.
IDF (2000). World Dairy Situation 2000. IDF Bulletin No. 355.
Sindhu, J.S. (1996). Suitability of buffalo milk for products manufacture. Indian Dairyman 48: 41-47.
Verma, M.H., Agarwal, S.B., Rana, R.K. (1999). Performance of Dairy Industry. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 52 (6):
377-382.


CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COW AND
BUFFALO MILK FATS






Dr. B.S. Bector
Principal Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The bulk (>98%) of milk fat exists as tiny spherical droplets, called fat
globules, in an oil-in water emulsion. Each globule (size varies from 0.1 to 22 with an
average of 4 ) consists mostly of triglycerids but a complex mixture of other lipids such as
cholesterol, phospholipids, and traces of free fatty acids, hydrocarbons including carotenoids
and fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K are associated with it, especially at the surface. This
surface of the fat globules is coated with an absorbed layer of material commonly known as
the fat globule membrane which contains phospholipids and proteins in the form of a
complex. The phospholipids-protein complex is involved in stabilizing the emulsion of the
fat in milk and preserving the identity of individual globules. Milk lipids are found in three
distinctly different phases of milk. These are fat globules, membrane surrounding the globule
and milk serum.

Table 1. Lipids of milk

S.No. Constituent Range Location
1. Triglycerides 98-99% Fat globules
2. Phospholipids (Lecithin, Cephalin,
Sphingomyelin)
0.2-1% Globule Membrane
and serum
3. Sterols (Cholesterol, Lanosterol) 0.25-0.40% Fat Globule, globule
membrane and milk
serum
4. Free fatty acids (various) Traces Fat globule and milk
serum
5. Waxes Traces Fat globules
6. Squalene Traces Fat globules
7. Fat soluble vitamins
Vitamin A
Carotenoids
Vitamin E
(Tocopherols)
Vitamin D
Vitamin K
Traces
7.0-8.5 g/g fat
8.0-10.0g/g fat
2-50g/g fat

Traces
Traces
Fat globules

Table 1 shows the lipids composition in milk, range of occurrence and location in
milk with respect to the three phases of milk, as mentioned above. The lipids of milk differ
in their chemical nature. Fresh milk fat normally has mild delicate flavour. However, it can
be the source of a multitude of flavour compounds that may result in desirable flavour or in

7
undesirable off-flavours. The chemical and physical properties of milk fat are important in
determining its utilization in dairy and other foods. Variations in the physical properties can
be modified by crystallization of the fat during processing, e.g. temperature treatments of
cream before churning of butter. Another approach is to modify it chemically by
interesterification or hydrogenation.

2.0 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COW AND BUFFALO MILK FATS

The short chain fatty acids (4:0 to 12:0) and unsaturated fatty acids contribute to
softness of fat, the long chain saturated fatty acids contribute to its hardness. Buffalo milkfat
is distinctly harder than cow milkfat. This is because it contains large amounts of long chain
saturated fatty acids (16:0 and 18:0) as compared to cow milk fat (Table 2). For the same
reason the amount of high melting triglycerides is significantly higher in buffalo (8.7%) than
in cow milkfat (4.9%). Due to this difference, the triglycerides crystallize much earlier in
buffalo milkfat than in cow milk fat and at a given temperature the amount of crystallized fat
is much higher in case of buffalo milkfat than in cow milkfat.

Table 2. Average Fatty acid composition of milk fat.

Fatty acid Cow milk-fat Buffalo milk-fat
4:0 3.2 4.4
6:0 2.1 1.5
8:0 1.2 0.8
10:0 2.6 1.3
10:1 0.3 -
12:0 2.8 1.8
14:0 11.9 10.8
14:1 2.1 1.3
15:0 1.2 1.3
16:0 29.9 33.1
16:1 1.8 2.0
17:0 0.3 0.6
18:0 10.0 11.9
18:1 28.4 27.1
18:2 1.5 1.5
18:3 0.6 0.5

Cow milk fat contains 52.9% of High Molecular Weight Triglycerides (HMT), 18.9%
of Medium Molecular Weight Triglycerides (MMT) and 28.2%n of Low Molecular Weight
Triglycerides (LMT). The corresponding values for buffalo milk fat are 42.4, 17.1 and
40.5%. Cow milk fat contains higher proportions of HMT and lower level of LMT than
buffalo milk fat. The difference in the proportions of HMT and LMT fractions are due to 4:0,
18:0 and 18:1. The lower content of LMT in cow milkfat as compared to buffalo milk fat is
due to lower amount of 4:0 in cow milk fat. Similarly, higher content of HMT in cow milk
fat as compared to buffalo milk fat is due to the higher proportions of 18:1. Since the buffalo
milk fat contains greater levels of saturated acids, the physico-chemical constants of buffalo
milk fat reveal a higher saponification number, lower iodine value and higher melting range
(Table 3). Similarly, the difference in the short chain fatty acids of two mien fats is reflected

8
in higher Richert Meissl and Kirschner values and lower Polenske value of buffalo milk fat
as compared to cow milk fat.

Table 3. Physico-chemical constants of milk fat.

Sr.No. Characteristics Cow milk fat Buffalo milk fat
1. Solidifying point C 15.0-23.5 16.0-28.0
2. Melting point C 28.5-41.0 32.0-42.5
3. Butyro-refractometer reading at
40C.
41.2 42.0
4. Saponification value 227.3 230.1
5. Reichert-Meissl value 28.5 32.3
6. Kirschner value 22.1 28.5
7. Polenske value 1.8 1.5
8. Iodine value 33.8 29.4
9. Colour (Yellow units/g) Tintometer 8.8 0.8

3.0 MILK PHOSPHOLIPIDS

The milk phospholipids are minor constituents of milk fat (1% of total lipids), but are
important structural components of the milkfat globule membrane surrounding the core
triglycerides. Phospholipids consists of a polyhydric alcohol, usually glycerol but not
always, which is esterified with fatty acids and also with phosphoric acid. The phosphoric
acid in turn is combined with basic nitrogen containing compound.. The phospholipids are
present in five major subclasses: phosphatidyl choline (PC), phosphatidyl ethanolamine
(PE), phosphatidyl serine (PS), sphingomyclin (SM) and phosphatidyl inositol (PI). In
addition to these, traces of cerebrosides and plasmalogens are also present. One of the
principal functions of phospholipids in milk is to maintain the milkfat in a finely emulsified
state i.e. they are active emulsifying agents. They concentrate around the normal fat globules
in the fat globule membrane and tend to stabilize the system. They are rich in unsaturated
fatty acids and essentially oxidized and give rise to oxidized flavour to milk. They also
impart richness flavour to fluid milk products.

3.1 Phospholipids Content in Milk

Most of the recent work indicate that the phospholipid content of milk varies from 20
to 40 mg per 100 g. The average phospholipid content of cow and buffalo milks has been
reported as 39.2 and 38.7 mg per 100 g, respectively. Thus, there is no appreciate difference
in the phospholipid content of cow and buffalo milks. Similarly, there is no appreciable
difference in the phospholipid content of different breeds of cows and buffaloes. Season
appears to exert some influence on the phospholipid content of milk. During winter the
phospholipid of cows and buffaloes milk is higher compared to summer. The stage of
lactation has significant effect on the phospholipid content of milk. Colostrum is rich in
phospholipids and it comes to normal level in about 4 days. Then phospholipids remain more
or less steady till 5
th
or 6
th
month when it start rising readily till the end of lactation, almost
approaching those obtained during the colostrum period. At levels of phospholipids per unit
weight of fat are 1.54-4 folds greater in fore milk than in residual milk.


9
3.2 Phospholipids Content in Cream

During the mechanical separation of milk it is generally observed that the
phospholipid content of cream increased with increasing fat content (55-58% fat) and then
further decrease with the further increase in the fat percent. Skim milk contains about 40% of
the original phospholipids in producing a cream of 15-20% fat, and further increase in fat
of 20-55% removed very little of phospholipids .

3.3 Phospholipids Content in Bbutter

The distribution of phospholipids in butter varies depending upon the raw material
and also the method of manufacture. Phospholipid content of creamery butter increase with
the increase in fat content of the cream. Approximately 30-45% of the total phospholipid
content of the cream passed into butter in the churning process. Butter from sweet cream has
less phospholid content than that obtained from acid-cream. Desi-butter from buffalo milk
contain less phospholipid than Desi-butter from cow milk. Both acidity of the cream and
washing of butter has no effect on phospholipid content of butter.

3.4 Factors Affecting Phospholipids Content in Cream and Butter

The distribution of phospholipids during separation of milk and churning of cream is
influenced by the stage of lactation and species of the milk used. The proportion of transfer
of phospholipids to cream and butter is slightly greater in milks of buffaloes than that of
cows. Phospholipids passed from early, middle and late lactation milks to cream and
subsequently preparation of butter decreased as the lactation progressed. Since much of the
phospholipids in milk is in fat globule layer it is likely that the variations in the distribution of
total phospholipids between cream and skim milk in the separation of milk, and between
butter and butter-milk in the churning of cream are due to differences in the sizes of the fat
globules of milk. The greater transfer of phospholipids in cream and butter from milks
containing higher average fat globules size may be due to the affinity of the bigger fat
globules to go along with the cream and butter, and of the smaller ones to skim milk and
buttermilk during separation and churning, respectively. The composition of phospholipids
in milk, cream, skim milk, butter and butter-milk is almost the same as that of milks from
which they are prepared.

Table 4. Phospholipid content of cow and buffalo milks and their products.

Milk Cream Butter Butter milk
Cow 34.4-41.9
Av 39.2
137.5-246.6
Av 191.1
180.0-238.0
Av 206.1
26.9-32.1
Av 30.0
Buffalo 32.4-41.4
Av 38.7
180.0-249.4
Av 200.4
177.6-278.6
Av 232.6
20.4-35.0
Av 30.0
Ref: Ramamurthy and Narayanan (1966).

3.5 Phospholipids Content in Ghee

Although milk contains about 1% phospholipids of the total fat, much of it lost in
skim milk, butter milk and ghee residue during manufacture of ghee. The final amount of
phospholipids that remains with ghee has been shown to depend upon the phospholipid

10
content of butter and method of manufacture. During the manufacture of ghee from cream
and butter, only small quantities of butter phospholipids are transferred to fat phase and rest
remains in the ghee-residue. Ghee prepared from butter by heating just to 120C contains
only traces of phospholipids (about 10 mg per 100 g). But on increasing the period of heating
there is a gradual increase in the phospholipid content of ghee. A maximum transfer of
phospholipids (132 mg/per 100 g) amounting to 57.7% of the total phospholipids take place
after 40 min. On further heating, there was progressive decrease in the phospholipid content
of ghee accompanied by a progressive browning in ghee. The initial increase observed in the
phospholipid content of ghee with the increased holding time may be due to efficient removal
of moisture and greater liberation of phospholipids from the phospholipid protein complex of
ghee residue. However, there is a decrease in the percentage distribution of PC, PE, PS, Spl.
and PL inositol and increase in the lysophospholipid as the period of heating increased.

3.6 Fatty Acid Composition of Milk Phospholipid:

In contrast milkfat, the phospholipids from both colostrum and milk do not have
lower chain fatty acids of less than 12 carbon atoms. There is no marked differences in the
fatty acid composition of phospholipids obtained from cow and buffalo colostrum and that of
milk collected at different stages of lactation. The major fatty acids of colostrums
phospholipids are palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids and their amount being 16.7-17.5,
15.1-15.9, 32.9-34.5 and 12.7-14.1% respectively. The acids above 18:0 constitute about
13% of the total acids. About 53% of the total fatty acids of colostral phospholipids are
unsaturated. Palmitic and stearic acids are the major saturated fatty acids, whereas oleic and
linoleic acids are in maximum quantities among the unsaturated acids. There is slight
increase in the total unsaturated fatty acids, as the lactation progressed and they constitute
about 41, 42 and 54%, respectively of easily, middle and late lactation the total fatty acids.
The late lactation milk phospholipids are somewhat similar in fatty acids composition as that
of colostral phospholipids. Cephalin fraction is the most unsaturated of the three
fractions.(Oleic acid 48.0%, stearic 19%). Lecithin fraction contains oleic acid 35.9%,
palmitic acid 30.2% and stearic acid 11.6%. Sphingomyelin fraction contains mainly
saturated fatty acids. Higher chain fatty acids like behenic acid (22:0), tricosanoic acid (23:0)
and ligmoceric acid (24:0) totaling approximately 30% is notable.

4.0 ROLE OF MILK PHOSPHOLIPIDS IN THE AUTOXIDATION OF MILK
AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk phospholipids behave in a different manner in aqueous and non-aqueous
systems. When phospholipids present in aqueous phase of milk triglycerides are relatively
more stable and phospholipids are preferentially oxidized. In dried milk products, such as
ghee, phospholipids serve as antioxidants. The antioxidant activities of phospholipids depend
upon their concentration in ghee. Higher the concentration of phospholipid greater being its
oxidative stability. Phospholipids are shown to have synergistic action with -locopherols
which is a natural antioxidant in ghee. They have also shown to possess chelating action on
copper which may otherwise catalyse oxidation of ghee. Among the various phospholipids
only cephalin fraction is shown to have antioxidant properties in ghee.

5.0 REFERENCES

Arumughan, C. and Narayanan, K.M. (1979). Grain formation in ghee (butterfat) as related to structure of
triglycerides. J. Food Sci. Technol. 16, 242-247.

11
Arumughan, C. and Narayanan, K.M. (1982). Triacylglycerol composition of buffalo milkfat. J. Dairy Res. 49,
81-85.
Arumughan, C. and Narayanan, K.M. (1982). Influence of stage of lactation on the physical and chemical
characterisitcs of buffalo milkfat. Indian J. Anim. Sci.; 52(9), 731-735.
Arumughan, C. and Narayanan, K.M.(1982). Triglycerol composition of cow milkfat. J. Food Sci. Technol. 19,
71-74.
Bector, B.S. and Narayanan, K.M. (1972). The role of milk phospholipids in the autoxidation of butterfat.
Indian J. Dairy Sci. 25, 222-227.
Jenness, R. and Patton, S. (1959). Principles of Dairy Chemistry. John Miley & Sons, New York.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1973). Distribution of phospholipids during curd formation. Indian J.
Anim. Sci. 43, 171-173.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1976). Effect of stage of lactation on the distribution and composition of
phospholipids and composition of phospholipids in milk products. J. Food Sci. Technol. 13 (5), 246-248.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1977). Effect of sequence of milking on the distribution of fat globule
and phospholipid composition of milk. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 30 (3), 225-228.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1977). Distribution and composition of phospholipids in ghee. Indian J.
Anim. Sci. 47, 16-18.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1977). Effect of stage of lactation on distribution of fat globule and
phospholipid content of milk. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 30, 99-104.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1978). Effect of stage of lactation on fatty acid composition of milk
phospholipids. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 31 (3), 272-275.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1981). Composition of fat globule membrane phospholipids. Indian J.
Dairy Sci. 34, 16-18.
Pruthi, T.D., Narayanan, K.M. and Bhalerao, V.R. (1970). Role of milk phospholipids in the autoxidation of
butterfat. Part I. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 23, 248-252.
Pruthi, T.D., Narayanan, K.M. and Bhalerao, V.R. (1971). The role of milk phospholipids in the autoxidation of
butter-fat Part-2. Effect of individual phospholipids. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 24, 185-189.
Pruthi, T.D., Narayanan, K.M. and Bhalerao, V.R. (1972). Fatty acid composition of milk phospholipids of
Indian Zebu Cattle. Milchwisscnschaft 27 (5), 294-296.
Pruthi, T.D., Narayanan, K.M. and Bhalerao, V.R. (1972). Fatty acid composition of buffalo milk
phospholipids. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 25, 16-24.
Pruthi, T.D., Kapoor, C.M. and Pal, R,N. (1972). Phospholipid content of ghee prepared by direct clarification
and pre-stratification methods. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 25, 233.
Pruthi, T.D. (1980). Phospholipid content of ghee prepared at higher temperatures. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 33 (2),
265-267.
Rama Murthy, M.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1966). A method for the estimation of phospholipids in milk and
milk products. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 19, 45-47.
Rama Murthy, M.K., Narayanan, K.M. and Bhalerao, V.R. (1968). Effect of phospholipids on the keeping
quality of ghee. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 21, 63-68.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK FAT



Dr. A. A. Patel
Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Physical properties of milk fat, in its globular form or in bulk, have profound
influence on the sensory attributes, texture, in particular, of fat-containing dairy foods. For
instance, the extent of crystallization or the crystal status of globular fat could greatly affect
the optical and rheological properties of milk and cream. The viscosity of these products is
also a function of the physical state of fat globules. Even more important is perhaps the
stability of the globules themselves with regard to fat solidification. In its bulk form, milk fat
has its physical characteristics determining the textural properties of fat-rich dairy products
such as ghee, cheese, butter and spreads. The crystallization behaviour also influences
processes such as fractionation, a method of fat modification. Extensive literature is available
on crystallization of milk fat, although not much work has been carried out in recent times.
Certain other physical properties e.g., refractive index, primarily determined by the chemical
nature of the triglycerides, constitute parameters (called constants) useful in identification
of the product / type of fat. A brief account of various physical properties of milk fat and their
technological relevance is presented hereunder.

2.0 CRYSTALLIZATION OF MILK FAT

2.1 Stages in Crystal Formation

The major constituent of milk fat is triglycerides with different chemical compositions
and different physical properties. When the triglyceride molecules are in a molten state, they
have high kinetic energy, and therefore, the individual molecules have a rather free mobility
since the inter-molecular forces tending to hold the molecules together are not strong enough
to counteract the thermal motions. However, when molten fat is cooled the thermal motions
of the molecules decrease, and the inter-molecular forces viz., hydrogen bonds and van der
Waals forces, draw the triglyceride molecules closer together simultaneously with an
incipient parallel-ordering of the fatty acid chains, as the first step towards crystallization.
The whole process of crystallization consists of nucleation and growth phases. Crystallization
starts with the formation of crystal nuclei (centres of crystallization) in the molten fat as a few
molecules gather in molecular aggregates where the potential energy is reduced to a
minimum. These aggregates, in which molecules are continuously replaced, grow into real
crystals at a stage when the probability of a molecule being adsorbed is greater than the
probability of a molecule being liberated.

The crystallization process is started when the melt is inoculated with pre-formed
crystals (heterogeneous nucleation) or by a strong super-cooling of the melt (homogeneous
nucleation). The nucleation rate is increased by falling temperature until a maximum is
reached. The reason why further cooling result in a reduced nucleation rate is the increased

13
viscosity of the melt causing a reduction in the rate of diffusion, which is a critical factor also
with regard to the second stage crystal growth. The growth of crystal nuclei takes place by
successive single layers of molecules being deposited on an already ordered crystal surface.
The rate of growth depends on the probability of the incorporation of these molecules into the
crystal lattice as well as on the material density and on the temperature. Milk fat
crystallization has been found to correspond to a first-order reaction with an activation energy
of 11.0 kcal mol
-1
. The constants of the crystallization process have been found to be related
to the iodine value. One of the complications associated with crystallization of fat is that
during crystallization there is no distinct difference between solute and solvent. Lowering the
temperature will cause some of the solvent to change to the role of solute. Thus, the solubility
of a given solute fraction is decreased while the amount of available solvent is also
diminished.

2.2 Polymorphism

Like other fats containing long-chain aliphatic fatty acids, milk fat exhibits
polymorphism, i.e. it tends to exist in more than one crystal form due to different patterns of
molecular packing in the crystal. The three well recognized polymorphic forms (viz., , ,
and ) have different crystal lattices and different melting points. While the form (with
triclinic packing) is stable, the and forms (hexagonal and ortho-rhombic forms) are
metastable, which gradually transform into the stable form having the highest melting point.
On rapid cooling, a metastable -form is produced reversibly from the liquid phase. The -
form may then be transformed irreversibly into the more stable -form and further into the
most stable -form. However, not all triglycerides are known to form all three crystal forms.
Many complex triglyceride mixtures have been reported to exhibit four crystal forms, viz. ,
,
2
and
1
, in the order of increasing stability. Milk fat is also believed to exhibit a similar
pattern.

Among the major implications of polymorphism in milk fat is the existence of
multiple melting points, such as three melting points in the high-melting fractions and two in
the low-melting fractions reported by some workers. X-ray diffraction techniques combined
with electron microscopic examination of butter showed that the -crystal form dominates in
the outer shell of the fat globules while the predominant part of the modification is found
in the lower-melting crystal layers in the interior of the globules and in the free inter-globular
fat phase where the content of unsaturated fatty acids is particularly high.

2.3 Solid Solutions

Part of the complexities in multi-component systems such as fats is formation of
mixed crystals or solid solutions. A solid solution is exactly analogous to a liquid solution
and consists simply of a lattice in which the component atoms or molecules have been
partially replaced with dissimilar atoms or molecules. As in a liquid, the foreign molecules
are distributed through the structure at random. The matter is even more complicated because
polymorphism must also be considered when the formation of mixed crystals is discussed.
The meta-stable crystal modifications (, ) form mixed crystals more easily than the more
stable -modification. It has also been shown that in heterogeneous triglyceride systems the
incorporation of different molecules in the same crystal lattice implies that the life of meta-
stable crystal forms is prolonged.


14
Further, the melting point of milk fat is highly dependent on the rate and temperature
of crystallization. If cooling occurs very rapidly, a considerable number of the low-melting
triglycerides are built into a lattice formed by high-melting glycerides. This involves the
formation of relatively uniform mixed crystals with nearly the same melting point. Such
crystals adsorb a considerable amount of the low-melting triglycerides, and therefore milk fat
that has been cooled rapidly contains less liquid fat at a given temperature than milk fat that
has been cooled slowly or stepwise with suitable holding times. In the last case, the solid
phase consists of a heterogeneous blend of mixed crystals, characterized by different melting
points depending on the temperature treatment employed. On slow or stepwise cooling a
considerable part of the crystallization process probably takes place by glyceride molecules
being deposited on pre-formed crystal surfaces built up of other triglycerides. The so-called
overlaid crystals formed in this way have a sort of laminated structure in which high-
melting glycerides often form the nuclei of the crystals with the low-melting components
located in the outer layers.

Since the formation of mixed crystals influences the content of liquid fat in the fat
mixture, it has a great influence on the rheological properties of butter. At least part of the
effect of temperature treatment of butterfat and cream is due to its influence on mixed crystal
formation. Moreover, formation of mixed crystals influences the rheological properties of
products made from mixtures of different fat fractions. Addition of liquid fat to solidified fat
results in a greater reduction in firmness of the product than addition to the melt.

2.4 Crystallization of Bulk Fat vs. Globular Fat

Bulk fat contains sufficient catalytic impurities to initiate heterogeneous nucleation
with little super-cooling. A liquid crystal phase is formed in the melt during cooling after
which a mono-crystalline nucleus emerges from the high-melting glycerides. The nucleus has
the shape of a spherolite consisting of crystals radiating outward from a common center.
During the growth of the spherolite the rather elongated needle-shaped crystals thicken and
assume a feather-like structure characteristic of a typical spherolite. The external form and
the size of the crystals growth from the nucleus depend not only on the internal structure but
also on the external treatment. The size of milk fat crystals may vary considerably depending
on the rate of crystallization; if milk fat is cooled rapidly, numerous very small crystals with a
maximum diameter of 1-2 m are formed while slow cooling results in the formation of a
few large crystals with diameters up to 40 m. Recrystallization of the fat affects the size of
the crystals but a much greater effect could be found when the fat is cooled stepwise, with
formation of large spherolitic crystal aggregates.

Further not only single crystals but also spherolites can agglomerate; such spherolite
agglomerates can vary considerably in size, i.e. from 100 to 1000 m, and their shape
frequently diverges from spherical. Spherolite agglomerates can be disrupted very easily by
mechanical treatment. Stirring during cooling process causes crystallization of fat into
smaller spherolites, which only agglomerate loosely. Very low and very high agitation speeds
result in the formation of very fine crystals and a high agitation speed seems to prevent the
flocculation of crystals. In absence of stirring, the solidified fat tends to flocculate into a
network held together by van der Waals attraction forces. When crystallization is so far
advanced that almost all of the remaining liquid phase is bound in to the network, the mass
appears as a complete solid, though it does consist of certain liquid fat. Work-softening of the
thixotropic butter and spreads is believed to disrupt the crystal networks building in them
during quiescent stage. Crystallization of globular fat differs considerably from the
crystallization of bulk fat. The main difference is that crystals in the emulsified state cannot

15
grow larger than globules; thus a solid network of crystals can form only within the globules
unless the globules are clumped. A deeper super-cooling is needed to initiate crystallization
when the fat is in the emulsified state. Also, a slower crystallization rate is obtained in a more
finely dispersed fat, which has been attributed to differences in nucleation. At least one
nucleus must be formed in every globule to achieve full crystallization and the time needed to
obtain the first nucleus is proportional to the volume of the globule. This implies that a lower
temperature is needed for a finer dispersion.

It is recognized that there is not a sharp temperature at which crystallization suddenly
starts in all globules. The formation of nuclei is a stochastic process following the principle of
random distribution and the probability of the presence of a catalytic impurity that will start
nucleation depends on the size of globules, which varies throughout the emulsion. The
surface layer of a fat globule probably acts as a catalytic impurity. Tiny tangentially oriented
fat crystal needles in the outer layer of the globules have been observed. It is believed that
crystallization might start at the globule boundary. In study employing polarizing
microscopy, four types globules were found at temperatures where part of the fat is solidified.
In one type nothing could be seen except possibly a reflection at the globule boundary; in a
second type there were tiny needle-shaped crystals throughout the globule; a third type had a
birefringent outer layer, which was thought to be formed by the rearrangement of the needle
crystals into a tangential orientation along the globule boundary; and a fourth type showed
small crystals throughout the globule as well as in the bright outer layer. Thus, in conclusion,
very small, more-or-less needle shaped crystals are initially formed and flocculate into a
random network giving the globule a certain firmness. On holding, growth, transformation
and rearrangement of the crystals into a tangential orientation along the globule boundary
take place.

2.5 Solid Fat Index

The crystallization behaviour implies that milk fat has no sharp, well-defined melting
point but melts over a wide temperature range. It is liquid above 40C and completely
solidified below -40C. At intermediate temperatures, it is a mixture of solid and liquid fats.
The content of solid fat in the mixture is very important because the rheological properties of
many dairy products depend more on this than on the size and form of the crystals.
Information about the ratio of solid to liquid fat at a given temperature is, therefore, essential
in many aspects of cream and butter manufacture. Furthermore, the ratio determined directly
in butterfat, after a standardized pre-treatment, can be used to characterize the physical
properties of the butterfat and is highly correlated to the iodine value of the fat. The ratio
measured corresponds to the solid fat index (SFI) measured by the official American Oil
Chemists Society (AOCS) method based on dilatometry.

The determination of the content of solid fat by dilatometry is based on the specific
volume change that occurs when fat goes from the solid to the liquid state upon heating under
controlled conditions. This change in specific volume can be observed when fat is in a so-
called dilatometer. Based on the expansion of the fat sample during heating, the specific
volume can be recorded as a function of temperature and from the graph showing this
relationship, the ratio of the solid and liquid fractions can be calculated. Most dilatation
measurements have been made on pure fats, e.g. butterfat, but the method can also be used on
fat emulsions, e.g. cream. Naturally, in such cases the thermal expansion of the water phase
must also be considered in the calculations. This method, however, cannot be used directly on
butter. Though inexpensive and easy to perform, the dilatometric method is rather time-
consuming and the calculation of solid or liquid fat is based on the assumption that the

16
dilatation of solid and liquid fats, respectively, is constant over the complete melting range.
However, this is not the case, because different triglycerides and different crystal
modifications have different melting dilatations.

The content of solid or liquid fat can also be determined by other methods viz.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy. The DSC method, offering sufficient precision, is based on the thermal
transitions that occur in milk fat during heating or cooling. In a thermogram of a fat sample
the energy transfer to or from the sample necessary to raise or lower the temperature,
respectively, is recorded as a function of the temperature of the sample. Such a graph gives an
illustration of the phase transitions, which occur within the complete melting range. The
method can be used for the examination of pure milk fat, cream or butter. The water content
in cream butter complicates interpretation of the melting curve because the aqueous phase
transition mask a significant amount of lipid melting below 0C. The analysis is time-
consuming and the calculation of solid or liquid fat is based on the assumption that the heat
of fusion is constant over the complete melting range, which is not the case. On the other
hand, the analysis gives a good picture of the phase transitions that occur over the whole
melting range.

SFI determination by NMR spectroscopy has been widely used. Protons in the sample
placed in a strong magnetic field can, under certain conditions, absorb energy from
electromagnetic waves. This absorption, called nuclear magnetic resonance, depends on the
physical state of the protons. The commonly used pulsed NMR analysers emit a short intense
pulse of electromagnetic radiation at the resonance frequency into the fat sample and the free
induction decay of the signal following the pulse is observed. The relaxation time is strongly
related to the mobility of the protons and hence the physical state of the sample. Based on
registration of the signal a suitable time after the pulse, the content of the solid phase can be
calculated. Besides pure fat samples fat emulsions can also be analysed for solid fat by NMR
methods but the contribution of water protons to the signal represents a complication. The
performance of the NMR measurements is easy and very rapid, but one of the disadvantages
of the methods is that the equipment is rather expensive. The results obtained seem to be
quite similar to those obtained by dilatometry and DSC measurements. In a comparative
study employing pulsed NMR spectroscopy, it was found that over a temperature range of 0-
30C, Indian buffalo milk fat exhibited a higher solid fat content than did European (German)
cow milk fat, whereas Indian cow milk fat (summer) had the higher solid fat content of all
milk fats at 0-15C but showed intermediate values between 20 and 30C. Holding at 0C
for up to 3 h resulted in consistently smaller solid fat content in European milk fat vis--vis
Indian cow and buffalo milk fats.

3.0 OTHER PROPERTIES

3.1 Melting Range

Melting, (or, the reverse of crystallization) of milk fat occurs over a wide temperature
range because of the wide range of constituent triglycerides with their varying melting points.
The melting curve (% solid fat vs. temperature) is not smooth, but there are several optimum
melting temperatures giving rise to the so-called group melting. However, melting point in
terms of capillary slip point, drop point or clarification point has often been measured on
milk fat for comparison purposes. While the melting range for milk fat may fall within 28-

17
43C depending on the method and other factors, a slightly higher values of softening and
melting points (34.3-36.3C and 33.4-35.8C, respectively) have been reported for buffalo
milk fat as compared cow milk fat (33.5-35.9 and 33.7-35.2C, respectively). The broader
melting range is 32.0-43.5C and 28.5-41.0C for buffalo and cow milk fat, respectively. A
DSC stydy showed that buffalo milk fat melted over a higher temperature range (11-38C)
than did cow milk fat (5-35C), the DSC clarification point being 39.1-39.2C for the former
and 36.3-37.0C for the latter. The respective drop points were in the range of 34.9-35.1C
and 31.2-32.9C.

3.2 Refractive Index

Valuable as a physical constant, the refractive index (RI) of milk fat is a characteristic
function of its fatty acid composition. While the effect of animal species (cow vs. buffalo)
may not be very definite, milk fat has a typical RI range of 1.453-1.457 which is lower in
comparison with vegetable oils. It, therefore, forms a basis for detection of adulteration of
milk fat with other fats as judged by the butyro-refactometer reading (40-45 at 45C).

4.0 CONCLUSION

The crystallization behaviour of milk fat in systems containing globular fat and / or
bulk fat is the single most important physical property in relation to consistency
characteristics. The size of the fat globule restricts the crystal growth in it unlike in bulk fat.
Essentially a first-order reaction, the process of crystal formation and its impact on the
product properties are greatly complicated by the phenomena of crystal polymorphism,
compound or mixed crystals and recrystallization conditions that determine the crystalline
nature of milk fat which, in turn, govern the physical properties of the product. It is,
therefore, conceivable that post-production temperature history is as important as the
production process itself. The solid fat content in conjunction with the type of crystal
structure determines the physical behaviour of the product. Crystal networks in products like
butter and spreads impart a thixotropic character, which is related to phenomena such as
work-softening and brittleness. Methods of determining solid fat index include dilatometry,
differential scanning calorimetry and pulsed NMR spectroscopy, the last being simple and
precise. Among other physical properties of milk, refractive index is useful as a constant for
the purpose of examining purity of the fat.

5.0 REFERENCES

AOAC (1995) Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International (P. Cunniff, ed.), 16
th
Ed., Vol. II, AOAC
International, USA.
Mortensen, B.K. (1981) Methods for determining the ratio of solid to liquid fat in dairy products particularly in
butter. IDF Bull., 84: 28-34.
Patel, A.A. and Frede, E. (1991) Studies on thermal properties of cow and buffalo milk fats. Lebensmittel-
Wissenschaft u. Technologie, 24: 323-327.
Walstra, P., van Vliet, T. and Kloek, W. (1995) Crystallization and rheological properties of milk fat. In:
Advanced Dairy Chemistry-Lipids, Vol. 2, Second Ed., (P.F. Fox, ed.), Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 179-
211.
Walstra, P. (1987) Fat crystallization. In: Food Structure and Behaviour. (J. M. V. Blanshard
and P. Lillford, eds.), Academic Press, London, pp. 67-86.

DEVELOPMENTS IN CREAM SEPARATOR






Prof. I.K. Sawhney
Principal Scientist
Dairy Engineering Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001


1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cream-separator is the equipment of great importance in dairy industry. The process
of separation of cream from the skim milk is based upon the density difference between the
milk fat in the globules and aqueous phase in which they are dispersed. Milk fat at 20C
temperature has a specific gravity of 0.93 and the skim milk has a specific gravity of 1.034.
Due to this density difference, the fat globule with lower density tends to rise in the
surrounding medium, if placed undisturbed in earths gravitational field. The rate of rise of
the fat globule can be estimated from the principles of Stokes Law. The velocity with which
the fat globules in the milk rise also depends upon temperature of milk and the agglomeration
of fat globules. The rate of rise of fat globule is very low, usually of the order of half a
millimeter per hour. Thus the separation process is very slow. In order to increase the rate of
separation, centrifugal forces may be used to accentuate the differential forces on
components.

2.0 SEPARATION BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

The velocity () of fat globule in the gravitational field is described by Stokes Law in
the following equation

g (
s
--
f
)
= d
2
-------------------(i)
18
where d = diameter of globule, g = acceleration due to gravity,
s
= density of serum,
f
=
density of fat globule and is the co-efficient of viscosity. For separation process by
centrifugal force, the Stokes formula still applies but the value of g, i.e. 9.81 m/s
2
is
replaced by much greater value representing the centrifugal acceleration (a). In a circular
motion the acceleration from centrifugal force is

a = R
2


where is angular velocity in rad per sec and R is the radial distance from the center of
rotation.

Substituting the value of centrifugal acceleration in place of acceleration due to
gravity in equation (i) the expression for velocity of globule is:


19
d
2
(
s

f
)
2
R
= --------------------(ii)
18

In a centrifugal field rate of separation will be increased by increasing the radius of
the paths of flow and the rotational speed. The velocity of separation, as high as 4 m/s, could
be achieved in centrifugal field. The above two parameter, however, could not be increased
at will because of the limiting strength of the centrifugal bowl.

3.0 TUBULAR CENTRIFUGE

Tubular bowl centrifuge has a small diameter cylindrical bowl rotating at a very high
speed. The diameter being very small, down to 10 cm, the tubular centrifuge is suitable only
for a slim line construction. Due to higher rotating speed, it allows a high rate of
sedimentation of heavy particles and rise of lighter particles, that is, high rate of cream
separation. However, due to small separating area, it is unsuitable for a high throughput.
This needs a large separating area and separating distance as small as possible for the
particles moving in the centrifugal field. An ideal solution which satisfied both the
requirements was the introduction of conically shaped discs in to the bowl of the centrifuge.

4.0 DISC BOWL CENTRIFUGE

The disc bowl separator has closely spaced cone-shaped discs in the bowl, which
rotate with the bowl. The number of discs is up to 120, placed one above the other. Their
angle of inclination to the horizontal is 45C to 60C and the outer diameter is 200 to 300
mm. The discs are made of stainless steel with a wall thickness of approximately 0.4 mm.
The spacing between the discs is 0.4 to 2 mm and is ensured by welding plate or bar shaped
spacer on the discs.

The main component of disc bowl centrifuge are bowl base, disc holder, disc stack,
the separating disc, bowl lid, feed inlet and outlets for the separated liquid streams. Special
features of the disc are holes, which lie one above the other and thus forms a channel for the
ascending liquids. The liquid feed entering through these channels is dissected to the zone
where maximum separation occurs. From these the light phase travels in wards toward the
axis of rotation and the heavy phase towards the bowl wall. The discharge of the light and
heavy phases occurs via over flow lips.

Disc bowl centrifuges used for cream separation today, rotate on average at 5500 to
6000 rpm at mass flow rates of 20,000 kg/h. About 2.5 to 5 kg/cm2 pressure can be obtained,
depending upon the rotational speed and diameter of the disc. Thus the liquid can be easily
forced from centrifuge into heat exchangers or storage tanks connected in services.

5.0 DEVELOPMENTS IN SEPARATOR DESIGNS

In the process of enhancing the efficiency of cream separation, number of separator
models have been developed. Designs also provide the ejection of sludge through sediment
collector during the separation process.

In the open type designs, the feed is fed into the rotating bowl through a fixed pipe.
The light and heavy components are discharged from the bowl via regulating ring dams.
They are discharged tangentially from the bowl into separate but open collectors in the hood
of the machine. They are taken off through open or closed discharge lines. The fixed feed

20
pipe and fixed collector hoods must clear the rotating bowl, so that bowl is free to swing
outwards without touching them while in rotation.

The same-open separator provides a special outlet device for cream and milks, which
is known as paring disc. In these, the kinetic energy of the rapidly rotating milk and cream is
converted into pressure so that the paring discs pump the separated skim milk and cream out
of the machine. Both the discs are submerged in the separated liquid phases and discharge
them under pressure. Because of this design, the semi open separators are usually called
paring-disc separators

In the hermetic separator, the milk is supplied to the bowl from below through a
channel in the bowl spindle. A centrifugal pump pumps the milk. The bowl of a hermetic
separator is completely filled with milk during operation, with no air in the center. The
hermetic separator therefore is regarded as part of a closed pipe system. The pressure
generated by the centrifugal pump is sufficient to overcome the flow resistance through the
separator and provide a moderate discharge pressure for cream and skim milk.

6.0 FAT CONTROL AND STANDARDIZATION

The whole milk supplied to the separator is discharged as two flows of cream and
skim milk. The proportion discharged as cream determines the fat content of the cream. The
volume of the cream discharged from the separator is controlled by means of a throttling
valve in the cream outlet. If the valve is completely closed all the milk will be discharged
from through the skim-milk outlet. Progressively larger amounts of cream with progressively
diminishing fat content will be discharged from the cream outlet if the valve is gradually
opened. The size of the valve aperture is adjusted with a screw. Any change in the cream
discharge will be matched by an equal and opposite alteration in the skim milk discharge.
This means that the pressure in the down stream lines will be changed. A control unit is
therefore fitted in the skim milk at the outlet constant, regardless of the changes in the rate of
cream flow. The cream screw is, however, affected by variations in fat content of the
incoming whole milk and by variation in flow line.

The fat standardization process control for cream could also be integrated to the
cream separator for specified constant fat in the milk. A flow transmitter continuously
monitors the flow of cream from the separator. A density transmitter continuously measures
the fat constant of cream in terms of density of cream. Both these signals are transmitted to
microprocessor. The microprocessor resets the flow-regulating valve to restore the exact fat
content in cream. The standardization of milk could also be achieved by providing a ratio
controller, which mixes cream of fat content with skim milk in the necessary proportions to
give standardized milk of specified fat content.

7.0 SOLID-EJECTION

The solids that collect in the sediment space of the separator consist of dirt particles,
udder cells, white and red blood corpuscles, bacteria etc. Sour milk contains more sediment
and the sediment space will be filled quickly if coagulated milk is separated. For solid
ejection a number of discharge slots are placed round the periphery of the bowl body and
level with the angular sediment receiver built in to frame hood. A sliding bowl bottom is
located under the bowl. The space between the bowl bottom and the floor of bowl is filled
with water and the bowl is closed by the hydraulic pressure. When the water is drained from

21
the space, the sliding bowl descends, thus opening the narrow gap through which the
sediment slots in to the sediment receiver. The space under the sliding bottom is again filled
with water and bowl bottom is once more forced upwards and against the seal ring.

The whole process of solid ejection occurs during the separation and bowl is opened
only for a very short time so that there is no less of any product. A specified volume of water
at a specified pressure is applied to the machine in order to operate the discharge system
properly. In modern plants, water is supplied through the pneumatically operated constant
pressure valve, which are operated by compressed air.

8.0 CREAM SEPARATING ATTACHMENT FOR FOOD PROCESSORS AND
MIXIES

Cream separators developed for industrial scale applications require large-scale
production and efficient cold storage network for post handling operations. In Indian
conditions the availability of fresh cream and low fat milk on market racks is quite difficult.
If it is made possible to have skim milk and fresh cream as and when required in domestic
operations the instant users will be immensely helped. Presently, these are around 10 million
mixies and food processors in use in the country. These units have numerous small
attachments needed in the kitchen for domestic uses. Addition of cream separation
attachment to these units would further add to the convenience of the users. An attempt has
been made at DE Division of NDRI Karnal to develop such an attachment, which could be
adopted to different mixies and food processors without major alterations.

Most of the domestic food processors and mixies available in our country are directly
coupled to single phase universal electric motor. These units are usually provided with
variable speed control and have a speed variation from 1400 to 18000 rpm. The full load
power requirement varies from 200 to 400 watts. Since there is no rigid foundation and the
mechanical strength of the driving unit being poor, a low speed centrifuge was designed. The
unit designed consisted of raw milk, cream and skim milk pans sized to match the
requirement. The lowest pan has built-in power transmission assembly. It fixes with the
mixie and gives a fairly rigid base to the bowl. The bearings are designed to prevent
vibrations and over heating. The number of discs was reduced to 8 or 9 and the cream outlet
diameter modified. The optimum operational speed was fixed at 3250 rpm. The unit can be
adapted to different mixies by altering the plastic transmission assembly at the lowest pan in
accordance with the selected mixie. Cream of 40% richness was obtained and fat content in
skim milk varied between 0.5 to 1 per cent. It requires about ten minutes to separate 4 litres
of milk. Milk heated to 55C gave better cream separation results.

9.0 REFERENCES

Agrawala, S.P., Sawhney, I.K., and Biktam Kumar (1993). Development of cream separating attachment for
food processors and mixies. Indian Dairyman 45, 3, 113-114.
Ahmed, T. (1997) Dairy Plant engineering and management, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 237-272.
Kessler, H.G. (1981) Food Engineering and Dairy Technology, Verlag A. Kessler, Freising, Germany, 59-81.
McCabe, W.L. and Smith, J.C. (1985) Unit operations of chemical Engineering. Third Edition. McCraw-Hill,
Kogakusha Ltd.
Robinson, R.K. (1986) Advances in Milk Processing-Modern Dairy Technology, Elsevier Applied Sci. Pub.
London.
Towler, C. (1986). Developments in cream Separation and Processing. Elsevier Applied Science Publisher,
London.
CREAM AND CONSUMER CREAM PRODUCTS


Dr. C. N. Pagote
Senior Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
N.D.R.I., Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cream is one of the most important portion of milk which has been known from time
immemorial as the fatty layer that arises to the top of the milk when it stands undisturbed for
some time. It is the prime component of milk, which gives adequate profit to the person who
involved in dairy-business or dairy-industry. Cream is sold in many varieties as its products.
This topic has covered definition, classification, legal standards and composition of cream,
and technology of selected cream products, such as: coffee cream, sour cream, whipping
cream, clotted cream, etc.

2.0 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION

2.1 Cream

2.1.1 Definition

Cream may be defined as "that portion of milk which is rich in milk fat", or "that
portion of milk into which a large portion of milk fat has been gathered", or "when milk fat is
concentrated into a fraction of the original milk, that portion is known as cream".

2.1.2 Classification

Cream is not a definite specific substance. It contains all the milk constituents but in
varying proportions. The milk fat in cream may vary from 18 to 85 percent; the solids-not-fat
constituents in lower proportions than in milk. Cream may be broadly classified as:
a. Market cream:- which is used for direct consumption, and
b. Manufacturing cream:- which is used for the manufacture of dairy products.

The various types of cream and their fat contents are as follows:

i. Table cream, ii. Light cream, and iii. Coffee cream... 20-25% milk fat.
iv. Whipping cream and v. Heavy cream ... 30-40% milk fat.
vi. Plastic cream ... ... 65-85% milk fat.

2.2 Cream Products

2.2.1 Definition

Cream products are products that are enriched to a varying degree with milk fat; they
are non-acidified, acidified, whipped and may or may not have additives.

23
2.2.2 Classification

Cream products are classified according to the application, manufacturing process
and the fat content. In Germany, two standard products are known: i. Coffee cream (10%
milk fat) and ii. Whipping cream (35% milk fat). Other types of cream and their milk fat
content are:

Sour cream (30%), Sweet cream (28%), Cake cream (36%),
Butter cream (30-45%), and Plastic cream (60-75%).

3.0 LEGAL STANDARDS

3.1 According to the PFA Rules (1976)

Cream, excluding sterilized cream, is the product of cow or buffalo milk or a
combination thereof which contains not less than 25 percent milk fat.

3.2 United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization and World Health
Organization (1977)

The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization and World Health
Organization (1977) have suggested the following standards for market cream:

a. Pasteurized, sterilized & UHT treated cream ... 18% milk fat
b. Half-cream ... ... 10-18% milk fat
c. Whipping cream ... ... 28% milk fat
d. Heavy whipping cream ... ... 35% milk fat
e. Double cream ... ... 45% milk fat

3.3 According to FAO standards

According to FAO standards, the following classification is made according to the fat
content:

a. Cream ... 18-26%
b. Light cream (or coffee cream) > 10%
c. Whipping cream > 28%
d. Heavy cream > 35%
e. Double cream > 45%

4.0 COMPOSITION

The increasing fat content of cream, changes the percentages of all other components.
Cream with a fat content of 30% has the following composition (in Germany). The chemical
composition of cream with 25% fat and 50% fat (both form USA) has given in the following
table:


24
Table 1. Chemical composition of cream

Constituents Percentage


Fat 30 25.00 50.00
Water 64 68.20 45.45
Serum: Protein 02.4 02.54 01.69
Lactose 03.5 03.71 02.47
Minerals/Ash 00.4 00.56 00.37
Total solids 36 31.80 54.55
Solids-not-fat 06 06.80 04.55


In addition, vitamins, enzymes, trace elements and acids are present in cream.

It will be observed from the above composition that the higher the fat percentage in
cream, lower the solids-not-fat content. The formula for determining the percentage of solids-
not-fat in cream is:

%SNF in cream = [(100 - %fat in cream) / (100 - %fat in milk)] x [%SNF in milk].

5.0 CREAM PRODUCTS

5.1 Coffee Cream

5.1.1 Terms and Required Characteristics

Coffee cream is a shelf-stable product with a fat content of >10%. It is homogenized
and UHT processed, filled aseptically or sterilized in the container. Its shelf life is longer,
similar to UHT milk. Its key function is to whiten coffee, but it is also used in the preparation
of food and drinks and for direct consumption. The important quality criteria are taste,
whitening power and stability in hot coffee.

5.1.2 Method of Manufacture

First, the fat content must be standardized as required. Coffee cream treated by the
UHT process, is filled aseptically into one-way containers of standard net volumes [10 ml
(portion pack) up to 0.25 l]. When preserving coffee cream by the sterilization process, it is
first fat standardized, then pasteurized at 90C, homogenized, filled into bottles, closed by
crown corks and finally sterilized in retorts.

Importance of homogenization: Coffee cream must be homogenized. This prevents a
fat layer or fat plug in the container, thus improving taste, whipping power and stability.
Homogenization has a direct influence on the flocculation stability of coffee cream in hot
coffee. A double-stage homogenization is optimal for UHT cream. The first homogenization
is done before the UHT treatment; the second aseptic one is done after the UHT treatment.
For both process, the pressure in the first stage should be about 200 bar and in the second

25
stage about 50 bar. When sterilizing cream in the pack, homogenization has to take place
before the sterilization, which again is a double-stage process using the same pressure
(200/50 bar).

Flocculation of cream in hot coffee is due mainly to casein precipitation. For example,
homogenized casein-free cream, enriched with whey proteins has significantly improved
flocculation stability when it is preheated at 90C for 5 min because of whey protein
denaturation.

5.2 Sour Cream

5.2.1 Terms and Required Characteristics

This is a heavy-bodied ripened cream of high acidity (0.6% as lactic acid), clean
flavour and smooth texture. It should have following organoleptic criteria.

Appearance: White to yellowish, slightly creamy.
Flavour: Clean, slightly acidic, rich.
Taste: Clean, milk-sour, flavorful.

5.2.2 Method of Manufacture

Take a sweet cream and standardize to get 18-20% milk-fat. It is then pasteurized,
homogenized (preferably at a low temperature to promote formation of homogenization
clusters) and chilled to 15-20 C, and the final fat content is set. Then, it has to be inoculated
with an aerobic starter (i.e. lactic acid/butter culture) @ 2-4% at 20C, and allow for
fermentation until the desired qualities are obtained. During the acid production, the
homogenization-clusters flocculate, resulting in a highly viscous cream. To increase the
firmness, rennet or thickening agent are sometimes added to the sweet cream. When the pH
has reached to 4.5 (or once the cream has reached an SH-value of 25-35), the cream is further
cooled with gentle stirring and then chilled to 2-4 C and packed (by filling into one-way
containers or bottles). Alternatively, souring in the package may be applied. Sour cream is
mainly used in prepared foods, less often in drinks or beverages.

5.3 Whipping Cream

5.3.1 Terms and Desirable Properties

Terms: Whipping cream is one of the food foam. This concerns 35-40% fat cream. It
is widely accepted due to its multiple applications in decorating and refining of food. The
cream is usually whipped immediately prior to consumption, either by the consumer or in the
catering outlets (restaurants, bakeries and others). It is therefore, primarily designed to be
beaten into foam, often with sugar added. It is mostly available as a pasteurized product in
small bottles, plastic cups, or large cans. It is also sold as in-can sterilized cream, and even
supplied with sugar and a driving gas in an aerosol-can that delivers a ready-made whipped
cream.

Desirable Properties: The most important specific requirements for the desirable
product are:

26
(a) Flavour: The product is eaten for its flavour, which obviously must be perfect. Rancid
and tallowy flavours in the original milk should be rigorously avoided; this requirement is
even more essential than for coffee cream. Not everybody appreciates a sterilization flavour
or even a pronounced cooked flavour, and partly because of this the cream usually is
pasteurized.

(b) Keeping quality: Many kinds of spoilage can occur, but it is often desirable to store the
cream for a prolonged time. The original milk should contain not more than a few heat-
resistant bacteria, above all. Bacillus cereus is a disastrous microorganism in whipping cream
(it causes the fat emulsion to become unstable). Nor should growth of psychrotrophs occur in
the original milk because they form heat-resistant lipases. To allow for a fairly long shelf life,
the pasteurized cream should be packed under strictly hygienic or even aseptic conditions.
Recontamination by bacteria arises many complaints. Therefore, whipping cream is often
heated by in-can or in-bottle pasteurization.

Contamination by even minute amounts of copper causes autoxidation and hence off-
flavour. Some coalescence of the fat globules during processing can readily lead to cream
plug formation during storage. A cream plug implies that the product can hardly be removed
from the bottle; moreover, it will readily churn rather than whip during beating in of air.

(c) Whippability: The cream should quickly (i.e. in a few minutes) and easily whip-up to
form a firm and homogeneous product, containing about 50% (v/v) of air (i.e. 100% overrun).

(d) Stability after whipping: The whipped cream should be firm enough to retain its shape,
remain stable during deformation (as in "decoration"), not exhibit coarsening of the air cells,
and show negligible leakage of liquid.
Sometimes carrageenan is added as a thickening agent.

5.3.2. Method of Manufacture

The classical manufacture of whipping cream is fairly simple. In which, cream
obtained from pasteurized milk is taken and standardized to 36% milk fat. After adding
thickening agent, it has to be pasteurized at 85C for 30 minutes, and then cooled to 5C and
packed.

The pasteurization of the cream should at least be sufficient to fully inactivate milk
lipase. Usually, the heat treatment is far more intense in order to improve the bacterial
keeping quality. The way of heating, as well as the heating intensity, varies widely; holder
pasteurization (e.g., 30 min at 85C), heating in a heat exchanger (possibly over 100C), and
in-can (bottle) heating (e.g., 20 min at 103C) are used. Likewise the manufacturing
sequence, separation temperature, and so forth vary widely. Sometimes the cream is stirred in
an open vat at rather high temperature in order to deodorize it; vacreation is not suited
because it damaged the fat globules.

Such damage, especially (partial) coalescence of the fat globules, should be avoided.
The milk, and especially the cream, should be handled gently. The cream should not be
processed or pumped unless the fat is completely liquid or largely solid, i.e., only at
temperatures below 5C or above 40C. Hence, bottle filling of hot cream followed by
cooling would be preferable, but it is rather uneconomical.


27
Sterilization of whipping cream may cause problems. In-bottle or in-can sterilization,
often causes coalescence, unless the cream is first homogenized. However, most
homogenized cream cannot be whipped. Accordingly, UHT heating is to be preferred, also
because of the flavour (direct UHT heating causes strong homogenization); the cream should
then be homogenized aseptically at low pressure and the composition should be adjusted
("emulsifier" added). A disadvantage of UHT whipping cream is that the temperature
fluctuations to which it may be subject (it is often stored un-cooled for a time) can cause "re-
bodying". This implies a considerable increase in viscosity that, moreover, strongly impairs
the whipping properties (churning rather than whipping).

To be readily whippable on delivery, the cream needs first to be kept refrigerated for a
day in order to ensure that all fat globules contain some solid fat. To prevent creaming during
storage, a thickening agent is generally added (e.g., 0.01% k-carrageenan).

5.3.3. Whipping Process

When skim milk is beaten, a foam with very rich in air is rapidly formed on top of the
liquid. This, proceeds more slowly when cream is beaten and the air bubbles stay in the liquid
for a longer time. This is partly because of the higher viscosity but also because the fat
globules directly penetrate the air-water interface, attaching themselves to the air bubbles and
spreading some liquid fat onto the bubble surface. Because of this the films between closely
approached air bubbles are rather unstable and initially the bubbles coalesce readily. The far
globules are so highly concentrated that they readily show partial coalescence (clumping). In
this way a structure of clumped fat globules formed, enclosing the air bubbles and giving a
rigid a d stable foam. To achieve this, air cells and fat clumps should be similar size,
preferably 10-100 m. The foam increases in firmness during whipping, but it also becomes
coarser. On prolonged beating, the clumps become so large and few that they cannot stabilize
but a few large air cells: the whipping becomes churning and the clumps become butter
grains; the air bubbles coalesce and disappear again.

The balance between foaming and churning partly depends on the way of beating. If
this is too slow, the cream may churn prematurely. Vigorous beating causes a high overrun
and finely structured and smooth foam. The smaller the air cells, the less clumping is needed
to enclose the bubbles and to produce a firm foam.

It is also possible to foam an emulsion without clumping occurring. Such a product
may be sold in aerosol cans; thus it is not beaten, but the foam forms when the gas pressure is
released. Obviously, time does not suffice for sufficient clumping to occur. The fat globules
curtail the overrun. They should not destabilize the air bubbles. This may be achieved by
considerably reducing globule size. Proteins or other surfactants may cause some foam
stability. But since encapsulation of air bubbles with fat globules does not occur, the foam is
mostly unstable to manipulation and it soon becomes coarser due to Ostwald ripening of the
air cells. On the other hand, these products often have a high overrun, over 200%, instead of
around 100% for ordinary whipped cream.

5.3.4. Factors for Whippability

Several properties of the cream affect the whipping process.


28
(a) Fat content has a considerable effect (see Fig. 15.7). But the influence depends on the
conditions during whipping. The more intensive the beating, the lower the fat content of
the cream allowing a stable foam to form, and the higher the overrun.
(b) Crystallization of the fat is essential for clumping. If the amount of liquid fat is high,
clumping is too rapid and the foam becomes unstable. Hence, deep cooling and a
sufficient cooling time of the cream are essential, as is a low temperature during storage
and at whipping. Obviously, the composition of the fat has an effect: There may be more
problems in summer than in winter.
(c) Further composition of the cream. Presumably protein is needed, especially when beating
starts, to form foam cells. Addition of thickening agents hardly affects whipping, but
leakage of liquid is considerably reduced.
(d) Homogenization considerably impairs the whippability; the globules become too small to
clump rapidly. This may, however, be better than expected if the fat globules have formed
homogenization clusters because far less clumping is needed in that case.
Homogenization at low pressure (1-4 MPa), preferably in two stages (e.g., 2 and 0.7 MPa
at 35C), can give clusters of some 15-20 m in diameter.
(e) Supplying the surface layers with other surface-active substances decreases the formation
of clusters and increases the tendency to clumping; then homogenization at higher
pressure may be applied. The surfactant added may be a mono-glyceride or a Tween; the
latter drastically affects the whipping properties.

5.4 Clotted Cream

5.4.1. Terms and Required Characteristics

Clotted cream is exceedingly rich, containing form 60-70% milk fat. This fat is
present in the cream in a finely emulsified condition, which renders it usually digestible. The
product will have a peculiar boiled taste and rough appearance, and will exhibit a white-
flaked surface. The average composition of clotted cream will have: 67.50% milk fat; 4.90%
protein; 1.00% lactose, 0.50% ash and 26.10% water.

5.4.2. Method of Manufacture

There is no standardized method of preparing clotted cream. Several systems are used,
varying chiefly as regards the method of obtaining the raw cream, and resulting in
considerable variation in the texture, flavour and appearance of the finished product. The
flavour and physical consistency of cream are depends upon: i. the acidity of original milk, ii.
the temperature of scalding, and iii. the time allowed for scalding.

The several methods of manufacture in common use are: a. Earthen bowl method b.
Shallow pan system c. Scalding over separated milk, and d. Direct scalding method.
The last two methods make use of cream mechanically separated from the original milk.
These methods are used with milk of unknown or doubtful cleanliness. Whereas, first two
system may sour the product during scalding process, when cream will possess a poor
keeping quality.

It is prepared by heating cream to 77-88 C in shallow pans and then allowing it to
cool slowly. The surface layer consists of clotted cream, which is skimmed off and strained.


29
Clotted cream was long considered a luxury product but it has been widely
recommended by the medical profession as an excellent fatty food, particularly for use in the
dietary of invalids.

5.5 Canned or Sterilized Cream

5.5.1 Required Characteristics

Canned cream generally possesses a peculiar flavour due to its processing, and high
viscosity due to homogenization. Texture should be smooth. It should be free from lumpiness
and separation of serum. Sterilization spoils its whipping quality. The fat content is about 20-
25%, and solids-not-fat content may vary between 6.5-9.5%.
5.5.2 Method of Manufacture

The various steps are: i. Fresh-sweet cream is first standardized to 20% milk fat. ii.
Pre-heated to 80C without holding. iii. Then, double homogenized at 80C, using 2500-3000
psi in the first stage and 500 psi in the second stage. iv. Immediately cooled to 16C. v. Filled
into tin-cans or bottles, and immediately sealed. vi. Sterilized in retorts (as for evaporated
milk) employing 15 minutes for coming-up, 12-14 minutes for holding at 118C, and 15
minutes for cooling to room temperature.

5.6 Plastic Cream

5.6.1 Terms and Required Characteristics

Plastic cream is highly viscous than any other type of cream. Its texture is resembles
to paste. Its fat content is between 65-85%. It can be used directly for the manufacture of
butter-oil.

5.6.2. Method of Manufacture

This is obtained by i. re-separating normal cream (30-40% fat) in a normal cream
separator, or by ii. separating milk in an especially designed 'plastic cream separator'. In both
the above cases, the initial product is pasteurized at about 71-77 C for 15 minutes and cooled
to 60-66 C before separation.

6.0 FURTHER READING

'Dairy Technology'-Principles of Milk Properties and Processes. Editors: Walstra P., Geurts T.J., Nooman A.,
Jellema A. and M.A.J.S. van Boekel; Publ.: (c) 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.
'Milk & Dairy Products Technology'. Editor: Edgar Spreer; Publ.: (c) 1998 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.
'Milk Products'. Editors: WM Clunie Harvey and Harry Hill; Second Edition, 1999. Publ.: Biotech Books,
Delhi.
'The Butter Industry': Hunziker O.F., La Grange, Illinois (1940).




DEVELOPMENTS IN PRESERVATION OF CREAM



Dr. R. R. B. Singh
Sr. Scientist
Division of Dairy Technology
NDRI, Kanal-132 001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cream is a high moisture product and is therefore perishable. Processing of cream
is essential to prevent spoilage and extend keeping quality. This could be accomplished by
application of unit operations such as chilling, freezing and thermal treatments. Pasteurization
of cream for extending the keeping quality to a period longer than its natural shelf life has
been practiced for a very long time. Extremely limited shelf life and formation of cream plug
which could sometimes totally solidify into a gel are major defects of pasteurized cream. The
free fat content may result from disruption of the membranes during thermal processing or
from mechanical treatment through pumping or air incorporation. There are however other
processing technologies available which could overcome these difficulties and extend the
shelf life to acceptable levels.

2.0 IN-PACKAGE STERILIZATION

Thermal treatment to cream so as to destroy microorganisms and enzymes coupled
with suitable packaging to prevent post processing contamination result in significant
increase in shelf life of the product. The conventional method of sterilization requires the
product to be packaged and the complete package and material subjected to heating in a retort
or hydrostatic sterilizer using temperature-time regimes of 110-120
o
C for 10-20 min. The can
and glass bottles have been the traditional containers but the retortable plastic materials are
now available for packaging. The severe heating during in-package sterilization induces gross
changes in the cream with protein denaturation, Maillard browning and fat agglomeration
resulting in texture and flavour defects. Calcium sequestering agents such as sodium citrate or
sodium phosphates have been found to make more casein available for stabilizing the
emulsion. The unit packaging volumes are generally small (<400-500 ml) so as to allow rapid
heat transfer. Generally reduced cream (23% fat) is suitable for use in dressings, sausages
and as dessert adjunct. Higher fat creams are seldom subjected to in-package sterlization as
their high viscosity reduce heat transfer and it is difficult to stabilize them against
coagulation.

3.0 UHT PROCESSING

UHT processing followed by aseptic packaging has emerged as a new method of
preserving cream and a wide range of functional creams are now available that can be stored
at room temperature for several months. UHT processing refers to heating cream to 135-
150C for 3-5 Sec. These high temperatures and short holding times necessitate that the
equipment is so designed as to meet these conditions. There are two major types of steam/hot
water-based continuous flow UHT processing systems: Direct heating and Indirect heating.


31
3.1 UHT Heating Systems

3.1.1 Direct heating

The standardized cream is heated to 75-85
o
C in a pre-heater and a final heater
(Fig.1). The product then goes to the mixing chamber where steam is mixed directly with the
cream. The steam immediately condenses thus releasing the heat of vaporization, which heats
the cream. The mixture then flows through a holding tube and then enters tangentially into
the vacuum expansion chamber. A pressure-retaining valve at the entry point maintains the
saturated steam pressure corresponding to the sterilizing temperature in the holding tube. The
cooling of sterilized cream takes place in the vacuum chamber. The vacuum has to be so
adjusted that exactly the same amount of water evaporates as was added in the mixing
chamber. The processed cream then passes to an aseptic homogenizer, cooler and aseptic
packaging unit (Hinrichs and Kessler, 1996).








3.1.2 Indirect heating

For products like cream, which has higher viscosity, plate heat exchangers with wide
gaps between the plates and adequate plate profiles are used to improve the pressure drop in
the plant and to increase the overall heat transfer. The cream is preheated and passed through
a homogenizer to holding and UHT heating section. This is followed by regenerative and
final cooling. The homogenizer could be placed alternatively after the UHT heating section.
In this case, the homogenization process has to be carried out aseptically.


Fig.1. Direct type heating plant for cream

32
Fig.2. Indirect type UHT plant for cream

To avoid the mixing of non-heated cream with heated cream in the downstream
regeneration section, it is necessary to get a 50-100 kPa higher pressure in the downstream
rather than in the upstream regeneration section. This is realized by the installation of a
pressure pump before final UHT heating or after holding, and a pressure-retaining valve after
the cooling section. The valve regulates the positive difference in pressure in the down stream
regeneration section and also keeps the pressure in the plant high enough to prevent boiling.

The installation of a pressure-retaining valve can be unfavourable when dealing with
high-fat cream because the valve behind the cooling section leads to higher shear stress in the
product, accompanied by fat damage.

Use of tubular heat exchanger is an alternative method of indirect heating of cream. A
tubular heat exchanger for cream contains internal tubes for the product flow surrounded by
an external tube, through which the cooling or heating medium flows. The tubular heaters
could have spiral-grooved surfaces for improved heat transfer. As the circulating water
remains sterile, it is not necessary to install a pressure pump in the heating process and a
pressure-retaining valve for a positive difference in pressure in the regeneration section.

3.2 Quality of UHT Cream

The high temperature and short time treatment used during UHT processing induce
chemical changes that are far less severe than those brought about by in-container
sterilization. However, other changes such as creaming and fat agglomeration do take place
on storage. Control of processing parameters and use of additives are therefore essential to
overcome these problems.

Coffee cream tends to feather more after a period of storage. The index of feathering
is related to a progressive increase in the proportion of calcium and casein associated with the
fat phase of the cream. An increase in the proportion of calcium and casein content (to
provide more buffering capacity to the acid in coffee) and a reduction in calcium content
markedly increase resistance to feathering during storage. The gravitational separation of fat
in the stored cream is inhibited through homogenization and the extent of homogenization
has a marked effect on the whitening of the coffee cream (Towler, 1982). Geyer and Kessler
(1989) have shown that resistance to feathering can be induced by coating the fat globules

33
with denatured whey protein. Abrahamsson et al,. (1988) have shown that homogenization
conditions markedly affect resistance to feathering. Optimum stability is achieved with two-
stage homogenization (20Mpa/5Mpa), both upstream and downstream of the UHT process.

The production of UHT whipping cream presents problems that require compromises
to create a long shelf life and adequate functional attributes. Homogenization, which inhibits
creaming, has a deleterious effect on whipping properties. It is essential that homogenization
be downstream of the UHT process to reform membranes damaged by the heating process.
This necessitates the use of an aseptic homogenizer; some tubular systems use a high-
pressure feed pump with remote homogenizing valves after the heating tubes. Additives can
markedly improve the stability and properties of UHT whipping cream. Stabilsers, such as
hydrocolloids, gums and gelatin, inhibit fat rise and agglomeration of fat. Emulsifiers aid the
whipping properties of the creams; some substantially increase overrun through their surface
activity, whereas others will enhance fat globule interactions to decrease whipping times and
form stiffer whips. Their incorporation is limited by the off-flavours they impart. Kieseker
and Zadow (1973) have reported the effect of several factors on the properties of UHT
whipping cream. They showed that whipping improved with separation at low temperature
and addition of calcium, but the cream had poor storage stability, whereas separation at high
temperature and addition of calcium sequestering led to creams with good storage stability
but poor whipping properties.

3.2 Aseptic Packaging

The major requirement of an aseptic packaging unit is to prevent recontamination of
the sterilized milk. The principal considerations in this regard include sterilization of the
filling machine and packaging material by suitable physical and/or chemical means and
maintaining aseptic barriers during filling and sealing. Besides the equipment and packaging,
gas used to pressurising the filling space is one of the sources of recontamination of milk.
Thus mechanical failures such as inadequate heating of the gas, leaks in valves and pin-holes
in filters may cause recontamination and must therefore be checked.





















1-Control panel
2-Reel
3-Manual splicer
4-Date stamping unit
5-Strip applicator
6-H
2
o
2
bath
7-Roller
8-Shaping tube
9-Filling pipe
10-Heating element
11-Longitudinal sealing
12-Tube heater
13-Product leveler
14-Top sealing element
Fig.3. Aseptic packaging unit-Tetra brik

34
3.2.1 Sterilization of the packaging and the filler environment

Treatment with hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
) is one of the principal way of sterilizing
the packaging film. Although H
2
O
2
also shows poor effectiveness at ambient temperatures, its
high sporicidal effect at 80C makes it useful for packaging sterilization. It is first applied on
the material and then evaporated by heating through hot air or infra-red radiation. The
limitations of the use of H
2
O
2
are: (i) the surfactant(s) or wetting agents used for uniform
deposition on the packaging film, cannot be evaporated by heat and thus may find their way
into milk, (ii) the vapours of H
2
O
2
must be exhausted to avoid injury to the workers, and (iii)
the efficacy of its removal by evaporation must be monitored through routine testing of milk
(Burton, 1988; Buchner, 1993).

While steam or hot water is effective in sterilization of the milk carrying tubes, hot air
(300C) with or without filtration, is commonly used for sterilization of the air injected in the
filling space. Air at 330-350
o
C (for 30 min) may also be used for milk tube sterilization.
Sterilized air reduced to 180-200C is used to evaporate H
2
O
2
and when cooled to 50C can
be employed for pressurizing the filling chamber.

Aseptic barriers in the form of steam or circulated liquid sterilant become necessary
with valves and fittings coming in contact with sterile milk. Detection of leakers by using a
dye test is imperative to check recontamination of the packaged sterile milk.

3.2.2 Aseptic packaging systems

Filling of commercially sterile cream in sterilized packages/containers in a sterile
environment, and hermetically sealing the same to prevent recontamination of the product
can be achieved in two major ways: (a) using presterilized preformed containers such as
bottle and cans, and (b) sterilizing the packaging material, forming it into suitable containers,
filling the sterile product and sealing the package on the so-called form-fill-and-seal (FFS)
machines. The latter employs a multiply laminate of polyethylene, polystyrene and/or
polypropylene films, paper and aluminium foil.

The most widely used FFS Tetra Pak systems using tetrahedron cartons, and Tetra-
Briks or hexahedron cartons are characterized by continuous formation of the package below
the milk level from a paper/PE/Al laminate strip which has been continuously sterilized by
H
2
O
2
boiled off by radiant heat in the region immediately above the milk surface thus giving
a sterile atmosphere in the packaging zone. Recently Tetra Pak has introduced the so-called
'Pillow Pak' to cut down the packaging cost of UHT milk.

4.0 FREEZING

Freezing of cream inhibits bacterial spoilage but also leads to destabilization, and
gross separation of fat and serum results on thawing. Such cream is suitable for reprocessing.
The cream may be used as an additive for cream soups, where flavour is the prime
consideration, or in recombined milk and ice cream where homogenization is an essential part
of the process. The method of freezing could be either a blast freezing chamber through
which bulk containers with cream are passed or alternatively a plate or rotary-drum freezers.
Cryogenic freezing tunnels are also being used for a far more rapid freezing process (Towler,
1994).


35
4.1 Plate Freezers

In plate freezing, the plates contain circulating refrigerant and are arranged vertically,
in parallel, with bottom and end seals to form a series of moulds with hydraulic pressure
maintaining the plates in place. The cream is poured into gaps between plates, and surface
freezing is instantaneous at the precooled plate surface; this is essential to prevent adhesion of
the cream to the plate. The cream freezes progressively toward the center with refrigerant in
the plates absorbing the heat, so that finally slabs of frozen cream are formed. The slabs are
removed for packaging and subsequent storing by separating the plates.

4.1.1 Rotary-drum freezers

In drum freezing, a rotating drum containing recirculating refrigerant is immersed in a
vat of cream to form a frozen film. The frozen cream is then removed from the drum with a
knife, and a flaked product is obtained. Such a process gives somewhat more rapid freezing
than plate freezing, is less damaging to the cream and is continuous. The major disadvantage
is that the flakes have a lower density than the slabs when packaged in bulk, and more freezer
space is required for storage. Figure 4 illustrates the principle of drum freezing. It is essential
that cream is adequately pasteurized to destroy enzymes, as many are still active at the low
temperatures used in frozen storage. A temperature less than 18
o
C is also recommended for
long-term storage of frozen cream, as the rate of deterioration is inversely related to
temperature of storage.






Without the use additives, the stability of cream through a freeze- thaw cycle can only
be ensured by the use of rapid freezing. It is only in rapid freezing that the ice crystals are
small and rupture of fat globule membranes is minimized. Londahl and Johansson (1974) first
reported the development of the Pellofreeze machine (Frigoscandia, Sweden), which provides
rapid freezing of cream contained as thin sheet between two continuous stainless steel belts
sprayed with low temperature glycol. The resultant frozen sheet is then broken up into flakes.
This frozen cream thaws to form a fluid product that can be used as a normal consumer
cream. Whipping cream and double cream are marketed in such forms; the cream flakes are
packaged in heat-sealed plastic bags as used for frozen vegetables.

Fig.4. Rotary drum freezer

36
Fig. 5. Cryogenic freezing tunnel
4.1.2 Cryogenic freezing process

Rapid freezing can also be achieved through cryogenic process using the latent heat of
low temperature boiling liquids to remove heat. Liquid nitrogen, which has a boiling point of
196 C, will freeze cream very rapidly. Work with a freezing tunnel has shown that a
satisfactory frozen cream for direct consumer use can be produced by such a system. Figure 5
illustrates the principle of the freezing technique. Cream is poured into suitable containers on
a continuously rotating belt, which, in turn, feeds the containers into an insulated tunnel.
Liquid nitrogen is introduced at a point towards the other end of the tunnel and a series of
fans distributes the cold nitrogen gas through the tunnel. Freezing is thus accomplished by an
essentially counter-current flow of cold nitrogen gas, and the frozen cream is removed on
exiting the tunnel. In another cryogenic pocess (Towler, 1994), cream is pumped into a
circulating stream of liquid nitrogen; the cream breaks up into droplets and its crust frozen in
less than 10s. The frozen pea-like droplets are separated from the liquid nitrogen with a
perforated surface and freezing is complete in a turbulent gas stream.






Experiments on cryogenic freezing of cream have shown that the state of the cream is
equally as important as the rapidity of the freezing process in the prevention of
destabilization. The preservation of the natural milk fat globule membrane is very important
in getting freeze-thaw stability. Homogenization adversely affects freeze-thaw stability as
does partial churning or separation at high temperature. Additives, such as emulsifiers and
stabilizers, assist in the freeze-thaw stability of cream if rapid freezing is not possible. Low
molecular weight carbohydrates, such as glucose and sucrose, give protection against
freezing, hence sweet creams can be frozen successfully and stored. The storage of frozen
cream for consumer purposes demands not only a low temperature, but also a constant
temperature, as temperature cycling may lead to the formation of larger ice crystals with
resultant damage to the fat globules.

5.0 CONCLUSION

Cream is a premium dairy product. Its rich flavour and unique properties make it an
ideal ingredient for very wide range of food applications. However, presence of milk fat
poses problems with regard to its early deterioration. New methods of preservation therefore
offer opportunities for developing newer products with better functional attributes and
extended shelf life.


37
6.0 REFERENCES

Abrahamsson, K., Frennborn, P., Dejmek, P. and Buchheim, W. (1988) Effect of homogenization and heating
conditions on physico-chemical properties of coffee cream. Milchwissenschaft, 43, 762-765
Buchner, N. (1993) Aseptic processing and packaging of food particulates. In: Aseptic processing and
packaging of particulate foods, Blackie Academic and Professional, UK, p. 1-21.
Burton, H. (1988) UHT processing of minlk and milk products, Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Geyer, S. and Kessler, H.G. (1989) Influence of individual milk constituents on coffee cream feathering in hot
coffee. Milchwissenschaft, 43, 762-765.
Hinrichs, J. and Kessler, H. G. (1996) processing of UHT cream, IDF Bulletin N315 p.
Kieseker, F. G., Zadow, J. G. and Aitken, B. (1979) Further developments in the manufacture of powdered
whipping creams. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 34, 112-116.
Londahl, G. and Johansson, S. (1974) In-line freezing of cream. In: Brief communications, XIX International
Dairy Congress, Volume IE, p. 649-650.
Towler, C. (1982) UHT sterilized coffee creams. In: Brief communications, XXI International Dairy Congress,
Volume I, Book 2, p. 114.
Towler, C. (1994) Developments in cream speration and processing. In: Modern Dairy Technology, vol.1 (Ed.
R. K. Robinson), Chapman and Hall, UK, p. 61-106


TECHNOLOGY OF BUTTER MANUFACTURE-
CONVENTIONAL PROCESS




Dr. B.B. Verma
Senior Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Butter, a fat rich dairy product obtained by churning cream and working the granules
thus obtained into a compact mass, has been a staple item of diet in many countries of the
world. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century, manufacture of this product was mainly
confined to the farm on cottage scales. It was only after the development of centrifugal
cream separator in 1879, fat testing methods by Babcock (1890) and Gerber (1892) together
with introduction of artificial refrigeration and pasteurization around 1890, the industrial
production of butter developed rapidly. Prior to 1970 most of the worlds butter was
manufactured by batch-process however, since World War-II, continuous processes have
been introduce to achieve increased manufacturing efficiencies. Regardless of manufacturing
method employed, the essential feature of churning evolves destabilization of cream emulsion
by means of mechanical agitation.

Butter and other fat spreads can be characterized by the type of emulsion. In milk or
cream, fat is dispersed in the continuous phase of serum while in butter, there is a reversal of
phase i.e. fat becomes the continuous phase with serum dispersed in it. A clear distinction
can be made between cream and butter in terms of phase distribution. Butter when melted to
45C a clear butter fat layer and other layer containing serum is formed.

2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF BUTTER

Butter can broadly be classified as (i) sour cream butter (made from ripened cream)
having pH 5.1 (ii) Mildly acidified butter (made from partially acidified or sweet cream)
having pH in the range of 5.2 to 6.3 and (iii) sweet cream butter (made from non acidified
cream; this includes butter in which no bacterial culture have been worked in to enhance
diacetyl content) having pH of 6.4.

3.0 LEGAL REQUIREMENT OF BUTTER

According to Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) of Government of India,
two classes of butter are specified:

3.1 Table (Creamery) Butter

Table (creamery) butter is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a
combination thereof, with or without the addition of common salt and annatto or carotene as
colouring matter. It should be free from other animal fats, wax and mineral oils, vegetable
oils and fats. No preservative except common salt and no colouring matter except annatto or
carotene may be added. It must contain not less than 80% milk fat and not more than 1.5%
curd and not more than 3% common salt (by weight). Diacetyl content must not exceed 4

39
ppm. Calcium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, sodium polyphosphates
may be added, but must not exceed the weight of butter as a whole by more than 0.2%.

3.2 Desi (Cooking) Butter

Desi (cooking) butter refers to the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a
combination thereof, or curd obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof
without the addition of any preservative, including common salt, any added colouring matter
or any added flavouring agent. It should be free from other animal fats, wax and mineral
oils and vegetable oils or fats. It should contain not less than 76% of milk fat by weight.

If butter is sold or offered for sale without any indication as to whether it is table
better or desi butter, the standards of quality prescribed for table butter shall apply.

4.0 BIS STANDARDS FOR BUTTER

BIS (IS 13690:1992) specifies two types of butter

a) Table Butter: Means the product made from pasteurized cream obtained from
pasteurized cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof with or without ripening with the
use of standard lactic culture, addition of common salt, annatto or carotene as colouring
matter and diactyl as flavouring agent.

b) White butter: Means the product made from pasteurized cow or buffalo milk or
combination thereof or pasteurized cream of cow or buffalo or combination therefore of
without ripening and without the addition of any preservative including common salt, any
added colouring matter or any added flavouring agent.

Table: BIS (IS 13690:1992) Standards for butter

Requirements
Constituents Table butter White butter
Milk fat 80% min. 82 min.
Moisture 16% max. 16 max.
Acidity LA 0.15% max. 0.06 max.
Curd 1.0% max. 1.5 max.
Common salt 2.5% max. -
Coli count 5/ml. max. 5/ml. max.
Total Yeast & mould count 20/ml max. i20/ml. max

Diacetyl if used in Table butter shall not exceed 4 ppm (see IS: 3507, 1966)

5.0 MANUFACTURE OF BUTTER

Steps involved in conventional process of butter making (fig. 1) are described below.

40
Butter
Milk receipts Cream receipts

Grading
Cream separation Weighing Neutralisation
Sampling
Testing

Cream for butter making

Cream processing
Standardisation
Pasteurisation
Cooling & ageing
Ripening

Cream ready for churning
Butter manufacture

Loading of Churn Colour addition

Churning of cream

Butter grain Butter milk
Draining of butter-milk
Butter grain
Washing
Initial working
Addition of salt & moisture
Final working



Packaging material Packaging Storage Distribution



Fig 1 Flow diagram for butter manufacture


41


5.1 Preparation of Cream

Commercial butter can be produced from both sweet as well as cultured cream. Very
little cultured butter is produced in India and U.S.A., although in Europe and Canada,
cultured butter is an important product. However, most creamery prefer to produce butter
from sweet cream as it result in sweet butter milk which has better economic value than sour
butter-milk that results when sour/cultured cream is churned.

5.1.1 Neutralization of cream

It is a process of standardization of acidity of cream. In case the factory is using
freshly separated cream for butter making this step can be eliminated. However, if cream is
procured from farm or collection centres, it may have developed acidity. Acidic cream tends
to coagulate on heating and results in high fat loss in butter milk. Butter made from such
cream has poor keeping quality and develops off (fishy) flavour during storage. Two general
types of neutralizer, either singly or in combination, are used for neutralization of cream.

(a) Soda neutralizer: Commonly used soda neutralizers are sodium bicarbonate, sodium
carbonate and mixture of these two (known as susqui-carbonate). These are relatively
milder alkalis. A stronger is a mixture of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and
sodium carbonate.
(b) Lime neutralizer: Commonly used lime neutralizers are: Calcium hydroxide,
magnesium hydroxide, mixture of calcium hydroxide and magnesium oxide. Amount
of neutralizer to be added can be calculated as follows:

Qty. of neutralizer = (a-b) x qty. of cream/100 NF

Where: a = initial acidity of sour cream (% LA),
b = desired level of acidity (%), and
NF = neutralization factor (it is part of lactic acid neutralized per part
of given neutralizer). N.F. for some commonly used
neutralizers are: sodium bicarbonate 1.1; sodium carbonate 1.7;
calcium hydroxide 2.43; magnesium hydroxide 3.1 and sodium
hydroxide 2.25.

(Note: When calcium hydroxide is used as neutralizer, 20% more than the calculated
quantity is added, as 20% of calcium hydroxide reacts with casein and phosphates of cream
and is not available for neutralization).

5.1.2 Standardization of cream

It refers to adjustment of fat to desired level. It is done by adding calculated quantity
of skim milk or butter milk. Desired level of fat in cream for butter making is 33 to 40 per
cent. Standardization to both higher or lower level leads to higher fat loss in butter milk.
Reduction of fat by adding water should be avoided as it interferes with proper ripening of
cream and also results in butter with flat or washed off flavour.

5.1.3 Pasteurization of cream

42

It refers to heating every particle of cream to a temperature not less that 71C and
holding it at that temperature for at least 20 min or any suitable temperature - time
combination using properly operated equipments. The main objectives of pasteurization are:
(i) It destroys pathogenic microorganisms in cream so as to make it, and the resultant butter,
safe for human consumption. (ii) It also destroys bacteria, yeast, mould, enzymes and other
biochemical agents that may lower keeping quality. (iii) It also eliminates some of the
gaseous and tainting substances. A number of equipment viz. LTLT (low temperature long
time, 74C for 30 min; HTST (high temperature short time, 85C for 15 s) and Vacreator, a
direct steam injection method, can be employed for this purpose. More severe heat treatment
of cream should be avoided as higher, the temperature the greater the migration of copper
from the milk serum into milk fat globules. This increases the level of copper associated with
the milk fat making it more prone to the development of oxidative rancidity and reduce the
shelf-life of butter (Robinson, 1994).

Pasteurization of cream for making ripened cream butter is commonly carried out at
higher temperature than for sweet cream butter e.g. 90-95C for 15 or 105-110C with no
holding. Severe heat treatment denatures whey proteins, particularly lactoglobulins,
exposing-SH groups which act as antioxidants and can enhance starter growth.

5.1.4 Ripening of cream

Ripening refers to the process of fermentation of cream with the help of suitable
starter culture. This step can be eliminated if sweet-cream butter is desired. The main object
of cream ripening is to produce butter with higher diacetyl content. Ripening improves the
keeping quality of unsalted butter but reduces the keeping quality of salted ripened butter.
Starter culture consisting a mixture of both acid producing (Streptococcus lactis, S.cremoris)
and flavour producing (S.diacetylactis, Leuconostocs, Citrovorum and/or Leuc. Dextranicum)
organisms are added. Amount of starter added depends on several factors and usually ranges
between 0.5-2.0% of the weight of the cream. After being thoroughly mixed, the cream is
incubated at about 21C till desired an acidity of 0.2-0.4% is reached. Cream is subsequently
cooled to 5-10C to arrest further acid development.

Biosynthesis of diacetyl is not significant above pH 5.2. Stopping fermentation by
cooling cream at pH 5.1-5.3 results in a mild flavour; whereas continuing fermentation to pH
4.5-4.7 results in higher levels of both diacetyl and lactic acid, giving a more pronounced
flavour.

5.1.5 Cooling and Ageing

Cooling and ageing are processes which prepare the cream for subsequent operation
of churning. When cream leaves the pasteurizer, the fat in the globule is in liquid form.
When it cools, the crystallization of liquid fat starts. Cream will not churn unless the butter
fat is at least partially crystallized. If solidification of fat is not sufficient, the fat loss in
butter are high. Rate of cooling has an important influence on the body and texture of butter.
The temperature to which cream is cooled is chosen in such a way that the butter produced is
of optimum consistency and cream churns to butter in a responsible time of about 35-45
minutes. Churning at too low temperature may yield butter with crumbly body and too firm
to work satisfactorily. Churning at too high temperature may give butter with greasy body

43
which may work up too quickly and become sticky. Generally cooling temperature in
summer should be 7-9C and that if in winter (10-13C).

5.1.5.1 Modification to cream treatment

Slow cooling of cream 20C in case of ripened cream, leads to the formation of
larger fat crystals than when sweet cream is cooled to 5-10C immediately after
pasteurization. This results in ripened-cream producing firmer butter than sweet-cream.
Studies have been conducted to counteract this effect and to produce a more consistent
product. The method often refer as the Alnarp Process has suggested following treatments
for creams with higher and lower proportion of hard fats.

a) To produce a softer butter from cream with higher melting milk fat, the cream should
first be cooled to 8C and held for 2 hour (to promote time crystals) starter culture be
added and cream gently warmed to 19C (to complete fermentation) and thereafter
cream should be cooled to 12C before churning.
b) To produce firmer butter cream with lower melting milk fat, the cream should first be
cooled to 19C, starter added and after 2 hour cream cooled to 16C and held for 3
hour before cooling to 8C and holding overnight.

These process conditions may be modified to suit individual requirements. A number
of series of processes are proposed based on the iodine value of milk fat (Samuelsson and
Pettersson, 1937;Mortensen, B.K. 1983).

5.2 Churning of Cream

It is during the churning process that cream is converted into butter. Here the fat
globules are disrupted under controlled conditions to destabilize o/w emulsion and bring
about agglomeration of milk fat. What happens during churning has been explain by
autoflotation theory of Van Dam and elaborated by King (1953). The sequence of events
that occur during churning is as follows:

i) Churning is initiated by agitation of cream causing incorporation of numerous air
bubble into the cream.
ii) With incorporation of air there is increase in the volume of cream and air plasma
interface.
iii) Surface active forms (such as frictional, impact conversion etc.) causes partial
disruption of fat globule membrane and a part of liquid fat leaves the globule and
spreads over the surface of the bubble in the form of a very-thin layer.
iv) The fat film, thus formed, serves as a foam depressant causing the air bubble to
hrust.
v) The liquid fat also serves as cementing material causing fat globules to clump
together and eventually butter grams are formed which floats in plasma i.e. butter
milk.

5.3 Initial Working

Working of butter is essentially a kneading process in which butter granules are
formed into a compact mass. During this operation, any excess moisture or butter milk is
removed. However, the emulsion (w/o) at this stage is not fully stable.

44

5.4 Salting of Butter

In conventional process, butter may be salted by adding salt to butter churn after
initial working of butter. Salt to be added must be of high quality e.g. IS 1845: 1961, with
low level of lead, iron and copper. The grain should be fine, all passing through IS: sieve-85
(aperture 8424). It should be 99.5 to 99.8%. Sodium chloride and microbial count less than
10/g. Salt sets up osomotic gradient which draws water from the butter grains. This can lead
butter to be leaky. Salted butter should therefore, must be thoroughly worked. Salt may be
added either in dry form or as saturated brine solution.

5.5 Adjustment of Moisture

After the addition of salt, the moisture content in butter is adjusted by adding
calculated amount of additional water. In most countries, maximum limit of 16% is placed
on the level of moisture. Amount of water is to be added in a batch of butter is calculated as
follows:

Amount of water = (desired moisture - initial moisture) x 1.5 x kg of fat in cream
(to be added) 100


Starter distillates may also be added at this stage to enhance the flavour of resultant
butter, if cream has not been cultured.

5.6 Final Working of Butter

The objective of working butter is to incorporate moisture and uniformly distribute
added moisture and salt in butter. During this process remaining fat globules also break up
and form a continuous phase, and moisture is finally distributed to retard bacterial growth in
butter. It is safer to slightly over-work butter than to under-work. Under-worked butter may
be leaky in body with large visible water droplets and may develop mottles on standing.
Moisture droplet size normally range between 1-15 micron and there are approximately 10
billion droplets per gram of butter. Working affects the colour of butter (making is slightly
light). Working also increases air content (which favours growth of microorganisms,
oxidative effects and, therefore, poor keeping quality). Vacuum working of butter may be
carried out with advantage to reduce the air content of butter. Vacuum range from 15-40 cm
of Hg may be used. Air content of conventional butter ranges from 3-7% by volume with an
average of 4 ml/100 g while that of vacuum worked butter it is about 1 ml/100 g.

6.0 ALTERNATIVE PROCESS FOR RIPENED BUTTER

Ripening of cream gives acidic butter-milk as by-product which lacks economic
utilization. Attempts have been made to get both the advantages, i.e. butter with good flavour
and at the same time sweet butter milk. In one method, butter is made from sweet cream and
starter culture is worked in sweet cream butter. Since care has to be taken not to exceed the
moisture content of butter, the maximum amount of culture that can be added is limited to
about 2.5%. Butter produced by this method has mild flavour. In another process, NIZO
process about 1-2% of a mixture containing diacetyl and 0.5% to 0.7% of a concentrate
containing lactic acid are added in sweet cream butter. Butter produced by this method has

45
the same pH, diacetyl, streptococci and lactic acid content as ripened cream butter. It is also
similar to ripened cream butter in its organoleptic properties. The process yields sweet cream
butter milk.

7.0 BUTTER HANDLING AND PACKAGING

Butter from batch churn may be dropped onto butter trolleys, wheeled to packer and
then either tipped or shoveled into the feedover. Fully automatic packaging units which
mechanically moulds patts and wraps are available. It reduces labour cost, handling losses
and is suitable for large scale operation. The machine can be reset for different sizes, viz. 10,
15, 100, 250 and 500 g. Some of well known brands of fully automatic butter packaging
machines are Kustner, Benhill (both German) and SIG (Swiss). In these machines, after
wrapping, the pat go to cartooning machine for packing in cardboard boxes and transferred to
cold stores (5C) for 24-28 hours and then shifted to low temperature storage (-29C).

8.0 STORAGE OF BUTTER

As butter is essentially a perishable product, it should not be stored longer than
necessary. However, when production exceeds demand and also quite often to level out the
fluctuations between high flush season production and low summer production, storage of
butter unavoidable. For short period butter can be stored at 4C but if longer storage is
involved it should be keep frozen at 23C and only best quality butter should be selected for
deep freezing. Since solubility of salt is low (35.7% at 0C), some salt crystallization may
occur during storage but the crystals redissolve on thawing.

9.0 REFERENCES

Bodyfelt, F.W., Tobias, J. and Trout, G.M. (1988) The sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
King, N.J. (1953) J. Dairy Res. 15, 589.
Mc Dowell, F.H. (1953). The Butter makers Mannual, New Zealand University Press.
Mortensen, B.K. (1983) Physical Properties and modification of milk fat. Developments in Dairy Chemistry,
Volume. II (Ed. P.F. Fox), Applied Science Publication.
Robinson, R.K. (1994) Modern Dairy Technology. Vol-I, Chapman & Hall. London.


DEVELOPMENTS IN CONTINUOUS BUTTER MAKING



Dr. Abhay Kumar
Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The development of butter making industry dates from about 1850 when gravity
settling of cream was practiced, but the invention of mechanical separator in 1877 heralded
the real beginning of the butter factory. About 1890, pasteurization of cream for butter
making was introduced with consequent improvements in keeping quality. The original
churns were made of timber, and were fitted with rollers for working the aggregated
granules. In about 1935, stainless steel churns were developed, and this type gradually
replaced the wooden churn, principally because of the ease of cleaning and sanitizing. Until
about 1937, the only way to make butter was from relatively small lots of milk or cream in
churns. The continuous butter making method developed in the 1940s based on the Fritz
principle, quickly gained wide acceptance in countries manufacturing unsalted or lightly
salted butter. However, it was not until the late 1960s that satisfactory salting methods were
developed, and the continuous machine has now largely replaced the stainless steel churn in
all major butter producing countries. The manufacture of butter by continuous machines as
compared to batch process using stainless steel churn offers following advantages (a) saving
of labour (b) greater control over the manufacturing operation (c) greater uniformity of body
and texture, and salt & moisture distribution, and (d) immediate packaging. However, the
method of manufacture of butter whether batch or continuous, the basic principle involves
destabilization of cream emulsion by means of mechanical agitation/beating.

2.0 CLASSIFICATION

The existing continuous butter making machines developed during, and after, the
second World War, can broadly be classified into three groups.

Group I: Includes process involving churning of cream of normal composition. In this
process high speed heaters are used to destabilize the fat emulsion of chilled cream. Butter
grains are obtained in a matter of seconds. The butter milk is drained away and the washing,
salting and working etc. are done prior to its extrusion from the machine. The examples for
continuous machines based on this principle include Fritz process (German), Paasch and
Silkeborg (Denmark) and Continab (French).

Group II: Includes methods involving concentration and phase reversal. In this process
cream of 30-40% fat is reseparated in special separators to get 80-82% fat. The cream thus
obtained is standardized to get what is called the butter mix. The butter mix is then
subjected to combined cooling and mechanical agitation which causes phase reversal and
butter formation. Examples for this group of machines are New Way process (Australia)
Alfa process (German), Alfa Laval process (Swedish).


47
Group III: Includes method involving concentration of 30-40% cream to get 87-99% fat.
During concentration, the emulsion is broken and cream partially oils off. The fat, moisture,
colour and salt contents are standardized. This is followed by re-emulsification, cooling,
working and finally extrusion. Example for this group of machines are cherry-Burrel process
(U.S.A), Creamery Package (U.S.A) and Kraft (U.S.A).

3.0 FRITZ PROCESS

The Fritz process has found general favour over the other continuous methods, since a
product of suitable structure and consistency is produced under hygienic conditions. There is
a definite trend in the butter manufacturing countries, especially in the case of large factories
to use the Fritz method in place of the conventional stainless steel churn,and most butter is
now manufactured using the Fritz process.

Though the various Fritz-principle machines made by various manufacturers differ in
several details from each, they all consist of the following basic sections-

Primary churning
Secondry churning
Butter milk drainage
Salt addition
Working

The basic operation is as follows: The cream flows from the cream storage tank via a
balance tank and is fed by means of a positive displacement pump to the rear of the churning
section. Proper flow rate control is essential to ensure proper churning, butter milk drainage,
working and feed to the packaging machine. The churning section consists of a horizontal
cylinder with a rapidly rotating beater, the distance between the cylinder wall and the beater
being only a few millimeters. The beater speed is variable in the range of 0-1400 rpm. The
residence time in this section is only 1-2 seconds, and it is essential, in this very short time to
form the butter granules without allowing them to become too large. The beater speed must
be accurately adjusted to enable the correct size to be obtained. If the speed is too low, the
grains will be too small and satisfactory separation of butter milk will not be possible; fat
losses into the butter milk will be excessive. If the grains are too large; to much butter milk
be entrained within the grains and satisfactory drainage will also not be possible. The speed
of the beater is affected by:

the flow rate of the cream
the fat content of the cream
the temperature of the cream
the pre treatment of the cream
the viscosity of the cream

In the separating section, the grains firstly receive a so-called secondry churning to
adjust their size to enable efficient drainage of butter milk to occur with minimum loss of fat.
The final part of this section is fitted with a fine mesh screen which allows the butter milk to
escape. If washing of the grains is anticipated a washing device can be fitted at the end of
this section.


48
After the proper formation of the butter grains and the initial drainage of butter milk,
the grains fall into the working section; in the Pasilac Machine, this consists of two separate
sections. This section is inclined and fitted with augers which propel the grains forward
while allowing further butter milk drainage. At the end of this section, there is a series of
perforated plates and mixing vanes followed by a flow regulating gate. The degree of
opening of this gate will affect the back pressure on the butter and, thus affect the drainage of
buttermilk from the butter. In addition, the speed of the auger will either increase or decrease
the residence time, which will also affect butter milk drainage. If salted butter is being made,
the salt/water slurry (50/50) is injected between the first and second working plates in this
section. A positive pump is used to accurately dose the butter with the correct quantity of
salt. Salting is done at a point immediately after the last opportunity for butter milk drainage,
in order to avoid the contamination of the latter with salt. From here the butter passes into
the vacuum chamber where its air content is reduced from about 6% to 1% v/w. The butter
now drops into the augers in the second working section, where it is pushed forward by the
augers through a further series of perforated plates. No butter milk drainage can occur in this
second working section. By measuring the dielectric constant of the butter, the percentage
moisture can be measured and consequently adjusted very accurately to the desired level by
automatic means. However, no method exists for the continuous determination of salt in
butter. After the final working, the butter is pumped to the final packaging machines by a
positive pump.

The entire system of manufacture can be computer controlled, including the
installation of video cameras to view what is happening within the machine, with a
continuous digital readout of the functions (speeds etc.) of the separate components. The
operator, therefore, has full knowledge of the total operation, and may alter any settings if
necessary. Because of the very high sensitivity of the butter machine to very small variations
in cream (percent fat, temperature, etc.) the computer system must be properly pre-
programmed, and changed as necessary, to enable it to deal, efficiently with the prevailing
conditions.

In the case of large manufacturing operations, a buffer is required between the butter
making and packaging machine. This is achieved by pumping the butter to a butter silo from
which the butter is fed by a second butter pump to the packaging machine. The pump stops
automatically when there is a stoppage in the packaging system.

3.1 Salting

This stage is one of the most vital stages in continuous butter manufacture. In order
to prevent entry of salt unto the butter milk, the salt is added immediately after the last point
from which butter milk drainage can occur. This entry point is between the first & second
perforated plates. Experience shows that the butter reaching the salting stage will contain up
to 14% moisture which means that in order to salt to 2% and maintain the legal limit of 16%
for water. The salt must be injected as a 50/50 salt/water slurry. Since salt is only 26%
soluble in water, approximately half the salt added will be undissolved. In the subsequent
butter osmolic gradients between salt and buttermilk will tend to aggregate water droplets, so
giving loose moisture and motlling. However, by careful injection of the salt, by using a
very finely ground salt (40 nm particle size with none above 50 nm), and employing no more
than 55% salt in the slurry, a satisfactory product may be produced. The salt/water mixture
should be made up at least 30 min. before churning begins, and should be violently agitated.
In this way, maximum solution and distribution of the salt is assured. Nevertheless 50% of

49
the salt added is in the form of a saturated solution dissolved in approximately one-eighth of
the overall butter moisture, the remaining salt being added as undissolved particles. In the
short period while the butter is passing through the working plates, every endeavour is made
to distribute the salt as completely possible, but it is to be expected that some migration of
salt & moisture will occur for some time after manufacture. Through, theoretically, the
moisture in the butter represents a 12.5% salt solution (i.e. 2 in 16) which would act as quite
an efficient bacteriostat the salt in practice, will not be perfectly distributed, and it is to be
expected that little or no salt will be present in some portions of the aqueous phase.
Therefore, the preservative effect of salt, while considerable, should be seen as being less
than would be expected from purely theoretical gross quantity considerations.

3.2 SNF Content in Continuous Butter making

Traditionally, the butter grains were washed using the conventional churn, and some
continuous machines are fitted with a means of spraying chilled water on the butter grains as
they fall into the working section from the secondary churning section. Wash water is a
potentially serious source of contamination and should be chlorinated effectively. With
modern equipment methods & hygiene, it is usually deemed unnecessary to wash butter. The
effect of not washing is an improved yield & flavour, a reduction in refrigeration and
manufacturing costs and the removal of perhaps the most serious potential source of
contamination. Since 2% of milk SNF is permitted in butter, and this limit is un attainable
using normal methods for sweet cream butter manufacture (the maximum is about 1.5% &
depends on the SNF content of the original milk) additional SNF is sometimes added in
concentrated form. In addition, if the solids in the butter milk are for direct recovery, then
especial care must be taken to avoid possible contamination.

3.3 Air Content

Most continuous butter making machines provide a means by which the butter can be
subjected to reduced pressure, thereby removing some air from the product. The air removed
is that which is physically entrained within the product rather than dissolved. Reducing the
air content has no effect on keeping quality, and its only purpose is to produce a more dense,
finely textured butter. Without the use of vacuum, the air content of continuously made
butter is about 7% v/w while the use of vacuum treatment reduces this value to about 1% v/w.

100
% Air in Butter = ------- (0.95-G)
0.95

= 100- 105.3 G.

where G = specific gravity of butter and .95 = specific gravity of air free butter

The specific gravity of butter may be quickly & readily determined by dividing the
weight of a known volume of butter by its volume. The air content can then the calculated
from the formula. A convenient method is to use a tube, e.g. a stainless steel pipe or glass
tube of accurately known length and diameter. The wt. of the clean dry tube is determined,
and it is then carefully pressed into the butter to fill the tube. The outside is cleaned, the
butter at the ends is evened-off, and the tube reweighed. The weight of the butter is obtained

50
by subtraction, and by dividing the weight by its volume, the specific gravity is found. A
suitable size tube would be about 2 cm diameter and 10 cm in length.

3.4 Cleaning

The general principles of cleaning and sanitizing apply to all equipment & holding
tanks for use in butter making, except in the case of the actual continuous butter making
machine. The modern machine may be cleaned without dismantling, and after any remaining
product has been removed by hot water or steam and collected, a detergent is circulated
through the various sections. The minimum of sticking of the butter to the churn, especially at
startup, is important for correct operation of the machine, and for this reason, all butter
contact surfaces are sand blasted which helps them to retain a fine film of water which
reduces sticking. In addition, the use of an appropriate detergent will make a major
contribution to reducing stickiness. Best results are obtained by circulating a
cleanser/sanilizer containing silicate just prior to churning, and if this is followed by a cold
water rinse, the nonstick effect of the silicate is not removed.

4.0 REFERENCES

Bloore, C.G., Cant, P.A.F., Jebson, R.S. and Munro, D.S. (1986) Control System IDF Bulletin 204, 21-26.
De, S. (1980) Outlines of Dairy Technology. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Kimenai, M.P. (19860 Continuous Butter manufacture, IDF Bulletin 204, 16-20.
Lambpert, L.M. (1970) Modern Dairy Products, Chemical Publishing Company, Inc. New York.
Pointuruv, H. (1986) Milk & Butter milk separation of standardization. IDF Bulletin, 204, 6-9.
ADDITIVES IN FAT RICH DAIRY PRODUCTS




Dr. Sudhir Singh
Senior Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal 132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The acceptability of food is greatly influenced by the selection of additives and its
judicious usage to increase the aesthetic quality. Salt, flavour and colour play an important
role in increasing the overall acceptability of butter. Consumer preference towards the food is
first judged by colour. The butter colour may vary from light creamy white to a dark creamy
yellow or orange yellow. There are many factors which affect the colour in butter:

Variation in the colour of butter fat
Variation in the size of butter fat granules
Variation in the type of cream
Presence or absence of salt
Conditions in the working of butter

Colour difference exhibits in the milk of two major milk yielding species of cows and
buffaloes. Buffalo milk is completely white in colour, which is devoid of yellow colour.
Indigenous breeds in cow produce milk of light yellow colour whereas crossbreed cows yield
milk of dark yellow colour. The colour of milk shows wider variation among the species as
well as among the breed of same species. Standardization of the colour of butter to a fairly
uniform shade of yellow by addition of butter colouring during manufacture, is a common
practice in most countries where large variations in butter colour occur regularly on account
of the feeding of cows on grains and meals during the winter months.

2.0 BUTTER COLOUR

2.1 Annatto

Annatto, a colouring matter of vegetable origin is derived from the pericarp of the
seeds of Bixa orellana L. The pericarp contains orange coloured coating of carotenoids. The
main pigment in the seed coat is bixin, a mono methyl ester of cis-polyene dicarboxylic acid.
Upon hydrolysis, the terminal methyl group splits off resulting into a dicarboxylic acid, the
norbixin.

Annatto colour is prepared by leaching the pericarp of the seeds with an extractant
prepared from food grade solvents. Annatto solubilized in oil is used for colouring fat based
foods like butter and margarine whereas, for colouring bi phase type of foods like cheese,
annatto solubilized in aqueous alkali is used. The major pigments in oil soluble annatto
colour are bixin and its degradation products while norbixin is the main pigment in water
soluble annatto colour. Annatto colour is used as colour additive in butter, cheese, margarine
and other food products.

52

2.2 -Carotene

It is an isomer of naturally occurring carotenoid pigments, carotene. Carotene or
provitamin A occurs naturally in products such as butter, cheese, carrots, alfalfa and yellow
coloured cereal grains. carotene is sensitive to alkali and is very sensitive to air and light,
especially at higher temperatures. It is insoluble in water, ethanol, glycerine and propylene
glycol but it slightly soluble in edible oils at room temperature. Unlike other natural identical
carotenoid colourants allowed for food use, the FDA permits the addition of - carotene to
colour foods at any levels consistent with good manufacturing practices. It imparts a yellow
to orange colour at 2 500 ppm levels in foods. - carotene is used to colour a wide range of
foods such as butter, margarine, hydrogenated fats, oils, cheese, soft drinks, ice creams,
yoghurts, desserts, flour, sugar confectionery, macaroni products, soups, jellies, preserves,
dressings and meat products.

The use of -carotene in the range of 100-200 l/100 ml cream and fat in cream of 33
to 43% resulted into the development of optimum butter colour using 150 l - carotene in
100 ml cream with 33% fat, which was equivalent to 4.76 ml -carotene/kg fat.

- carotene shows antioxidative property, acts as an vitamin additive and as a
colouring in a variety of food products including butter and margarine (Kudinova and
Kazaryan, 1990).

Butter enriched with carotene contained butter and carrot juice in the ratio of 82:10,
77:15, 72:20 or 67:25. Enriched butter exhibited good organoleptic quality in terms of
colour, taste and consistency and carotene content of 0.8-1.4 mg % as compared with 0.3 mg
% for the original butter (Kozlov and Klevaichuk, 1990).

3.0 BUTTER FLAVOUR

Butter possess a clean fresh buttery flavour which is composite of the natural basic
flavour of fresh butterfat and of the effect of the peculiar physical structure of butter on the
flavour sensation.

3.1 Fullness of Flavour

The acidity in cream is neutralized and cream is pasteurized and is then soured with
the addition of starter. Acid cream even after neutralization gives butter with a high diacetyl
content and a full flavour. Butter from ripened cream does not keep so well as butter from
fresh cream, and even butter made with starter added at a low temperature is more liable to
deterioration then fresh cream butter.

3.1 Cheesy Flavour

Cheesy flavour is produced in butter held at higher temperature by the action of
cheese ripening organism, of Lactobacillus sp. It occurs frequently in tinned butter held at
normal temperatures. Majority of the butter consumers dislike the cheesy flavour as it is
distasteful. In cheesy flavour butter oxidized flavour defect is absent. Cheesy flavour in

53
butter may be due to the addition of some whey cream to creamy cream or to use of a whey-
butter churn for the churning of creamery cream.

3.2 Saltiness of Flavour

There are wider variations in the level of salts in the butter for consumers. Butter is
salted to the level of 2-3% across the globe.

3.3 Butter with Different Additive

Butter is manufactured with partial substitution of milk fat by concentrated skim milk
or butter milk and with the addition of sugar and flavouring such as coffee, chocolate and
fruit extracts. Such butter contained fat 52%, moisture 27%, concentrated skim milk 8.5-
11%, sugar 10%, flavourings 0.4-2.5% (Krasulya and Smirnova, 1987).

3.4 Modification of Butter Fat

The desirable flavour property as perceived by consumers as a high quality natural
product is sometimes limited by its functional performance. Milk fat is traditionally supplied
to the food industry as butter or anhydrous milk fat, which may not be the form suitable to
some applications. The functional requirement of fat vary greatly depending on the
application. Conventional butter is too firm to be spreadable when used directly from the
refrigerator. But however, for pastry application, conventional butter is too soft. The
functional properties of milk fat are easily modified by the use of fractionation, selective
blending and appropriate texturization to produce ingredients that are tailored to specific
applications. Dry crystallization of milk fat is a simple physical process that separates milk
fat into fractions that have different milk fat and chemical properties. Milk fat fractions can
be blended with other fractions such as intact milk fat and other fats to produce an ingredient
with the right melting profile. The fat blend is then combined with skim milk with
emulsifiers and salt and subsequently recrystallized under controlled conditions (Kaylegian,
1999).

3.4.1 Chemical or enzymatic interesterification process

Chemical or enzymatic interesterification process have significant effect on physical
and sensory properties of milk fat based spreads. Solid fat content increased for chemically
interesterified (CIE) milk fat at temperatures more than 10C, while enzymatic
interesterification (EIE) systematically decreased solid fat content in the range of 5 to 40C
compared with non-interesterified milk fat (NIE). Softening points increased for chemically
CIE blends, and decreased for EIE blends, as compared to NIE blends. Cone penetrometry
indicated increased penetration depth, for EIE and CIE blend, cold spreadability also
evaluated by trained panel of judges, also correlated with cone penetrometry data.
Interesterification is an excellent method for improving the cold spreadability of butter
(Roussean and Marangoni, 1998).

3.5 Lactones

Lactone is one of the key flavours in butter derived from triglycerides containing
hydroxyl fatty acids. Total amounts of lactones are directly contributable to the butter
flavour and the amounts of lactones below carbon number 12, especially gamma-12

54
unsaturated and delta-12 lactones were regarded as significant. The most strong flavour
potential was detected on heating hydroxyl fatty acids, at 100C for 30 min. (Nakamura et al,
1989).

3.7 Cheese Flavoured Butter Spread

A cheese flavoured butter spread was developed with blending of hydrogenated fat
and soybean oil, milk fat by added cheddar cheese, solids-not-fat content by reconstituted
dried skim milk, carragenen, glycerol monohydrate, trisodium nitrate, salt and 0.25% annatto
butter colour. Use of 20% ripened cheddar cheese in the final blend was found to be most
suitable for the desired cheese flavour, spreadability and other sensory attributes (Prajapati et
al, 1992).

3.7.1 Preservation of cheese spread

Processed cheese spreads preserved with 0.3% hexane extracted Nigella sativa oil
reduced the bacterial count of 17% in the fresh cheese and 90% after 4 months of storage.
Nigella sativa oil inhibited the growth of coliforms, staphylococci, yeasts/moulds, aerobic
spore formers and minimized the growth of anaerobic spore formers (El-Sayeed et al, 1994).

4.0 VITAMIN ENRICHED BUTTER

Vitamin enriched butter involves enrichment of butter with vitamin A. The
preparatory steps involved the introduction of high fat cream at 50-60C or into ripened
cream at 8-12C after a preliminary emulsifying step in skim milk. Levels of ingredients
were calculated so that finished butter contained vitamin A to the level of 0.8-1.2 mg/100 g,
carotene at 0.3-0.5 mg/100 g, respectively. The technology of vitaminization of butter
provides the use of vitamin A solutions (retinol-acetate) in oil and microbiological -carotene
(as dye) in oil and butter oil. Introduction of vitamin A does not influence the flavour and
aroma of butter, - carotene addition leads to the appearance of a specific off flavour
characteristics of conventional preparation of carotene. Vitamin A causes retardation of the
processes of the oxidation in butter, thus improving the keeping quality. Losses of vitamins
during storage are insignificant (Vyshemirskii et al, 1990).

5.0 SALT IN BUTTER

Salt plays an important role in increasing the flavour perception of butter as well as
improves the keeping quality of butter. The effect of salt on the keeping quality of butter is
dependent on the temperature of storage, the bacteriological quality of butter, the acidity of
butter and the proportion of salt present in butter. Higher temperature of storage of butter at
10C, favours bacterial growth and the presence of salt in the butter to be kept for any length
of time at these temperature has a retarding action on the growth of bacteria. Even at storage
of butter at low temperature, salt improves the keeping quality of low acid butters of poor
quality. Salt has the property of causing aggregation of water into large droplets, salted
butter must be well worked after salting. The salt must be well distributed throughout the
droplets to prevent acid development.

Butter made from sweet pasteurized cream is free from subsequent bacterial
contamination, any deterioration at low temperature is likely to be of chemical rather than of

55
bacterial origin. Salts with high magnesium chloride content, have distinct pro-oxidant
properties. Salting of butter of high acidity leads almost inevitably to development of fishy
flavour if iron and copper contamination are appreciable, salted butter is less liable to mould
growth during storage than unsalted butter.

In light salted butter, salt concentration may not be sufficient to limit bacterial activity
and much of water in light salted, butter remains in liquid state. Bacterial development may
take place in light salted butter even under low temperature of storage. Therefore, lightly
salted butter may have inferior keeping quality to either unsalted or heavily salted butters
from the same cream. Good keeping quality butter should contain 1.3-17% salt.

Unsalted butter may become more acid during storage due to fermentation of lactose
to lactic acid by the action of bacteria present, whereas there is little change in the acidity of
salted butter balance of the inhibiting effect of salt on bacterial growth.

6.0 CONCLUSION

Additives in butter have important role in increasing the aesthetic quality of fat rich
dairy products. The selection and quantity of additives should be judiciously selected to
increase the overall perception of butter and spreads. The addition of colour, development of
butter flavour and salt have the significant impact on the quality of butter.

7.0 REFERENCES

El-Sayeed, M.M., El-Banna, H.A. and Fathy, F.A. 1994. The use of Nigella sativa oil as a natural preservative
agent in processed cheese spread. Egyptian J. Food Science 22: 381-396.
Kaylegian, K.E. 1999. The production of speciality milk fat ingredients. J. Dairy Sci. 82: 1433-1439.
Kozlov, V.N. and Klevaichuk, V.I. 1990. Carotene enriched butter. Tovarovedenie-Kiev 23: 29-31.
Krasulya, N.G. and Smirnova, O.I. 1987. Manufacture of butter with additives. Molchnaya-Promyshlennost 5:
17-18.
Kudinova, S. P. and Kazaryan, R.V. 1990. Possible future uses of beta carotene. Pishchevaya-Promyshlennost
9: 60-61.
Nakamura, T., Usuki, R. and Kanede, T. 1989. Formation of butter flavour from triglycerides containing
hydroxyl fatty acids. Japanese J. Dairy Sci. and Food Sci. 38: A89-A94.
Prajapati, P.S., Gupta, S.K., Patil, G.R. and Patel, A.A. 1992. Development of cheese flavoured low fat spread.
Cultured Dairy Products Journal 27: 16-18.
Rousseau, D. and Mavangoni, A.G. 1998. The effects of interesterification on physical and sensory attributes of
butter fat and butter fat- canola oil spread. Food Research International 31: 381-388.
Vyshemirskii, F.A., Smurigina, N.V., Eryomina, V.I., Stakhovskii, V.A. and Kastornikh, M.S. 1990.
Vitaminized butter. XXIII International Dairy Congress, Montreel, October 8-12.



BIOTECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN
ENHANCEMENT OF BUTTER FLAVOUR



Dr. R. K. Malik
1
and Naresh Kumar
2

Principal Scientist
1
and Senior Scientist
2

Dairy Microbiology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Lactic acid bacteria that are involved in food fermentations have one main property in
common: a limited ability to metabolize food-borne substrates. The main activity of the lactic
acid bacteria is to metabolize the sugars present as fast as possible to the end product lactic
acid. Lactic acid bacteria are also able to ferment a number of non carbohydrates including
citrate. Citrate is present in many of the substrates which are used for food fermentations such
as fruit, vegetables and milk and it is also used as an additive for the production of fermented
sausages. It can be fermented by a limited number of lactic acid bacteria. Its degradation
usually results in the formation of unusual fermentation products such as diacetyl, acetoin,
butanediol and acetyldehyde. The formation of the aroma compound diacetyl can have a
distinct effect on the fermented food. This effect can be positive as seen in dairy products
such as butter, and cottage cheese but it is detrimental in products such as beer, fermented
sausage and wine. Therefore, there is strong need to control the production of diacetyl in the
food industry in general. This can only be achieved by gaining complete insight in the lactic
acid bacteria metabolism leading to diacetyl production.

2.0 METABOLIC PATHWAYS

Most of the knowledge on the metabolic pathways involved in citrate metabolism has
been derived from dairy lactic acid bacteria. More than a century ago the first aroma-
producing bacteria were recognized in the ripening of cream. In the following decades these
bacteria were identified as either betacocci later renamed Leuconostoc or Streptopcoccus. The
latter microorganism was originally designated as separate species Streptococcus
diacetylactis but was later reclassified as part of the Lactococcus lactis species under the full
name of Lc. lactis subsp. lactis biovar. diacetylactis. The two groups of aromabacteria were
both discovered to have specific citrate utilizing abilities. Collins (1972) identified the
enzyme reactions that were specific for these utilizers and demonstrated the key role of the
metabolic intermediate, pyruvate. Research in later years focused on the location and
regulation of the genes responsible for citrate utilization and on the exact mechanism of
diacetyl production from pyruvate.

2.1 Citrate Permease

The instability of citrate utilization in Lactococcus was discovered in the early fifties
by Swartling (1951) and later confirmed by Collins and Harvey (1962) who showed that
lactococci could lose the ability to transport citrate. The molecular basis for this instability
was provided by the work of Kempler and McKay (1979) who identified a citrate plasmid in
several citrate utilizing Lc. lactis strains that encoded the citrate permease. Subsequently
Gasson and coworkers (1987) demonstrated that the citrate- fermenting ability was not

57
restored in plasmid free Lc. lactis strain by introduction of the citrate plasmid, indicating that
also another (chromosome-encoded) enzyme, presumably citrate lyase, is uniquely present in
citrate-utilizing Lc. lactis strains.

The presence of a citrate permease is essential for metabolism of citrate. In the
absence of the citrate plasmid no citrate metabolism was observed although all enzymes
necessary for citrate conversion were present inside the cell. The essential role of the
permease in citrate metabolism is further evident from the pH dependency of the process that
it catalyses. The citrate permease of Lc. lactis was found to have a narrow pH optimum with
only appreciable activity between pH 5.0 and 6.0. The permease of Leuconostoc is
homologous to the Lc. lactis permease. Within the pH range 5.0 6.0 both Lc. lactis and
Leuconostoc have their highest citrate metabolizing activity. Below pH 5.0 citrate utilization
is low in these microorganisms due to low activity of the citrate permease and low metabolic
activity in general.

In all citrate-utilizing lactic acid bacteria citrate is converted initially to oxalacetate
and acetate by the enzyme citrate lyase. The enzyme seems to be unique for the citrate
utilizers since it is not found in non-citrate-utilizing lactic acid bacteria. The acetate
production is very typical for citrate utilization and, if detected in citrate containing cultures
of homo-fermentative lactic acid bacteria, is a good indication for the occurrence of citrate
metabolism.

2.2 Pyruvate Metabolism

Citrate metabolism in lactic acid bacteria has long been known to be associated with
the production of other metabolites than lactic acid. Besides the formation of acetate and
carbon dioxide in the initial breakdown of citrate, the compounds acetoin, diacetyl and
butanediol are often produced by citrate-degrading lactic acid bacteria. It was first reported
more than 40 years ago that these C4 compounds were formed from pyruvate. However, the
exact sequence of reactions leading to the production of these compounds was, until recently,
a matter of debate. In this pathway one C5 intermediate, alpha-acetolactat, is synthesized
from two pyruvate molecules and subsequently decarboxylated to acetoin.. The enzyme
catalyzing this reaction, alpha-acetolactate synthase has been identified in several lactic acid
bacteria. Acetoin is either excreted as end product or is reduced to butanediol catalysed by the
enzyme acetoin reductase. In this sequence of reactions diacetyl is only produced as
byproduct resulting from chemical decrboxylation of the intermediate alpha-acetolactate.
Recent studies backed by powerful
13
C NMR and a newly developed detection technique for
alpha-acetolactate have provided ample evidence that production of C4 compounds proceds
via alpha-acetolactate. No diacetyl production was observed from either citrate- or pyruvate
utilizing cells (Starrenburg and hugenholtz, 1991). Diacetyl is formed only at low pH, under
aerobic conditions, even when pure alpha-acetolactate synthase is incubated with pyruvate.
This could only be a result of chemical decarboxylation of alpha-acetolactate. This
knowledge has been the basis for the development of industrial processes leading to increased
diacetyl levels in butter and margarine (Veringa et al., 1976).

In Leuconostoc spp. isolated from dairy sources pyruvate metabolism is less complex
than in lactococci. The product formation from citrate is similar under all cultivation
conditions. The pyruvate produced from citrate is primarily reduced to D-lactate. For this
reaction to proceed it is essential that co-fermentation with carbohydrates takes place
providing the cells with the reducing power.

58
2.3 Stability of Citrate Metabolism

Citrate metabolism is considered an unstable trait in lactic acid bacteria. This
instability is reportedly due to location of the citrate permease gene on a plasmid. Smith and
co-workers (1992) looked at the stability of citrate utilization in a pure culture of Lc. lactis
subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis C17 upon continuous cultivation for extended time periods.
They found that the ability to utilize citrate was completely retained in the cultures without
selective pressure while another plasmid-encoded function, lactose metabolism, was lost
when cells were grown without lactose over the same period of time. Even the rate of citrate
uptake was unaltered after growth in the absence of citrate. Apparently, citrate metabolism is
much more stable under these conditions than the lactose metabolism. Though the citrate
metabolism does not support growth in lactic acid bacteria but some recent studies indicate
that growth of some citrate utilizers on carbohydrate containing media is stimulated in the
presence of citrate Starrenburg and Hugenholtz, 1991).

3.0 REGULATION OF KEY ENZYMES IN CITRATE METABOLISM

The initial breakdown of citrate and the conversion of the intermediate pyruvate into
specific fermentation products can be regulated on different levels, depending on the
microorganisms. The first step in citrate metabolism, the uptake of citrate, is regulated by the
pH of the growth medium. The protein is constitutively expressed in both Lactococcus and
Leuconostoc but has a narrow pH optimum.

3.1 Citrate Lyase

In citrate-utilizing bacteria that have an intact citric acid cycle, citrate cleaving and
citrate synthesizing enzymes are present at the same time. A very strict regulation of citrate
lyase can be expected in these organisms. A 20- fold increase in specific activity of citrate
lyase has been observed when Leuconostoc was grown in citrate containing growth medium.

3.2 Lactate Dehydrogenase

Although lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is not directly involved in citrate metabolism,
its regulation plays crucial role in product formation from citrate. Neither of the activators
are produced during metabolism of citrate resulting in low activity of this enzyme when
citrate is present as only growth substrate.

3.3 Acetolactate Synthase

Alpha-acetolactate synthase (ALS) is present in many different lactic acid bacteria. It
catalyses the TPP-dependent condensation reaction of two pyruvate molecules to the C5
component alpha-acetolactate with the release of carbon dioxide. When citrate is added under
appropriate conditions to active cultures of Lc .lactis, rapid uptake and conversion takes place
resulting in internal accumulation of pyruvate to concentrations of 50mM and higher. These
conditions favor the production of alpha-acetolactate and subsequent formation of acetoin,
diacetyl or butanediol.

3.4 Acetoin / Diacetyl Reductase

The lactic acid bacteria that produce acetoin and diacetyl are also able to reduce these
compounds to butanediol. Originally it was thought that, in dairy lactic acid bacteria, two

59
different enzymes were involved in the two step reduction of diacetyl. However, recent
studies with L. lactis have demonstrated clearly that one enzyme, acetoin reductase or
butanediol dehydrogenase catalyses both the reversible reduction of diacetyl (to acetoin) and
the reversible reduction of acetoin (to butanediol) (Crow, 1990). At concentrations above
1mM, acetoin has an inhibitory effect on enzyme activity. The higher affinity of acetoin
reductase for acetoin than for diacetyl together with the non-competitive inhibition of enzyme
activity by acetoin is probably the reason for the observed low rates of diacetyl reduction in
dairy products such as butter, butter milk and cheese. These products, usually, contain much
higher amounts of acetoin than of diacetyl. However, in some products diacetyl reduction
presents a problem. The rate of diacetyl reduction in these products could, possibly, be
reduced by increasing the acetoin levels.

4.0 STRAIN VARIATION

In lactic acid bacteria a large variation is found in product formation during
fermentation. A well-known example is the difference in lactose conversion between homo-
fermentative and hetero-fermentative lactic acid bacteria. These basic differences also result
in different product profiles during citrate metabolism. Also, within the homo-fermentative
LAB complete different strategies are observed for citrate conversion. Of course in
Lactococcus lactis acetoin, diacetyl, formate and acetate are the main products from citrate
metabolism even within one species, large variations between strains are observed. The best
documented strain differences are found within the Lactococcus lactis species. The
mesophilic starter culture that are used for the production of cheese, quark, sour cream,
buttermilk and butter, are all largely composed of Lc. lactis strains. During the fermentation
of these dairy products the lactic acid bacteria utilize both citrate and lactose simultaneously.
However, for diacetyl production, in butter and butter milk, specific starter cultures are used
which result in relatively high diacetyl production (Veringa et al., 1976: Driessen and Puhan,
1988). In these starter cultures, apparently, some strains are present with the ability to convert
citrate effectively into diacetyl. From one high diacetyl-producing starter culture, NIZO 4/25
(Veringa et al., 1976) different research groups have isolated a Lc. lactis strain that
accumulated large amounts of alpha-acetolactate upon citrate metabolism. Biochemical
characterization of this strain (Lc. lactis strain Ru4) showed that it differed from other, non-
diacetyl-producing strains only in one respect; it lacked the enzyme alpha-acetolactate
decarboxylase. In this strain citrate conversion to acetoin and butanediol is blocked and the
metabolic intermediate alpha-acetolactate is accumulated. Since alpha-acetolactate is
relatively unstable and is chemically decarboxylated to diacetyl (and/or acetoin), high levels
of diacetyl are found in dairy products fermented with this strain.

A classic example of mutations leading to altered product profiles was reported by
McKay and Baldwin (1974). Other interesting variations within the Lc. lactis species are the
large strain differences in acetoin/diacetyl reductase activity. In citrate-utilizing strains high
activity of this enzyme is always observed. More subtle differences are observed in activity
of alpha-acetolactate synthase. Different mutations and variations can effect metabolism in
lactic acid bacteria and serve as examples for metabolic engineering.

5.0 METABOLIC ENGINEERING

The extensive microbiological, biochemical and genetic information that is now
available on citrate metabolism in lactic acid bacteria can be used to control or improve
diacetyl production for dairy application or to avoid diacetyl production in products such as

60
beer. The development of a fermentation procedure with high production of diacetyl (up to 15
mM) from citrate on industrial scale, as reported by Wagendrop and Hugenholtz (1993), was
based on the available knowledge. The naturally occurring ALD-negative mutant Lc. lactis
Ru4 was chosen as production strain and fermentation conditions were designed to achieve
optimal citrate conversion into alpha-acetolactate and subsequently into diacetyl. Marugg and
co-workers (1993) employed genetic engineering techniques to improve production of alpha-
acetolactate. There was overproduction of alpha-acetolactate synthase in the ALD negative L.
lactis Ru4 leading to increased rates of alpha-acetolactate production from citrate and
pyruvate. The available knowledge on alpha-acetolactate production can also be used to
reduce diacetyl production in food products. In fact a combination of metabolic regulation
and genetic engineering is a powerful procedure for directing metabolic fluxes in industrial
organisms. This metabolic engineering has been applied successfully in controlling and
improving diacetyl production of food products.

6.0 FACTORS AFFECTING DIACETYL PRODUCTION

Diacetyl and carbon dioxide are the most important commercial metabolites of citrate
metablism. One rather obvious way to increase their production is to add food-grade citrate to
the milk. Citrate is used rather than citric acid, which would coagulate the milk. The addition
of 0.3% (w/v) tri-sodium citrate would increase the level of citrate in the milk by about
10mM or about 100%.

The ability of L cultures to metabolize citrate varies throughout the year; it is low in
spring milk and high in autumn milk. This is due to variation in the Mn
++
content of milk,
which is low in the spring and high in the autumn. Addition of small amounts of Mn
++
to L
cultures growing in milk has no effect on the rate of acid production but significantly
stimulates the utilization of citrate and production of acetoin. The mechanism of growth
stimulation is unclear. The addition of Mn
++
also has disadvantages, since it results in more
rapid reduction of acetoin and diacetyl once they are formed.

Aeration of cultures during growth may also lead to significant increases in the
amounts of dacetyl and acetoin produced by Cit
+
Lc. lactis subsp. lactis with relatively greater
increases in diacetyl than acetoin (Bassit et al., 1993). Acetoin is also a major product of
aerobic metabolism of galactose by many Cit
-
lactococci, but maximum production depends
on limiting the amount of lipoic acid in the medium.

7.0 CULTURE 4/25 AND LACTIC BUTTER PRODUCTION

The major by-product of ripened cream butter manufactured by the traditional process
is sour buttermilk, which is a serious disadvantage because sour buttermilk has limited use. A
process in which sweet cream buttermilk is produced has been developed at Netherlands
Institute for Dairy Research (NIZO) (Varinga et al., 1976) and is used in producing
considerable amounts of lactic butter in Europe.

In this process two cultures arte used: an L culture, called Fr19, and a D culture,
called 4/25, containing a strain of Cit
++
Lc. lactis ssp. that lacks ALD activity and, as a result,
produces large amount of AL. Both cultures are grown for 18 22 hr at 21C in 16% (w/v)
reconstituted skim milk. After growth, the 4/25 culture is mixed with lactic permeate in the
ratio of 2:3, which reduces the pH from ~4.9 to 3.2. The permeate is produced by fermenting
the lactose in whey to lactic acid with Lb. helveticus, centrifuging it, and concentrating the

61
supernatant to ~12% lactic acid. The 4/25 culture-permeate mixture is then vigorously aerated
for 30 min, during which the AL produced during growth is transformed into large amounts
(~150 mg/ml) of diacetyl.

Sweet (i.e., non-fermented) cream is churned in the normal way to the grain stage,
producing sweet buttermilk. The L culture and sufficient 4/25 culture-permeate mixture are
then added to the grains to give the normal concentration of diacetyl (~2 ug/g) in the butter.
Culture 4/25 also produces acetaldehyde, which imparts a green, sweet off-flavor,
reminiscent of yogurt, to the butter. The function of the Leuconostoc component in the L
culture is to reduce the acetaldehyde to ethanol, which has no effect on the flavor of the
butter.

8.0 REFERENCES

Bassit, N., Bocquien, C.Y., Picque, D., and Corrieu, G. (1993) Effect of initial oxygen concentration on
diacetyl and acetoin production by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar .diacetylactis. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., 59 : 1893 - 1897.
Collins, E. B. (1972) Biosynthesis of flavor compounds by microorganisms. J. Dairy Sci. 55, 1022 - 1028.
Collins, E.B. and Harvey, R.J. (1962) Failure in the production of citrate permease in Streptococcus
diacetylactis. J. Dairy Sci., 45 : 32 - 35.
Crow, V. L. (1990) Properties of 2,3 butanediol dehydrogenases from Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis in
relation to citrate fermentation. Appl. Environ Microbiol. 56 : 1656 - 1665.
Driessen, F. M. and Puhan, Z. (1988) Technology of mesophilic fermented milk. IDF Bull. 229 : 75 - 81.
Gasson, M. J., Hill, S.H.A. and Anderson, P.H. (1987) Molecular genetics of metabolic traits in lactic
streptococci, pp 242 - 245. In : Streptococcal Genetics (J.J. Ferretti and R. Curtiss III, Ed.). Am. Soc.
Microbiol., Washington DC.
Kempler, G.M. and McKay, L.L. (1979) Characterization of plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid in Streptococcus
lactis subsp. diacetylactis : evidence for plasmid linked citrate utilization. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37 :
316 - 323.
Marugg, J.D. Goelling, D., Ledeboer, A.M. Stahl, U, Toomen, M.Y. Verhue. W.M. and Verrips, C.T. (1993)
Expression and characterization of the alpha-acetolactate synthase gene from Lactococcus lactis subsp.
lactis biovar. diacetylactis. Appl. Environ Microbiol.
McKay, L.L. and Baldwin, K. A. (1974) Altered metabolism of Streptopcoccus lactis C2 deficient in lactic
dehydrogenase J. Dairy Sci. 57 : 181 - 186.
Smith, M.R., Hugenholtz, J., Mikoczi, P., de Ree, E, Bunch, A.W. and de bont, J. A. M. (1992) The stability of
lactose and citrate plasmids in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar. diacetylactis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.
96 : 7 - 12.
Starrenburg, M. J. C. and Hugenholtz, J. (1991) Citrate fermentation by Lactococcus and Leuconostoc spp.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 57 : 3535 - 3540.
Swartling, P.F. (1951) Biochemical and serological properties of some citric acid fermenting streptococci from
milk and adiry products. J. Dairy Res., 18 : 256 - 267.
Veringa, H.A. van der Berg, G. and Stadhouders, J. (1976) An alternative method for the production of cultured
butter. 31 : 658 - 662.
Wagendrop, A. J. and Hugenholtz. (1993) Industrial production of alpha-acetolactate and conversion to
diacetyl. Appl. Environ Microbiol.
IMITATION BUTTER AND RELATED PRODUCTS




Mr. A.K. Singh
Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Dairy products have been staple items of the diet for many years and have long been
the target for imitation. The origin of most of the dairy products is obscure, but extends date
back into the 19
th
century with respect to oleomargarine and filled cheese. Credit for the
invention of novel table spread in 1869 belongs to the scientist Hippolyte Mege Mouries and
to Napoleon III, who commissioned the research to find a cheap butter substitute which
would meet the needs of Frances growing population during industrial revolution. The
number and complexity of these imitations has increased with increasing technological know-
how and knowledge of the functionality of food ingredients. The imitation products undergo
same processing technology and require similar kind of equipments, normally used for
natural counterparts.

Idea behind these imitation products reflects many facets related in part to technology,
economics, legislation, nutrition, politics and public food habits. Food Industry is consumer
oriented market and penetration of imitation products in market place is largely influenced by
above mentioned factors. The growth in processing technologies, availability of widespread
ingredients, demand of convenience foods, lower cost and of course nutritional significance
has been responsible for the increasing demand of imitation dairy products all over the world.
Unlimited shelf-life is another added attraction with imitation dairy products. Slowly
imitation products like margarine has become the table spread of choice for many people. It
is also commonly used as a versatile fat in the home and in the food service industry for
preparing pan-fried foods, sauce and baked good.

2.0 DEFINITIONS

Imitation dairy products are referred to as imitations, simulates, substitutes,
analogues, and mimics and are associated with terms such as filled, nondairy, vegetable
nondairy, synthetic and artificial etc. The term nondairy indiscriminately used to describe
both legally defined imitations as well as other fabricated products which cannot be included
in that definition. However, there is no universally accepted definition for imitation dairy
products. These products can be divided into three major groups.

1. Milk fat is replaced by animal or vegetable fat.
2. Products containing milk components e.g. milk proteins.
3. Products without any milk components.


63
Imitation butter belong to the first category of imitation dairy products. A wide
variation though exists because of the variety of substances available for substitution and also
due to the difference in relative proportions of ingredients.

International Dairy Federation (IDF) defined imitation products as products that
contain at least one main milk constituent, usually skim milk or skim milk powder, and
vegetable fat replaces butterfat in these products. Filled products also included in this broad
definition. As per their regulations synthetic products do not contain any milk ingredients.
Now, in many countries to protect consumers interest imitation products has been defined by
respective regulatory agencies.

3.0 INGREDIENTS FOR IMITATION BUTTER

The characteristics and stability of imitation butter largely depends on the
characteristics of the main ingredient i.e. fat and other minor ingredient that stabilize the
systems.

3.1 Fats and Oils

In industrial use, fats are considered solid at room temperature and oils liquid at room
temperature; the latter is characteristics by a higher content of unsaturated fatty acids.
Through hydrogenation process these oils are converted into fats. For imitation butter, fats
are generally, selected to have low and narrow melting-point ranges, generally 32-36C. The
desired characteristics of a fat or oil to be used in imitation butter, are bland flavour, low
peroxide value, and good flavour stability, low level of free fatty acids and resistance to
hydrolysis, and a desired solid-fat index, over the use temperature range of the product.

The most often used fats for the purpose of imitations are hydrogenated coconut,
cotton seed, soybean, groundnut, palm Kernel, and various blends of these products. Fat
systems with lower melting points are generally preferred as they have a better texture, mouth
feel. Products that are specially, designed with heart healthy image may contain
polyunsaturated oils including corn, rapeseed, safflower, and sunflower oils.

Choice of fat or oil for imitation butter is not governed by the physical characteristics
of fat being replaced but it entirely depend upon the composition, processing methods and the
conditions in which substituted product is going to be used. The physico-chemical nature of
the system, their order of addition, shear input and processing temperature dictate the final
interactions and the nature of the product.

Initially developed butter substitutes involved animal fat i.e. lard and fallow. But
latter on health concern and adverse effect on sensory characteristics especially on flavour,
has forced the processors to switch over to vegetable fat. In 80s vegetable oil and milk fat
blends were also included for the manufacture of imitation butter.

3.2 Emulsifiers

In imitation butter or other fat rich products emulsifiers play an important role in
stabilization of emulsion. An emulsifier possess a water-soluble and fat-soluble portion in
the same molecule. Emulsifiers may be natural products, e.g. phospholipids and proteins or
chemicals derived from natural products. Emulsifiers that are used in imitation dairy foods

64
include: mono-and diglycerides, lactic acid and fatty acid esters of glycerol, acetic acid and
fatty acid esters of glycerol, polyglycerol esters of fatty acid, sorbitan esters of fatty acids.
Emulsifier selection is based on following criteria:

should provide as stable emulsion that is resistant to coalescence and breaking.
should be bland and contribute no off-flavors.
Resistant to creaming or separation.
Should possess optimum HLB value.

HLB (Hydrophile-lyophile balance) value is an empirical system based on the facts
that oil water (o/w) emulsions are best stabilized by water-soluble emulsifiers and vice versa.

3.3 Flavouring

Imitation butter is a blend of number of ingredients so it may devoid of natural butter
flavour, hence flavouring is an important aspect in manufacture of imitation butter. Butter
flavour component i.e. diacetyl is often externally added to increase the acceptability of the
product. Starter culture distillates have been used with some degree of success for attaining
the desired flavour in product. However, it is will accepted that they impart a harsh diacetyl
flavour and do not duplicate the balanced flavour obtained through use of natural
fermentation procedure.

A number of butter flavour formulations have been developed which can be
successfully be used for flavoring imitation butter including margarine.

4.0 TYPE OF IMITATION BUTTER

Imitation butter or spreads can be grouped into following major categories.
Margarine:-This product was introduced almost a century ago as butter substitute and
has established a significant position, among imitation butter. It is essentially an
vegetable oil or fat based product that may contain water and/or milk products, salt,
lecithin, emulsifier, flavoring and vitamins A and B. As per regulations margarine should
contain not less than 80% fat.
Butter-vegetable oil blends: Based on blending of cream or butter with a liquid
vegetable oil such as soybean oil. In the early 1980s such blends appeared in U.S. market
and roughly contained 40% butter and 60% vegetable oil for a total fat content of 80%.
The mixture of cream and vegetable oil may be churned in a batch or continuous butter-
maker. Increasing the level of oil to improve spread-ability at low temperatures results in
oiling and loss of body at higher temperature.
Saturated fat based Imitation butter: A new category of imitation butter was later on
developed that included a proportion of saturated fat to maintain body and emulsion
stability. A blend of vegetable oil, cream and hydrogenated fat is mixed and processed in
a continuous butter-maker or in a scraped surface heat exchanger. The fat content of this
type of butter ranged between 75-80%.
Modified Fat Imitation Butter: In an attempt to obtain a butter with desired
spreadability irrespective of season and condition of storage. The fatty acid composition

65
and processing technology of cream is altered. Spreadability of butter is a function of fat
composition, the thermal treatment given to cream prior to churning. Te mechanical
treatment given to butter after manufacture and the temperature at which butter is held.

Fractionation of fat to obtain soft fat portion could be an alternative and products that
have been developed were relatively costlier and to find out suitable use of hard fat fractions
has been another problem.

5.0 Margarine

Margarine or oleomargarine was originally marketed as an imitation butter; however,
it now has recognized identity of its own. The rate of margarine adoption has varied among
countries, reflecting the relative strength of organized consumer groups and oilseeds industry.
Margarine has the unique advantage of being easy to spread, fresh from the refrigerator. This
performance feature coupled with a perceived nutritional advantage, has led to a steady
increase in margarine acceptance.

5.1 Definition

The world-wide standards for margarine has been set by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission for products containing a minimum of 80% fat and a maximum of 16% water
(No. 32, 1981). It defines margarine as a food in the form of a plastic or fluid emulsion,
which is mainly composed of the type water/oil, produced principally from edible fats and
oils, which are not mainly derived from milk. The standard lists permitted additives,
including vitamins, flavourings, colorants, emulsifiers and preservatives.

5.2 Classification

Structurally margarine are broadly classified as either hard or salt. The distinguishing
feature is the degree of fluidity of the product at the time of packing.

5.2.1 Hard

Hard margarine are firm enough to be moulded into a stick, print or brick form, stick
type margarines vary widely in their degree of hardness as the liquid oil in the formulation
may range from as low as 5.10% to an upper.

5.2.2 Soft

These margarines are too fluid to hold their shape and require packaging in plastic or
coated paperboard tubs. In contrast to hard soft margarines, liquid oil may range from 60-
65% to a high of 80-85%.

In addition to traditional margarines. The following category of margarine are also
developed.
Whipped Margarine: Margarine containing 15-40% volume of finely and uniformly
dispersed gas. Whipped margarine replace traditional dairy whipped cream in
confectionary products.

66
Liquid Margarine: Characterized by higher oil content and product is fluid in consistency
that can pour. This group is mainly used for pan-frying of foods.
Low fat Margarine: Also called as imitation margarine and the fat content in these
products range from 40-75%.

5.3 Structure and Formulation

Among the imitation dairy products only margarine is a water-in-oil emulsion, where
the oil phase consists of both liquid oil and crystalline fat at normal ambient temperatures.
The solid structure is achieved by a three dimensional, continuous, sheet-like matrix of fat
crystals or fat-crystal aggregates which entraps tiny water droplets suspended in oil.

Structural integrity is attributed to primary chemical bonds that result in crystal
growth and this crystallization is largely irreversible. Stability is well supported by
secondary bonds involving weak Van der waals forces and that are reversible. The number
and size of the fat crystals in a margarine varies with the chemical composition of the oil
source and its processing. To ensure the development of a proper margarine emulsion prior to
the crystallization process, two distant phases, aqueous and oil must be prepared individually
prior to blending.

5.3.1 Aqueous Phase

Either sweet-skim milk or water plus reconstituted skim milk or even water only
constitute the aqueous phase of margarine. Whenever milk is added, it is pasteurized for
sufficient period to improve the microbiological quality. Salt, or brine is then added to the
aqueous to accentuate the flavour, act as microbial inhibitor and reduce spattering during pan
frying. Minor components in the aqueous phase include citric acid, EDTA and a water
soluble dairy flavour.

5.3.1 Oil Phase

The main component in the oil phase is a margarine oil basestock specifically
developed through the refining process to produce a final margarine with the appropriate
flavour, keeping quality and melting characteristics necessary to produce a specific margarine
with distinctive attributes demanded by the consumer. Some of the typical composition of fat
blends is presented in Table 2.

Fatty acid composition and their relative proportion has a marked effect on the
margarine quality. Margarine oil blends are formulated to have sufficient solid content at
room temperature to perform a stick margarine. In addition to desired spreadability at
refrigerated temperature margarine should melt very quickly at body temperature (37C) to
ensure a quick get away in the mouth with minimum gumminess. The rapid melting
properties depends upon the trans fatty acid content achieved through hydrogenation.

In addition to solids content curve, a second important factor in margarine oil blends
in their palmitic acid content (C
16
:0), which has definite effect on the crystal stability of the
final margarine. Oil blends with insufficient palmitic acid content have tendency to revert
from crystal form to an undesirable crystal during storage of the packaged product.

67

5.4 Processing of Margarine

Processing of margarine starts from careful selection of ingredients specially the base stock
or fat/oil blends. The margarine manufacturing process consists of five unit operations;
emulsification, cooling, working, resting and packaging.

5.4.1 Emulsification

The margarine emulsion may be prepared by blending molten oil/fat (oil-containing
soluble ingredients such as lecithin, mono-diglycerides, oil-soluble vitamins, flavourants and
colorants) and aqueous phase (pasteurized and contain milk, water, salt, water soluble
flavourants and preservatives) in an agitating tank in 4:1 ratio. The temperature of aqueous
phase is held at 40-50F before mixing to oil phase. Addition of cold aqueous phase to warm
oil phase is accomplished with continuous agitation to form a coarse but very unstable
emulsion. This emulsion is held at 40
0
C to form a stable emulsion and to prevent
crystallization.

5.4.2 Cooling

The mixed oil and aqueous phases are pumped to a tube chiller or swept surface heat
exchanger. The liquid emulsion pumped through the heat exchanger/chiller, resulting in
super coding of the fat by a temperature drop from about 105-115F to 40-50F.
Crystallization begins with cooling and continues for 24 hours or more. The -crystals
rapidly changed into form (intermediate) that is optimal for margarine. In the industry the
process is often called as votation and the objective of votation is to develop and seed
crystals throughout the margarine.

4.4.3 Working

Post chilling working by a rotor-stator texturizer influences the texture of the product.
Tub margarines are mechanically worked to allow crystal growth, while preventing the
formation of fine crystal lattice. Increase in working, cause softer product consistency.

4.4.4 Resting

Stick margarines are however allowed to rest briefly post chilling and before
packaging to allow firming of the product to withstand the extrusion forces of stick making.
Resting is followed by packaging.

5.0 CONCLUSION

With the advancement in technology there has been development in imitation butter
range. Now, it becomes easier to formulate or imitate better with desired functionality and
nutritional quality. People interest in healthy foods, change over to products that contain
certain amount of vegetable oil but also with natural butter aroma, can be fulfilled by
manufacturing healthy butter that include milk fat as well. Crystallization, super critical
fluid extraction, and other technologies offered processors opportunity to fractionate desired

68
fat fractions from milk fat. However again economics and sensory attributes will be the key
factor determining the growth of such products.

6.0 REFERENCES

Aronhime, J.; Sarig, S and Garti, N. 1990. Emulsifier as an additives in fats: effect on polymorphic
transformation and crystal properties of fatty acids and triglycerides. Food Structure 9:337-352
Bumbalough, J. and Hettinga, D.H. (1992). Margarine, in Y.H. Hai, ed. Encyclopedia of Food Science &
Technology, Vol:3, 1641-1646. John Wiley & Sons. Inc. New York.
Cheryan, M.M. (1985) Table spreads and shortenings, In T.H. Applewhite ed. Bailey Industrial oil and fat
products, Vol. 3, John Willey & Sons, Inc. New York.
Juriaanse, A.C. and Heertje, I. 1988. Microstructure of shortening, margarines and butter- a review. Food
Microstructure, 7181-188
Lawson, H. 1995. Food oils and fats: Technology, Utilization and Nutrition, Chapman & Hall, New Yok,339p.
Weiderman, L.H. (1978). Margarine and Margarine Oil: Formulation and Control. Journal of American oil
Chemists Society, 55, 823-829 pp.

Rheology of butter-technical considerations and measurements




Dr. G.R. Patil
Head
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The texture of butter is essential to its quality as it determines spreadibility and
strongly affects appearance, taste, mouth feel and its suitability for many uses. Good quality
better should have sufficient standing properly. It should neither be too firm nor too soft. It
should be free from textural defects such as greasy, gummy, sticky, flaky or crumbly. A
certain degree of springiness is desirable to prevent a dead Appearance (Mulder and
Walstra, 1974).

The texture/Rheology of butter is influenced by fat crystals of the high melting
triglycerides, which form three-dimensional network and lends rigidity to the system by
holding the liquid portion of the fat. The proportion of the crystal network are determined by
several factors. Of primary importance are the amount of crystalline fat and the size of the
individual crystals. These factors determine the density of junction points and, therefore, the
strength of the structure. The crystals network is held together by the Van der Waals forces.
These bonds are reversible so that a disruption of the structure can be followed by a
reformation of bonds. These reversible bonds account for the coherence of the butter. When
several pieces of butter are kneaded together they will form a mass without observable
discontinuities, and a new continuous network is formed almost instantaneously.

When butter is made by churning cream and grains are worked into a coherence
mass, a particular structure is formed, fat globules and water globules are dispersed in a fat
continuous phase in which irregular-shaped fat crystals are dispersed. In addition small
volume of air is also dispersed in continuous fat phase. The relative proportion of structural
elements of conventional butter is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Structural elements of conventional butter

Element Approx. No.
concentration
(ml
-1
)
Proportion
of butter
(% vol/vol)
Dimension
(m)
Remarks
Fat
globules
10
10
10-50 2-8 Differ in composition with
complete or partial membrane.
Fat crystals 10
13
10-40 0.01-2 Amount depends on
temperature:
Moisture 10
10
15 1-25
All cells 10
7
5 20
Source: Mulder & Walstra (1974).


70
The proportion of solids in a fat determines to a large extend its firmness or
consistency. Fats retain their solid character with solid fat content as low as 10%. The
ability of the crystal network to retain liquid oil is remarkable. The firmness of plastic fats at
workable temperature increase by about 10% with every 1% increase in solid fat content.
The change of solid fat content between 10 and 20C is especially pronounced in the case of
milk fat. Increasing the temperature from 10C to 20C lowers the solid fat content by about
40% i.e. from about 63% to 23%. Obviously butter containing milk fat has desirable
spreadability characteristics only in a temperature range comprising a few degrees (Vasic and
de Man, 1965).

Other factors besides solid fat content influence the consistency of fats. One of the
factors is nature of fat crystals; some crystals having greater effect on hardness than others
(Bailey, 1950). It has been observed that, a given proportion of crystals from relatively
heterogeneous fat gives greater firmness than the same proportion of crystals of more
homogenous fat. Crystals size also has an effect on consistency. It is generally agreed that
the smaller the size of fat crystals, the firmer will be the fat. Rapid cooling of a fat results in
small crystals and relatively high solid fat content, both factors favouring high hardness.
Slow cooling results in relatively low solid fat content and large crystals, both factors
favouring low hardness.

2.0 MEASUREMENT OF RHEOLOGY OF BUTTER

2.1 Simple Test Methods

Instrumental methods of measurement of the consistency of plastic fats have been
made with a great variety of devices such as penetrometers, extension instruments, parallel
plastometer, wire cutting devices and spreadability testers.

a) Penetrometers: Penetrometers are most widely used for measuring the consistency of
butter. Of all the penetrometers, cone penetrometer specified in the official and Tentative
Methods of the American Oil Chemists Society Method Cc 10-60, is most widely used. The
cone specified in this method has an angle of 20 and is truncated: the height of this
truncation is 2.27 mm or 22.7 penetrometer units (1pu = 0.1 mm). The cone is placed just
above the surface of the sample and released. The Depth of penetration in 0.1 mm is read on
the dial of the instrument and this value is reported as a measure of consistency. The
disadvantage of the method lies in the fact that an equal number of units at the lower end of
the cone does not have the same meaning as that at higher parts of the cone. Therefore, it is
difficult to judge the meaning of a certain number of units difference in hardness of products.
To overcome this problem several suggestions have been made to convert the penetrometer
readings into more useful units. To calculate the yield value from penetrometer readings
Haighton (1959) suggested using the formula:


C = KW/P
1.6

Where
C = yield value
K = constant depending on cone angle
P = depth of penetration in 0.1 mm
W = weight of cone in g.


71
This procedure was used for margarine, shortening, and butter over a wide hardness
range and was found to be quite satisfactory. Vasic and deMan (1968) converted cone
penetrometer readings into hardness. Hardness was defined as the property of a material to
resist the penetration of an external body into it, and was expressed as the ratio of the force
required to make the indentation and the area of the impression.

G G X 10
3

H = -- = -----------------------------------------------
A tano h + 2 r
|h . o .------ . (--------) + r
2
o| . 10
4

cos o tano
where,

H = hardness in kg/cm
2

G = weight of cone assembly in g
A = area of impression in cm
2

H = depth of penetration in 0.1 mm
o = half angle of cone
t = radius of flat tip of cone in 0.1 mm.


Feuge and Bailey (1944) developed a micropenetrometer in which a metal needle
was dropped through a length of glass tubing into the sample contained in a metal cup. The
fats being tested were solidified in the metal cups and it was found that the samples were
harder in the center of the cup, which had a diameter of about 8 mm. Consistent results were
obtained when the needle was allowed to strike the sample at 1.0 to 1.5 mm from the edge of
the cup.

Kruisheer and den Herder (1938) used constant speed penetrometer. The penetrating
body consist of a stainless steel cylinder with a height of 10 mm and a surface area of 4 cm
2
.
The cylinder is driven into the sample until the top of the cylinder is level with the surface of
the sample. At this point the force registered on a spring-operated dial is read and expressed
as hardness in kg/4 cm
2
. This device has been used extensively for quality control of butter
in the Netherlands and other European countries.

b) Consistometers: Clardy et al. (1952) described a shortening consistometer based on the
same principle. The penetrating body consisted of a metal ring with narrower internal
diameter at the top than at the bottom. When driven into a fat sample a plug of fat would be
compressed by the decreasing internal diameter of the ring. Kruisheer and den herder
penetrometer give a force-distance curve with a distinct maximum whereas shortening
consistometer ring gives no distinct maximum. The absence of a clearly observable endpoint
with the shortening consistometer is a great disadvantage.

c) Extrusion instruments: FIRA-NIRD extruder has been described by Prentice (1954), which
consists of the extrusion cylinder and a plunger. The thrust during extrusion of the fat sample
is recorded by means of a series of calibrated springs. The thrust declines as the extrusion
progresses because of the decreasing friction of the sample. The value obtained when the
cylinder is nearly empty is the closest approximation of the true extrusion thrust.

72
d) Spreadability testers: Devices have been constructed for measuring spreadability.
Huebner and Thomsen (1957) described an instrument in which a block of butter is traversed
by a knife with a blade beveled at a 45 angle. The height of the beveled part was 1/16 in.
Kapsalis et al. (1960) used an instrument, called a consistometer. The butter is cut either by a
knife or a wire. The resistance to cutting by the knife is considered a measure of
spreadability; the resistance to cutting by the wire is regarded as a measure of hardness.
There are no convincing arguments to substantiate the contention that a spreadability
measurement gives results which differ in a fundamental way from other deformation tests,
whether by cutting by wire or using a penetrometer.

2.2 Sophisticated Rheological Measurements

The sample tests described above mostly relate to a single rheological property,
hardness or yield value. There is no doubt that information from these tests correlate with
consumer evaluations of consistency. However, in a rheological sense, fats exhibit plastic,
viscous and elastic properties and these can only be measured with more sophisticated
equipment. In the constant speed cone penetrometer studies of Tanaka et al. (1971), it was
assumed that plastic fats behave according to the model of Figure 1.


Fig. 1: Rheological model of foods as viscoplastic bodies

Fats were considered to react as viscoplastic bodies, according to the model with plastic and
viscous properties. The penetration stress was calculated from:

F
1
/A
1
= F cos (u/2) cot (u/2)/ th
2


Where
F
1
/A
1
= penetration stress
F = vertical force applied to cone
h = depth of penetration.

At any depth of penetration the stress on the cone is equal to the sum of both plastic and
viscous deformations according to:

F
1
/A
1
= q
app
(dh/dt) + ] = F cot (u/2) cos (u/2) th
2



73
If penetration stress is plotted against penetration speed a straight line is obtained.
The slope of this line represents the value of the apparent viscosity and the intercept equals
the yield value. This consists of a dashpot and a friction element in parallel representing
viscous and plastic components, respectively. On the basis of rheological measurements
made with the Weissenberg Rheogoniometer, Elliott and Ganz (1971) proposed a model for
the rheological behaviour of fats (Fig. 2), which includes a viscous, plastic and an elastic
element placed in series.


Fig.2: Rheological model for plastic fats proposed by Elliot and Ganz (1971)

A more complex rheological model for butter was proposed by Diener and Heldman
(1965). This model (Fig. 3) includes a plastic and a viscous element in parallel, coupled in
series with a viscous element in parallel with a combination of a viscous and an elastic
element. These elements were suggested to be associated with various structural components
as shown in Figure 3.


Fig.3: Rheological model proposed for butter (left) and relation of model

74
elements (right) (Diener and Heldman,1965).

Shama and Sherman (1968) used creep compliance analysis to study the rheological
properties of margarine. A parallel plate viscoelastometer was used in this investigation.
Analysis of the creep compliance curves resulted in the construction of the 10-element
mechanical model of Figure 4.

Fig.4: Ten element rheological model for margarine
proposed by Shama and Sherman (1968)

From this type of analysis, three rheological parameters were derived: instantaneous
elasticity, retarded elasticity and viscous flow. Creep testing is a convenient was of analyzing
the viscoelastic properties of fats. A typical creep analysis recording is presented in Figure 5.


Fig.5: Creep test record obtained on margarine.

The curve shows the instantaneous deformation at time 0, followed by a gradually
increasing deformation until at time = t the load is removed. At this time, there is an

75
instantaneous recovery which is assigned to the instantaneous elasticity, I. Subsequently,
there is a time-dependent elastic recovery which is assigned to the retarded elasticity, R. The
permanent deformation P is associated with the viscous component. The rheological
behaviour of fats in this type of test appears to differ from that usually associated with
viscoelastic materials.

Some typical results of creep analysis of butter and margarine are presented in Table
2. There is a definite effect of temperature, indicated by the fact that the elastic components
become more important at lower temperature. This is not surprising, since at lower
temperature the crystal network becomes stronger. This type of analysis should be useful in
explaining the rheological behaviour of fat products at different temperatures.

Table 2:Viscoelastic Parameters of Fats Obtained by Creep Analysis

Product Temp.
(C)
Instantaneous
elasticity
(Pa)
Retarded
elasticity (Pa)
Viscous flow
(Pa.sec)
Butter 5 4.2 x 10
-1
1.9 x 10
-1
45.22
Butter 10 5.7 x 10
-2
3.9 x 10
-2
13.99
Margarine 5 5.1 x 10
-2
3.8 x 10
-2
6.19
Margarine 10 4.1 x 10
-2
1.3 x 10
-2
5.62

3.0 REFERENCES

Bailey, A.E. (1950) Melting and Solidification of fats. Inter Science Publishers, New York.
Clardy, L., Pohle, W.D. and Mehlenbacher, V.C. (1952). A Shortening consistometer. J. Am. Oil. Chemists
Soc. 29, 591-594.
Dienor, R.G. and Heldman, D.R. (1968) Trans ASAE 11: 444.
Elliot, J.H. and Ganz, A.J. (1971) J. Texture Stud. 2: 220.
Fenge, R.O. and Bailey, A.E. (1944) Measurement of the consistency of plastic vegetable fats. A standard
micropenetration technique. Oil Soap 21: 78-84.
Haighton, A.J. (1959). The measurement of the hardness of margarine and fats with cone penetrometers. J.
Am. Oil Chemists Soc. 36: 345-348.
Huebner, V.R. and Thomson, L.C. (1957) Spreadability and hardness of butter. Development of an instrument
for measuring spreadability J. Dairy Sci. 40:834-838.
Kapsalis, J.G., Betscher, J.J.; Kristofiersen, T. and Goul, S.A. (1960). Effect of chemical additives on the
spreading quality of butter. I. The consistency of butter as determined by mechanical and consumer panel
evaluation methods.. J. Dairy Sci. 43, 1560-1569.
Kruisheer, C.I. and Den Herder, P.C. (1938) Research on butter consistency, Chem. Weekblad 35: 719-733.
Moulder, K. and Walstra, P. (1974). The milk fat globule. Centre for Agricultural Publishing & Documentation,
Wageningen.
Prentice, J.C. (1954). An instrument for estimating the spreadability of butter. Lab. Pract. 3, 186-189.
Shama, F. and Sherman, P. (1968) An automated Parallel plate visco-elastometer for studying rheological
properties of solid food materials. In. Rheology of texture of foodstuff, Soc-chem-Ind. London Monograph.
27.
Tanaka, M., deMan, J.M. and Voisey, P.W. (1971). Measurement of textural properties of foods with a constant
speed cone penetrometer, J. Texture studies. 2: 306-315.
Vasic, J. and deMan, J.M. (1965) Effect of temperature history on the solid fat content of milk fat. J. Dairy Sci.
48, 1277-1281.
Vasic, J. and deMan, J.M. (1968) Effect of Mechanical treatment on some rheological properties of butter. In.
Rheology & texture of food stuffs, Soc. Chem. Ind. London Monograph. 27.




Dairy spreads






DR. P.S. Prajapati
Associate Professor
Dairy Technology Department
SMC College of Dairy Science, G.A.U., Anand - 388 110

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Whether we like or not, butter continues to be an important product in the context of
the world dairy economy. There is little doubt that it is the preferred fat among the alleged
link with heart disease. Global decline in the consumption of butter and margarine and the
corresponding increase in the consumption of spreads are noted in a European report while
decline in the consumption of fats and oils in the U.K. These products accounted for 1.7 % of
the total average spent on foods in 1997, compared with 2.1% in 1990 and 3.5 % in 1980
(Mann, 2000). A noticeable decline has been observed world wide and reflected in
corresponding decreased in world butter production by 13%. The possible causes for decline
are:

1. Medical recommendations aimed at educing the consumption of fats and promoting
the consumption of more unsaturated fat.
2. High saturated fatty acids.
3. High cholesterol content.
4. High caloric value.
5. Suspected role in heart diseases.
6. High price/cost.
7. Very poor spread ability at refrigerator temperature below 15C.

Consumers awareness has put pressure on the food manufacturers/researchers to
formulate new products, which have solutions to the problems, associated with butter
consumption. This opens space for dairy manufacturers to introduce products, which can be
considered in the very sense of the world as modern foodstuffs. This lead to emergence of
new categories of dairy product so called dairy spread/ fat spread/yellow fat spread.

These spreads have been tried to bolster the butter market. Recently the butter market
share is generally shifting towards the spreads market as it can be seen from the Table 1:



77
Table 1. Yellow fat market in countries marketing spreads.

Country Butter Margarine Spreads
Sweden 15 57 28
Ireland 47 36 17
UK 29 57 14
Iceland 16 72 12
Finland 50 35 15
Norway 24 71 5
Spain 26 72 4
France 69 29 2
Japan 18 80 2
Australia 34 64 2
US 16 82 2
( IDF, 1989 ).

2.0 DEFINATION

Within Europe commercial development of blended milk fat and vegetable fat spreads
began about 1963 with the product Bregott in Sweden. The first low fat spread was Outline
marketed in UK in about 1968. Many different types of yellow spreads are now commercially
available consisting of blend of milk fat and vegetable fat products with fat content varying
from over 80% to less than 5%.

Dairy spreads generally contain butterfat whereas non-dairy spread contains vegetable
fat (Zillen, 1977). According to Weckle (1965) low fat dairy spreads were those, which
contained only dairy ingredients and can be used for bread, crackers and sandwich. Bullock
(1966) define the term low fat spread as a product which contains only dairy ingredients and
has less fat than butter and margarine. Low fat spreads containing 39 to 41% fat termed as
half fat butter while those in which caloric reduction is at least 33% are termed as reduced
calorie spreads (code of Federal Regulations, 1983)

According to Moran (1993), a spared is emulsion of water-in-oil (W/O) above about
15% fat and normally emulsion of oil-in-water (O/W) at lower level of fat. Compositionally,
the fat can be derived from milk fat non-milk fat or blends of the two, while Nichols (1993)
defined the yellow fat and yellow fat products as those fat based spreads, which contain fat
less than 82%. According to PFA (Amendment, 1993), a fat spread is a product in the form of
water-in-oil emulsion of aqueous phase and fat phase of edible oil and fat excluding animal
body fat. Similar definition is given by IDF (1993) with the exemption that fats and oils of
animal and marine origin have been permitted. This group of products is called fat spread.

3.0 CLASSIFICATION

The confusion emerging in the public due to rapid diversification in the spread market
and subsequently due to the wide range of product available is of great concern. To avoid
confusion and to protect consumers interest, Forman (1990) and PFA (Amendment, 1993)
classified the fat spread into three groups on the basis of Level of fat and origin of fat used
for their manufacture such as (i) dairy spreads containing fat of milk origin (ii) Blended

78
spread of fat containing minimum of 10 % milk fat (iii) non-dairy spreads which are blend of
fats containing mostly 10% fat of non-dairy fats.

Within this categories products are differentiate according to their total fat content,
EC proposed designation for various spreads on the basis of fat content (Table 2).

Table 2. Proposal for spreads designations in the European community.

FAT CONTENT MILK FAT NON-MILK FAT BLEND

>60-<80% Dairy Spread Fat Spread Blended spread

60-80 % Reduced fat butter/ Reduced fat margarine/ Reduced fat blend/
fat butter fat margarine 3/4fat blend

>41-<60 % Reduced fat dairy Reduced fat spread Reduced fat blend
spread

39-41% Low fat butter/ Low fat margarine/ Low fat blend/
Half fat butter Half fat margarine Half fat blend

>20-<39% Low fat dairy spread Low fat spread Low Fat blend

Nichols,1993.

4.0 REGULATION

According to PFA Amendment, fat spreads shall contain fat not more than 80% fat
and not less 40% fat by weight while moisture content shall not be more than 56% and not
more than 16% by weight. It may contain edible common salt not exceeding 2% by weight in
aqueous phase, milk solid not fat, starch not less than 100 ppm and not more than 150 ppm,
diacetyl may be used as flavouring agent not exceeding 40 ppm, permitted emulsifier and
stabilizer, permitted antioxidants (BHA or THBQ) not exceeding 0.02% of the fat content of
the spread, permitted class II preservatives namely sorbic acid and its sodium, potassium and
calcium salts (calculated as sorbic acid ) or benzoic acid and sodium and potassium salts
(calculated as benzoic acid ) singly or in combination not exceeding 1000ppm by weight and
sequestering agent. It may contain annatto and / or carotene as colour agent. It should be free
from the animal body fat, mineral oil and wax. Vegetable fat spread shall contain raw or
refined sesame oil in sufficient quantity. The vegetable fat spread contain not less than 25 IU
synthetic vitamin A per gram at the time of packaging.

5.0 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SPREADS

The chemical composition of different spreads are given in Table 3.




79
Table 3. Typical composition of spread

Spread
Type
Fat(%
)
Protin
(%)
Emulsifier/
emulsifying
salt
Stabilizer Preser-
vatives
Colour
Flavour
and
Vitamins
Butter >80 0.3 - - - +
Margarine >80 0.2 + - - +
Reduced
Fat
60-75 0.3 + - - +
Low fat 38.40 0.2-6.5 + = + +
Very low
Fat
20.25 0-8.3 + = + +
Water
Continuous
5.12 12.20 + = = +
= denotes an optional
(Moran, 1994)

6.0 FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF FAT SPREADS

The function of a fat spread is multiple and include lubrication of bread when eating,
energy source, flavour carrier, vitamins transports, source of essential fatty acids, coolness
taste contribution during eating, and provide product structure.

Properties of the spreads can be classified into two groups i.e. Organoleptic and spreadabilty.
Organoleptic tests are normally carried out by trained panelists and can embrace flavour and
texture profiling techniques. The taste of the products with fat spreads is controlled through
emulsion inversion. The melting of the product in the mouth simultaneously causes
disruption of the crystal network and the breakdown of the emulsion. The emulsion
stabilizing shells of fat around the aqueous melt, with saliva, create an O/W emulsion from
the original W/O spread. As a result, the viscosity of the emulsion on the palate falls rapidly
to a point where swallowing taking place, and a rapid diffusion of aromatic compound into
nasal occurs (Moran, 1993).

Spreadabilty is one of the most important properties for spreads from consumer view
point. It is desirable that products should be spreadable at 5C. To have the desired
plasticity/spreadabilty in the product, there must be following three essential requirements:

1 There must be two phases, solid and liquid.
2 The solid phase must be so finely dispersed that the crystal mass is held together by
lateral cohesive forces.
3 There must be proper proportion of solid and liquid phase. If the solid content is too
high, the interlocking crystals coupled with insufficient liquid, will cause shortening
of the product and break subsequently to be brittle (Crabtree, 1989).

7.0 TECHNOLOGY OF SPREADS MANUFACTURE

Technology of spread manufacture comprising of selection of ingredients and
processing.

80

7.1 Selection of Ingredients

The important constituents of spreads are milk fat, milk proteins, emulsifiers,
stabilizers, emulsifying salts, acidiluants, common salts, colouring and flavouring materials,
vitamins, preservatives, antioxidants, etc. Each ingredients has specific importance in
production of good quality spread.

7.1.1 Function of fat

Fat provides structure, energy and taste including creaminess. It act as carrier of
flavour and vitamins and also source of essential fatty acids. The physical properties of
spreads, namely spreadability, firmness, plasticity and thixotropy are mainly determined by
the ratio of liquid to solid fat content. Fat are usually selected from milk fat and its fractions
or vegetable fats/oils or combination of both. Milk fat include cream, butter and butter oil.
On the basis of flavour and composition corn, safflower, sunflower, soybean and groundnut
oils have been preferred for spread.

7.1.2 Function of proteins

Milk proteins are added to the spread for their organoleptic functional and nutritional
properties. They imparts creamy taste, thereby improving consumer acceptability. They
contribute viscosity and water holding capacity to the aqueous phase, thereby improving
emulsion stability during processing and storage. Milk proteins supply the essential amino
acids and improve the nutritional value of the product. The main source of milk proteins are
skim milk, butter milk, caseinates, whey solidsin the form of concentrated or dried or
retentate form. Use of cheese in spread would not only provide protein but also help in
imparting cheese flavour to the product (Shiller et al., 1977 and Sprenger, 1981). Soy protein
isolate, vegetable proteins, can be used in manufacture of spread because of high water
holding capacity (Kinsella,1978), high protein quality (Gupta and Kapoor, 1978). It can be
also used in the form of protein-lipid concentrate so as to utilize the polyunsaturated soys oil
as well.

7.1.3 Emulsifiers

In combination with milk proteins (when used) emulsifiers are generally of the fat
soluble type and primarily help to reduce the size of aqueous droplets and contribute a dairy
like taste to the product. Mostly they function by creating stabilizing films at the water/oil
interface and by altering the other characteristics such as the wettability by water of the fat
crystals. They have ability to yield the softer and more easily spreadable product with stable
emulsion. Various emulsifiers used in spread are monoglycerides (MG) of saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids, egg yolk solids, lecithin, combination of lecithin and MG, etc. The
proportion of emulsifier in spread varies from 0.1 to 0,6%.

7.1.4 Emulsifying salts

In addition to assisting the emulsification process, emulsifying salts also improve the
texture of the spreads. These salts are believed to modify the emulsification of fat. They are
known to contribute to the texture of products like spreads especially of O/W type. The

81
common emulsifying salts used are tri sodium citrate, di-sodium phosphate and their
combination, etc. and are added at he rate of 1to 4%.

7.1.5 Stabilizers

Stabilizers are especially important in reduced/low fat spreads and help to promote
water in W/O by inhibiting coalescence of aqueous phase droplets during product processing
and in use situations, and by balancing the viscosity of the two phases which make up the
spread, namely water and fat. High water holding ability of stabilizers play an important role
in improving body and texture of spreads. Various stabilizers like gelatin, carboxyl methyl
cellulose, starch, modified starch, sodium alginates, carrageenan, etc. can be used alone or in
combination at the rate of 0.1 to 0.5 %.

7.1.6 Plasticizer

Plasticizers like glycerol, sorbitol, glycol, etc. may be used in spreadable products to
impart pliability or plasticity to them. They have an ability to depress the water activity of
the aqueous phase (Holscher and Dijkshoorn, 1980). This may help in extending the shelf life
of the product. Addition of glycerol and sorbitol at the rate of 0.5 to 1.0 % in soy based low
fat spread, improve the mouth feel without any adverse effect on firmness of the spread (Patel
and Gupta, 1988). According to Seas and Spurgeon (1975), use of 2 to 4 % sorbitol in cheese
flavoured dairy spread could partially limit lactose crystallization.

7.1.7 Acidifying agent:

Spreads, particularly low fat types, have low storage stability because of their high
moisture content. A low pH in the food system retards bacterial growth and thus helps in
extending the shelf life. Best body and least weeping have been obtained with pH 5.7- 5.9
(Spurgeon et al., 1973). Lactic, acetic, citric acid, glucono- delta- lactone etc. can be use as
acidifying agent.

7.1.8 Common salts

Sodium chloride or table salts usually added in spreads, which not only provides taste
and palatability to the spread but also retards the growth of bacteria and thereby acting as
preservative. Generally the salt content in spreads varies from 0.25 to 2%.

7.1.9 Colouring materials

In order to simulate the colour of the spreads, the colouring matters used are annatto
and beeta carotene. Use of beeta carotene enhances not only the nutritive value but also the
oxidative stability t the product.

7.1.10 Flavouring material

Dairy spreads are blend of different ingredient, dairy or non-dairy, it may or may not
have the desired flavour. It is thus essential that external flavouring are added to evelop or
impart desired flavour. Butter starters, butter culture flavour concentrate, starter distillate,
synthetic butter flavour etc. used successfully for butter flavoured spreads. Diacetyl, lactones,
phenols, delta-lactone etc. can be used in such spreads.

82

Cheese flavoured spreads involve the use of cheese flavour concentrate, aged Cheddar
cheese, smoked aged Cheddar and blue cheese. Shiller et al., (1977) added melted cheese as a
protein ingredient and obtained a low fat spread with a flavour of matured ripe cheese and
high overall quality.

According to Lang and Lang (1970), other flavours used which include ham, herbs,
shallots, garlic cocolate, vanilla, honey, nuts, etc.

7.1.11 Preservatives

To inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and yeast and mold , in addition to heat
treatment, addition of various preservatives is required. The various preservatives used
include sorbic acid, salts of sodium, potassium and calcium , nisin, propionates, sodium
benzoate etc. and can be added at the rate of 0.03 to 0.1%.

Other additives like anti-oxidants, vitamins, sweeteners, etc. can be incorporated to
spreads.

7.2 Processing

The formulation and processing of spreads generally determine the final product
quality such as appearance, taste, spreadability and keeping quality. The processing of
spreads making involve preparation of aqueous and fat phase and their mixing, heat
treatments, emulsification, cooling/crystallization, working, filling, packaging and setting.

7.2.1 Preparation of Phases

Aqueous phase preparation involves of dissolving of water soluble dairy and non
dairy ingredients namely protein, stabilizer, salt, etc., Blending temperature between 40 to
80C is generally used for faster dispersion and solubilization of ingredients. Flavouring
ingredients should be incorporated at the end of heating to minimize the loss of volatile
flavour. Pasteurization, homogenization and cooling are given before addition/blending into
fat phase.

Desired flavour and melting characteristic is very important in spread making and is
influenced by the fat phase preparation. Blending involves melting of fat, mixing it with other
fat soluble vitamins and colouring ingredients.

Spreads preparation also involve mixing of all required ingredients together rather
than preparation of two phases separately. The temperature used for mixing varies from 15 to
65C.

7.2.1 Heat treatment

It is suggested to pasteurize the aqueous and fat phase before emulsion formation to
minimize microbial contamination and to make the product safe for human consumption. The
time temperature combinations used are 75C for 30 min., 85C for 5 min. and 95C without
holding.


83
7.2.2 Cooling of fat phase

It is commonly known to prepare fat compositions by cooling liquid fat or aqueous
emulsion of fat, very often during cooling the desired crystal structure is not obtained and,
therefore, taste, spreadability and other physical properties are impaired. In order to obtain
outstanding properties of the final product a very specific crystal structure is required. This
can be achieved by rapid cooling of the fat phase (Prajapati et al., 1991 and Verma, 1996).

7.2.3 Emulsification

Emulsification is an important process to get stable product during handling and
storage. Emulsification process can be carried out by blending, homogenization, shearing
action, churning, heat shock cooling etc. Blending of two phases can be carried out using
Hobart Food Mixer, high shear mixer, etc. Various other methods have been suggested,
namely Stephan thermizing unit, kneading action, plasticizing by cutting action with sharp
blades, SRS vacuum cooler and colloidal mill methods.

7.2.4 Working

The process of working ideally disperse the fat crystals throughout the emulsion and
if the process is carried out satisfactorily, the product will be plastic and spreadable; if not it
will be greasy. Degree of working by scraped surface cooling affects the characteristics of
low fat spread. Preparation of high moisture spreads of W/O type emulsion requires more
intensive working at high refrigeration temperature than margarine. Maximum working at
low temperature produces the hardest product. By churning method, butter with additional
water requires working to manufacture low fat butter.

7.2.5 Packing

Water and air proofs Containers are required for packaging of spread. Various kind of
packaging materials namely ice-cream cups, plastic coated cartoons, semi-plastic containers,
plastic coated paper packs, polyethylene lined paperboard containers, parchment paper,
colorued glass containers and polystyrene cups are used.

7.2.6 Setting

Setting is the phenomenon where the spread is usually kept at low temperature for
several hours to get desired degree of consistency. Crystallization of fat during setting helps
in attainment of final body characteristics. Setting temperatures govern the rheological
properties of the product by influencing the number of crystal particles. Number of crystal
particles vary even with slight changes in temperature. Higher temperature of setting yields a
butter with lower hardness in comparison those set at lower with temperature. Setting
temperature and duration varies from 0

to 15 C for 4 hours to 48 hours, respectively.

8.0 SPREAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Recent findings indicate that an increasing number of spreads have fat content in the
range of 38-44 % rather than the traditional 80 % butter or high fat spreads. This is because
increasing the demand for the low fat or reduced fat or low calorie spreads by consumers. A
variety of spreads are developed in number of western countries. In our country, a butter

84
flavoured low fat spread was developed based on soy concentrate and vegetable fat (Patel,
1982), butter flavoured Prajapati, et al., 1991) and cheese flavoured (Prajapati, et al., 1992)
spreads using hydrogenated fat and soybean oil (50:50) and butterfat based, particularly
cream based, spread (Verma,1996) are formulated. Chemical composition of developed
spreads are given in Table 4. The schematic diagram for the manufacture of these spreads are
given in Figures 1, 2 and 3. Recently, Amul Dairy had launched "Amul Lite" low fat spread
in the market.

Table 4. Chemical composition of developed spreads

Constituent Butter-flavored
spread
Cheese
flavoured
spread
Cream based
butter flavored
spread
Soy based
spread
Total solids 57.38 57.59 62.35 51.4
Fat 40.64 40.36 45.58 39.4
Protein 5.15 7.92 5.37 6.3
Carbohydrate 8.79 6.27 9.12 -
Ash 2.79 3.03 2.29 1.7
Caloric value,
Kcal/100g
421.52 420.00 468.18 -

9.0 SHELF LIFE OF THE SPREADS

Spreads, particularly Low-fat spread, have poor shelf life varying from 7-90 days at
different storage temperature (4C to 30C). The shelf life of the product is affected by
various factors namely type of emulsion and dispersion, moisture content, processing
treatment, type of ingredients, salt content, packaging material, storage temperature, pH of
the product and use of preservative.

10.0 CONCLUSION

Cold spreadable butter, recombined butter, butter blends and low calorie butter
spreads are products which assist in the development of food industries in areas where
dairying is un economic. At the same time the products help the utilization of the surplus of
butterfat of the main dairy producing regions. A high quality product close to traditional
butter can be obtained if the best raw materials, dairy hygiene, and good manufacturing
techniques are chosen. Research work is required in the area enhancing the shelf-life of the
spread.

11.0 REFERENCES

Crabtree, R.H. 1989. Table spreads. The Australian J. Dairy Technol.,42:2:101.
Forman, L. 1990. Industrial processes for milk fat spreads. Proc. XXIII Int. Dairy Congr., Brussels, Vol.2:1791
Gupta, S.K. and Kapoor, C. M. 1978. food value of soybean. Agric. Res. Newsletter, 5:1.
Holscher,E.J. and Dijkshoorn,J. 1987. Edible ware-in-oil emulsion with a reduced fat content and use of said
emulsion for producing bakery products. European Pat. Appln. 0218277. cited from Food Sci. technol.
Abstr. 19:10:v112.
IDF. 1989.The market position of imitation products. Bullatin of the Int. Dairy Fedn. No. 239 pp5.
IDF. 1993. Guidelines for fat spreads. IDF Standards.166:1993;2 cited from J. Soc.Dairy Technol., 47:1:1477.
Kinsella, J.E. 1978. Functional properties of soy proteins. J.Amer.Oil Chemists Soc. 56:242.
Lang, F. and Lang, A. 1977. New development in butter and in use of butterfat-2. Milk Ind. 79:10:19

85
Mann, E. 2000. Butter related spreads. Dairy Ind. Int. 62:11:20.
Moran, D.P.J. 1993. Yellow fat spreads.J. Soc. Dairy Technol., 46:1:2.
Moran, D.P.J. 1994. Fats in spredable products. In Fats in food products (Moran, D.P.J. and Rajah, K,K. eds.)
Blackie Academic and Professional, London, p.155.
Nichols, B. 1993. The current market and legal status of butters, margarine and spreads. Lipid technol.,5:3:57.
Patel, A.A.1982. Development of a low calorie protein rich table spread. Ph.D. Thesis , Kurukshetra Uni.
Kurukshetra.
Patel, A.A. and Gupta, S. K. 1989. Rheological studies on a protein enriched low fat spread. J. Fd. Sci.
Technol,. 26:1:36
Patel, A.A. and Gupta, S.K. 1988. Studies on a soy based table spread. J. Food Sci.(USA)53:455.
Prajapati, P.S.; Gupta, S.K.; Patel, A.A.and Patil, G.R.1991a. Ingredient selection for production of low fat
butter flavoured spread. J. Food Sci. Technol.,28:4;204.
Prajapati, P,S.; Gupta, S.K.; Patel A.A. and Patil, G.R. 1991b. Processing of low fat bytter flavoured spread. J.
Food Sci. Technol., 28:4:208.
Prajapati, P,S.; Gupta, S.K.; Patil, G.R. and Patel, A. A. 1992. Development of cheese flavoured low fat spread.
Cultured Dairy Prod. J.
Seas, S. M. and Spurgeqn, K. R. 1975. Development of cheese flavoured type dairy spread with controlled fat
content. Food Prod. Development. 9:9:68.
Shiller, G.G.; Vyshemirskii, F.A. and Silin, V. M. 1977. Method for production of butter with cheese flavour..
USSR Pat. 565657. Cited from Dairy Sci Abstr. 40:3845.
Sprenger, M. 1981. Cheese spread and process for preparation of the same. Europ. Pat. Appln. 0033635. Cited
from Dairy Sci. Abstr.,45:2049.
Spurgeon, K.R.; Seas, S. W. and Dalaly, B. K. 1973. Effects non-milk solids and stabilizers on body, texture
and water retention in low fat dairy spreads. Food Prod. Devrlopment 7:4:34.
Verma, R. B. 1996. A study on technical aspects for development of low fat butter spread. M.Sc. thesis, Gujarat
Agricultural Univ., S.K.Nagar.
Weckel, K. G. 1065. Dairy spreads. Manufactured milk Prod. J. 56:7:5.Bullock, D. H. 1966. A preliminary
study of a new low fat dairy spread. Canad. Dairy Ice cream J. 45:1:26
Zillen, M.1977. Nordisk Mejeriindustri, 4:5:263. Cited in Flang L and Lang A, 1979. New development in
butter and uses of butter. Milk Ind.79:10:19.

















86



















































FIG. :3 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR MANUFACTURE OF LOW FAT BUTTER
SPREAD

Heating
(90
0
C/30 mins)

Cooling
(30
0
C)

Storing in deep freezer
(-81
0
C/10-12 hr.)

Tempering
(30-40
0
C)














Heating
(55-60
0
C)
Buffalo milk cream
(70 % fat & 2.75 % SNF)
Mixing

Pasteurization
(75
0
C/30 min)

Homogenization
(100 kg/cm
2
)

Mixing
(Standardization to 45% fat and 15 % SNF)

Cup filling
(100 ml/500 ml polystyrene cups)

Setting
(51
0
C for 10-12 hrs.)













Storage (51
0
C)
Sweet cream butter milk
Heating
(85-90
0
C/20-30 mins)
Condensing
(40 % TS)
Cooling
(60
0
C)
Tempering
(30-40
0
C)
Annatto butter
colour
1.85 ml/kg
spread
Starter distillate
(1.25 % v/w)

Additives
CMC - 0.25 %
GMS - 0.30 %
Sorbic acid
0.10 %
BHA - 0.02 %
Salt - 1.5 %
Added in hot
water (50-60
0
C)

APPLICATION OF ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IN FAT
RICH DAIRY PRODUCTS






Dr. D.N. Prasad
1
and Dr. S.K.Tomar
2


Head
1
and Sr.Scientist
2

Dairy Microbiology Division
NDRI, Karnal

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Electron Microscopy (EM) is being increasingly used to study the microstructure of
individual components in milk products and modifications these entities undergo either alone
or by interactions with each other or with additional ingredients during manufacturing
processes. Such studies can be used for food structuring, texture-structure conclusions and
quality evaluation (Aguilera and Stanley, 1999).

The EM techniques render a markedly higher magnification at a considerable better
resolution than light microscopy. Instead of light, a beam of electrons generated from an
incandescent tungsten or lanthanum hexaboride electrode is employed to magnify the image of
the sample. There are two major EM modes- Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Magnetic lenses are used to focus the electron
beam in both kinds of microscope. The specimen is placed into the path of electron beam in
the TEM but in the SEM, it is placed at the end of focussed electron beam path. The image is
produced in the form of a shadow on a fluorescent screen in TEM. In SEM, reflected and
secondary electrons are processed by an electron detector to form a quasi three dimensional
image on a monitor screen. To avoid the absorption of electrons by air, the whole operation is
carried out in vacuum. An anode with an orifice in its centre is positively charged and those in
the centre pass accelerated through the orifice toward the specimen. Accelerating voltage of 3
to 20 kV has been used to do SEM and 60 to 80 kV has been used in TEM of Dairy foods.

2.0 PREPARATION FOR ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

2.1 Fixation and Dehydration

As a pre-requisite to the observation of a sample with electron microscope, it is
necessary to dehydrate the specimen and to fix (preserve intact) the structure in their natural
orientation. The fixation and dehydration process must be carried out carefully in stages to
avoid distortion of the image. Common fixatives used for this purpose are OsO
4
(glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde and acrylic aldehyde) and permanganates (Potassium and
barium permanganates). Other specialised compounds used for this purpose include uranyl
acetate, chromium, mercury salts and phosphotungstic acid etc. Dehydration of dairy
products can be accomplished by air-drying, freeze-drying and critical point-drying (Prasad,
1998).

88
2.2 Encapsulation

This technique is used to prepare highly viscous product like fat rich dairy product
for both TEM and SEM. In this technique the specimen is concentrated in agar or other gel
capsules and such sealed capsules are handled as larger solid samples.

A special encapsulation technique as devised by Veliky and Kalab(1990) are in vogue
for heat-sensitive products such as cream and butter. A special apparatus is used for this
purpose. A double-needle assembly consists of a central needle 1mm in diameter
concentrically located in a wider needle.. The assembly is connected to two 5-ml syringes
with piston to allow the food sample flow through the inner needle and a 3% sodium alginate
solution is injected from another syringe to coat the food sample. Food sample and sodium
alginate solution are extruded simultaneously into a 0.05 M calcium chloride solution, pH
6.5, where sodium alginate immediately forms a gel and immobilizes the food sample. The
100 to 200 mm long columns of encapsulated food so prepared may be cut into shorter
segments and transferred in to a fixative for subsequent processing of sample for EM.

3.0 TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

The TEM can be performed using various techniques as discussed in the following
sections.

3.1 Conventional Technique

The conventional method consists of embedding the specimen in a resin cutting thin
sections(15 to 90 nm thick) with the help of an ultramicrotome, staining the structures within
the sections(using heavy metal salts e.g. osmium, lead and uranium) and placing the sections
in the path of the electron beam.

3.2 Special Technique

The EM investigation of fat rich products offers a number of difficulties. Such studies are
hampered by the solubility of the fat in dehydrating agents and embedding media leading to
destabilization of the fat globules and unpredictable extraction of fat. As a result, conclusions
drawn from such electron -micrographs are dubious. For these reasons, fat rich dairy products
are studied employing following special techniques (Kalab, 1981):

3.2.1 Negative Staining

This is relatively a simple procedure used for TEM. The specimen is in the form of
submicroscopical particles semitransparent to the electron beam. Addition of phosphotungstic
acid (PTA), sodium phosphotugstate, or ammonium molybdate solutions to the specimen
makes the medium electron-dense but spares the particles. The thin layer of specimen so
prepared is dried and finally placed into the microscope. The electron beam passes only
through the semi-transparent structures under study and is absorbed by the surrounding stain
of heavy metal. The structures appear light against a dark background in the micrographs.

3.2.2 Metal Shadowing

Metal shadowing is a suitable technique for studying suspensions. In this technique,
the specimen is fixed and dried on a translucent film. The dried film is subsequently
89
shadowed with platinum or a platinum and palladium alloy. During TEM study, as the
electron beam passes through the shadowed area and exposes photographic material, the
shadow appears dark on the negative whereas areas with platinum deposit produce light
image. This image depends on the topography of the specimen's surface.

3.2.3 Freeze Fracturing and Freeze-etching

Though laborious, these techniques enable to examine the specimen without altering it
chemically (fixation) or physically (dehydration, embedding, drying).The specimen is
allowed to freeze rapidly followed by freeze-fracturing at a temperature below -110
o
C. The
fracture plane is subsequently replicated with platinum and carbon either immediately or after
certain period of freeze etching, during which a thin layer of ice in the specimen sublimes off
and reveals underlying structures. The specimen is thawed; replica is separated from the
specimen, and examined in the microscope.

4.0 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

In this system, a focussed electron beam is employed to examine the specimen. Some
of these electrons get reflected while others are able to generate secondary electron from the
gold coating. These secondary electrons are used to form an enlarged image of the specimen
surface. In order to neutralize the negatively charged incident electrons, the specimen should
be electrically conductive. This is accomplished by coating of specimen generally with gold
with the help of an ion sputter coater. Gold-palladium alloy, platinum and iridium are other
heavy metal used for this purpose..

5.0 MICROSTRUCTURE OF FAT RICH DAIRY AND RELATED PRODUCTS

5.1 Fat Spreads

Fat, an integral and indispensable part of our diet is consumed in large amounts as
margarine and butter and is used for baking and frying and as spreads. In fat spreads, the fat
molecules of high-melting fats are crystallized in a regular arrangement into solid crystals.
The type and the size of the crystals depend on the source of the fat blend and the processing
conditions (Heertze & Leunis, 1997).Common fat spreads used in daily life are Shortenings,
Margarine, and Butter .

Shortenings are frequently used in bakery applications. They are composed of liquid
oil and fat crystals only unlike margarine and butter which contain about 16% water, in
addition. While oil forms a liquid phase, fat crystals attain the form of a plate-like three -
dimensional crystalline network, with crystal bridges.

The microstructure of margarine is characterized by presence of water-droplet in the
backdrop of a fat crystal network. Water droplets of a few micrometers in diameter are
formed during intensive mixing of fat and water phases during processing. Crystals orient at
the water droplet surface and thus stabilize droplet. Fat forms familiar network composed of
plate-like crystal aggregates. In products (creaming-, cake- and puff pastry), the nature of the
fat crystalline network differs with respect to the size, the shape, and the aggregation of the
fat crystals (Heertze, 1993).

90
Butter offers a distinctly different microstructure exhibiting a discontinuous structure
of fat globules and a crystalline fat matrix. The fat globules remain intact through the
churning process. Amount of globules and the inter-globular fat phase varies with ripening
procedure of the cream and other processing conditions.

5.2 Whipped Cream

A comparison of whipping of homogenized and non-homogenized cream reveals
various features. The homogenized cream is characterized by smaller size of fat globules and
homogenization clusters. The air bubbles decrease in proportion as the time of whipping
increases and are much smaller in homogenized than in non-homogenized cream. During
whipping, latter disrupt fat globule membrane resulting into agglomeration of fat-globules.
Further whipping results in disappearance of the air-bubbles and in the formation of butter
granules similar to those found during churning (Schmidt & van Hooydonk, 1980).

5.3 Ice cream

The EM studies of ice cream mix depict it as an emulsion comprising of tiny fat
droplets dispersed in the water phase, each surrounded by a membrane of proteins and
emulsifiers. The sugars get dissolved in the water phase. During cooling, milk fat partially
solidifies so that each droplet consists of solid fat crystals cemented together by liquid fat. Ice
crystals and air bubbles are two additional phases which come into existence during whipping
and freezing of mix. They are dispersed in the concentrated unfrozen mix. The water
contributed by milk or cream in the mix freezes in to ice. As a result, the dissolved sugar get
increasingly concentrated in the unfrozen phase as more ice forms.Thus microstructure of ice
cream comprises four distinct phase, ice crystals, air bubbles, fat droplets and the unfrozen
phase. The process of freezing and aeration of the mix causes the emulsion to undergo a
process called partial coalescence. During this process, fat droplets form clusters and
aggregates of fat that surround and stabilize the air bubbles as it happens in whipped cream.

5.4 Butter Milk

Fat is present in dispersed state in cream and fat globules measuring 0.5 to 10 m in
diameter are encased in membranes composed of lipoproteins which stabilizes them in the
milk and inhibits their aggregation. Most of the fat globule membranes are disrupted during
churning leading to aggregation of globules in to butter. Most of the membranes fragments
are released into the butter milk while others are retained in the butter. Consequent upon
removal of the butterfat, though the composition of butter milk made from sweet cream is
similar to that of skimmilk with respect to protein and carbohydrates yet it contains
additionally excessive membranous material and slightly higher lipid content.

Due to lower price, there is a temptation to blend small amount of butter milk into
skim milk; chemical detection of butter milk may prove to be difficult due to identical
composition. The EM studies can be used to detect differences in the morphology of butter
milk and skim milk particles in blends and also of reconstituted products.

Apparently, spray-dried skimkmilk and butter milk appear similar under SEM. Both
exist in the form of spheres or clusters of spheres widely ranging in dimensions. A closer
look, however, offer some striking dissimilarities. In spray-dried skim milk, majority of
spheres are severely wrinkled and occasionally displaying the apple like structure. On the
91
other hand, spray dried butter milk is characterized by less deep wrinkled spheres and
absence of collapsed structures frequently found in spray-dried skim milk. The former has
been found more porous, a feature related to the fat content. Another possibility of
adulteration of blending fluid butter milk with skim milk and spray dry the mixture could not
be detected by SEM. This could be ascertained by observing the presence of fragments of fat
globule membrane by TEM (Kalab, 1980).

6.0 CONCLUSION

Electron microscopy though a sophisticated and expensive technique is highly
valuable in establishing the relationship of various attributes of finished product e.g.
composition, rheology as well as manufacturing conditions with its microstructure. The study
of microstructure has ample application in quality control, product development and process
control.


7.0 REFERENCES

Aguilera, J.M. and Stanley, D.W.1999. Microstructural principles of food processing and engineering.2
nd

ed.Aspen Publishers,Inc, Maryland, USA.
Heertze, I.1993.Microstructural studies on fat research. Food Struct.12:77-94
Heertze, I. and Leunis, M.1997. Measurement of shape and size of fat crystals by electron microscopy. Food
Sci. Technol.30:141-146.
Kalab, M.1980. Possibilities of an electron microscopic detection of butter milk made from sweet cream in
adulterated skimmilk .Pages 645-652.Scanning Elect. Microscopy.1980/III, SEM Inc, AMF O' Hare, USA.
Kalab, M.1981. Electron microscopy of milk products: A review of techniques. Pages 453-472. Scanning
Elect.Microscopy.1981/III, SEM Inc, AMF O' Hare, USA.
Prasad, D.N.1998.Microstructure of traditional dairy products. CAS 4
th
Short Course on Advances in Traditional
Dairy Products (Dec 16,1997-Jan.6,1998) NDRI, Karnal.
Schmidt,D.C and van Hooydonk, A.C.M.1980. A scanning electron microscopical investigation of the whipping
of cream.Pages.653-658.Scanning Elect. Microscopy.1980/III, AMF O Hare, USA.


ANHYDROUS MILK FAT-BUTTER OIL


F.C. Garg
Scientist (SG)
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

During II World War period several attempts were made in Australia and New
Zealand, for finding a convenient method of supplying butter-fat to meet the army
requirement, saving refrigeration and minimizing the storage space and also for satisfactory
disposal of butter and second-grade creamery butter.

After trying various methods of manufacturing, wrapping and packaging butter it was
concluded that the most practicable method of dealing with butter was to extract from it dry
butter-fat, which packed in suitable containers, could be shifted without marked deterioration
and saving shipping space. This was followed by the development of continuous method of
factory scale manufacturing of butter oil under partial vacuum, applying minimum heat
treatment to preserve nutritive value of the product.

2.0 DEFINITION

Butter oil may be defined as fat concentrate obtained exclusively from butter and also
cream and resulting from the removal of practically the entire water and solid-not-fat content.

According to the norms of the FAO/WHO,anhydrous milk fat should have a
minimum fat content of 99.8%, and the water content should not exceed 0.1% (Edgar
Spreer,1998).

Taking this into consideration, ghee in India and Pakistan or Samna of Egypt
produced, long long ago before man knew anything about technology could come under the
group of butter oil. However, the product butter oil popular in continental countries differs
from ghee or Samna in colour, granularity and flavour resulting from difference in method of
manufacture. Unlike ghee or Samna it is darker in colour, less granular in appearance and
has a bland/flat flavour.

3.0 METHODS OF MANUFACTURE OF ANHYDROUS MILK FAT

Continuous process lines are available for the manufacturing of anhydrous milk fat
from frozen butter and also directly from cream (Alfa-Laval ).

3.1 Butter as the raw material

Though it is normally more economical to produce butter oil directly from cream and thus
eliminating the need for the churning process, the process line using butter as the raw
material is used to convert excess amount of available butter into butter oil which is simpler
to store and distribute. Salted butter and butter with high FFA content can also be used for

93
manufacture of butter oil after proper treatments. In this process butter is taken directly from
cold storage to the butter melting equipment, where it is melted by using steam. The molten
butter is forced outward by centrifugal force towards the periphery, where it is collected and
transferred by positive displacement pump 3 to a heating system consisting of plate heat
exchanger 4 with a jacketed pipe, through which hot water is circulated.(Fig.1)

















From plate heat exchanger 4 the molten butter is transferred to holding tank 5, where
it is held for certain period of time. The purpose of the holding time is to give protein
sufficient time to agglomerate and to liberate any air entrained in the molten butter. This
procedure facilitates the subsequent separation process. From holding tank 5 the molten
butter is transferred to separator 7, where the fat is concentrated to more than 99% purity.
The butter milk is discharged to the butter milk tank and used further if possible. If the butter
is of poor quality and contains significant amount of FFA, it can be neutralized with a warm
alkaline solution.

Since the fat still contains a small quantity of water, as much as possible of this water
is removed in the vacuum dryer 10. Before drying, the fat is heated in plate heat exchanger 9
and, after drying, it is cooled in the cooling section of the same heat exchanger, and than
transferred to butter tank 11 before packaging.

3.2 Cream as the raw material

This method utilizes the principle of the de-emulsification of concentrated cream.
The fat globules are broken down mechanically by using clarifixator with a line capacities
between 500 and 1000 kgs of butter oil per hour or centrifixator with a line capacity of 1500-
2000 kgs or even more kgs of butter oil per hour. This forms a continuous fat phase
containing dispersed water droplets which can be separated from fat phase.

Raw material should be of good quality. Sour milk is completely unsuitable, even
though fat may not be affected. However, the cream from such milk can be improved to
certain extend by pre-treatment in the form of cream washing i.e. dilution with water,
followed by separation.


94

Cream with a fat content of 35-40% is generally used for the production of anhydrous
fat. In order to ensure effective inactivation of lipase enzym, the cream is pasteurized in heat
exchanger 3 (Fig-2) and is then cooled regeneratively to 55-58C. This treatment is
recommended even though pasteurized cream may be used as the raw material, since the
effect of reactivated enzymes is thus avoided.
























After heat treatment, the cream is concentrated in centrifuge. This is of the solids-
ejecting type. The cream is concentrated to a fat content of 70-75%. The skim milk from
contrifuge 4 is separated in separator 9, and the cream thus obtained is transferred back into
the process across float hopper 1, upstream of heat exchanger 3. The skim milk discharged
by separator 9 is cooled regeneratively in the first heating stage for unseparated cream in
plate heat exchanger 3.

The concentrated cream flows to the centrifixator 5, where the milk fat is subjected to
heavy mechanical working and most of the fat globules membranes are broken down. This
liberates the fat and a continuous fat phase is formed (emulsion splitting). The raw butter
milk still contains a small percentage of fat in globular form, i.e. the membranes of some fat
globules are still intact. This globular fat is removed in separator 6. After this treatment, the
fat phase is purified so that it contains up to 99.5% fat. The fat phase, with a water content of
about 0.4-0.5%, is pumped to plate heat exchanger 7, where it is preheated to 90-95C. The
oil is then transferred to vacuum dryer 8, where the water content is further removed to below
0.1%. The dehydrated milk fat is cooled to about 35-40C and is then ready for packaging.

During packaging of butter oil, care should be taken to exclude oxygen. Butter fat as
it comes out of the vacuum dehydrater it is practically or completely de-aerated. Reaeration
should be avoided and air-containing head-space in the container should be minimized. If fat
is to be carried through regions of high atmospheric temperature, allowances must be made

95
for expansion of butter-fat which has a fairly high co-efficient of expansion. Both for bulk
and retail packaging tin-cans are satisfactory.

4.0 STORAGE

One reason for its popularity is its long shelf-life. Even in tropical climate, anhydrous
milk fat can be stored for months at room temperature, provided that the packaging is not
translucent and is gas-tight. In chill storage, the shelf life of anhydrous milk fat is up to one
year.

The natural antioxidants of butter fat, pass mainly into separated serum, except for dry
butter fat prepared by direct evaporation. The resistance of butter fat to oxidation can be
improved by addition of permitted anti-oxidants, butylated hydroxytoluene anisole (BHA)
not exceeding 0.02% by weight except gollate which shall not exceed 0.01% by weight.

5.0 USES

i) Conversion of butter/cream to butter oil is a convenient method of preservation of
butter fat if refrigerated storage is not available.
ii) It is suitable for recombining and reconstitution of milk, cream & butter.
iii) In ice-cream manufacture as a source of fat.
iv) As a cooking fat.
v) For manufacture of toffee, chocolate and other confections.
vi) For manufacture of various type of fat spreads.
vii) For conversion into ghee.

5.1 SELECTED REFERENCES:

Alfa-Laval, Dairy Hand Book. Alfa-Laval AB Dairy and Food Engineering Division, S-22103 Lund, Sweden.
Edgar Spreer, Milk and Dairy Products Technology. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York (1998).
FRe Frederick Henry Mc Dowall, The butter Makers Manual Volume 2, (1953).
FAO/New Zealand Dairy Training Course (14 January to 25 February, 1974) Vol. I
Robert Jenness and Stuwart, Principle of Dairy Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons, INC. New York (1959).
W.B. Sanderson, XIX International Dairy Congress Vol. II (1974).

MILK FAT FRACTIONATION



Dr. T. Rai
Principal Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Milk fat is unique in terms of the myriad chemical and functional properties that it
possesses and which has made it an important component of most dairy products. Milk fat, in
the form of AMF (Anhydrous Milk Fat), butter or cream can be regarded as natural with
the consumers meaning of the term. In India, however, it has mainly been used for the
manufacture of butter and ghee over decades because of its very high nutritive value. It
contains a higher proportion of short chain fatty acids which contribute to its ease in
digestibility and is a good source of essential fatty acids. Further, the main feature for
becoming an attractive component is a typical characteristic pleasing flavour that cannot be
found in other fats. The flavour is mostly in bound or precursor state which allows it to be
released steadily during cooking. In addition, compositionally it is a primarily the even
number of saturated and unsaturated C
4
-C
8
straight chain fatty acids that imparted a unique
physical spectrum of characteristics in terms of crystallization behaviour and melting range
(-40 to +40C).

However, besides having so many virtues, with the advent of novel foods having
number of functional properties, the need for modifying the milk fat has been realized. In its
native form the use of milk fat in many food formulations has been restricted. As for
instance, the wide melting range of milk fat makes it difficult to produce butter of improved
plasticity and spreadability at refrigeration temperatures (Rizvi et al., 1995). In addition to
poor spreadability at refrigeration temperature, its consumption in developed countries is
declining because of high price, low PUFA & high cholesterol content and due to its inability
to complete with products like margarine.

Since the physical properties of milk fat influences the rheological properties of dairy
products, especially butter, there has been considerable interest in the modification of milk fat
by physical (fractionation, texturisation, blending with other fats) and chemical
(interesterification, hydrogenation and dehydrogenation) means.

Due to the fact that fat is composed of triglycerides of various molecular weights with
different physical properties, fractionation of milk fat into fractions markedly different from
one another in composition and physical properties is the most logical basis of modification.
Economic fractionation of milk fat into oil and hard fat fractions will facilitate an increased
utilization of milk fat in many food applications, such as chocolate, confectionary and bakery
products and in developing new convenient (e.g. freeze spreadable) and dietetic (e.g.
cholesterol reduced and short and medium chain enriched triglycerides) butter types.
Differences in molecular weight, melting temperatures (molecular weight and entropy of
fusion), volatility and intermolecular interaction energy of constitutive triglycerides, can
provide the physical basis for fractionation of milk fat triglycerides.

97

2.0 FRACTIONATION BY CRYSTALIZATION FROM THE MELT (DRY
FRACTIONATION)

Milk fat exhibits a wide melting range from about 40C to about 40C. This
provides the possibilities of crystallizing out a series of glycerides fractions at temperatures
below their melting points. Suitable sizes of crystals are developed by controlled cooling of
the melt and the crystals are separated from the liquid phase by filteration or centrifugation.
Currently the dry fractionation of anhydrous milk fat is performed by two conventional
systems, (1) TIRTIAUX and De Smet, both from Belgium, which are bulk crystallization
processes.

The widely used TIRTIAUX dry fractionations process enables one or up to five step
fractionation of anhydrous butter oil at any temperature ranging from 50C down to 2C.
The milk fat fractions thus obtained can be either used as such or the fractions can be blended
in various proportions for use as ingredients in various food fat formulations. The major
short coming inherent in this systems is the long residence time (8-12 hrs.) for nucleation and
crystal growth.

In the industrial operations, the fractionation process is carried out by melting the fat
to about 65C to destroy all the crystal nuclei. Then, by controlled cooling, crystals are
developed from the molten fat and allowed to grow. When the fractionation cycle is
complete, the higher melting crystals are separated out from the lower melting liquid phase.
Various factors affect the fractionation process: the cooling temperature, the cooling rate, the
crystal geometry, the efficiency of separation and the milk fat compositions.

The separation of crystals from the liquid phase can be achieved by filtration,
centrifugation or combination of these methods. The optimal crystal size depends on the
choice of the separation method. A crystal size of 200-350m is preferred for filteration
while a crystal size of 150-200 m is preferred for centrifugal separation.

In the Tirtiaux process a continuous belt Florentine vacuum (50-200 m bar) filter is
used to separate the fat crystals (optimum size of 200-300 m) from the liquid phase.
Alternatively membrane filter presses from De Smet or Tirtiaux among others are currently
available for the separation of the crystals.

Separation using centrifugal separators with the aid of a surface active agent (Sodium
lauryl sulfate) and an electrolyte (MgSO
4
) was introduced by Alfa-Lavel (Lanza process) in
the early 1970s. This separation process has not received the attention of the dairy industry
because of the presence o chemical residues in the milk fat fractions.

3.0 FRACTIONATION USING SOLVENTS

Fractionation by crystallization of fat in organic solvents such as acetone and alcohol
is commonly employed in laboratory. Separation of fat crystals from organic solvents is
easily accomplished and the fractions obtained can be easily recrystallized and purified. The
main advantage being rapid crystallization due to low viscosity of liquid phase and higher
efficiency of fractionation than the crystallization from the molten fat (Norris et al., 1971).
The fat fractions obtained by solvent crystallization are relatively pure (Lechat et al., 1975).

98
Here cooling of fat diluted with a solvent generally results into formation of the
crystal and reduce the tendency to form mixed crystals. The milk fat is mixed with an
organic solvent. The mixture is cooled and triglyceride precipitates due to crystallization.
The mixture is separated into two liquid phases, one containing liquid butter fat plus solvent
and the other is solid phase of glycerides crystals and solvent. Both fractions are separated
by centrifugation (Wilson, 1975). Here generally the solvent used are ethanol and acetone.
Mucese et al., (1984) used hexane as solvent in place of acetone.

However, this method has not gained industrial importance because of loss of flavour
compounds of milk fat, pigment alteration and the problem of solvent residue in milk fat
fraction (Wilson, 1975). Similar findings have been recorded by various workers for buffalo
milk fat fractions (Dilanyan et al., 1972; Avvakumov et al., 1976; Makarenko et al., 1976,
Yousaf et al., 1977).

4.0 FRACTIONATION BY SHORT PATH DISTILLATION

Short path distillation offers an excellent opportunity to obtain fractions from milk fat
with distinctive chemical and physical properties. Short path distillation is a relatively well
known process and consists of evaporation of molecules into a substantially gas free space
i.e. vacuum. The controlling factor is the rate at which the molecule escape from the heated
surface of the distilling liquid and are received by the cooled condenser surface. Hickman
(1944 and 1947) has reviewed in depth, the principles, technology and scope of high vacuum
distillation and equipment design. Molecular distillation has been used to recover volatile
compounds of butter oil and cholesterol from butter fat and milk has been fractionated by
short path distillation (Boudreau et al. 1984).

Milk fat being a mixture of triglycerides differing in molecular weight, volatility and
inter-molecular interaction energies, is an ideal candidate to effect separation of triglycerdes
by short path distillation (McCarthy et al., 1962; Arul et al. 1988)

Anhydrous milk fat was fractionated into four fractions, two liquid (LF1 and LF2),
one semi solid (IF) and one solid (SF) at room temperature. The fractions were characterized
by melting temperature protile, solid fat index and triglyceride and fatty acid compositions.
The peaks melting temperatures progressively increased (8.8 to 38.7C) from liquid to solid
fractions. The solid fat content ranged from 0 to 27.5% at 20C while it was 15.4% for
native milk fat. The short chain (C
24
to C
34
) triglycerides were enriched in the fraction LF1,
long chain (C
42
to C
54
) triglyceride were concentrated in the SF fraction and the medium
chain (C
36
to C
40
) triglyceride in the fraction IF. Short chain (C
4
to C
8
) fatty acids gradually
decreased from liquid to solid fractions and trend was reversed for long chain (C
14
to C
18
)
fatty acids, both saturated and unsaturated. The gradual increase in the concentration of
unsaturated long chain fatty acids from liquid to solid is contrary to that observed in the melt
crystallization process for the fractionation of milk fat.

Short path distillation thus offers an excellent opportunity to obtain fractions from
milk fat with distinctive chemical and physical properties.

5.0 FRACTIONATION BY SUPER CRITIAL FLUIDS

There has been a growing interest in supercritical gas extraction, over the past few
years. Liquid like densities of dense gases result in liquid like solvent powers. This property

99
and faster mass transport characteristics relative to liquids due to low dense gas viscosity
make dense fluids attractive extraction agents. Substances can be selectively dissolved by
changing the density of the gas. Super critical gas (Dense gas) extraction involves the
phenomenon of distillation and extraction simultaneously.

Enhancement of vapour pressure, ideal solubility and phase separation play a role. A
mixture of compounds differing in physical properties i.e. molecular weight, volatility,
entropy of fusion and inter molecular interaction energy; such as milk fat triglycerides, can be
fractionated with a variation in solvent power of the dense gas.

Variation in size and packing regularity of the crystal structure lead to a wide
variation in melting points for milk fat triglycerides (TG). Further, variation in molecular
weight and unsaturation lead to differences in volatility of TGS. In a homologous series i.e.
of similar nature of intermolecular forces, the chohesive energy is a function of the molecular
size. Volatility of TGs, therefore, decreases with their molecular weight.

Therefore, at low densities of the gas, short chain TGs are dissolved into the
supercritical fluid phase. As the pressure (density) of gas is increased at constant
temperature, intermediate and higher molecular weight TGs migrate into the mobile phase.
Consequently, there is distinctive level of compression at which solubility of a species is
observed.

Thus this process (Dense gas extraction) involves the phenomenon of distillation and
extraction simultaneously, where distillation involves enhancement of vapour pressure as a
result substances can be selectively dissolved at a particular density or pressure and
extraction involves ideal solubility of a particular fraction and then phase separation.

In this process, dense gases are used that has liquid like densities and possess liquid
like solvent powers. This property and faster mass transport characteristics relative to liquids
due to low dense gas viscosity make dense fluids attractive extraction agents. Among the
potential gases, carbon dioxide is attractive as a fractionating agent, being relatively a poor
solvent for non-polar substances compared to hydrocarbons such as propane due to molecular
volume. Besides, CO
2
does not react chemically with food constituents, even in supercritical
state. It is neither flammable nor toxic and is available in large quantities at relatively low
cost, its use does not pose the problem of processing residues.

6.0 REFERENCES

Arora, Sumit and Rai, T. (1997). Milk fat fractions: Properties and applications: A Review. J. Dairying, Food
and Home Sci., 16: 143-155.
Arul, J., Boudreaue, A., Makhlouf, J., Taradif, R and Sahasrabudhe, M.R. (1987). Fractionation of anhydrous
milk fat by supercritical CO
2
. J. Food Sci., 52: 1231.
Arul, J., Boudreaue, A., Makhlouf, J., Taradif, R. and Grenier, B, B. (1988). Distribution of cholesterol in milk
fat fractions. J. Dairy Res. 55: 361-371.
Avvakuomov, A.K., Rumyant Serva, N.V. and Morozova, V.I. (1976). Changes in melting temperature of milk
fat in relation to its chemical composition. DSA 38: 1182.
Boudreaue, A., Makhlouf, J. and Arul, J. (1984). 44
th
Annual meeting of the Instt. Of Food Technology
Antheim, CA, USA.
Hickman, K.C.D. (1944). Chem. Rev. 351:51
Hickman, K.C.D.(1947) Ind. Eng. Chem. 391:686.
Dilenyan, Z., Kharatyan, V. and Agababyan. (1972). Some physico-chemical indices of buffaloes milk fat.
DSA. 34: 2298.

100
Lechat, G., Varchon, P., Kuzdazal-Savoie, S., Longlois, D and Kuzdazal, W. (1975). Fractional crystallization
of anhydrous milk fat. DSA 37 : 8142.
Makarenko, V.L., Grishehnko, A.I., Avvakuomov, A.K. and Babkin, A.F. (1976). Study of the hard and liquid
phase in milk fat using impulse method of NMR. DSA 38 : 525.
McCarthy, M.J., Kuksis, A and Beveridge, J.M.R. (1962). GLC fractionation of natural triglyceride mixtures by
carbon number. Can. J. Biochem. & Physiol. 40 :679.
Norris, R., Gray, I.K., Moedowell, A.K.R. and Dolby, R.M. (1971). The chemical composition and physical
properties of fractions of milk fat obtained by a commercial fractionation process. J. Dairy Res. 38 : 179.
Rizvi, S.S.H. and Bhaskar, A.R. (1995). Supercritical fluid processing of milk fat : Fractionation, Scale-up and
Economics. Food Technol. 49 : 90-96.
Wilson, B.W. (1975). Techniques of fractionation of milk fat. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 30 : 10.
Youssef, A.M., Salame, F.A and El. Ghanam, M.S. (1977). Fractional crystallization of cow and buffalo milk
fats from acetone. Alexandria J. Agric. Res. 25 : 459. cited DSA (1980). 42 : 2167.












PROPERTIES AND UTILIZATION OF
FRACTIONATED MILK FAT



Dr. Sumit Arora
Scientist (SS)
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Milk fat has is traditionally used as one of the major dairy products in our country in
the form of butter and ghee. Among all natural fats, milk fat is the most varied in its chemical
characteristics and functional properties. It is a good source of essential fatty acids and
possesses a uniquely pleasing flavour not found in other fats. It contains a higher proportion
of short chain fatty acids, which contribute to its ease of digestibility. On the other hand, its
high proportion of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol content have resulted in creating a
shift away from its direct consumption and its utilization as an ingredient. However, in
view of the considerable progress made in the dairy industry in our country, it has become
necessary to introduce new technological innovations with regard to the diversified use of
milk fat. In western countries, attempts are being made to use fractions of milk fat in the
manufacture of dairy products with the object of obtaining desired rheological properties in
the products. Functionality of milk fat can be improved by fractionation, the compositional
variation between different fractions may help us to prepare a milk fat with low cholesterol,
higher vitamin content and better keeping quality by mixing them in desired proportions.

2.0 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Milk fat is a very complex mixture containing more than 437 fatty acids (Patton and
Jenssen, 1975) of different chain lengths and unsaturation, formulating varieties of
triacylglycerols having wide melting ranges from -40 to 40C (Hannewijk and Haighton,
1957; Antila, 1966; Lovegren et al., 1973). This characteristic melting behaviour of milk
fat lends itself to easy fractionation, having different chemical and physical properties.

2.1 Yield of Milk Fat Fractions

Temperature of fractionation is the main factor influencing the yield of milk fat
fraction. Jebson (1970) reported marked effect of temperature on crystallization pattern of
milk fat, the level of solid fat reportedly increased from 50 to 90 % when the temperature of
crystallization was reduced from 27C to 24C. Armugham and Narayanan (1979) found that
at 29C the average per cent of the liquid fraction was 62 % for buffalo milk fat and 83 %
for cow milk fat using thermal expansion dilatometer and reported that buffalo ,cow and
goat milk fat at 28C contained solid fat at the levels of 84.4, 66.4 and 22.8 % respectively.
It was also observed that 50 % solid fat was obtained at 33C, 30C and 25C in cow, buffalo
and goat milk fats. Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy (1985) reported a yield of 12.4, 53.6,
13.0 and 21.0 % for solid fractions obtained at 31C, 23C,15C and the remaining liquid
fraction at 15C (S31, S23, S15 and L15) fractions obtained by stepwise fractionation for
buffalo milk fat and a yield of 10.6, 57.6, 12.4 and 19.4 % for S31, S23, S15 and L15
fractions for cow milk fat.

102
2.2 Melting Point (MP)

Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy (1985) reported the MP of three solid fractions
at 31, 23,15C and the remaining liquid fraction at 15C of buffalo ghee as 37.5 (S31), 31.2
(S23), 19 (S15) and 14.5 (L15), and for cow as 34.2 (S31), 36.5 (S23), 30.5 (S15) and
14C (L15), respectively. Bindal and Wadhwa (1993) observed that the average MP of goat
ghee (28.1-30.2C) was significantly lower (P < 0.01) than that of cow ghee (32.7-35.8C)
and much lower than that of buffalo ghee (33.4-38.8C), while solid fractions of these ghee
showed a similar trend but in liquid fractions, goat ghee had highest MP followed by
buffalo and cow.

2.3 Refractive Index

Dolby (1970) and Norris et al., (1971) observed that the refractive index of the
original milk fat was 1.4550 and those of the solids and liquid fractions were 1.4548 and
1.4550, thereby indicating that the refractive index of the fractions were similar to the
original fat. Singhal et al., (1973) while studying the properties of three different layers
formed in cow and buffalo ghee during storage found no differences in refractive index
of those fractions, whereas Stephanenko and Tverdokaleb (1974), while studying the
properties of milk fractions obtained at 20 and 11C observed that refractive index of non-
fractionated fat, solid fraction and liquid fraction at 11C were 1.4555, 1.4550 and 1.4560,
respectively. Dobronos et al., (1976) showed that the degree of hardening of milk fat
depended upon the refractive index and iodine values of the milk fat.

2.4 Iodine Value (IV)

Kehar et al., (1956) determined the iodine values of cow and buffalo ghee which
ranged from 27.4 to 40.5 (av. 34.4). Singhal et al,. (1973) recorded higher iodine values for
liquid fractions of cow and buffalo ghee. Kankare (1974) determined IV of milk fat and
three of its solid fractions obtained at 24, 18 and 12C as well as of the remaining liquid fat
as 31.2, 24.9, 24.1, 28.7 and 40.5, respectively. Similar observations have been recorded by
Fjaervoll (1969), Dolby (1970) and Norris et al. (1971). Youssef et al. (1977) reported that IV
of low melting fractions of milk fat was higher than of the high melting fractions.
Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy (1985) reported the IV of three solid and the
remaining liquid fraction of buffalo ghee as 28.8 (S31), 30.2 (S23), 34.8 (S15) and 35.60
(L15), and for cow as 30.1 (S31), 31.2 (S23), 33.4 (S15) and 35.2 (L15), respectively.
Bindal and Wadhwa (1993) recorded comparatively higher iodine values for liquid fractions
obtained at 28C than those of solid and pure ghee from cow, buffalo and goat.

2.5 Reichert Meissl Value (RM)

The RM value of cow ghee is generally lower than that of buffalo ghee (Achaya and
Banerjee, 1946). Most of the workers have recorded high RM values for liquid fraction than
original milk fat and solid fraction (Dolby, 1970; Norris et al., 1971; Black, 1973;
Stepanenko and Tverdokaleb, 1974). Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy (1985) reported the
RM values of three solid and the remaining liquid fraction of buffalo ghee as 28.6 (S31), 29.7
(S23), 31.4 (S15) and 33.20 (L15) and for cow as 22.4 (S31), 23.6 (S23), 25.0 (S15) and 26.4
(L15), respectively.

103
2.6 Polenske Value (PV)

Singh and Singh (1960) found that the PV of cow ghee ranged from 1.02 to 2.00,
while that of buffalo ghee ranged from 0.35 to1.85. Black (1973) reported that PV of soft
fractions of three samples of milk fat was 2.6, 2.0 and 2.4, respectively. The PV of the
corresponding hard fraction of the same samples was 2.1, 1.9 and 1.5, respectively.
Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy (1985) reported the PV values of three solid and the
remaining liquid fraction of buffalo ghee as 1.0 (S31), 1.28 (S23), 1.39 (S15) and 1.50 (L15)
and for cow as 1.4(S31), 1.45 (S23), 1.6 (S15) and 1.65 (L15), respectively.

2.7 Saponification Value (SV)

The SV of goat, cow and buffalo ghee was determined by Singh and Gupta (1982) to
be 210.2 1.29, 234.12 3.52 and 236.60 2.45. According to Dolby (1970) the SV of the
original cow milk fat, solid fraction and liquid fraction is 232.7, 229.1 and 236. Norris (1971)
also observed that the liquid fraction had a greater SV (228.1) than solid (225.8) and original
milk fat (226.2).

2.8 Fatty Acid Composition of Milk Fat Fractions

Results of earlier workers (Antila and Antila, 1970; Dolby, 1970; Norris et al., 1971;
Timmer, 1974; Kankare, 1974; Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy, 1985) on the
fatty acid composition of cow and buffalo milk fat fractions show that low melting fraction
contained more of short chain (4:0 to 14:0) and unsaturated (18:1) fatty acids, whereas
the high melting fractions contained more of long chain saturated fatty acids (18:0 and
16:0). However, this trend is more prominent in milk fat fractions obtained from acetone
crystallization than in those obtained by direct crystallization. The fatty acid composition of
the fractions and their crystallization behaviour are largely dependent upon the
conditions of crystallization as well as on the original fatty acid composition of milk fat.
Since the fatty acid composition of goat milk fat is distinctly different from cow and buffalo
milk fat. The levels of short chain (C4-C8) fatty acids in liquid fractions were 2.10, 1.83
and 1.80 fold to those of solid fraction in goat, buffalo and cow ghee. Again the levels of
medium chain fatty acids (C9-C14) especially C10:0 and C12:0 in goat ghee liquid fraction
were higher than those of cow and buffalo ghee liquid fraction and still much higher than
those of solid fraction. Amongst long chain fatty acids, the levels of C16:0 and C18:0 in
liquid fraction were much less (0.6-0.7 times) and those of C18:1 were high (1.4-1.6 times)
in comparison to those of solid fraction. The unsaturation ratio was almost double in liquid
fraction (0.5-0.54) as compared to that of solid fraction (0.27-0.36) (Bindal and Wadhwa,
1993 and Arora and Rai, 1998).

2.9 Flavour potential of fractionated milk fat

Baker (1970) observed that there is some increase in the level of colour and flavour in
the liquid fraction and reduction in the hard fraction. The medium fraction is like normal
butterfat in everyway except that it has a more limited melting range. According to Walker
(1974) preferential solubility of trace flavours in liquid fat is probably influenced by their
polarity and melting points relative to the bulk of triglycerides of milk fat. The occurrence of
lactones and methyl ketones in the high melting fractions appear to be due mainly to the
physical retention of liquid fat in the crystal matrix. The high melting fraction from
anhydrous milk fat has possible applications in the preparation of chocolates, pastries etc

104
but if full flavour potential of milk fat is desired in these products,
supplementation with a natural or synthetic butter flavour concentrate may be necessary.
Bhat and Rama Murthy (1983) reported that the quantities of monocarbonyls were higher in
the low melting fractions (LMF) than in high melting fractions (HMF) of both cow and
buffalo milks.

2.10 Grain Formation in Ghee

Joshi and Vyas (1976) and Arumughan and Narayanan (1979) analysed solid (grains)
and liquid fractions obtained by granulation of buffalo and cow ghee. The partly granular
form assumed by ghee appears to be primarily due to presence of high melting triglycerides.
On storage at 29C granulation was found to be complete in 3 days in both cow and buffalo
ghee. The minimum % of liquid fractions (59 for buffalo and 80 for cow) and the maximum
grain size (420m for buffalo and 108 m for cow ghee) were recorded on the third day of
storage. Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy (1985) studied the size of grains of various cow
and buffalo fat fractions which were fractionated at different temperatures and observed that
the size of crystals was larger in the fractions obtained at higher temperature than at lower
temperatures.

3.0 DISTRIBUTION OF MINOR LIPID COMPONENTS IN MILK FAT
FRACTIONS

3.1 Cholesterol

Norris et al. (1971) reported that while original fat contained 240 mg of cholesterol
per 100 g of fat, the solid and liquid fractions of the same sample of fat contained 220 mg and
250 mg of cholesterol for 100 g of fat. Arul et al. (1988) reported that cholesterol was
enriched in the liquid fractions in particular 80 % of the cholesterol being found in the liquid
fraction.

3.2 Vitamin A, Carotene and Tocopherol

Norris et al. (1971) fractionated milk fat by holding it at 25C for 24 h and found that
the concentrations of vitamin A and carotene were more in low melting fractions of milk
fat as compared to those found in high melting fractions. The levels of vitamin A and total
carotene occurring in original fat, liquid fraction and solid fractions were 8.4, 9.8 and 6.6;
8.8, 9.0 and 7.3 g/g of fat, respectively. Lakshminarayana (1983) also pointed out that the
per cent increase of vitamin A, tocopherol in L15 (liquid fraction at 15C) fraction as
compared to whole milk fat was 54 and 39 per cent in case of buffalo and 32 and 31 per cent
in case of cow milk fat, respectively.

3.3 Phospholipids

According to Pruthi (1984), the phospholipid content of unfractionated ghee was
found to vary from 36.2 to 330.0 mg/100 g (average 228.9 mg). Phospholipid content of
liquid fraction of ghee was found to vary from 8.8 to 47.4 mg /100 g of ghee (average 31.0
mg) and that of solid fraction from 84.1 to 636.5 mg (average 489.8 mg). A major portion of
phospholipids thus was found associated with the solid portion of milk fat.



105
4.0 STORAGE STABILITY OF MILK FAT FRACTIONS

4.1 Hydrolysis of Milk Fat Fractions

Rama Murthy and Narayanan (1972) have shown that softer fat is hydrolysed at a
faster rate than harder fat. It is known that the longer the chain length of fatty acids of a
saturated triglycerides, the slower is the rate of hydrolysis (Jensen et al.,1962 and Patel
et al.,1968). According to Armughan and Narayanan (1979) a slower rate of hydrolysis was
observed for the solid fraction of each buffalo and cow ghee as compared to the
corresponding whole ghee and liquid fraction. Hence, the low melting fractions of milk fat
can be expected to be hydrolysed faster than high melting fraction. It has also been reported
that the physical state of fat greatly influences the rate of hydrolysis because lipase
action is inhibited when fat is in solid state . Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy (1986)
explained the greater resistance exhibited by S31 fraction towards lipolysis may be
attributed to its significantly higher content of long chain saturated fatty acids and high
melting triglycerides than those found in low melting fractions .The rate of hydrolysis of
milk fat fraction may find an important application in obtaining desired rates of hydrolysis
during ripening of cheese made from buffalo milk.

4.2 Auto-Oxidation of Milk Fat

Low melting fractions of milk fat contain high amount of unsaturated fatty acids and thus are
expected to undergo auto-oxidation at a faster rate during storage than high melting fraction.
Pruthi (1984) indicated that distribution of phospholipids among the fractions of milk fat
could influence the auto-oxidative stability of milk fat fractions. Since the low melting
fractions of milk fat contains more of unsaturated fatty acids, it is expected to undergo
auto-oxidation at a faster rate during storage than high melting fraction. However, it
was also observed that low melting fractions contained more of tocopherol and carotene
than high melting fractions which may act as a natural antioxidant in milk fat. It was
observed that the presence of higher concentration of unsaturated fatty acids had a greater
influence of accelerating auto-oxidation rates than the higher concentration of tocopherol and
carotene which are known to retard auto-oxidation (Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy,
1985).

Bhat and Rama Murthy (1983) reported that in freshly clarified milk fats,
quantitatively the monocarbonyls were significantly higher in the low melting fraction
than in the high melting fraction of milk fat. No significant differences in the
concentration of total carbonyls and ketoglycerides in these fractions was observed in
these fractions was observed in milk fat of both cows and buffalo. Both the liquid milk fat
and the whole fat of buffalo milk autoxidized faster than those of cow milk fat ,while the
development of peroxides was slower in the high melting fraction of buffalo than in that of
cow milk fat Murthi et al., (1974) observed that generally the liquid portion obtained at
lower temperatures of fractionation is expected to deteriorate faster as they contain more
unsaturates. Peroxides of liquids obtained at higher temperatures of fractionation (37C)
deteriorated faster than those obtained at lower temperatures. In general, the solids obtained
at higher temperatures of fractionation (37C) showed greater stability with reference to the
peroxide value. The lowest melting fractions S15 and L15 showed significantly higher
oxidation rates as compared to whole milk fat, whereas S31 and S23 fractions showed lower
rates of auto-oxidation as compared to the corresponding whole milk fats of both cow and
buffalo (Lakshminarayana and Rama Murthy, 1986).

106

5.0 APPLICATIONS

The chemical composition and physical properties of the fractions are different from
those of original milk fat. The fractionation of milk fat is rather a method of increasing the
technical applications of milk fat than a method for improving its nutritional properties.
Milk fat fraction can be used in the production of fat containing foods e.g.

5.1 Bakery Products

The bakery industry offers an interesting and wide application area for milk fat
fractions. The margarine industry has long been producing special fats for bakeries. Bakeries
can use both soft and hard fractions for various purposes and these must be tailor made as
agreed between the user and the manufacturers.

5.1.1 Pastry products

Major benefits are obtained when plasticised milk fat hard fractions are used in
layered pastry products such as Puff pastry, Croissants and Danish pastry. Plasticised
fractionated milk fat gives a good and constant performance, it can be utilized at more
convenient temperatures than regular butter and eating quality of products served warm may
be improved due to reduced oiliness (Pederson, 1989).

5.1.2 Biscuits and short bread

Milk fat soft fractions are used on a large scale in short bread and biscuits with
improved quality, it gives the product a longer shelf life, especially during winter
months when temperature cycling can cause fat bloom or surface discolouration of biscuits
(Eyres et al., 1989).

5.1.3 Cakes

Cake margarines and shortenings have a very good creaming power, which is due to
the combined effect of the fat melting properties, emulsifiers and plasticising procedure.
However by blending milk fat fractions and plasticising them, a high creaming milk fat
suitable for cakes can be produced (Eyres et al., 1989).

5.2 Chocolate and Sweets

Although it is desirable to add milk fat to chocolate as it is cheaper than cocoa butter
and has intrinsic low viscosity, there is a maximum level caused by fat incompatibility,
this results in chocolate that is too soft for practical use in temperate climates. Attempts
have, therefore, been made to harden milk fat by fractionation, hydrogenation and interesteri-
fication. The hard fraction of milk fat has also been reported to act as an antibloom giving
dark chocolate a longer shelf-life (Gordon, 1991). Lohman and Hartel (1994) observed that
higher melting fractions inhibited bloom, while the lower melting fractions induced
bloom as compared with control chocolates.

107

5.3 Dairy Products

5.3.1 Butter

Fjaervoll (1970) indicated that butter with good spreadable property can be prepared
by incorporating low melting fraction of milk fat with cream, followed by churning the cream
into butter. Similarly, several workers (Dolby, 1970; Lechat et al., 1975; Tucker, 1978;
Arora and Rai, 1999) have independently shown that butter of good spreadability could
be produced by incorporating low melting fraction into it. Deffense (1987) observed that
spreadability can be enhanced by blending a very soft fraction (with a softening point of less
than 10C) with a milk fat hard fraction. A blend of 30 % milk fat hard fraction with 70 per
cent very soft fraction gives a spreadable butter of excellent physical properties. Anderson
(1991) stated that butter made of milk fat from which highest melting fraction has been
removed is spreadable at refrigeration temperatures. On the other hand, it shows rather poor
stand up properties at higher temperatures, greater liability to oil off and is less stable against
flavour deterioration. By using repeated fractionation, it is possible to remove the
triglycerides that melt in temperature range between 5 to 25C. Such butter will show
almost the same melting behaviour as table margarines. Double fractionation is, however
expensive and there must be a reasonable use for the removed fat fractions. Such uses could
include tailor-made butters for different kinds of bakery products. Kaylegian and Lindsay
(1992) reported that butter samples made from low melting fractions or a combination of
primarily low melting fractions and a small amount of high melting fractions exihbited a
good spreadability at refrigerator temperatures (4C) but were almost melted at room
temperatures (21C). Butters made with a high proportion of low melting fraction, a small
proportion of very high melting solid fractions were still spreadable at refrigerator
temperature and maintained their physical form at room temperature. Deffense (1993)
reported that oleins from single stage fractionations can be used for softening butter, for
creaming applications and for spreads .This can be done either by blending of cream with
super olein followed by churning or reconstituting butter with milk fat fractions.

5.3.2 Cheese

Cheddar cheese manufactured from buffalo milk is always criticized for flat
flavour and hard crumbly ,dry body and texture even after prolonged period of ripening.
Admixing of goat milk with buffalo milk does wonders for obtaining good quality
Cheddar cheese, addition of 10 to 20 per cent goat milk to buffalo milk yields good quality
cheese. The flavour development and all biochemical reactions, i.e., glycolysis, proteolysis
and lipolysis were much faster (Rao,1990) in goat milk added cheeses. Goat milk fat
plays an important role in flavour acceleration in cheese The goat milk fat fractions were
incorporated in buffalo milk at appropriate proportions for the manufacture of cheddar type
cheese, liquid fractions helped to improve its sensory and textural properties (Arora and
Rai, 2000).

6.0 CONCLUSION

The liquid and solid fractions obtained at different temperatures have significant
variations in their chemical composition and the concentration of various constituents. As a
consequence, these compositional variations of various milk fat fractions have their influence
on the consistency/textural properties of products containing them.

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7.0 REFERENCES

Achaya, K.T. and Banerjee, B.N. (1946). On the detection of adulteration of ghee. Indian J. Vet. Sci., 16: 144.
Anderson, K. (1991). Uses of milk fat. Bulletin of the IDF. no. 260.
Antila, V. (1966). Fatty acid composition, solidification and melting of Finnish butter fat. Meijeritiet. Aikakausk., 27(1):
72. Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr.(1966), 28, 3250.
Antila, V. (1979). The fractionation of milk fat. Milk Industries, 81(8):17.
Antila, V. and Antila, M. (1970). Nutritional value of various fractions of milk fat. Fetter Seifen Anstr. Mittel., 72: 285.
Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr. (1970), 32, 3532.
Arora ,S and Rai,T.(1998). Fatty acid profile and physico chemical properties of goat milk fat fractions. Indian J. Dairy
Sci., 51(1): 20-25.
Arora ,S and Rai, T.(1999). Effect of incorporating of goat milk low melting fractions on the Rheological and physico-
chemical properties of butter. J. Dairy Food and Home. Sci., 18(1): 32 - 36.
Arora ,S and Rai,T.(2000). Biochemical changes in buffalo milk Cheddar cheese as affected by the incorporation of goat
milk and goat milk fat fractions. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 53(1): 19-25.
Arul, J.; Boudreau, A.; Makhlouf, J.; Tardif, R. and Greneir, B. (1988). Distribution of cholesterol in milk fat fractions.
J. Dairy Res . 55, 361-371.
Arumughan, C. and Narayanan, K.M. (1979). Grain formation in ghee (butter fat) as related to structure of triglycerides.
J. Food Sci. Technol., 16: 242.
Baker, B.C.(1970). The fractionation of butter fat and the properties of selected fractions. XVIII Int. Dairy
Congr.,1E:241.
Bhat, G.S. and Rama Murthy, M.K. (1983). Distribution and production of carbonyls during autoxidation in low and
high melting fraction of cow and buffalo milk fats. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 36(3): 308-313.
Bindal, M.P. and Wadhwa, B.K. (1993). Compositional differences between goat milk fat and that of cows and
buffaloes. Small Ruminant Research, 12: 79-88.
Black, R.G. (1973). Pilot scale studies of milk fat fractionation. Aust. J. Dairy Technol., 28: 116.
Deffense, E. (1993). Milk fat fractionation today: A review. JAOCS, 70(2): 1193-1201.
Dobronos, V.; Gulyaev-Zaitsev, S.; Zhuravlena, K. and Mramornov, B. (1976). Degree of milk fat hardening in relation
to its chemical composition. Trudy, Litovskii Filial Vsesoyuznogo Nauchno-issledovatel'skogo Institute Maslodel'
noi Promyshlennosti, 10: 179. Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr. (1977), 39, 4012.
Dolby, R.M. (1970). Chemical composition of fractions of milk fat separated by a commercial process. XVIII Int. Dairy
Congress, 1E, 242.
Eyres,L.;Boon,P.M. and Illingworth,D. (1989). Tailored Food Ingradients From Fractionated Milk Fat.Third
F.I.E.Food ingradients Europe conference and exibition,session 6 lecture 4,Nov15-17 1988,Wembly. U.K.
Fjaervoll, A. (1969). Butter oil and butter fat fractionation. Sevenska Mejeritidn, 61: 491. Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr.(1970),
32, 1939.
Fjaervoll, A. (1970). Anhydrous milk fat fractionation offers new application for milk fat. Dairy Industries, 35(8): 502.
Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr. (1971), 33, 143.
Gordon, M. (1991). Monograph on Utilization of Milk Fat. Bulletin of IDF, 260.
Hannewijk, J. and Haighton, A.J. (1957). The behaviour of butter fat during melting. Neth. Milk Dairy J., 11: 304.
Jebson, R.S. (1970).Fractionation of milk fat into high and low melting components. XVIII Int. Dairy Congr., 1E: 240.
Jenson, R.G.; Sampugno, J. and Parry, R.M.J. (1962). Lipolysis of synthetic triglycerides and milk fat by a lipase concentrate
from milk. J. Dairy Sci., 45: 1527.
Johsi, C.H. and Vyas, S.H. (1976). Studies on buffalo ghee. II. Various conditions affecting the granulation of ghee. Indian
J. Dairy Sci.,29(1): 13-17.
Kankare, V. (1974). Fractionation of milk fat by crystallization without solvents or additives. Meijeritieteellinen
Aikakuskirja, 33: 132. Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr. (1975), 37: 8138.
Kaylegian, K.E. and Lindsay, R.C. (1992). Performance of selected milk fat fractions in cold-spreadable butter. J. Dairy Sci.,
75: 3307-3317.
Kehar, N.D.; Ray, S., Joshi, B.C. and Raisarkar, B.C. (1956). Stud. Fats Oils and Vanaspatis, p.5. Cited: Dairy Sci.
Abstr. (1957), 19, 7670.
Lakshminarayana, M. (1983). Fractionation of buffalo milk fat and studies on physico-chemical properties of fractions
of buffalo milk fat. Ph.D. Thesis, Kurukshetra Univ., Kurukshetra.
Lakshminarayana, M. and Rama Murthy, M.K. (1985). Cow and buffalo milk fat fractions. Part I. Yield, physico-
chemical characteristics and fatty acid composition. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 38(4): 256-264.
Lakshminarayana, M. and Rama Murthy, M.K. (1986). Cow and buffalo milk fat fractions. Part III. Hydrolytic and
autoxidative properties of milk fat fractions. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 39(3): 251-255.
Lechat, G.; Varchon, P.; Kuzdazal-Savoie, S.; Longlois, D. and Kuzdzal, W. (1975). Fractionated crystallization of
anhydrous milk fat. Lait., 55(545/546): 293. Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr. (1975), 37, 8142.
Lohman, M.H. and Hartel, R.W. (1994). Effect of milk fat fractions on fat bloom in dark chocolate. J. Am. Oil Chem.
Soc., 71(3): 267-276.
Lovegren, N.V.; Gray, M.S. and Feuge, R.O. (1973). Sharp-melting fat fractions from cotton seed oil. J. Am. Oil Chem.
Soc.,50, 129.
Murthi, T.N.; Manohar, A.; Chakraborty, B.K. and Aneja, R.P. (1984). Thermal classification of ghee. Part II.Keeping
quality of ghee fractions and their modified fats. Indian J. Dairy Sci, 37(2): 125.

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Norris, R.; Gray, I.K.; Moedowell, A.K.R. and Dolby, R.M. (1971). The chemical composition and physical properties of
fractions of milk fat obtained by a commercial fractionation process. J. Dairy Res., 38: 179.
Patel, C.V.; Fox, P.F. and Tarassuk, N.P. (1968). Bovine milk lipase. II. Characterization. J. Dary Sci., 51: 1879.
Patton, S. and Jensen, R.G. (1975). Progress in the Chemistry of Fats and Other Lipids. Vol. 14, p.163 (R.T. Holman,
ed.). Pergaman Press, Oxford.
Pederson,A.(1988). Puff pastry butter - A new product in the dairy industry. Danish Dairy and Food Industry---
Worldwide. 6,53-56.
Pruthi,T.D(1984).Distribution of phospholipids between solid and liquid portions of ghee.IndianJ.Dairy Sci.,37(2): 175.
Rama Murthy, M.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1972). Polyunsaturated fatty acids of buffalo and cow milk fat.
Milchwissenschaft, 27: 695.
Rama Murthy, M.K. and Narayanan, K.M. (1974). Hydrolytic and autoxidative properties of buffalo and cow milk
fats as influenced by their glyceride structure. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 27: 227.
Rao, K.H. (1990). Flavour enhancement in buffalo milk cheddar cheese by synergistic action of goat milk and
microencapsulated enzymes. Ph.D. Thesis, NDRI (Deemed Univ.), Karnal.
Singh, I. and Gupta, M.P. (1982). Physico-chemical characteristics of ghee prepared from goat milk. Asian J.
Dairy Res., 1(3/4): 201.
Singh, K.P and Singh S.N. (1960). Variations in the physico-chemical constants of ghee. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 13: 143.
Singhal, O.P.; Ganguli, N.C. and Dastur, N.N. (1973). Physico-chemical properties of different layers of ghee
(clarified butterfat). Milchwissenschaft, 28: 508.
Stepanenko, T.A. and Tverdokaleb, G. (1974). Chemical composition and physico-chemical properties of milk fat fractions
obtained without use of solvents. XIX Int. Dairy Congr., 1E: 206.
Timmen, H. (1974). Gas chromatographic detection of milk fat fractionation. XIX Int. Dairy Congr., 1E: 491.
Tucker, V.C. (1978). Modified butter products. Dairy Products J., 6: 21. Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr. (1979), 41, 635.
Walker,N.J.(1974). Flavour potential of fractionated milk fat. XIX Int. Dairy Congr.,1E:218.
Youssef, A.M.; Salama, F.A. and El-Ghanam, M.S. (1977). Fractional crystallization of cow and buffalo milk fats
from acetone. Alexandria J. Agric. Res., 25: 459. Cited: Dairy Sci. Abstr. (1980), 42, 2167.
APPLICATION OF FAT MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
FOR IMPROVING THE USABILITY OF MILK FAT





Dr. D.K. Sharma
Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Milk fat uniquely combines a natural quality image with a highly distinct & desirable
flavor, a significant nutritional value (Vitamin A and E, high short chain fatty acids, high
monounsaturated fatty acid content etc.) and important functional properties which make a
suitable for numerous food applications. With all these unique features milk fat has some
matching problems in relation to its use in modern products and spreadability. For example,
milk fat has a fatty acid composition that makes it difficult to produce butter which fulfils the
functional requirement of products and meets increasing demand of butter spreadable at
refrigerator temperature. To achieve a better spreadability in the butter even at refrigerator
temperature attempts have been made to modify fat in different ways. Fundamentally the
physical properties of milk fat may be modified either physically through temperature
treatment, reworking and increased air content or technically by changing the composition of
the fat through feeding mixing with other oils and fractionation; biomodification have been
used to modify the characteristics of milk fat. This article deals, in brief, with the principles
of these fat modification techniques and how possibly these could be used for improving the
quality of milkfat (Butter, Ghee etc.) to increase its usability.

2.0 PRINCIPLES OF FAT MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

2.1 Fractionation

Fractionation by crystallization is widely used to separate fat with harder and softer
fractions. Oil and fats are mixtures of triglycerides. Because of their different fatty acid
composition, the oil and fats have melting point spanning from 50 to +80C. Every oil has
its own melting range. Milk fat exhibits a wide melting range from 30C to about +37C.
This provides the possibility of crystallizing out a series of glycerides fractions at temperature
below their melting points. This is called fractionation by crystallization from the melt or dry
fractionation. This is basically a thermo-mechanical process by which raw material is
separated into two portions by crystallization. The process consists of three distinct stages:
supercooling of melt, formation of crystal nuclei or nucleation and crystal growth. The
crystals are then separated by low or high pressure filters. Different fractionation methods
used for fats & oils include solvent fractionation, detergent fractionation and dry
fractionation.

Currently, dry fractionation of anhydrous milk fat is performed by two conventional
systems. Tirtianx and De Smet, both from Belgium, which are bulk crystallization processes.
The widely used Tirtianx dry fractionation process enables one-or up to five step
fractionation of anhydrous Butteroil at any temperature ranging from 50 down to 2C (Black,

111
1975). The milk fat fractions thus obtained can be either used as such or the fractions can be
blended in various proportions for use as ingredients in various food-fat formulations. The
major shortcoming inherent in this system is long residence time (8-12 hours) for nucleation
and crystal growth.Some other fractionation techniques to improve resources, purity with
speed are: fractionation by short-path distillation (Forss and Holloway, 1967); fraction by
supercritical fluids (Kaufman et al, 1982; Arul, et al 1987), etc. These processes are high
energy and capital intensive and not used commercially for fractionation. Another method of
fractionation by crystallization using solvent has some advantages of rapid crystallization of
crystals due to low.

2.2 Hydrogenation

The triglyceride of naturally occurring oils composed of unsaturated and saturated
fatty acids. The unsaturated fatty acids contain from one to six double bonds. The number
double bonds in the carbon chain of fatty acid and its position in triglyceride molecule are
responsible for susceptibility to oxidation and physical state of oil and fats at a given
temperature. The susceptibility of double bonds to oxidation (Autooxidation) can be
decreased by saturating the double bonds with external pure hydrogen under specified
conditions. When hydrogen is added to fatty acid double bond, it becomes saturated with
constant increase in the oxidative stability and melting point of oil .The process is commonly
known as Hardening of fat. The beauty of the process is that it can be stopped at any point
up to complete saturation. Hence, it is possible to obtain fat of various physical and
rheological characteristics by altering the level of hydrogenation. The process is selective and
starts from fatty acid having more number of double bond (linolenic Linoleic Oleic
stearic). This preferential hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acid is required for
improving oxidative stability. Usually, nickel metal is used as catalyst for the process.
During the process, isomerization takes place due to the movement of double bonds to new
positions to form trans-isomers. The trans fatty acids have higher melting points and thus
contribute to increase in the melting point of fat. A similar saturation of double bond is
enzymically catalyzed by microorganisms in rumen of cattle or buffaloes (Gurr, 1981).

2.3 Dehydrogenation

Current research interests in the United States are focusing on desaturation of fatty
acids using lipase activity. If successful, this can lead not only to a healthier more
unsaturated milk fat, but also a more spreadable butter. The anhydrous milk fat could also be
used readily in more challenging applications such as mayonnaise and salad dressings
without the need of fractionation.However some scientist have major objection to this
approach of desaturation. As all know, that desaturase enzymes specific for conversion of
18.0 cis require the free acid as substate. Thus it would be necessary to hydrolyse the
triglyceride to some extent, allow the 18:0 component of these acids to be desaturated and
finally to re-esterify the free acids. It is quite possible that they do not return to their original
positions in the triglyceride moiety, hence the relation of final material to milkfat would be
somewhat tenuous.

2.4 Interesterification

The nature of fatty acids esterified in triglyceride is not only factor influencing the
physical properties of fat. Another important influence is the distribution of the free fatty
acids among the different positions of glycerol molecule. Natural fats tend to have specific

112
asymmetrical distributions of fatty acids in the molecule. Interesterification is a method of
altering the melting point of a fat by randomizing the positions of fatty acids. The positions
may be exchanged between fatty acids of the same triglyceride molecule (intra molecular
exchange) or between fatty acids of different molecules (inter molecular exchange). The fat
is heated in presence of catalyst (usually sodium, sodium methoxide, sodium ethoxide) to a
temperature of 110-160C.

The interesterified fat is used for the manufacture of margarines, shortenings and
confectionery fats (Srinivasan, 1978). An extension of this process is the use of microbial
lipases as catalysts for the reaction. There are three type of lipases available to catalyse the
process of interesterification. These are, non specific (randomized); 1:3, positional specific o
the triglyceride and fatty acid specific. In US, this new area of research related to non-
aqueous lipase interesterification is getting a lot of interest and funds, to modify milkfat. An
exciting, further extension to this is to separate the modified fat into various fractions using
superficial carbondioxide extraction.

This lipase-catalyzed interesterification of milk fat improves the nutritional properties
and butter flavor. And it was found to be the better fat for infant formulae. (Gregt-W-de et
al., 1995). Bystrom and Hartel (1994) used this technique for producing Cocoa butter
replacer from milk fat.

Christorphe et al (1978) found that milk fat randomized with chemical catalyst does
not raise the blood serum cholesterol level. Randomized milk fat appears to be more rapidly
digested in vivo than i.e. untreated milk fat. By the process of interesterification, not only the
physical properties but also the metabolic effects of the fat can be changed (Gurr, 1984).

3.0 UTILIZATION OF MODIFIED MILK FAT IN VARIOUS PRODUCTS

The fat modification techniques (Fractionation, hydrogenation, dehydrogenation,
interesterification, lipase catalyzed interesterification) are used for improving the physical,
rheological and nutritional properties of milkfat and its use in a wide range of food products.
Significant new applications have been identified for these modified milkfat or fractions. The
butter fat is now manufactured as a food ingredient and used in various food items to improve
their functionality, nutritive value and sensory score & consumers acceptability. Some of the
products which use modified milkfat, as one of the ingredients are summarized hereunder:

3.1 Bakery

Large quantity of low melting fraction are now used in Danish cookie to prevent fat
bloom. A similar melting point fraction, at 28C, texturized, performs extremely well in
sponge cake.

High melting fractions of MP (36-38C, and 40-42C) are used in pastries and puff
pastry respectively. These applications are in addition to those which are well established i.e.
creaming, aeration in cake batters, butter creams and sweet topping, etc.

3.2 Confectionery

Anhydrous Milk Fat (AMF) is used in chocolate to inhibit bloom formation and
overall milk fat adds to flavor. However, its use in chocolate recipes is kept low because it

113
causes softening. But recent research shows that melting fraction of 40-42C causes
significantly less softening and therefore provides opportunities to increase percentage
inclusion of milk fat in recipes. Butter is an important component of traditional sweet
confections e.g. toffee, caramel, where it adds to flavor following heat treatment of its
inherent flavor precursors. It is also a carrier of Maillard flavors produced by the action of
milk solid-not-fat contained in butter and in the recipes.

3.3 Mayonnaise and dressings

Low melting fractions can be used in recipes where, for instance mayonnaise is used
in food fillings e.g. sandwiches.

3.4 Soups and Sauces

Fresh cream and butter are used directly in the preparation of gourmet soups and
sauces for their rich taste and quality image. AMF is used for canned soups in the form of an
emulsion with low melting fraction some times being used in preference for its flavour and
ease of emulsification. Even ghee can be used in the preparation of rich sauces.

3.5 Yellow fat spreads

The patent literature shows that a blend of milk fat fractions can be used, less the mid-
fraction, to produce spreadable butter. In other applications low melting fractions can be
added to increase flavour in dairy spreads and high melting fraction used as the hard stock in
margarine blends or to produce 100% dairy puff pastry butter.

3.6 Frying

Butter is used for shallow frying. AMF (ghee) or its fractions can be used for deep
frying of Asian and Middle Eastern sweetmeats and savoury meat preparation. In both
instances the flavour development during cooking becomes a key criterion for its choice.

3.7 Cooking Butters

The product is prepared for frying and used in the restaurants and catering
establishments. These have reduced water content, may have added cultured milk, lecithin,
free fat milk solids and added salt. Due to compositional characteristics, the heating is faster,
the splattering is reduced and butter keeps better. The added fat-free solids account for
browning ability which is one indicator of right cooking temperature of fat.

4.0 FAT MODIFICATION FOR IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF GHEE

Indian Dairy Industry in particular has its own practical problems due to two different
types of milk being processed simultaneously in dairy processing plant for manufacture of fat
rich products. In organized dairy industry, 60% of milk comes from Buffaloes and rest is
mainly from cattle of Indian breeds and crossbred. (Crosses of exotic with Indian breeds).
These milk differ widely in their chemical composition in general and fat composition in
particular. Another evitable situation faced by dairy industry is the seasonal variation in the
quality and quantity of milk. The quality of fat obtained in the summer season is always
different from milk fat obtained during winter season. This is mainly governed by the

114
availability of feed in those seasons, stage of lactation and ratio of cow to buffalo milk
received at dairy plants. For example the ratio of receipt of buffalo milk to cow milk in
summer season (lean season) is about 40:60 approximately, which is changed to 65:35 in the
winter season. Under the circumstances the quality of raw material i.e. milk received in dairy
plant differs widely and hence it is different to make uniform quality product through-out the
year with standardized technologies. Because manufacturing protocols are based on certain
basic quality of raw material bound to show their effect. Such a situation is not good for
organized dairy business catering to the demand of large segments of consumers. To solve
this typical problem mainly connected with milk fat as raw material, the role of fat
modification technique is some how evident. With the intervention of these techniques it
seems possible to solve some of problems faced by Indian dairy industry in ghee
manufacture, storage and marketing.

4.1 Problems of Ghee manufacture:

Due to the variation in raw material, mainly the milkfat, following problems are practically
faced by dairy industry:

Variation in the granularity of ghee (body and texture)
Variation in the color of ghee
Variation in Plasticity or plastic character of ghee
Variation in sensory profile for ghee
Problem of stability (Oxidative stability) and Renovation

4.2 Variation in the Granularity of Ghee

The reason of variation in granularity of ghee is well understood and mainly based on
the variation in available milkfat (which differs with season, breed, feed etc.) for making
ghee. Keeping manufacturing procedure or technology same we have to correct the variation
in milkfat with the help of fat modification techniques. Some possible solutions gross
methods are briefly discussed below:

4.2.1 Fractionation

Granularity in ghee is mainly due to the typical ratio of high melting triglyceride
(HMTGD) and low melting triglycerides (LMTGD) at ambient temperature. LMTGD
provide a liquid phase and HMTGD give a solid granular phase which are said to be one of
the parameter for quality and even purity of ghee. The ratio of LMTGD and HMTGD may
be adjusted with the fractionated LMTGD and HMTGD for getting uniform grains in ghee
without any variation. And this is possible with little knowledge of fractionation technique
(dry fractionation) and required ratio of different triglyceride to be adjusted for best grains.

4.2.2 Hydrogenation

Granularity is indirectly based on the level of saturation and unsaturation in fatty
acids of triglyceride molecules and also their positions. The saturated fatty acid and trans
unsaturated fatty acid give rise to hard fat (HMTGD) responsible for grains in ghee.
Reduction in saturated fatty acids in raw fat due to higher ratio of cow milk fat in winter
season may give a ghee without or little grains. The partial hydrogenation under mild

115
condition (not more than 125C) in the presence of fresh catalyst, it is possible to partially
hydrogenate milk fat for adjusting ratio of unsaturated fatty acids. Rumen bacteria may also
be employed in vitro for hydrogenation of milk fat most naturally. However, such an
approach requires an investigation at research level. Research work on these lines is in
progress in Japan (Fujimoto et al., 1993).

4.2.3 Lipase-Catalyzed Interesterification

This is one of the new fat modification techniques to randomize the positional
arrangement of fatty acids under the influence of specific lipases. Due to change in the
positions of fatty acid in the triglyceride molecule the melting points can be typically
adjusted. This technique has a great promise in dairy industry to make range of milkfat and
fractions. The grain formation in ghee may also be altered by this biotechnological tool.

4.3 Variation in the Color of Ghee

The reason for this problem is due to two type of fat i.e. cow milk fat and buffaloes
milk fat used as raw material for ghee making in organized dairy industry in India. Cow milk
fat having dense yellow color due to carotenoids (precursors of vitamins A) changes the color
of buffalo milk fat to variable degree, which depends on the level of cow milk fat in the final
product. Such odd color is not liked by Indian consumers. The most preferred color for ghee
is white, amongst Indian consumers. The chemical and physical methods of removing
carotenoids may be employed to remove them from the milk fat. However, such attempt
required deep investigation in techno-economic feasibility before its application.

5.0 VARIATION IN THE PLASTIC CHARACTER OF GHEE

The plastic character of ghee is due to the ratio of solid crystal and liquid phase of
ghee at any given temperature. The viscosity of ghee is controlled by this ratio. Different
type of shortening for frying, bakery or confectionery may be formulated by fractionating
(dry fractionation or solvent fraction techniques) ghee into different olein (soft) and stearic
(hard) fraction and then blending different fraction in wide range or ratios depending on the
end use of shortenings. Such an approach of tailor made ghee for specialized end uses would
enlarge the scope of its use and probably open up new markets different from conventional
uses. An exciting extension is to interesterify milk fat using lipases and then fractionate it
using supercritical carbondioxide fractionation. Such an approach is being tried at laboratory
scale in US so as to produce variety of milk fats from natural milk fat.

6.0 VARIATION IN FLAVOUR PROFILE OF GHEE

The flavor components of ghee (lectones, aldehydes, FFA etc.) may be fractionated
using supercritical CO2 fractionation technique. To simulate the flavor profile the desi ghee
made from curd-butter-ghee route in commercial ghee, the fractionation technique has a wide
range of application in Indian dairy industry. The flavour fraction of ghee having all
carbonyls (lactones, aldehydes, FFA) may be fractionated using this approach, and can be
used to simulate ghee flavors in various milk products without increasing their fat contents.
Most of the flavor components are concentrated in very low melting point fractions. The
regional preferences of flavor profile may also be tackled through this approach. However,
techno-economic feasibility study must be made before applying it in the dairy industry.


116
7.0 PROBLEM OF OXIDATIVE STABILITY

The problem of oxidative stability at micro level may be controlled by reducing the
head space oxygen in ghee, avoiding the contamination of metal ions and using antioxidants
(BHA, BHT, TBHQ) and synergists (lecithin, Tocopherols, etc.)

The problem of stability may also be tackled at molecular level by saturating the
unsaturated fatty acids and changing their positions using enzymatic hydrogenation and
lipase catalyzed interesterification. But still these approaches are in experimental stage and
can be debated for their efficacy as a commercial process. The stability of fat/ghee can be
improved along with the change in physical and metabolic characteristics of ghee with the
application of these fat modification techniques.

8.0 CONCLUSION

Milk fat is unique in its flavour, textural and nutritional properties. And said to be the
best fat for human consumption. However to enlarge area of its usability in bakery,
confectionery, shortenings, salad dressings, soups and sauces etc., a mild modification is
always required at micro level to suit the requirement of end product using conventional
(fractionation, hydrogenation) and new methods (lipase catalysed interesterification,
enzymatic hydrogenation and dehydrogenation) of fat modification.

These fat modification methods have a significant role to play to solve the problems
faced to get uniform quality of ghee having uniform grains, flavor and texture profile. To
tackle the problem of oxidative stability of fat, these new technological tools would play a
significant role in near future.

9.0 REFERENCES

Arul, J., Boudreau, A., Makholouf, J. Tardif, R. and Sahastrabunde, M.R. (1987). J. Food Sci. 52: 1231.
Black, R.G. (1975). J. Dairy Technol. 30: 153.
Bystrom, C.E. and Hartel, R.W. (1994). Evaluation of milk fat fractionation and modification techniques for
creating cocoa butter replacers. Lebens mittel wissen scheft Technologie 27 (2) 142.
Christophe, A., Mathys, F., Geers, R. and Verdonk, G. (1978). Arch. 2
nd
Physical Biochem. 86, 413.
Forss, D.A. & Holloway, G.I. (1967). J. Amer. Oil Chem. Sco. 44: 572.
Fujimoto, K., Kimoto, H., Shishikula, M. Endo, Y., and Ogimoto, K. (1993). Biohydrogenation of Linoleic and
by anaerobic bacteria isolated from rumen. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochem. 57. (6), 1026.


ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF MILK FAT FOR
RECOMBINED MILK






Dr. B. D. Tiwari
Principal scientist
SRS of N.D.R.I., Bangalore

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The F. A. O. milk committee defines recombined milk (RM) as a milk product obtained
from combining of milk fat and milk solids not fat (MSNF) in one or more of their forms with
or without water. RM is made by adding individually processed, concentrated and dried dairy
products and/or market milk products (milk or cream) and then jointly processing them.
Various ingredients used for RM consist mainly a MSNF source, a fat source, emulsifiers and
water (Fig. 1)

WMP SMP BUTTER
AMF
Veg fat


BMP
Fresh milk Emulsifier
Stabilizer
Whey

water

PROCESS

Fig. 1 Ingredients for Recombined Milk

Recombination process, in general, involves dispersion of non fat milk powder in
water generally at 40-50C, addition of milk fat usually anhydrous milk fat (AMF) or refined
vegetable fat in the required proportions, standardization to reestablish the products specified
fat to MSNF ratio and milk solids to water ratio followed by homogenization and suitable
heat processing (Fig 2). However, the product prepared by recombination process but using
vegetable or non -dairy fat is termed as Filled Milk and not Recombined Milk. For the
manufacture of filled recombined products only highly refined, bleached, de-odorized and
hydrogenated oils with low peroxide value and free fatty acids (FFA) should be used.
Recombination process is widely used for the preparation of a range of dairy products to meet
the regular as well as special demand of domestic market using imported dairy ingredients
and to compensate for seasonal fluctuations in the availability of fresh dairy ingredients. It is
also used to improve the nutritional status and to promote development of local dairy industry
in many countries. Recombination of dairy products in India is mainly used for liquid milk
marketing, standardization of buffalo milk and in the manufacture of ice cream and
indigenous milk sweets.

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Low heat skim (or whole) milk powder

Water at 40-50C


Powder dispersion

Deaeration Hydration

Melted Fat addition

Inline Mixing tank

Homogenization



UHT Pasteurization Milk products

Fig. 2 Recombination Process


2.0 VARIOUS SOURCES OF MILK FAT

The quality of RM and products made from it is directly related to the physico-
chemical, microbiological and sensory quality of ingredients, processing parameters, and
equipments used for its preparation. Hence their proper selection is absolutely essential to
produce a product, which is acceptable to the consumers and competitive in costs. Milk fat is
one of the major ingredients of RM, which not only possesses high nutritional value and
plays important dietary role but more significantly it enhances the palatability and influences
the costs of dairy products. Milk fat influences the palatability by acting as a carrier and
source of flavour components and its physical properties contribute to the mouth feel of dairy
emulsions (products).

2.1 Anhydrous Milk Fat/ Butter Oil

In most countries including India Anhydrous Milk Fat (AMF) is the sole source of
milk fat for RM. However, consumers reaction in India indicated that RM made with AMF
is not palatable, unless at least half of the fat in RM is substituted from fresh milk. AMF can
be manufactured from fresh cream either directly or via butter or from stored butter and is
generally stored at ambient temperature. Hence it is quite susceptible to the development of
oxidized flavour and impart off flavour and oily / fatty taste to RM. Reduction of the
concentration of pro-oxidants like copper and iron during processing, maintaining low
concentration of dissolved oxygen during filling and flushing the headspace with nitrogen
prior to sealing the packages ensures good shelf of AMF. Australian workers suggest use of
synthetic antioxidants for improving the keeping quality but such use is considered
unnecessary in good quality AMF which has been packed correctly with low levels of
dissolved and head space oxygen. Use of unsalted butter in place of AMF improves the
palatability of RM. Use of unsalted butter in place of AMF improves the palatability of RM

119
Deep Frozen Butter

The flavour of stored AMF lacks the fresh creamy notes of butter flavour due to the
absence of a serum phase. Good quality unsalted butter has a superior flavour and an
excellent shelf life of at least 2 years under frozen storage conditions (<-10C). However, its
handling is difficult because of presence of aqueous phase. Also, frozen butter which is
generally thawed in a controlled environment with an air temperature not exceeding 20C
requires 3- 5 days to attain a temperature of 0 to 10C following which it should be melted
without delay. Ideally butter should be melted in a continuous system with a minimal
holding. Equipment that melts butter by forcing it through a heated grid is available.
Alternatively frozen butter is shived and pumped through a tubular heat exchanger with a
partial recycle of the melt to assist the process. Another problem with frozen butter is that
melted butter is an ideal medium for the growth of mesophillic and thermophillic organisms
which may cause protein precipitation with burn on problems on the surfaces of heat
exchanger. It may also result in production of thermostable proteinases and lipases. These can
have a profound effect on the quality of products. It is now possible to melt deep frozen
butter without burning on of proteins and with a minimal fractionation of fat globules
remaining in butter. To produce a good quality cream or full fat milk it is suggested to store
deep-frozen butter at 20C and melt indirectly until 55-60C. The melted butter is then
mixed with buttermilk or recombined milk upto 30-40 % fat, homogenized, pasteurized at
80C/20-60s and cooled below 10C. However, the cost associated with transport and storage
of butter (a product containing 16% moisture) is much higher than those for AMF.

2.3 Fresh Frozen Milk Fat

In response to the problems associated with the handling of unsalted butter a new milk
fat product called Fresh frozen milk fat (FFMF) has been developed. It combines the superior
flavour of butter with the ease of handling of AMF. It is solely made from fresh cream by a
modified AMF process to maximize the retention of buttery flavour. Immediately after
processing the milk fat is rapidly cooled and frozen. The product thus obtained has excellent
flavour and flavour stability. It is microbiologically stable and convenient to process. Plant
cleaning is also easier because there is no burn on on the heat exchanger surfaces used for
melting.

2.4 Deep-frozen Cream

For preparation of RM, cream containing fat between 4080% and deep-frozen is
another interesting alternative. Fresh frozen plastic cream yields RM which is almost similar
in flavour to the natural milk. Fresh plastic cream could be frozen and stored at 15C for 24
months. The stored frozen plastic cream serves as an alternative to other fat sources. It
produces an acceptable RM. But again the freezing operation and the packaging are
expensive. Also during freezing and thawing operations of frozen plastic cream some free fat
is released which affects the quality adversely.

2.5 UHT Cream

It is suitable for recombination process in small plants. UHT cream can be an
alternative fat source for preparation of RM in small quantities.


120
2.6 Cream Powder/full Cream Milk Powder

Another way to prepare RM consists of recombining cream powder or full cream milk
powder to reconstituted non-fat milk powder. But the low storageability of such powders
even at low temperatures, probably because of the release of free fat during manufacture, is
the limiting factor for their widespread use in RM.

2.7 Fractionated Milk Fat

Another raw material for RM is the fractionated milk fat. It is an alternative form of
AMF. Fractional crystallization of milk fat under controlled conditions followed by filtration
yields high melting fraction and low melting fractions of milk fat. Thus a range of high
melting fractions has been developed for specialized baking applications, but the low melting
fractions find only few premium applications. Therefore, these have been suggested for the
use in RM by blending with or substituting for AMF but the use of soft fractions is limited
only to milk. Although it is claimed that the use of soft fraction reduces the extent of fat
separation or creaming defect in UHT milk, RM made from FFMF without using emulsifiers
shows less creaming than those made from soft fraction under all storage conditions.
Recombined UHT milk made from FFMF and from soft fraction do not show any significant
difference in creaming when emulsifiers are used. Soft fractions are not suitable for
recombined whipping cream or butter because of the absence of high melting glycerides.
Oxidation tendency or structural defects are the general risks in the manufacture of cream and
butter using the soft fractions.

2.8 Sweet Buttermilk

It is frequently used as a milk fat source in the manufacture of recombined products.
The RM made with SMP and AMF may have an improved stability to auto oxidation since it
lacks some of the components of the fat globule membrane like phospholipids which contain
unsaturated fatty acids ans are susceptible to auto oxidation and the production of off
flavours. The composition of RM differs from that of natural milk and it tastes somewhat like
skim milk. The composition and flavour of RM can be improved by replacing 5-10% of SMP
with sweet cream butter milk powder as it contains relatively high phospholipids in its milk
fat portion. However the phospholipids compete with micellar casein in absorbing onto newly
formed fat globule surface during homogenization of evaporated milk and tends to offset a
natural drop in heat stability.Sometimes a high-grade butter milkj powder free from scorched
particles, acidity and off flovours is used to replace buttermilk.
3.0 REFERANCES

I D F. 1988. Recombination of Milk and Milk Products. Proceedings of a seminar Organized by the
International Dairy Federation and University of Alexandria. 12-16 Nov., Alexsandria University, Egypt.
Spreer, Edger. 1998. Reconstituted and Recombined milk. Milk and Dairy product Technology 197. Published
by Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Walstra, P., Geurts, T.J., Noomen, A., Jellema, A and Vanboekel, M. A. J. S., 1999. Milk Powder. Dairy
Technology. P.469. Published by Marcel Dekker.Inc, New York.
Walstra, P., Geurts, T.J., Noomen, A., Jellema, A and Vanboekel, M. A. J. S., 1999. Butter. Dairy Technology.
P.509-15. Published by Marcel Dekker.Inc, New York.
INDUSTRIAL PRACTICES IN PRODUCTION AND
PRESERVATION OF GHEE




Dr. Dharam Pal
Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ghee means the pure heat clarified fat derived solely from milk, curd, cream or
cooking butter to which no colouring matter has been added. It is usually prepared from
cows milk, buffalos milk or mixed milks. Ghee manufacture has great significance and
relevance to Indian masses and the dairy industry there is sufficient recorded evidence to
prove that the manufacture of ghee originated in India and it has been used extensively for
dietary and religious purposes since Vedic times (3000-2000 B.C). At present, about 28% of
the total milk production is utilized for the manufacture of about 1 million tonne of ghee per
annum. Besides, its being a product of tradition with an established market, several other
factors favour the production of ghee at different levels i.e. house hold, ghee trading centres
and organized dairies, in India. Some of these factors are:

Simple technology with relatively low cost for ghee making
Longer shelf life
Refrigeration not required for storage
Probably best way to salvage substandard and returned milk fat by converting
into ghee
Several uses, such as direct dressing of food preparations, cooking and frying
medium, and for religious rites

In principle, ghee making involves three distinct operations:

i) concentration of milk fat
ii) heat clarification of fat rich milk portion, and
iii) removal of residue from the pure heat clarified fat

The concentration of fat in form of cream, makkhan or creamery butter helps in reducing
butter helps in reducing the load of ghee residue, fat loss in ghee residue and amount of water
to be evaporated by heat clarification. During the moisture removal process by heat, ghee
acquires its characteristic flavour, and solids-not-fat contents are converted to denatural
brown residue which facilitates removal of maximum fat from it. In the third step ghee
residuecan be separated by decantation, cloth or pressure filtration or the centrifugal
clarification techniques. The various ghee manufacture techniques differ from each other
essentially in the first step of fat concentration (Ganguli, 1973; Parekh; 1977).

2.0 METHODS OF GHEE MAKING

The methods of ghee manufacture vary according to the base material used (milk,
cream, butter), intermediate treatment of raw materials, and handling of the semifinished or

122
fully formed ghee. There are four methods for the production of ghee which are essentially
based on batch operation (Rajorehia, 1993).

i. The indigenous process (A)
ii. Direct cream method(B).
iii. The creamery butter method. (C)
iv. Prestratification method.(D)
v. Continuous method(E)

Continuous ghee making and filling units have been recently developed (Punjrath, et
al 1974; Agrawala, et. al. 1980; Abhichandani, et al. 1991) but their share for ghee
production is so far very limited. This method will be discussed elsewhere. The other four
methods (Methods A to D) are used under different conditions for the different scales of ghee
production. The major steps involved in the manufacture of ghee by these methods are
shown in Fig. 1 and their features briefly discussed here.

2.1 Indigenous Method

The indigenous methods of ghee making usually involve (i) direct churning of raw
milk, (ii) lactic acid fermentation of heat-treated milk followed by churning of curd or (iii)
removal of thick clotted-cream layers (malai) from continuously heated milk at temperatures
around 80C followed by grinding of clotted cream, its dispersal in water and, finally,
churning. The lactic acid fermentation methods (ii) is the most popular method used in rural
areas. Hand-driven wooden beaters are usually employed for separating the butter. After
accumulating sufficient quantity over a period of few days, the butter is melted in a metal pan
or earthenware vessel on an open fire until almost all the moisture has been removed
(Rajorhia,1993). Extent of frothing may be used as an index to judge when to terminate
heating. After heating, the contents are left undisturbed. When the curd particles have settled
at the bottom of the pan, the clear fat is carefully decanted off into ghee storage vessels
(Rangappa and Achaya, 1974). The traditional gheemaking practice contributes about 90%
of the total ghee production in India. This method leaves behind a large quantity of
buttermilk of varying quality, and also leads to low fat recoveries (75-85%). This is why
modern dairies do not use the indigenous method of gheemaking. However, village ghee
constitutes the major share of the base material used for the blending operations at ghee
grading and packing centres functioning under the Agricultural Marketing Grading
(AGMARK) scheme in India. Adoption of indigenous method, particularly the milk
controlled conditions of heating butter and removing residue results in ghee having very fine
flavour and texture, and sold at premium price.

123
Milk



Heating Warming to 40C
(upto boiling)

Cream Separation
Fermentation Removal of malai


Cream (60-70% fat) Cream (38-40% fat)
Churning


Butter Ghee boiler Pasteurization
(Makkhan)

Cooling
Boiling (110-115C) Boiling at 110C- 115C

Clarified fat + Curd Churning
Clarified fat + Curd

Butter
Decantation/Filtration
Filtration/oil separator

Ghee
(Method A) Ghee boiler Ghee boiler
Ghee
(Method B)
Boiling (110-115C) Heating at
80-85C/30 min.

Clarified fat + curd


Top & Bottom layer Middle layer
Ghee Filtration /oil separator of butter milk
(Method C)

Boiling (110-115C) (discard)


Filtration/oil separator

Ghee
(Method D)
Fig. 1. Flow diagram for manufacture of ghee by different methods


124
2.2 Direct Cream Method

The small dairies use a technologically improved method for ghee making which
involves the separation of cream from milk by centrifugation for this process there is no need
for production of butter because cream is directly converted into ghee. The fresh cream,
cultured cream or washed cream is heated to about 115C in a stainless steel, jacketed ghee
kettle fitted with an agitator, steam control valve, pressure and temperature gauges, and a
movable, hollow, stainless steel tube centrally bored for emptying out the contents.
Alternatively, provision can be made for a tilting device on the ghee kettle to decant off the
product. Heating is discontinued as soon as the colour of the ghee residue turns to golden
yellow or light brown. One of the limitations of the direct cream method is that it requires a
long heating time to remove the moisture. A high content of serum solids in the cream may
also produce a highly caramelized flavour in the ghee, and lead to about 4-6% loss of
butterfat in the ghee residue or during handling operations. The use of plastic cream or
washed cream with about 75-80% is recommended for minimizing both fat loss and steam
consumption. The final product will have a less intense cooked flavour when low-SNF
(solids not fat) cream is used.

2.3 Creamery Butter Method

This is the standard method adopted in most of the organized dairies where unsalted
creamery butter or white butter is used as a raw material for ghee-making. A typical plant
assembly for the creamery butter method comprises the following: (i) a cream separator, (ii)
butter churn, (iii) butter melting outfits, (iv) steam-jacketed, stainless steel ghee kettle with
agitator and process controls, (v) ghee filtration devices, such as disc filters or oil clarifier,
(vi) storage tanks for cream, butter and ghee, (vii) pumps and pipelines interconnecting these
facilities. (viii) crystallization tanks, and (ix) product filling and packaging lines.

First, the butter mass is melted at 60C. The molten butter is pumped into the ghee
boiler, and the steam pressure increased to raise the temperature to boiling. The scum which
collects on the top surface of the product is removed from time to time with the help of a
perforated ladle. When most of the moisture has been removed. The temperature gradually
rises and the heating at the last stage is carefully controlled. The-point shows the
disappearance of effervescence, appearance of finer air bubbles on the surface of fat, and
browning of the curd particles. At this stage, the typical ghee aroma is also produced. The
final temperature of clarification is adjusted to about 110C. In some case, heating beyond
this temperature is carried out in order to generate a marked cooked flavour, relished by a
sizeable section of consumers. The ghee is then pumped, via an oil filter or clarifier, into
settling tanks which are cooled by re-circulating water at 60C.

2.4 Prestratification Method

The prestratification method consists of keeping molten butter undisturbed in a ghee
boiler at a temperature of 80-85C for 30 min for stratifying the mass into three distinct
layers. The top layer is composed of floating, denatured protein particles and impurities, the
middle layer of almost clear fat, and the bottom layers of buttermilk serum. This division
helps in mechanical removal of the bottom layer of buttermilk, carrying about 80% of the
moisture and 70% of the SNF contained in butter. Removal of the buttermilk eliminates the
need for prolonged heating for evaporation of the moisture, and results in the formation of a
significantly low quantity of ghee residue, into which a portion of ghee can become absorbed

125
and from where it is irrecoverable. The middle layer of fat is heated, usually to 110C along
with some denatured curd particles floating on the top. This process is essential to promote
development of a more characteristic aroma. (Ray and Srinivasan, 1976). This method offers
the advantages of economy in fuel consumption up to 35-50 %, saving in time and labour up
to 45% and production of ghee with lower free fatty acid (FFA) levels and acidity. The
provisions of pressure gauge, safety valves, temperature regulators and condensate outlet pipe
make the prestratification process capable of producing ghee of better quality, and amenable
to process controls. Stratification also helps in the production of ghee with a milder flavour.
Its application is limited to batch-scale operation.

3.0 EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT METHODS

The efficiency of different methods of ghee making differs in terms of fat recovery
and energy requirement. The fat recovery in indigenous method is lowest in range of 80-85%
in creamery butter method it ranges from 88-92% and highest in direct cream method ranging
from 90-95%. The energy requirements in indigenous, direct cream and creamery butter
methods have been reported 1710, 1325 and 414 Kcal/kg of ghee respectively (Pandya et al.,
1987 a & b). Energy requirement are lowest in prestarification method.

4.0 PRESERVATION OF GHEE

Ghee has a better capacity to resist spoilage by elemental and microbial attack than
many other milk products. When produced, packaged and stored under controlled hygienic
conditions, it is expected to keep in good condition for about 9 months at 21C. Upon
prolonged storage at ambient temperature, it undergoes oxidative changes which may cause
following defects:

Loss of unsaturated fatty acids
Production of objectionable flavour
Destruction vitamins and corotene
Formation of toxic products
Decrease in nutritive value
Loss of attractive colour

The shelf life of ghee is mainly affected by the degree of unsaturation of fat, storage
temperature, initial quality of ghee (particularly acidity and moisture content), presence of
oxygen and catalytic salts (copper and iron in particularly), packaging conditions, etc. The
durability of ghee can be increased by adopting following practices.

4.1 Use of Antioxidant

A number of synthetic antioxidants, such as gallates (ethyl, poropyl, octyl), butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), tertiary butyl hydroquinone
(TBHQ) (Kuchroo and Naranyan, 1973; Rao, et al. 1984) ascorbic acid. -tocopherol,
phospholipids (Ramamurthy, et al. 1968) and some natural antioxidants, namely curry leaves,
betel leaves, soya bean powder, safflower and amla (Phyllanthus amblica), can be added in
small amounts (permitted legally by different countries) with a view to either complete
prevention or partial retardation of the oxidation of fat during storage. Though all these
synthetic antioxidants come in the GRAS list as per the Prevention of Food Adulteration
Act,and found to have very beneficial role in preventing lipid oxidation, none of these are

126
allowed to be added to ghee. The addition of some of the natural preservatives to ghee has
shown very beneficial effect. The use of soybean and sunflower @ 0.5% have been found
very effective in delaying oxidative rancidity without influencing the texture, aroma and
composition of ghee. These seeds contain phospholipids which act as antioxidant in ghee and
pure butterfat. The juices of amla (phyllanthus ambica) at level of 1.25% in ghee retarted the
rancidity possibly due to high content of ascorbic acid and gallates.

The antioxidative properties of curry and betel leaves (1% by weight of ghee added
during boiling stage) are attributed to their phenolic compounds, predominantly
hydroxychavicol. These leaves also contain ascorbic acid, which may act synergistically.
Curry leaves and betel leaves also contain many amino acids which serve as antioxidants.
Studies have proved that the age-old practice of boiling betel and curry leaves with desi
butter at the time of clarification helps to improve the flavour, colour and shelf life of the
ghee (Patel and Rajorhia, 1980).

4.2 Use of good quality raw material

Cream and butter used for the manufacture of ghee should be of good quality. Any
off flavour, particularly acidic, oxidized and rancid, present in the raw material will be
carried over to the final product. Ghee prepared from process A (Indigenous milk-curd
method) normally has high acidity, and thus has shorter shelf life. Care should be taken that
the raw material for ghee is not contaminated with catalytic salts at any stage. Proper heating
of cream and butter during ghee manufacture and complete removal of ghee residue are also
useful steps in extending the shelf life of ghee.

4.3 Packaging and storage conditions

Ghee is generally packed in lacquered tin cans of various capacities ranging from 250
g to 15 kg. Tin cans protect the product against tampering and allow transport to fat-off
places without any significant wastage they can be printed with attractive and colourful
designs. However, tin cans are very expensive. Some plants do pack ghee in metallized,
polyester pouches, but these also work out to be expensive owing to the aluminium coating.
High-density polyethylene and polypropylene are known to have low water vapour
transmission rates and are inexpensive. Such films can be laminated with other suitable basic
packaging materials. Ghee packed in flexible pouches should be placed in cartons that
contain some cushioning matter to absorb vibrations during transportation or rough handling
(Rajorhia, 1993). During packaging efforts must be made to reduce the oxygen content to a
minimum level, and in case of tins it is desirable to replace oxygen by the nitrogen gas to
prevent the lipid oxidation. Ghee should not be exposed to direct sunlight at any stage during
storage and transportation. Ghee should be stored in a cool dark place preferably at
temperature around 22C.

5.0 REFERENCES

Agrawala, S.P.; Prasad, S.A.D. and Nayyar, V.K. (1980) Development of ghee filling machine. Indian
Dairyman, 32: 239-40.
Abichandani, H.; Sarma, S.C. and Bector, B.S. (1991) Continuous ghee manufacture. An engineering solution,
Indian Food Industry, 10 (4): 35-37.
Ganguli, N.C. and Jain, M.K. (1973) Ghee: its chemistry, processing and technology. J. Dairy Sci., 56: 19-25.
Kuchroo, T.K. and Naranyan, K.M. (1973) Preservation of ghee. Indian Dairyman, 25: 405-407.

127
Pandya, A.J.; Singh, J. and Chakraborty, B.K. (1987a) Energy consumption of ghee making by direct cream
method. Egyptian J. Dairy Sci., 15: 145-50.
Pandya, A.J.; Singh, J. and Chakraborty, B.K. (1987b) Energy consumption of ghee making by indigenous
method. Asian J. Dairy Res., 6: 21-25.
Parekh, J.V. (1978) Ghee and its technology. Dairy Technol., 9: 32-35.
Patel, R.S. and Rajorhia, G.S. (1958) Natural antioxidant for improving the shelf life of ghee. Indian
Dairyman, 32: 399-40.
Punjrath, J.S. (1974) New Developments in ghee making. Indian Dairyman, 26: 275-78.
Rajorhia, G.S.. (1993) Ghee. Encyclopaedia of Food Sci., Food Technology & Food Nutrition, Academic Press;
London, pp 2186-2192.
Ramamurthy, M.K.; Narayanan, K.M. and Bhalerao, V.R. (1968) Effect of phospholipids on keeping quality of
ghee. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 21: 62-63.
Rangappa, K.S. and Achaya, K.T. (1974) Indian Dairy Products, Asia Publishing House.
Rao, C.N.; Rao, B.V.R.; Rao, T and Rao, G.R.T.M. (1984) Shelf life of buffalo ghee prepared by different
methods by addition of permitted antioxidants. Asian J. Dairy Res., 3: 127-130.
Ray, S.C. and Srinivasan, M.R. (1975) Prestratification Method of ghee Making. ICAR Res. Series No. 8, pp
14, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi.




DEVELOPMENTS IN CONTINUOUS GHEE MAKING







Dr. A.K. Dodeja
Principal Scientist
Dairy Engineering Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001


1.0 INTRIDUCTION

Ghee is one of the most common and ancient dairy products in India. Its use in
religious rites, cooking, cosmetic and medicinal purposes goes back to Vedic times. Inspite of
its exceedingly high price, ghee continues to hold a permanent place in Indian culinary
because of pleasant flavour and fine texture it imparts to the food product.

The current methods of manufacture of indigenous dairy product prominent among
which is ghee is primitive and based on techniques that remained essentially unchanged over
ages. Regardless of volume of production it is manufactured as a batch process which
inherently suffers from several disadvantages. The principles of operation of equipment
employed at the cottage level are translated to industrial levels of operation. Consequently
inefficient use of energy, poor hygiene and sanitation and non-uniform product quality
associated with the rural scale operation crept into the large-scale manufacture of ghee in
dairy plants. The dairy plants employed these poor methods of manufacture due to the sound
engineering principles being non-existent

The serious problems associated with the methods of manufacture of ghee currently
followed in the industry is:

Unsanitary operation, product exposed to environment, increasing chances of
contamination.
Product spillage around the equipment, making the floor slippery and causing
accidents.
Low heat transfer co-efficient causing bulky equipment.
Formation of tenacious scale of ghee and milk residues on the heating surface, adding
to poor performance of equipment and making cleaning and sanitation strenuous.
Equipment and processes are unsuitable for large volumes of production.
Large residence time and product inventory in the equipment presenting greater risk
of bulk spoilage of the product.
Excessive strain and fatigue on the operator.
Therefore a demand for efficient, labor saving and sanitary processing of ghee exists
in dairy industry. Continuous processing of ghee overcomes several of these
problems.

Keeping in view the problems and limitations as stated above new equipment has
been developed which can make ghee continuously.

129
2.0 CONTINUOUS GHEE MAKING BASED ON FLASH EVAPORATION

The flow diagram of this process is shown in the Fig-1. It consists of receiving-cum
heating vat, gravity separator (which becomes optional when making ghee from cream)
pressurized scraped surface heat exchangers coupled with vapor separator and positive
displacement pumps to move the raw material through different units.

The raw material (cream or butter) is received in a jacketed receiving vat (1) for
melting. When butter is the raw material, positive displacement pump (PA) pumps part of the
melted butter to gravity separator (2) and part to the balance tank (3A). The gravity separator
(2) separates the butter into two portions, one fat rich component and other buttermilk. The
fat rich fluid containing a little buttermilk goes to the balance tank (3A) through the outlet
(2LF) and buttermilk comes out of gravity separator through outlet 2 LB. In case of cream the
gravity separator (2) is by-passed and pump (PA) sends the cream directly to the balance tank
(3A). The gravity separator (2) can also be by-passed when using butter and in that case the
raw material is handled in the same manner as in case of cream.

The pump (PB) receives the raw material from balance tank (3A) and sends it through
the first scraped surface heat exchanger (4A) to vapor separator (5A). In the heat exchanger,
the raw material is heated with the help of steam and then the super-heated liquid
(cream/butter) is flashed in the vapor separator (5A). The vapor separator (5A) separates the
water vapor from the liquid fat. The fluid from the separator (5A) with partially removed
moisture goes to balance tank (3B) where it is pumped through the heat exchanger (4B) to the
vapor separator (5B).

If butter is used as raw material, the process of complete removal of water and flavour
development is completed in the second stage. However, for cream a third stage involving
balance tank (3C), heat exchanger (4C) and vapor separator (5C) may be used to have a better
control on the quality of the products. The sediment (ghee residue) in the product coming out
of final stage may be removed by any of the standard filtering or clarifying devices, before
sending the product for packaging.

3.0 COMPACT DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS GHEE MAKING

It was conceived by Abichandani et.al (1978) that continuous ghee making designed
based on the principal of flash evaporation can be made compact and economically viable.
The new plant was design on falling film principle with a capacity of 100 kg/h. The
schematic hookup of the system is shown in the figure -2. The sequence of steps is as
follows:

Tap water is filled in the jacketed tank. The pump and scrapper motors are switched
on. All the valves except V7, V2 and V4 are in open position. Water is circulated for
5 to 10 minutes.
Detergent solution (washing soda+ teepol) of 0.5%strength and temperature of 75-80
C for 10 minutes
The plant is rinsed with hot water at 75-80C for 10 minutes.
The heat exchangers are drained by opening valves V2, V4 and V7.
The valves V7, V2, V4 and V6 are closed and valve V1 and V5 are opened.
Scraper motors are switched off.

130
Butter is put into the butter-melting tank. Steam pressure in the jacket is kept at 1.0
kg/cm2.
After melting butter, the valve V1 is adjusted to the desired flow rate and the scraper
motors are switched on.
The product is recirculated for 20-30 minutes. During this period the plant gets
warmed up.
When desired temperature of ghee is attained (as indicated by dial thermometer)
recirculating valve V5 is closed, outlet valve V6 is opened.
In order to maintain thermal equilibrium, the level of butter in butter tank should be
kept constant as far as possible.
At the end of operation, the plant is cleaned with hot water and detergent and then
finally rinsed with hot water.

A trial run with water was conducted to know the rate of evaporation. Water at 40C
was pumped into the heat exchanger at the rate of 160 kg /h. The steam pressure in the jacket
was adjusted to 2.0 kg/cm2. The rate of evaporation was found to be 80 kg/h. The economy
of operation was 0.60 kg/kg of steam. It has reported that the economy of operation in
conventional ghee pan operated under similar conditions is 0.35 kg/kg of steam. Thermal
efficiency of the plant was found to be 71% as compared to 37 % obtained in ghee pan. Even
if the heat energy equivalent to electrical energy is also taken into account the overall
efficiency of the plant worked out to be 44%. In computing efficiency, the steam was
assumed to be dry and saturated and only latent heat was accounted.

Eight trials were conducted with butter prepared in the experimental dairy of this
institute. About 1000 kgof ghee was prepared. The steam and electrical energy consumptions
were found to be 0.35 kg. and 0.01 kwh per kg of butter respectively. The initial average
temperature of butter and the final product temperature were 5.5 C and 118 C respectively.
Under similar conditions, the steam consumption conventional batch operation is reported to
be 0.48 kg/kg of butter.

The present design is a further improved system and based on the principles of
hydrodynamics and heat transfer in horizontal straight-sided thin film scraped surface heat
exchanger. The rate of water evaporation is 75-80 kg/hm2 of surface area when steam
pressure in the jacket is 450 to 500 kpa. The rotor is provided with four variable clearance
blades and revolved at a speed of 2.45 m/s. All product contact parts are fabricated using
stainless steel. The capacity of the plant is 500 kg/h of ghee.

4.0 CONTINUOUS GHEE WITH ENERGY CONSERVATION

Accompanying figure-3 illustrates the schematic hook-up of continuous ghee making.
Butter is heated to 70-75 C in tank (1) with steam. The pump (2) is started and the flow rate
of molten butter is adjusted by valve V1 to desired value, as indicated in rotameter (3). The
rotor drive (10) is switched-on and steam is then admitted into the jacket (4) of thin film
scraped surface heat exchanger. The centrifugal action of the rotor (6) causes the product to
spread uniformly as a thin film on the heating surface (5). The rate of evaporation of water
from product film is very rapid due to the turbulence induced by the blade action. The vapors
are removed through vapor outlet (9) and can be used for preheating butter in the tank (1A)
for steam economy. During the warm-up period, the partially concentrated fat is diverted into
the balance tank by keeping the valvesV3 open and V2 closed. The temperature indicators T1

131
and T2 indicate the temperature of molten butter and ghee respectively. On ghee attaining the
desired temperature, valve V3 is closed and valve V2 opened. Ghee is collected in tank (7).
The residue is separated by clarifier (8). The plant can also make ghee also from high fat
cream.

Salient features of design are:

High heat transfer coefficients.
No fouling and foaming problems.
Short residence time in heated zone.
High capacity reduction.
Low product inventory and no chances of bulk spoilage.
Energy conservation is possible by heat recovery.
Adaptable to automation and cleaning-in place (CIP)
Minimum strain in the operator
Hygienic operation and better product quality.

5.0 CONCLUSION

The prototype plant developed latest has the capacity of 400-500 kg/h of ghee using
creamery butter or high fat cream as raw material. This system offers number of advantages,
viz., compactness in design, hygienic operation, C.I.P cleaning, minimum strain on the
operator, absence of fouling and foaming, short residence time and hence the final product
contains higher percentage of vitamins as compared to ghee made in kettles. Apart from these
the continuous ghee making system incorporates an excellent feature of energy used for
preheating butter/cream. An average saving of 0.17-kg steam/kg ghee is achieved. If this
system of ghee manufacture is adopted in the organized dairy sector, an annual saving of
precious furnace oil works out to be approximately 4 million liters.

6.0 REFERENCES

Abichandani, H., Agrawala, S.P., Bector, B.S., and Verma, R.D.1978.Adcanves in continuous ghee making
techniques.Ind.Dairyman, 30(11): 769
Abichandani, H., Agrawala, S.P.,Bector,B.S.and Verma,R.D.1982.Design and Development of Falling Film
Continuous ghee miking Machine.Ind.J.Dairy Sci. 35(4):487
Punjrath.J.S.1974.New Development in Ghee Making. Ind. Dairyman, 26:275.

132
Table1: CHEMICAL AND ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OF GHEE

Moisture =0.21
Free Fatty acids (%) =0.29

Sensory Evaluation*

Average score assigned Max scores
to ghee
Flavour 45 50
Texture 25 30
Color 09 10
Absence of Suspended 10 10
Residue
Total 100 89

*Sensory evaluation of ghee was done according to IS: 7770-1975














133






REGIONAL PREFERENCES FOR FLAVOUR OF GHEE
AND METHODS FOR SIMULATION





Dr. G. S. Rajorhia
Ex-Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The importance of ghee in Indian diets has been recognized from prehistoric days
because of its high nutritive value, pleasant aroma and textural properties. The most
appropriate technology for preserving surplus milk fat in the form of ghee for the
environment. Ghee is a rich source of energy and a significant supplier of fat soluble
vitamins, essential fatty acids and other growth promoting factors. Consumption of ghee in
any form adds to the satiety feeling to meals. The pleasant aroma, good texture and to a lesser
extent colour of ghee are used as the criteria of judging the quality.

Ghee prepared by rural milk producers constitutes about 80% of the total sales in the
market. The organized dairies contribute about 20% of the consumers needs of ghee. In
Indian dairy industry, butter is largely used for the manufacture of ghee. The process involves
the (i) separation of cream, (ii) phase invasion of fat by churning, (iii) evaporation of
moisture by heating, (iv) simultaneous development of flavour, (v) removal of suspended
curd particles/residue, (vi) temperature controlled crystallization and, (Vii) packaging.

2.0 CONSUMERS PREFERENCES FOR FLAVOUR OF GHEE

The consumers of ghee always look for most desirable flavour, texture, colour and
freedom of purity, freshness and wholesomeness. Each of these quality attributes are assigned
relative weightage by the consumers to arrive at an overall assessment of quality and
preference. For example, out of total score of 100, the relative scores of 60 for flavour, 25 for
texture, 10 for colour and 5 for suspended impurities were found to be most acceptable for
judging of ghee. Ghee consumers are always prepared to pay premium price for ghee they
would have liked most.

A perfect ghee flavour is characterized by multitude sensoric perceptions which are
pleasant and enjoyable. There is always a resistance to change in the flavour of foods as this
is one characteristic that determine the acceptability. Flavour preferences are on the previous
experiences of the consumers. Flavours of ghee have been contributed by the complex
mixtures of organic compounds occurring in very minute quantities. Education of the nature
and origin of these compounds has been the primary objectives of many research workers
(Table 1). The main agencies engaged in the marketing of ghee are (1) ghee graders and
packers, (2) organized dairies, (3) mini dairies and (4) retailers. The purchasers are the
individual consumers, confectioners, hotels and restaurants. The preferences for quality in all
these cases are determined by the end use to which ghee is subjected. Ghee prepared by desi
method is preferred by the Halwais as this type of product is more stable against flavour loss
and volume reduction during deep-frying. Desi ghee is also preferred by the consumers of

135
Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan primarily for its typical flavour and texture. Flavour of
desi ghee lingers on for a long time in the mouth and palms. The consumers opened that
organized dairy ghee lacked in this kind of flavour and texture. It is quite possible that high
curd content in desi butter during heat clarification would contribute to such rich flavour.

3.0 REGION SPECIFIC PREFERENCES FOR FLAVOUR IN GHEE

Flavour preferences:
Northern: Slight acidic and mild curdy
Western: Mild to pronounce curdy
a) Mild curdy North Gujarat, South Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
b) Strong curdy Saurashtra
Southern: Cooked to burnt
a) Cooked slightly Andhra Pradesh
b) Definitely cooked Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
Eastern: Cooked, burnt.

4.0 APPROACHES TO SIMULATE DESIRED QUALITY ATTRIBUTES

Ripening of milk, butter and malai as followed in the villages results in curdy/acidic
flavour. In commercial dairies, it is not possible to ferment milk and cream on account of
additional storage space and energy required to achieve fermentation and due to the problem
of utilizing sour butter milk. Simulation studies were limited to the treatment of plastic
cream, butter and ghee. Alternatively, butter oil may form the base for ghee making as it has
longer shelf-life than butter. Flavour can be simulated as and when needed for marketing of
ghee in a given region. Viability of each treatment has to be viewed from the angles of yield,
handling losses, processing costs, ease of operation, scale up feasibility, quality of finished
product and resulting shelf-life.

The following approaches are suggested to manufacture ghee with curdy flavour.
1. Differential blending of conventionally prepared ghee with ghee prepared from
curdled and sour milk.
2. Use of starter culture for fermenting dairy butter.
3. Blending of butter with fermented skimmed milk/sour butter milk/curdled
milk/lassi/sour skimmed milk powder/butter milk powder/lassi powder at one of the
three stages, viz.
a) in churning working stage
b) in molten butter followed by storage overnight
c) in ghee boiler before clarification
d) in ghee boiler at the final stage of clarification
4. Differential temperature and time clarification at 100, 105, 110 and 120
0
C for 5, 10,
15 and 20 minutes and blending in different proportions, especially when cooked
flavour was to be obtained.
5. Clarification of ghee with vegetable leaves for improving flavour, shelf-life and
colour.

Curdy flavour in ghee could be produced by mixing desi ghee with dairy ghee in
varying proportions depending upon the intensity of flavour desired. Addition of dahi to
butter prior to heating, or incorporation of lassi powder at the time of heating increases curdy
flavour.

136
5.0 COOKED FLAVOUR SIMULATION

The cooked flavour will be more pronounced if the heat treatment is intense and the
solids-not-fat are still present during heating. Ghee produced from cream is rich in cooked
flavour because of the presence of higher amounts of SNF and long heating time it takes to
evaporate the moisture as compared with the butter process.
Cooked flavour could be simulated by clarifying butter at temperature higher than 115
0
C for
10 min, 120
0
C for 5 min or 125
0
C without any holding time.
Slightly oxidized ghee is preferred in Kolkata market, although this is classified as a flavour
defect. Probably, continued supply of this type of ghee from the various parts of India into
Kolkata market has contributed to this reference. Use of slightly oxidized butter oil, imported
from foreign countries during the early stages of planned dairy development, for conversion
into ghee also promoted this preference for flavour.

6.0 COMMON FLAVOUR DEFECTS IN GHEE

Although ghee has a better capacity to resist spoilage by elemental and microbial
attack than any other milk product, it is common knowledge that, upon prolonged storage at
ambient temperature, it undergoes oxidative changes. Chemical reaction of oxygen with the
unsaturated fat is a major cause of spoilage giving rise to two major defects: oxidized
flavour and rancidity. Production of off-flavour accompanies the loss of nutritive value.

Auto-oxidation of ghee is aggravated by metallic contamination and sunlight. The
acceleration effect of light is dependent on its wave-length. This visible light accelerates the
decomposition of hydroperoxides. The effect of ultraviolet light on ghee is more pronounced
than the impact of other rays. High energy radiations, such as and rays, exert a
pronounced acceleration effect because they split hydroperoxides and also generate free
radicals from molecules of unoxidized substrate.

The shelf-life of ghee is affected by the degree of unsaturation of fat, the temperature
at which ghee is stored and the manner in which milk for ghee-making is handled.
Uncontrolled fermentation during curdling, uneven heating during manufacture, and in
sanitary conditions of the vessels used for the production and storage of ghee are other factors
which cause the flavour defects in ghee.

A number of synthetic oxidants such as gallates (ethyl, prpyl, octyl), butylated
hydroxyl toluene (BHT), tertiary butyl-hydroquinone (TBHQ), ascorbic acid, d-tocopherol,
phospholipids, and some natural oxidants, namely curry leaves, betal leaves, soya bean
powder, safflower and amla (Phyllanthus ambica), can be added in small amounts
(permitted legally in different countries) with a view to achieve either prevention or
retardation of the oxidation of fat during storage. Traditional practice of ghee-making in India
involves the use of certain plant leaves for antioxidative properties. Curry and betal leaves are
two commonly used herbs which are rich in phenolic compounds, predominantly hydroxyl
chavicol. These leaves also contain ascorbic acid, which may act synergistically. Curry leaves
and betal leaves also contain many amino acids which serves as antioxidants. Studies have
proven that the practice of boiling betal and curry leaves with desi butter at the time of
clarification helps to improve the flavour, colour and shelf-life of ghee.

Other commonly encountered flavour defects in market ghee are burnt, smoky, rancid
and acidic. There are instances when ghee lacks the typical flavour which is a serious defect.

137
7.0 REFERENCES

Anon (1983) Final Technical Report of the ICAR Research Scheme on Standardization of Industrial Practices
for Manufacturing Ghee. NDRI, Karnal.
Rajorhia, G.S. (1993) In: Encyclopeadia of Food Science, Technology and Nutrition. Academic Press, London,
pp. 2186.
Ramamurthy, M.K. (1980) Factors affecting the composition, flavour and texture properties of ghee. Indian
Dairyman, 32:765.
Rangappa, K.S. and Achaya, K.T. (1974) Indian Dairy Products, Asia Publishing House, Bombay.
Srinivasan, M.R. and AnantaKrishnan, C.P. (1964) Milk Products of India. Pub. ICAR, New Delhi.



Table 1 FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS IN GHEE


Free fatty acids
6.12 mg/g of fresh ghee
C4 and C6 nearly absent in fresh ghee
C8 to Ci8: I ranges from 0.4 to 1 mg/g
VFA (C4-C10) formed during storage
2-3 fold increase in FFA in 6 months during storage of desi ghee

Methyl Ketones:
(Alkans-2 Ones) C3-C13
Milk 6 ppm
Butter 5-10 ppm
Butter oil 62% more than butter
Ghee 87% higher than butter

Lactones:
24 homologous series of both delta and gamma lactone
also unsaturated lactones 20 types
Butter 14 ppm
Cream ghee 43 ppm
Butter ghee 33 ppm
Desi ghee 29 ppm
Higher amounts produced during storage leads to off flavours

Aldehydes, ketones and alcohols:
34 mono carbonyls found in flavour volatiles of ghee
n-alkanals, alk-2 enals and alk 2, 4 dienals formed from unsaturated fatty acids

UTILIZATION OF SOUR/CURDLED MILK
FOR GHEE MAKING






Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta
Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In India, souring of a large amount of milk particularly during summer and monsoon
months is not uncommon. A good amount of this milk may often be curdled while reaching
the dairy plants. The low per capita milk availability in the country warrants the proper
utilization of milk constituents even from curdled milk. Skilled technicians can, on smelling
and sometimes on testing, reject sour milk from the main processing line to avoid the possible
difficulties in processing such milk. They may also perform clot-on-boiling test, titratable
acidity test, developed acidity test, alcohol test, alcohol alizarin test and other heat stability
test to confirm the unsuitability of milk for heat processing.

Most common practice to utilize curdled milk, whenever received, is to churn it
directly into butter for heat clarifying into ghee. A few plants accumulate small amounts of
curd obtained daily, until sufficient curd is available for churning. However, only the plants
equipped with butter churn can use the direct churning method. Dairies without a butter
churn sometimes neutralize curdled milk for separation into cream. The practice of mixing
small amounts of curd with a large portion of milk/cream for ghee making is also not
uncommon.

In any case, there are several difficulties in manufacturing ghee from curdled milk.
Since the amount of curdled milk to be handled on a daily basis cannot be anticipated, the
technical management often finds it difficult to develop an organized production plan for
handling curdled milk. Currently prevalent power breakdown and other Industrial
operational difficulties make the matter worse. Moreover, the fat recovery and quality of
ghee obtained from curdled milk have received little attention. Making ghee from butter
obtained by direct churning of curdled milk is not very different from the desi ghee making
technology. However, use of power churn and uncontrolled fermentation during curdling
may create problems in fat recovery and ghee quality, respectively. Reports on ghee from
curdled milk are rather limited.

2.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Curdled milk can be converted either to cream or butter, both of which are heat
clarified to ghee. Cream can be obtained by the separation of neutralized curdled milk, while
butter can be made from either curdled milk by direct churning or cream obtained from it.
The direct churning of curdled milk appears to be the simplest and the shortest route for ghee
making, followed by direct cream method and creamery butter method. The latter two
methods, involving additional steps, must be justified in terms of advantages gained in
product recovery and/or quality.

139


2.1 Direct Churning of Curdled Milk

For desi ghee preparation, a smooth curd is set to about 0.8% lactic acidity. On the
other hand, milk at the reception dock represents a varying state of coagulation ranging from
a completely curdled mass, distinctly wheying off, to sour milk with definite signs of curd
flakes. No systematic study has been reported concerning the effect of these variations on the
churning efficiency of the curdled milk. There may be a question of losing efficiency in
handling curdled milk in power churn designed specifically for 35-40% fat cream. It is not
known if the process yields itself favourably to butter grain development and washing steps.
Thus, dairies churning curdled milk directly to butter might not have yet optimized the
process.

2.2 Neutralization of Sour/Curdled Milk

Curdled milk may be neutralized to impart enough physical stability for centrifugal
cream separation. The neutralized curdled milk should have also curd particles dissolved,
enabling its warming up to a temperature of about 40C for separation. The neutralization of
cream for butter making has been studied with reference to the level of treatment, the use of
sodium and calcium neutralizers and the means of incorporating neutralizing solutions. The
neutralization of curdled milk has not received similar attention.

Food grade alkali neutralizers can be used for reducing the acidity in sour milk. Soda
as well as lime and magnesium neutralizers are available for this purpose. Soda neutralizers
have the distinct advantage that they dissolve readily and are completely soluble in water and
their action on the acid in the sour milk is more speedy than that of lime neutralizers.
Brownish colour, however develops more rapidly with soda neutralizers during heat
processing of such milk. A sodium type neutralizer such as sodium hydroxide is preferred for
products requiring maximum solubility. The alkali should be dissolved in six to twenty times
water by weight and added to the milk with sufficient agitation so that no excessive localized
over neutralization takes place. The milk temperature should be less than 35C and at least
15 minutes should be allowed for the reaction before heating.

The influence of sodium bicarbonate is two fold; it has a balancing effect on calcium
and it changes the reaction. Correct way of neutralizing sour milk with sodium bicarbonate
under plant situations was investigated at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (Gupta
and Mulay, 1984). Lapses at different stages of neutralization were avoided or temperature
of milk lowered to 4C or below, otherwise additional acidity developed. Neutralized milk
called for heating to 80C (Flash) for stopping further development of acidity. Carbon
dioxide evolution during the process caused frothing which needed careful handling.
Minimum boiling was required for completing the neutralization. Expulsion of carbon
dioxide continued even during the storage of boiled neutralized milk. After the sour milk is
neutralized to the normal acidity, it behaves mostly like normal milk as far as heat processing
and other operations are concerned.

Conversion of cream obtained from neutralized curdled milk to butter should not be
much different from the well known procedure of making butter from the neutralized cream.
However, butter for ghee making may require less rigorous attention in terms of composition
control and working required for the table butter. Although high fat cream (75C and above)

140
obtained from fresh milk can be directly heat clarified into good quality ghee, this may not be
possible without washing and reseparation of cream obtained from neutralized milk. Such a
treatment may be desirable to reduce the neutralized serum portion. Butter obtained either by
direct churning or through the cream route can be converted into ghee in a manner similar to
the creamery butter method of ghee making. The amount of moisture to be removed and
quantity of ghee residue formed may be slightly higher in case of directly churned butter
than creamery butter. Further economy in heating energy and heat clarification time can be
achieved by using the prestratification technique. In this regards, conversion of butter into
ghee claims a distinct edge over the direct cream method.

Depending upon the situation, dairy may adopt any one of the above three methods
for making ghee out of curdled milk. Direct churning of curdled milk being the simplest
process, may be used in dairies having enough curdled milk for their power butter churn.
Dairy without a butter churn must resort to direct cream method via neutralization. There
may be several instances where creamery butter method will be most suitable. A typical
situation may arise out of accidental curdling of a large quantity of milk such as a tanker load.
In this case, elimination of a considerable amount of serum solids through neutralization and
cream separation followed by its conversion to butter would be more convenient. Here,
butter making will cause a further reduction in volume of the product to be handled. Of
course, for large scale ghee manufacturing, other innovative practices (Chakraborty, 1980)
may also be applicable for curdled milk.

3.0 FAT RECOVERY

Fat being the costliest milk component, its increased recovery is bound to improve the
economy of handling curdled milk for ghee making. Fat recovery is essentially related to the
various manufacturing steps employed in the process of pre-concentration of fat and its heat
clarification for ghee making. Pre-concentration of fat may be achieved from neutralized
milk or during butter making.

3.1 Separation Step

Milk which is stale and partly sour or curdy, tends to lower the skimming efficiency
largely because it increases the amount of separator slime which collects in the bowl and this
in turn impedes the free passage of milk and cream and causes excessive loss of fat. If the
milk is on the verge of curdling, the chances of incomplete separation are augmented by the
fact that each particle of curd locks up a small amount of fat and the curd passing into the
skim milk on account of its higher sp. gravity, carries this fat with it. If it is necessary to run
curdy milk through the separator, it should be stirred sufficiently to break up the curd as
finely as possible, taking care to see that the separator is slightly underfed.

In some dairy plants, the sour milk is separated in the cold milk separator with poor
skimming efficiency while in others it is neutralized and separated quite efficiently. For a
given efficiency of a cream separator, factors requiring special attention for the neutralized
curdled milk would be the complete dissolution of curd particles releasing entrapped fat and
minimum fouling of separator with fine curd particles. The extent of fat loss would,
therefore, depend on the satisfactory neutralization. Other factors considered important to the
efficiency of separating normal milk are also applicable for neutralized curdled milk.



141


3.2 Churning Step

The ideal recovery of fat by desi method is 88-90%, but it is much lower in actual
practice. Modern power churns on the other hand, are reported to give a fat recovery of 88-
92% with creamery butter process. Data on fat recovery of curd by direct churning are,
however, not available. In principle, fat recovery will be increased by improving the
churning efficiency. The factors that promote the concentration of fat globules and their
increased frequency of collision during the churning process result in a high fat recovery.
The basic principle of churning cream into butter are well known. However, the factors
important to the churnability of curd have not been studied in detail. These involve the
standardization of the churning process in terms of (a) controlling the total solids contents of
the curd, (b) the extent of filling the churn, (c) the RPM of the butter churn and (d) the
temperature of churning.

The loss of fat in the buttermilk obtained by desi method is reported to be at least
10%. This may not be a real loss in farm situations where butter milk produced in small
quantities in consumed by the farm family. But in the dairy situation, this represents not only
a low fat recovery but also a problem in casein manufacturing. For this reason, improving the
fat recovery from buttermilk should also merit due consideration.

3.3 Heat Clarification Step

Essentially the amount of ghee residue, its fat content and the process of recovering
fat from ghee residue influence fat recovery associated with the heat clarification process. In
general, ghee residue remaining after pressure filteration and/or centrifugal clarification is
subjected to a hot water treatment for collecting most of the entrapped free fat. Not much
improvement is envisaged at the present time in increasing the recovery of this fat. The
overall practice of handling and storage of various intermediate products such as cream and
butter and ghee in bulk storage or small containers also affect the fat recovery through
varying amount of stickage loss. The conditions of handling curdled milk ghee poses no
different problem in this aspect.

The process for maximum fat recovery from buffalo curdled milk have been
standardized at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (Gupta at al, 1986b) by (a) direct
churning method and (b) reprocessing method (neutralization and cream separation). In
direct churning method, ageing of curdled milk for 3-4 hr at 5-8C, its 50% dilution with
chilled water (8-10C) and churning at 10-12C are helpful in getting optimum fat recovery
(88.87% in butter and 85.0% in ghee). 70% of buttermilk fat is also recovered after
neutralization and warm separation. In reprocessing method, 91.77% fat is recovered in
cream and 85.60% in ghee. Optimized reprocessing method is: neutralization of curdled milk
to 0.08-0.10% T.A., boiling, filteration and warm cream separation.

4.0 QUALITY OF GHEE

In most cases, a small amount of ghee obtained from curdled milk is blended with the
bulk of dairy ghee. The influence of ghee made from substandard material remains unnoticed
due to its blending with a large bulk. The nature of ghee spoilage, particularly oxidation and
rancidity, is such that even a small amount of catalytic agent such as FFA or copper ions,

142
hastens the deterioration process. Thus, it is necessary to ascertain the quality of ghee
obtained from a high acid and neutralized material such as curdled milk with particular
reference to analytical constants, sensory attributes, shelf life and public health.

4.1 Analytical Constants

The major analytical constants of ghee remain unaffected by the method of preparation.
In case of manufacturing ghee from curd, this is possible only when butter has undergone
little deterioration on storage. However, in practice, desi ghee made from collected butter of
indifferent quality, subjected to neutralization, washing (prestrafication) and refining
treatment may cause a varying amount of losses in water soluble and volatile fatty acids
affecting several analytical constants. Deterioration to such an extent is not normally
expected in ghee made by direct churning route, if butter is clarified without delay. Other
routes of ghee making involving neutralizing of curdled milk should also not affect analytical
constants.

Physico-chemical qualities of buffalo sour and curdled milk ghee, prepared through
direct churning and reprocessing methods with 0, 1, 2 and 3 washings of cream/butter, were
evaluated at NDRI, Karnal (Gupta et al, 1986a). All experimental ghee samples had R.M.
value, Polenske value, Iodine value, Saponification value, B.R. reading, % free fatty acids
and Peroxide value within reasonable limits comparable with those of fresh buffalo milk ghee
and conformed to PFA and Agmark Standards.

4.2 Sensory Quality

The sensory quality of ghee centres on flavour, texture and colour, of which flavour is
considered to be the most important one. Ghee develops its characteristics flavour during
heat clarification. Ghee associated with lactic fermentation possesses most appealing flavour
characteristics. Curdled milk ghee is richer in flavour as compared to dairy ghee prepared
from fresh products. Treatment standardized for neutralized cream for table butter may be
suitably modified for neutralized curdled milk. Desi ghee has been claimed to have better
textural properties than the dairy ghee that is known to exhibit often an excessive layering. It
is not certain if this phenomenon is related to a more complete extraction of fat in direct
cream and creamery-butter process used in dairies as against a partial removal of butterfat,
particularly the high melting glyceride fraction, in butter obtained under practical village
condition for desi ghee. Studying the nature of fat obtained from buttermilk after the direct
churning process may provide a better explanation. Souring has been demonstrated to
influence the whitish colour of buffalo ghee due to the conversion of Biliverdin to Bilirubin,
imparting a yellowish greenish tinge (Chandravandana et al., 1977).

Gupta et al., (1986a) evaluated the sensory qualities of buffalo sour and curdled milk
ghee prepared by direct churning and reprocessing methods with 0, 1, 2 and 3 washings of
cream/butter. Though direct churning method ghee samples were judged to have highly
significantly (P<0.01) better appealing sensory qualities than the reprocessing method ghee,
all the samples were graded between good to excellent. Washing of cream/butter did not
much improve the quality of ghee and was thus found unnecessary. Some of the fermented
products, particularly the water soluble ones, contributing to desirable flavour in ghee, might
be getting flushed away during washing treatment. Total sensory score of curdled milk ghee
prepared through both the standardized methods (without washing of cream/butter) was
found comparable with that of fresh 0.5% T.A. buffalo milk and NDRI ghee. Colour wise,

143
ghee prepared through direct churning method was highly significantly (P<0.01) more liked
than the one prepared through reprocessing method. Probably sodium bicarbonate added
during the reprocessing method imparted relatively higher degree of brownish tinge to ghee.
Washing of cream/butter was observed to improve the colour characteristics of ghee prepared
through both the methods, which may also be due to the partial removal of serum portion
through washing of cream/butter. A greater amount of serum portion is understood to impart
brownish colour to the ghee due to the interactions, particularly, between casein and lactose
during heat clarification.

4.3 Keeping Quality

Several factors, associated with the preparation of ghee from the fermented products
affect its keeping quality. The most important is the FFA content of ghee, known to
accelerate the development of tallowiness. However, washing of cream as well as
prestratification of melted butter significantly reduce FFA with a resultant improvement of
shelf life.

4.4 Safety and Nutrition

From the public health view point, the quality of ghee prepared from naturally curdled
raw milk as against by lactic fermentation after an adequate heat treatment, may be
questionable. This concern is based on the possibility of bio-toxin production during the
uncontrolled curdling process and their subsequent transfer to ghee. However, on a closer
scrutiny, the chance of bio-toxin production in milk during natural souring process may be
narrowed down essentially to bacterial toxins from coliform group of organism and
mycotoxins due to yeast and mould growth. It may be further realized that only fat soluble
toxins would be of any consequence in the manufacture of ghee. Furthermore, the fat-soluble
toxins must be able to withstand the heat clarification treatment. Under these conditions, the
probability of the production of fat-soluble, heat tolerant bio-toxins during the normal milk
curdling process can be established only on the basis of detailed toxicological studies
conducted on a wider industrial basis. To date, no toxic effect accruing to ghee has been
reported.

Ghee from direct churning method contains comparatively lower amount of
phospholipids. High acidity in ghee may also affect vitamin A potency. Thus, a lower
phospholipid content and slight loss in vitamin A potency may lower the nutritive value of
curdled milk ghee in comparison to the best available product. But ghee need not be
considered a major source of these nutrients under Indian conditions. Of course, ghee
samples of questionable safety value or which are nutritionally substandard can be put to
several profitable non-edible uses, such as ceremonial lamp burning or in havans etc. About
2% of the ghee produced in India is used for such purposes.

5.0 REFERENCES

Chakraborty, B.K. (1980) Industrial Ghee Production-Trends and Innovations Paper presented at IDA Ghee
Conference, Sept. 12-13, 1980, New Delhi.
Chandravandana, M.V., Daniel, E.V. and Dastur, N.N. (1977) Indian Dairyman, 29: 233.
Gupta, V.K., Arora, K.L. and Chakraborty, B.K. (1986a) Physico-chemical and sensory qualities of ghee from
curdled buffalo milk. Asian J. Dairy Res., 5(1): 49-55.
Gupta, V.K., Arora, K.L. and Chakraborty, B.K. (1986b) Recovery of ghee from curdled buffalo milk. Asian J.
Dairy Res., 5(3): 143-148.
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PACKAGING OF BUTTER
AND GHEE





Dr. G.K. Goyal
Principal scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Packaging contains, protects, preserves and informs. It also provides two more
functions namely selling and convenience. In many instances the only difference between
comparative brands lies in the packaging, and only packaging influences the selling
operation. As industries grow and as consumers demand more and more convenience , the
need for quality packaging undoubtedly increases. Hence, there is more packaging in the
world every year, rather than less. It is important that packaging must make the maximum
contribution to the success of the marketing and distribution operations of which it forms a
vital part.

The safe delivery of packaged food product mainly depends on the maintaining of its
original quality by protecting it against external deterioration influences. This is achieved
through the barrier properties of the packaging material. The required protection of the food
stuff may be achieved with a single layer of polymer or necessitates the use of multi-layered
films including different polymers, coatings and metal foils besides metal cans . The barrier
properties mainly originate from its permeability to gases and vapours that are noxious to the
quality of the product. For the majority of foods including butter and ghee, the gain of
moisture leads to physical, biological and / or chemical defects. More harmful than moisture
is oxygen for butter and ghee . Its fixation to the product is irreversible. It causes lipid
oxidation and provokes rancidity especially when the package allows light transmittance.

2.0 BUTTER AND ITS PACKAGING

Table butter consists of milk fat ( 80% by weight), 3% common salt, 1.5% curd. It
also contains about 15% trapped moisture. The natural colour of butter is due to carotene and
other similar fat- soluble pigments in the fat globules of the milk. The flavour of butter is
produced by the fermentation of bacteria in the cream. Although souring gives a full flavour,
the use of butter cultures or starter organisms gives a better control of flavour and avoids the
danger of undesirable taints.

2.1 Protection Required

Packaging must protect the butter in relation to its flavour, body and texture,
appearance, moisture and colour. Also, butter readily absorbs odours. Because of the nature
of emulsion, butter is especially prone to rancidity caused by the oxidation of the fats,
producing a fishy taint. The fishy taste and smell is due to the presence of metallic
contamination of the butter by traces of metals dissolved off the dairy equipments.


145
2.2 Present Status

Packaging of butter is done in bulk and retail packs. The size of bulk packing ranges
from 25 to 50 kg and is done in boxes, tubs or casks. Retail packing varies from 25gm to 500
gm and is generally packed in parchment paper, grease proof paper, also in thin cans and Al
foils. Where flexibles are used, cardboard cartons are also commonly used in order to give
added protection to the product. The glossy carton also makes the back very attractive having
printing in different colours and graphics.

2.3 Flexibles for Butter

2.3.1 Vegetable Parchment Paper

Although, vegetable parchment is the most commonly used wrap, but it does not
prevent oxygen and light penetration which lead to deterioration of the product . For
packaging of butter sterile plasticized grade of vegetable parchment paper should be used to
suit high speed packaging machine. Vegetable parchment paper is good bearer to grease. It
should not contain excessive numbers of microscopic pin holes and should not have more
than 9% moisture. It is important that vegetable parchment is stored under proper humidity
conditions (50-80%) at dust free, and it should be free from moulds.

2.3.2 Multipacks and Laminates

A very useful and interesting list of laminates consisting of different combinations of
more than two components including Al foil, paper, PE, PVDC, PP, cellophane, polyester,
wax, adhesive, lacquer, hot melt, heat sealable coating, polyamide and vegetable parchment
for the packaging of milk and milk products including butter has been presented
(Malansnicka,1975).The U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has published the
levels of vinyl chloride in flexible packages made from PVC for butter. In order to offer
protection against light for butter, a multipack for tub shaped container made from a
stackable plastics tray (e.g. polystyrene) with formed tubs (e.g. PVC), into which coated
board segments can be inserted, has been developed (Brummer, 1978). However, butter can
also be packaged safely in Al foil/ vegetable parchment as it would avoid the exposure of the
product from air and light, and would also prevent contamination by the micro-organisms.

3.0 GHEE AND ITS PACKAGING

Ghee is clarified butter fat and occupies a very prestigious place in Indian dietary.
Though, cost-wise ghee is quite expensive, it is consumed extensively due to its characteristic
flavour and aroma, unique taste and high nutritive value . The milk fat constitutes 99.5% of
ghee and rest 0.5% of material present in ghee is unsaponifiable matter, which is a complex
mixture of substances like sterols, vitamins etc which though present in small quantities are
of considerable significance. Moisture in very small quantity (approximately 0.5% by weight)
is also present in ghee as it is not possible to eliminate cent percent moisture from ghee
during its preparation.

3.1 Protection Required

Since ghee contains very small quantity of moisture, danger from micro- organisms
wont be immediate. The product therefore needs protection from chemical spoilage which is

146
activated by oxygen, light, metals(Cu, Fe), humidity and temperature, besides spoilage from
the surroundings by absorption of foreign odours etc., and also from the physical hazards.

3.2 Present Status

Majority of the dairies in public as well as private sectors are packing ghee in
lacquered or unlacquered tin cans of various capacities. Some of the dairies sell loose ghee to
local consumers through their sales depots or stores, where the possibility of adulteration
cannot be completely ruled out. The advantages of using tin cans are manifold. They protect
the product well against tampering and can be transported to far off places without much
wastage during transit. Besides the tin cans are attractive with colourful designs. But tin cans
involve foreign exchange and are very expensive.

Of late some dairies have started packaging of ghee in simple containers e.g. PE bags,
multi-layer films, glass bottles, cartons etc. In Nepal, ghee is commonly packed and sold in
earthen pots. But these methods of packaging have their own disadvantages like problem of
leakage with PE bags, breakage and high transportation costs in case of glass bottles etc.


3.3 Criteria of Selection

With a view to develop suitable flexible packages for ghee, it is essential to know the
nature and composition of the product, its desired shelf life under specific conditions of
storage in terms of light, temperature and humidity, the types and causes of deterioration,
which the product may undergo during handling and storage, consumers requirements in
terms of capacity, availability of flexible packaging materials and their functional properties.

3.4 Functional properties vis--vis Flexibles for Ghee

3.4.1 Water Vapour Barrier Films

The agency of moisture or enzyme lipase is essential to effect hydrolytic rancidity in
ghee. During the manufacture, ghee is subjected to such high heat treatment(110-120
0
C) that
enzyme lipase is eliminated . In the process, the product gets contaminated from the lipase
producing organisms and they in turn produce the enzyme, which becomes active in the
presence of moisture to liberate compounds responsible for hydrolytic rancidity. Here the
proper packaging material with excellent water vapour barrier properties can play a vital role
in delaying this defect. HDPE, PP, Al foil, multi-layer films etc. if suitably laminated could
result in packages which would be comparable to tin cans and get practically nil value for
water vapour transmission rate.

3.4.2 Oxygen Transmission Barrier Films

Since ghee contains approximately 99.5 % milk fat, it is very susceptible to oxidative
rancidity . Here the oxygen in contact with ghee initiates the chemical reactions with ghee
which ultimately result in the production of compounds gaining very strong off-flavours such
as tainty, nutty, melon-like, grassy, tallowy, oily, fishy etc. The undesirable odours of
aldehydes and ketones of several types can be felt even at very low concentration. The
chemistry of oxidation of fat suggests that when the fatty radicals of the unsaturated fats take
up oxygen, a foul odour is produced. When the product is packed in a container the air

147
available at the top provides the oxygen . Besides a small amount of air is always present in
dissolved condition. Therefore care should be taken to fill ghee up to the top of the container.
Further, proper packaging material can also delay the autoxidation of ghee, i.e. if the package
has a very low or negligible oxygen transmission rate (OTR), the diffusion of air/oxygen
from the atmosphere into ghee can be prevented, the defect can be deferred for a long time.
These days many indigenously available flexible materials which have very low values for
OTR, e.g. Polyester, Nylon-6, PVC, Saran,Al foils, and numerous laminates of certain
flexible films are available.

The auto oxidation of ghee is also initiated or accelerated by certain metals in traces
such as iron and copper which are always present in enough quantities in unlacquered or even
in not- properly lacquered tin cans, If the suitable flexible packages are used , the danger
from such metals can also be minimized significantly.

3.4.3 Light Transmission Barrier Films

Light itself cannot cause rancidity in ghee, but can very effectively catalyze many
other promoters of rancidity, both hydrolytic and oxidative. Ghee exposed to oxygen in
ordinary temperatures illuminated places starts autoxidation without any induction period; the
rate of autoxidation is directly proportional to the intensity of illumination. Hence, it is very
essential to select the packaging materials for ghee which can effectively prevent the entry of
light into the product. This can be achieved by using packaging materials having reflecting
pigments, denser films like aluminum foils etc . Heavy overprinting of the packaged films
can also prevent the entry of light into the product.

3.4.4 Aroma and grease Barrier Films

Its is well known that ghee is regarded by users mainly due to its characteristic
pleasing flavour. Hence, it is of utmost importance that the original ghee flavour be
protected or maintained at any cost. Ghee being almost pure milk fat, it is very susceptible for
picking up foreign odour from packaging materials and their components or atmosphere.
Loss of aroma can be prevented by selecting proper packaging materials which should be
flavour proof and completely devoid of any inherent odour.

Also, if the package does not have good grease resistance, the fat would seep through
the package and would soon get completely spoiled. It is therefore very much essential that
the packaging material for ghee should have good grease resistance properties. Following
packaging films provide excellent resistance to oils and fats, namely lacquered cellophane,
polymer coated cellophane, cellulose acetate, polyester, Nylon-6, PVC, Saran etc ., besides
numerous laminates.

3.5 Other Important Properties of Flexibles for Ghee

The presence of well defined hard grains in coarsely packed condition is considerable
in ghee. The packed ghee during transportation is bound to be subjected to hard exercise. In
view of that the package should have sufficient strength to withstand the hazards of
transportation as there is every possibility of ghee losing its original textural properties. It can
be prevented by selecting packaging material having sufficient tensile strength, elongation,
tear resistance and burst strength, besides overall mechanical strength.


148
4.0 CONCLUSION

Apart from functional and mechanical properties of flexibles for packaging of butter
and ghee, it is essential that they have good heat sealing property and are non- toxic. For
transporting ghee packed in flexible containers to far off places, packages be placed using
some cushioning material to absorb the shock out of rough handling. Recent developments
suggests that in addition to tin cans, many flexibles like polyester, Nylon, Co- extruded multi-
layer films and laminates are in use for the packaging of ghee.

5.0 REFERENCES

Brunner, F. (1978) Multipacks for food and other goods. German Federal Republic Patent Application, 2 647
238.
Malannsnicka, W.(1975) Survey of laminate packaging of main groups of foods. Przemysl Spozywczy, 29, 475.
Potts, M.W, Baker, S.L., Hanssen, M. and Hughes, M.M.(1990) Relative taste performance of plastics in food
packaging, J. Plastic Film and Sheeting, 6, 31


GHEE FLAVOUR AND ITS SIMULATION-A REVIEW







Dr. (Mrs.) B.K. Wadhwa
Principal Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is important for dairy professionals to understand the basis of dairy flavours
especially of fat-rich dairy products like ghee. Ghee (heat clarified butter fat) the indigenous
fat rich dairy product, occupies a unique position among edible fats because of its pleasing
caramelized flavour and granular texture. The research work done on ghee flavour has
considerably enriched our basic and applied knowledge dealing with

- GHEE FLAVOUR PROFILE
- GHEE AND GHEE-RESIDUE FLAVOUR POTENTIAL
- FLAVOUR SIMULATION STUDIES IN BLAND FATS
- ROLE OF DAIRY STARTER MICROORGANISMS IN GHEE FLAVOUR

2.0 GHEE FLAVOUR PROFILE

2.1 FLAVOUR GENESIS

Milk lipids are the source of a majority of the flavour compounds occurring in dairy
products (Wadhwa and Jain, 1989). These arise by various mechanisms as illustrated below:

HYDROLYSIS
FATTY ACID GLYC FREE FATTY ACIDS (FFA)

(i) HYDROLYSIS
-KETO ACID GLYC. ALKAN-2ONES
(ii) DECARBOXYLATION

(i) HYDROLYSIS
S-HYDROXY ACID GLYC LACTONES
(ii) DECARBOXYLATION

AUTOXIDATION
UNSAT. FATTY ACID GLYC ALDEHYDES, KETONES,
ALCOHOLS

Proteins and lactose contribute to the flavour of milk products (Wadhwa, 2001) in the
following manner:

TRANSMINATION
PROTEINS -KETO ACID
(AMINO ACIDS)


150

FERMENTATION
LACTOSE, CITRATE DICARBONYLS



BROWNING
LACTOSE GLYOXAL, FURFURALS
CARAMELIZATION

2.2 Ghee Flavour Spectrum

Wadhwa and Jain (1990) have extensively reviewed the chemistry of ghee flavours
and variations in the level of flavour components as affected by various technological
parameters. Flavour of ghee analyzed through gas liquid chromatography (GLC) has
revealed a wide spectrum consisting of more than 100 flavour compounds as depicted below:


GHEE FLAVOUR SPECTRUM



FREE FATTY ACIDS CARBONYLS LACTONES
(16) (49) (44)
C
4
-C
18:2




Non polar (39) Polar (10) Delta Gamma
C
6
-C
16
, C
18
(12) C
6
-C
16
, C
18
(12)s


Diacatyl
Alkan-2-ones Alkanals Alk-2-enals Alka-2,4-dienals -Methyla glyoxal
C
3-10,12
C
2
-C
9
C
4
-C
12
C
5
-C
7
,C
9
-C
12
,C
14
--Keld glutaric acid
(9) (8) (9) (8) -Furfural
-Hydroxy methyl furfural
(5)


Wadolkar et al., (1996) have confirmed the identification of most of the ghee flavour
compounds reported so far through GCMS technique.

2.3 Technological Parameters

Wadhwa and Jain (1990) also reviewed that flavour profile is affected quantitatively
but not qualitatively by various technological parameters viz. method of ghee preparation
temperature of clarification and storage period.



151
Table 1. Flavour potential of ghee as affected by various technological parameters

Flavour Species Metd. of preparation Temp. of clarification(C) Storage (days)
Compounds Cow Buffalo DC CB Desi 110 120 140 180 0 100 200
Ghee ghee
FFA(mg/g) 5.0-12.3

5.8-7.6

5.8-7.3

6.0-7.3

7.6-12.3

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Carbonyls
(moles/g)
0.035(H)
0.33(V)
7.20 (T)
0.027(H)
0.26(V)
8.64(T)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.04
0.33
7.2
0.14
0.71
13.93
0.32
1.25
23.05
Lactones(ppm) 30.3 35.4 41 30.3 25.5 21.6 29.2 33.3 36.6 29.2 47.4 51.3

H- Head space carbonyls DC- Direct cream
V- Volatile carbonyls CB- Creamery butter
T- Total carbonyls

2.3.1 Free fatty acids (FFA)

The lower fatty acids C
6
-C
12
, though present in low concentration (0.4-1 mg/g)
accounting only 5-10% of total free fatty acids contribute significantly to ghee flavour. The
concentration of both medium chain (C
10:0
to C
14:0
) and long chain ( C
15:0
and above) FFA is
usually higher in cow than in buffalo ghee. Also the average total FFA level of cow ghee
was higher than that of buffalo ghee. The average total FFA level of desi ghee is higher than
the other two types of ghee (Table 1). The direct cream product is showing the lowest FFA
concentration. This trend is in tune with the flavour trend of three types of ghee.

2.3.2 Carbonyls

Head space and volatile carbonyl content of fresh desi cow ghee is higher than that
of buffalo ghee, whereas the Total carbonyl content of fresh desi buffalo ghee is higher than
that of cow ghee. On storage for 100 days at 37C, off flavour has been found in ghee
samples with about 3 fold rise in head-space and 2 fold rise in volatile and total carbonyls
both. After 200 days storage, pronounced off flavour developed with about 8, 4 and 3 fold
increase in head space, volatile and total carbonyls, respectively.

2.3.3 Lactones

The lactone level in buffalo ghee has been found to be higher than that in cow ghee.
It was the highest in DC ghee followed by CB and lowest in desi ghee. Thus this trend is
opposite to the increasing flavour trend from DC to CB to desi. Apparently, lactones are only
one component of ghee flavour and the others viz. free fatty acids and carbonyls are probably
more dominant. The lactone level in butter (12 ppm) increased 1.9, 2.4, 2.8 and 3.0 fold on
clarifying at 110C, 120C, 140C and 180C (Table 1). The near doubling of the lactone
level on clarification of butter at 110-120C contributes to pleasing flavour of the product.
Lactone levels in ghee showed a significant rise on storage.

3.0 GHEE AND GHEE-RESIDUE FLAVOUR POTENTIAL

Ghee-residue is the by product of ghee manufacturing industry. Ghee-residue is rich
in fat, proteins and minerals and is a natural antioxidant. Recent studies have revealed that
apart from its nutritional and antioxidant properties, ghee residue is also a rich and natural
source of flavour compounds viz. FFA, carbonyls and lactones (Galhotra and Wadhwa,
1993). The level of FFA, carbonyls and lactones in ghee-residue are respectively 11, 10 and
132 times those in ghee as shown in Table 2.

152
Table 2. Flavour potential of ghee and ghee residue

Flavour compounds Ghee-residue Ghee
FFA (m/g) 627.5 53.6
Carbonyls(m/g) 43.4 4.3
Lactones (g/g) 3,992.9 30.3

4.0 FLAVOUR SIMULATION STUDIES

Wadhwa and Jain (1991) have reviewed the simulation of ghee flavour in butter oil
through skim milk dahi/dahi powder, through synthetic flavour compounds and also through
curdy/cooked flavour concentrates. Recently, Wadhwa and Bindal (1995) have developed a
simple method which makes use of ghee-residue for flavouring vanaspati, butter oil etc. and
also enhance their keeping quality. This method is recommended as the simplest and most
economical method over above mentioned methods suggested for flavour simulation.

5.0 ROLE OF DAIRY STARTER MICROORGANISMS IN GHEE FLAVOUR

The various biotechnological parameters have been optimized and a product (direct
cream ghee0) comparable in flavour to desi ghee obtained. In the optimized process, cream
(40% fat), steamed and cooled is ripened with a culture DRC-1 at 3% level of inoculum at
30C for 18 hr, and clarified at 115C/5 min. In a further modification, the ripening period of
cream could be reduced by 5 hr by using a starter concentrate (Viable count, 68 X 10
10

cells/ml) at 1% level (Yadav and Srinivasan, 1992).

6.0 CONCLUSION

The chemistry of ghee flavour has been extensively studied. Free fatty acids,
carbonyls and lactones are the major groups of compounds contributing to ghee flavour, the
first two apparently playing a more important role than the last. Further, various flavour
simulation studies suggest innovations in making ghee via butter oil. The conversion of
butter oil into flavoured butter oil introduces yet another product diversification in the Indian
dairy industry. Simulation of ghee flavour in butter oil and vanaspati through ghee residue
(by product) is recommended as the simplest and most economical method producing
flavoured fats with enhanced shelf life.

7.0 REFERENCES

Galhotra, K.K. and Wadhwa, B.K. (1993) Chemistry of ghee-residue, its significance and utilization-a review
Indian J. Dairy Sci., 46:142.
Wadha, B.K. (1995) Chemistry of ghee and ghee-residue flavour-its applications. Indian Dairyman, 47:32.
Wadhwa, B.K. (2001)Flavour chemistry of cheese. Indian Dairyman 53(1): 31.
Wadhwa, B.K. and Bindal, M.P. (1995) Ghee residue : a promise for simulating flavours in vanaspati
(hydrogenated edible vegetable oils) and butteroil. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 48:469.
Wadhwa, B.K. and Jain, M.K. (1989) What makes lipids so important in flavour of dairy products. Indian
Dairyman, 41: 241.
Wadhwa, B.K. and Jain, M.K. (1990) Chemistry of ghee flavour-a review. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 43: 601.
Wadhwa, B.K. and Jain M.K. (1991) Production of ghee from butter-oil. A review. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 44:
372.
Wadodkar, U.R., Murthi, T.N. and Punjrath, J.S. (1996). Isolation of ghee volatiles by vacuum degassing and
identification. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 49: 185.
Yadav, J.S. and Srinivasan, R.A.(1992) Advances in ghee flavour research. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 45: 338.
QUALITY EVALUATION OF BUTTER AND GHEE




Dr. Sunil Sachdeva
Senior Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Butter is a mixture of milk fat, buttermilk, and water, usually with added salt and
colour and its history dates to the Hindu Vedas, written over 3500 years ago. On clarification,
butter yields products which are termed as Ghee in India, Butter oil in the west, Mastee in the
middle east and Samna in Egypt. Butter and Ghee have been extensively used by the early
inhabitants of India, both in their dietary and religious practices.

2.0 SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF BUTTER

2.1 Flavour

Good quality butter should possess a mild, sweet, clean, pleasant flavour and a
delicate aroma which is due to the composite effect of flavour of butterfat and the serum.
The quality of finished butter depends to a large extent upon that of the cream from which it
is made. The cream used should be free from objectionable flavour defects. This is also true
of cultured cream butter, which should have a distinct starter aroma principally due to
diacetyl.

2.2 Flavour defects in Butter

Some of the common flavour defects associated with butter are termed as acid or sour,
aged, bitter, cheesy, briny/high salt, coarse, cooked, feed, fishy, flat, foreign, garlic or onion,
malty, musty, oxidized, rancid, tallowy and yeasty.

2.3 Body and Texture of Butter

Body and texture of butter is markedly affected by the temperature. The tactile
properties of butter should be evaluated at a product temperature between 7-13C. Within
this temperature range the body of butter should be firm, waxy and consist of such closely
knit granules that it appears as a uniform mass. Water and air, in proper amounts should be
uniformly distributed and closely bound. The ideal butter should cut easily and evenly when
sliced and be readily spreadable. Good quality butter should not adhere to the back of the
trier and these should not be any visible water droplets. The plug should be well rounded,
have smooth waxy breaks or openings.

2.4 Body and Texture defects in Butter

The characteristics that detract from the ideal quality of butter include brittle or
crumbly, greasy, gummy, leaky, mealy or grainy, sticky, weak or spongy.

154
2.5 Colour and Appearance

The colour of butter may vary from light creamy white to dark creamy yellow or
orange. While moderately high colour may be preferred in one region, a higher colour may
be considered more desirable in the other. A uniform light straw colour may be the most
acceptable to the consumer.

2.6 Defects in Colour and Appearance of Butter

Over and under working of butter during manufacture is responsible for most colour
and appearance defects. The size number and distribution of moisture and air droplets,
markedly influence the colour of butter. Some defects which lower the quality of butter are
mottled, wavy or streaky, speckled, primrose or high colour surface and discolouration due to
moulds.

2.7 Salt in Butter

Salt renders the flavour of butter to be more attractive. Preference for the amount of
salt in butter may differ with individuals. Some consumers p[refer a highly salted butter
(>2%), some desire a highly salted (<1.5%) while others prefer exclusively unsalted butter.
Salt is generally not criticized in butter grading regardless of whether the butter is high or low
in salt provided the salt is completely dissolved in the interior (is not gritty) and it is not too
sharp. The presence of grittiness can most easily be detected by placing some butter
between the molars and pressing together gently.

2.8 Package for Butter

Butter package, whether for retail or wholesale, should be neat, clean and tidy in
appearance. It should have good finish and should appear fresh and unsoiled.

3.0 JUDGING AND GRADING OF BUTTER

3.1 Tempering of Butter

The temperature of butter at the time of grading should be maintained between 7-
13C. Butter should be placed in the tempering room well in advance to allow tempering to
about 10C.

3.2 Use of Butter Trier

A butter trier should be used for drawing samples from the butter block or package.
Facilities for cleaning the trier (soft tissue or absorbent paper) and disposal of waste butter
should be provided. Use of hot water for cleaning the trier should be avoided.

3.3 Use of Butter Score-card

Butter score card and scoring guides are useful instruments for the butter grader.
These assist him in the quality assurance endeavour of the organization. Familiarisation with
the score card is necessary.


155
3.4 Sequence of Observations for Judging Butter Quality

a. Observe the cleanliness and neatness of the package
b. Remove the cover/packaging material and observe the sample for its evenness
and/or squareness of the wrapping material.
c. Insert the butter trier diagonally near the centre of the package and draw a sample
plug of butter.
d. Immediately after withdrawing the plug, pass the trier slowly under the nose and
notice the aroma present.
e. Examine the uniformity of colour.
f. Examine the body and texture of butter by pressing the ball of the thumb against
the sides of the plug until it moisture and their relative clarity and also the nature
of break.
g. Break off approx. 0.5 to 1 inch piece from the end of the butter plug and place it
into the mouth. Chew it until it melts and then roll the melted sample around the
mouth till it reaches body temperature. Meanwhile examine the presence of grit
(undissolved salt) and the manner in which butter melts. Also notice the various
sensations of taste and smell.

4.0 SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF GHEE

4.1 Flavour

A perfect ghee sample is desired to have a nutty, lightly cooked or caramelized
flavour which is pleasant enjoyable and lingering in the mouth. Ghee flavour is best
described as a lack of oiliness or of blandness and sweetly rather than sharply acidic. These
preferred ghee flavours range from slightly curdy to pronounced curdy , cooked to
caramelised and at times slightly oxidized in some quarters of the population. Any
presence of rancidity of ghee is considered objectionable. The flavours of ghee is mainly
contributed by the heat interaction products formed between unfermented serum portion,
comprising of the native carbohydrate and protein system, and by the metabolic products of
the starter culture when ripened cream is used for ghee making.

4.2 Flavour Defects of Ghee

Ghee undergoes oxidative changes an prolonged storage at ambient temperature.
Production of a typical, strong and disagreeable odour due to reaction of oxygen with the
unsaturated fat is a major cause of spoilage of ghee. Auto-oxidation of ghee is aggravated by
metallic contamination and sunlight. Other commonly encountered flavour defects in ghee
are burnt, smoky, acidic, lacking, rancid and tallowy.

4.3 Body and Texture of Ghee

Granular ghee is appreciated by the consumers. Such ghee develops a lower degree
of rancidity then ghee kept in the liquid state. The texture of ghee depends upon the source
of fat, method of preparation, temperature of clarification, rate of cooling, amount of FFAs,
rate of seeding and storage temperature. The changes in the conditions of cooling can have a
pronounced effect on ghee texture. If ghee is cooled rapidly, a larger number of very fine
crystals will be formed, all consisting of a mixture of high and low melting fats, leading to
smooth grease like character, slow cooling of ghee from a temperature higher than the

156
melting point will lead to formation of a few crystals with a high melting point. As cooling
proceeds, more and more fat solidifies, proving a mass of large crystals suspended in liquid
fat.

4.4 Body and Texture Defects in Ghee

Breakdown of granulation may result in greasy body which lowers the ghee score.
Hard body and waxy texture is not liked by the consumers.

4.5 Colour of Ghee

Buffalos ghee appears whitish in colour owing to the absence of carotene, which
imparts a yellow colour to cows ghee. In the village method of ghee making, the
development of greenish-yellow tinge in buffalos ghee is caused by the action of lactic acid
bacteria. Ghee produced by the direct cream method has a darker colour compared to that by
the creamery butter process. Brown discolouration is a serious defects in ghee.

5.0 JUDGING AND GRADING OF GHEE

5.1 Selection and Training of Panelists

Persons with normal sensitivity for taste and odour should be selected. They should
have ability to detect small differences between paired samples. The panelists should be
trained to distinguish and discriminate between ghee samples with minor flavour, colour or
texture differences. Those who dislike ghee or any similar milk products should be excluded
from the panel. A control of fresh ghee prepared from butter or cream which represents all
the desirable qualities of flavour, texture, colour and freedom from ghee residue should be
served along with the samples in which defects like acidic, oxidized, curdy, smoky, burnt,
greasy have been induced. The panelists should be trained to distinguish and detect the
common defects in ghee. Five to seven panelists should be employed in the evaluation to
arrive at consistent and statistically valid results.

5.2 Preparation and Presentation of Samples

A representative sample should be drawn from the lot. Precaution should be taken to
avoid extraneous contamination in drawing, handling and preservation of samples. Ghee
sample should be presented in 50 ml butter for evaluation. A sample of 30 ml or 25 g should
be sufficient. Number of samples in one session should not exceed five.

5.3 Temperature of Presentation

In the sensory evaluation of ghee, several properties are considered which manifest
themselves optimally at different temperatures. For example the taste and odour manifest
themselves better at elevated temperatures whereas the body and texture are expressed better
at optimum temperature of crystallization of milk fat. For evaluation of aroma and taste of
ghee, the samples should be melted and maintained at 45C. The evaluation should be
completed in as short time as possible. For the evaluation of body and texture the melted
buffalo ghee should be stored at 30-35C and cow ghee at 25-30C for 12-24 hrs. for proper
crystallization before testing.


157
5.4 Technique for evaluation of ghee samples

a. Ensure that the temperature is appropriate and that the sample is properly mixed.
b. Observe the sample for colour and residue.
c. Open the lid and immediately judge for aroma.
d. Take small amounts with a spoon and observe the flavour and texture in the
mouth. Also look for the grains in the mouth and the melting pattern of grains in
the mouth. Texture can also be observed by taking a small amount in between the
fingers and rubbing them.
e. After each sampling wipe the spoon with cotton.
f. Rinse the mouth with lukewarm saline water before proceeding for the next
sample.

6.0 REFERENCES

Anon. 1983. Final Technical Report of the ICAR Research Scheme on Standardisation of Industrial Practices
for Manufacturing Ghee. NDRI, Karnal.
Bodyfelt, F.W., Tobies, J. and Trout, G.M. 1988. The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products. An AVI Book
Published by Van Nostraod Reinhold, New York.
IS: 7769-1975. Method for Sensory Evaluation of Table Butter. Bureau of Indian Standards.
IS: 7770-1975. Method for Sensory Evaluation of Ghee (Clarified Butter Fat). Bureau of Indian Standards.
Ramamurthy, M.K. 1980. Factors affecting the composition, flavour and textural properties of ghee. Indian
Dairyman, 32: 765.



FAT CONSTANTS- BASIC PRINCI PLE, THEIR
DETERMINATION AND SIGNIFICANCE IN QUALITY
CONTROL OF GHEE






Prof. K.L. Arora
EX-Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Physico-chemical constants of ghee play a very significant role in ascertaining the
purity and geniunness of ghee. Some of these are used for determining adultration of ghee
with vegetable fats and oils, and animal body fats whereas others are the index of level of
oxidation of fat and hence shelf life of ghee. These are Reichert-Missile (RM) value,
Polenske Value (S.V), Kirschner Value, Iodine Value (IV), saponification value (PV),
Peroxide Value (PV), Butyro-refractometer reading (B.R), sp. Gravity, acidity,
unsaponifiable matter, hydroxyl and acetyl values.

2.0 REICHERT-MISSILE VALUE (RM) AND POLENSKE VALUE

2.1 R.M. Value

RM value is defined as the number of ml. Of 0.1 NaOH alkali solution required to
neutralise steam volatile water soluble fatty acids distilled from 5 g of the fat under specified
conditions, RM value of ghee ranges from 17-35. This is well above all other fats and oils,
RM value of ghee also varies from region to region and state to state. It also depends upon
the feed given to the animal. For example, RM value og ghee for the Northern region of
Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, UP etc. under PFA Rules is 28 (min.) whereas its value is 24 (min.)
for the states of Goa, Daman and Diu, Tamil Naidu RM Value of ghee produced in cotton
tract areas of MP is 21 against 26 of ghee produced in non cottontract area.

2.2 Polenske Value

It is defined as the number of ml. of 0.1 NaOH required to neutralise steam volatile
water insoluble fatty acids distilled from 5g of the fat under specified conditions. The value
of ghee ranges from 1.5-3.0

2.3 Principle

The butter fat differs from other fats in the number and relative proportion of its
constituent fatty acids especially the lower fatty acids which are steam volatile. Butyric,
(C4 :0) Caporic (C6 :0) and caprylic (C8 :0) acids are important steam volatile and water
soluble fatty acids and are responsible for RM value where as caprylic (C6 :0) Capric (C8 :0)
and lauric (C10 :0) acids are the major steam volatile and water insoluble fatty acids and are
responsible for PV value of ghee. The presence of lower fatty acids is peculiar to ruminant
milk fat. Hence RM and PV are the important characteristics of cow and buffalo ghee.
Sheep and goat ghee have RM value lower than cow & buffalo but have higher PV value of 3

159
and 6, respectively. Among common vegetable oils and fats, only coconut & palm kernel oil
contain steam volatile fatty acids and both exhibit RM of 7 and PV of 13.

2.4 Procdure

About 5.0 0.10 g of the melted sample of ghee is saponified in the presence of 20 g
of clear. 93 ml of freshly boiled and cooled distilled water and 50 ml of dilute H
2
SO
4
(2 ml
of 50% NaOH equivalent to 40 ml of dilute H
2
SO
4
) are added to the mixture, when
sufficidently cool. Flask is connected to the distillation apparatus and mixture is heated on a
slow flame without boiling its contents until insoluble acids are completely melted. Then
flame is increased and 110 ml of distillate is collected within 19-21 min.

The 110- ml flask is kept in ice water for 15 min for cooling and is replaced by 25 ml
cylinder beneath the condenser for collecting drainings.

The contents of 110-ml of flask are filtered through a filter paper (No 4). Still head,
condenser, 110-ml flask and cylinder are wahed with three successive 15 ml portion of cold
distilled water and passed through the same filter paper. The washing are discarded. The
insoluble acids are dissolved by three similar washings of the still head, condenser, 110-ml
flask, cylinder and filter paper with 15 ml of neutralised alcohol. All the three alcohol
washings are collected separately.

2.4.1 RM Value

100 ml of the filterate containing soluble volatile acids are titrated with 0.1 N NaOH
in the presence of phenolphthlein indicattor until the appearance of slight pink colour.

RM Value = V
1
x 1.10 x 5.0
W
2.4.2 PV

The alcoholic solution of insoluble volatile acids is titrated with 0.1 N NaOH in the
presence of phenolphthlein indicator until the appearance of slightly pink colour.

PV = V
2
x 5.0
W
Where V
1
= Volume of 0.1 N NaOH used for neutralising water soluble
volatile acids

V
2
= Volume of 0.1 N NaOH used for neutralising water soluble
volatile acids

W = Weight of the sample taken

3.0 KIRSCHNER VALUE

It is defined as the ml of 0.1 N NaOH required to neutralised steam volatile water
soluble fatty acids which form water soluble silver salts, distilled from 5 g of the fat under
specified conditions.


160
3.1 Determination

0.5 g of Ag
2
SO
4
is added to the neutralised sola of volatile soluble acids. Mixture is
allowed to stand for one hr in the dark with occassional shaking. The contents are filtered.
100 ml of the filterate is distilled in the presence of 35 ml of cooled distilled water and 10 ml
of dilute H
2
SO
4
within 19-21 min. as described above, 110 ml of distillate is collected and
filtered. 100 ml of the filterate is titrated with 0.1 N Barium hydroxide until the appearance of
pink colour.

3.2 Kirschner Value = 121 (100 + V
1
) x V
3

10,000
V
3
= Volume of 0.1 N Barium hydroxide used for eutralising
volatile acids which form soluble silver salts.

3.3 Interpretation

RM, PV and Kirschner values are the classical chemical tests relating to the
fatty acid composition of fat with low molecular wt fatty acids. These are of less
reliability than GLC methods.

4.0 IODINE VALUES

4.1 Principle

I.V. of milk fat is a measure of its unsaturation and hence of content of double bond
captable of reacting with halogens. It expresses the concentration of unsaturated fatty acids,
together with the extent to which they are unsaturated in a single manner, and is therefore, a
simple and very useful parameter. Iodine Value is defined as no. of gm of iodine absorbed by
100 g of oil or fat under the test conditions.

4.2 Methodology

Several methods are employed for its determination. However, Wijs method has
become the recognised British and International standard (B.S. 684 Section 2.13, 1981 and
ISO-3961, 1979). A solution of Iodine monochloride in a mixture of acetic acid and carbon
tetra chloride is added to the sample. The mixture is allowed to stand for about 1-2 hr.,
Halogen addition to the double bond takes place, after which excess Iodine monochloride is
reduced to free iodine by the addition of potassium iodide soln and water. The liberated
iodine is titrated with standard solution of sodium thiosulphate in the presence of starch.

4.2.1 Calculation

12.69 (B-S) N
I.V =
W
4.3 Drawback of the Method

The main drawback of this method is that conjugated double bond generally reacts
incompletely with the Wijs reagent. Where these are known to be present, it is advisable to

161
adhere strictly to the test conditions for reproducibility of the results. The presence of double
bond in the sample may be detected by examination of UV spectrum.

5.0 SAPONIFICATION VALUE

5.1 Definition

Saponification value is defined as the no. of mg of KoH required to saponify one
gram of fat or oil.
Saponification equivalent is defined as the amount of ghee which can be saponified
by one gm. Equivalent of KOH.

5.2 Principle

All the fats and oils have a tendency to form soaps when they are allowed to react
with alkalie. This reaction is called saponification reaction. The amount of alkali required by
a unit weight of any fat depends upon its fatty acid profile and is determined through
saponification value which is related to the molecular weight of the constituent fatty acids in
a particular fat. Saponification value is useful in detecting the presence of mineral oil such as
liquid paraffin as it is not acted upon by alkali and the sample does not form a homogenous
solution on saponification.

5.3.1 Methodology

Saponification value of fat is determined by refluxing (boiling) a known weight of fat
(20.001 g) with a known excess of 0.5 N KOH (25 ml.) in C
2
H
5
OH for about one hr. till a
clear solution is obtained. After saponification, excess of alkali is titrated back against
standard acid (0.5 N HCL) using phenolphthlein indicator. A blank is also carried out
simultaneously.

5.3.2 Calculation

S.V = 56.1 (B-S) x N
W

5.4 Interpretation

Since ghee contains a high proportion of low molecular wt. fatty acids, its S.V is
exceptionally high of the order of 225. Most other fats which contains C
16
, C
18
:1 and C
18
:2
fatty acids have a S.V around 190. Coconut oil is having S.V. of 255 due to its high content
of C
12
and C
14
acids. S.V is inversely proportional to mol. Wt. Therefore high S.V. results
from due to increase in lower fatty acids or decrease in higher fatty acids.

6.0 UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER

6.1 Definition

It is a measure of the proportion of the organic matter dissolved by the glycerides and
fatty acids. It is equal to the quantity of the substance dissolved in the fat, which after
saponification, is insoluble in the aqueous solution but soluble in the organic solvent. The

162
organic material may be naturally occuring such as sterol to topherols, caroteniods or
pigments or may consists of impurities such as mineral oil.

6.2 Principal

The unsaponifiable matter is determined to check adulteration with mineral oil and
spoilage of fat by oxidation which increase unsaponifiable matter.

6.3 Methodology

The unsaponification matter is determined by refluxing a known quantity of fat with
alcoholic KOH. The soap solution so formed is diluted and carefully extracted with organic
solvent such as solvent ether, hexane or petroleum ether. The solvent is evaporated and
extract dried to constant weight.

7.0 BUTYRO-REFRACTOMETER READING

7.1 Principle

The butyro refractometer reading of butter fat depends upon the feed given to the
animals and season of the year. Therefore, it varies from state to state and region to region,
B.R of ghee ranges between 40-45. This value for butter fat is the lowest of most of other
oils and fats except coconut oil and palm kernel oil the, values for which vary between 34.0
and 35.5 and 35.3 and 39.5, respectively. Therefore, B.R of ghee is determined to check its
purity.

7.2 Methodology

B.R. of ghee is determined at 40C so that the sample is completely in the liquid state,
using butyro refractometer. The temperature is maintained by circulating water at 40C
between the prisms. The prisms are cleaned with petroleum ether and allowed to dry before
applying the sample. The correctness of the instrument is checked before taking the reading
with fluid of known B.R. If any error is found, it is corrected with the help of adjusting
screw. Two to three drops of the sample at 40C are applied between the prisms and reading
is taken after 2-3 min when the sample has attained the temperature after adjusting the
position of borderline until sharp colourless line is obtained. If the temperature is not exactly
40C a correction of 0.55 BR per degree celsius is applied to the observed B.R because B.R
decreases with a rise and increases with a fall in temperature.

B.R at 40 C = observed BR + 0.55 x (t-40C)
T = temperature of the sample

8.0 SP. GRAVITY

Sp. Gravity of oils & fats is determined for two purposes

1. For imparting definite information as to the nature of the liquid oil since values for
most of the oils over lap but in certain cases, the test becomes of considerable
importance. The sp. Gr. of most of the vegetable oils and fats including milk fat
falls between 0.913 and 0.932. But certain oils such as castor oil, tung oil and

163
linseed oil have got exceedingly high sp. Gravity (0.968 ; 0.940 to 0.943 ; 0.930 to
0.937, respectively)

2. For calculating the density for determing weight of oil in tank.

8.1 Methodology

The sp. Gravity is determined most conveniently in a 25-g sp. gravity bottle. The
capacity of sp. gr. bottle is determined accurately. The bottle is filled with the liquid fat at a
temperature slightly below that at which determination is to be made and stopper inserted.
The bottle is then immersed in water maintained at the desired temperature for 10-15 min.
until expansion ceased. Then bottle is removed from water, excess fat or oil is carefully
removed, outside dried and bottle weighed. The sp. gr. of oils and fats which are liquid at
15.5C is determined at this temperature. In all other cases, sp. gravity is determined at the
boiling point of water. Weight of oil at the boiling point of water is usually compared with
weight of an equal volume of water at 15.5C. The capacity of sp. gr. bottle at 100C in
terms of grams of water at 15.5 is calculated from the formula.

Capacity at 100C = Capacity at 15.5C x [1+(t-15C)x 0.000025]
Where 0.000025 is the cubic coefficient of expansion of glass

9.0 HYDROXY VALUE

Hydroxy value is defined as the no. of mgm of KOH required to neutralise the amount
of acetic acid capable of combining by acetylation, with 1 g of fat. It is therefore, a measure
of hydroxyl radical content of the fat. These radicals may be present in mono or diglycrides
or free glycerol, formed by partial hydrolysis of fat. Such radicals are present at a very low
level about 3 units in edible fats but they occur in greater concentration in commercial fats
such as those used for coap manufacture and in shortenings (about 165 units) used in cake
manufacture. Other oils and fats, containing-OH groups are cholesterol, stigmasterol and
richinoleic acid.

9.1 Determination

A known quantity of fat is acetylated with measured volume of acetic anhydride in
pyridine solution. Excess acetic anhydride is decomposed in boiling water and acetic acid
formed is titrated with ethanolic sodium hydroxide solution. Two blank tests are carried out
one with acetic anhydride & pyridine and no fat and other with fat and pyridine and no acetic
anhydride in order to measure the FFA content of the fat,

Hydroxyl Value = 56.1 x N (V
2
+ V
3
V
1
)
W
Where:

V
1
= Volume of sodium hydroxide required for the sample & acetylating
reagents
V
2
= Volume of sodium hydroxide required for the acetylating reagent

V
3
= Volume of sodium hydroxide required by the test portion (sample)
W = Wt. of the sample taken.

164
10.0 ACETYL VALUE

Acetyl value is defined as the no. of mgm of KOH required to neutralise acetic acid
obtained, when 1 g of acetylated fat is saponified. Acetyl value is closely related to hydroxyl
value and for value of less than 20, it is effectively the same.

Acetyl Value =

11.0 PEROXIDE VALUE

The most common cause of deterioration of oils and fat is the oxidative rancidity
which is due to the formation of hydroxides and is expressed as ml of 0.002 N Na
2
S
2
O
3
per g
of the sample or mili equivalent of peroxide oxygen per kg of the sample. PV is the index of
quality of fat and it is less than 1 unit for fresh fat.

11.1 Methodology

There are several methods for measurement of peroxide value but most common
method is the iodometric method. This method measures the iodine produced from
potassium iodide by the peroxides present in the sample. This method is highly empirical
because accuracy of the method depends on the experimental conditions.

About1-2 g of the sample is weighed into a 25 ml test tube. 2 g of KI and 20 ml of
solvent mixture (CH
3
COOH :CHCl
3
:: 2 :1) are added and tube is loosely stoppered. The
contents of the tube are brought to boil within 30 secs. In a boilding waterbath and boiled for
another 30 ses. The contents are cooled immediately under a tap and transfered
quantitatively in a conical flask. 20 ml of 5% KI and 50 ml of d. water are added and the
contents titrated against 0.002 N Na
2
S
2
O
3
using starch indicator.

Peroxide value = (ml of 0.002 N Na
2
S
2
O
3
per g)

Or

Peroxide value =

Where :
V = ml of 0.002 N Na
2
S
2
O
3
used
W = Wt. of the sample taken in gms.

11.2 Interpretation

A guidline has been suggested by the BIS based on peroxide value for the quality of
ghee:

Peroxide Value Quality

Below 1.5 Very good
1.6 to 2.0 Good
2.1 to 2.5 Fair
2.6 to 3.5 Poor
3.6 to 4.0 Not acceptable
V
W
(milli equivalent of oxygen/kg)

2V
W
Hydroxyl Value
1 + 0.00075 H



165
12.0 ACIDITY

Acidity of ghee is expressed as oleic acid and is due to the formation of free fatty
acids. Free fatty acids are liberated either due to heat or during storage. The level of FFA is
the index of quality of ghee and FFAs are responsible for hydrolytic rancidity. A good
quality fresh ghee has FFA content ranging from 0.4-0.69% and ghee having FFA content of
1.0-1.5% is not acceptable due to rancid flavour.

12.1 Determination

About 10 g of the sample is added to 100 ml of freshly neutralised C
2
H
5
OH. The
mixture is brought to boil and titrated against standard NaOH soln while shaking the mixture
vigorously.

% acidity = (as oleic acid)

Table : Physical and chemical constants of some common fats

Fat M.P
C
R.I
At 40C
I.V S.V. R.M P.V
Beef
Tallow
42-48C 1.4566-
1.4596
35-43 194-200 1 1
Cocoa
Butter
28-33 1.4537-
1.4580
32-42 192-198 1 -----
Coconut
Oil
20-28 1.4477-
1.4495
6-10 245-262 6-8 15-20
Cotton
seed oil
-- 1.4696-
1.4718
103-112 192-196 1 -----
Lard 36-45 1.4580-
1.4620
50-80 193-200 1 1
Milk fat 30-41 1.4538-
1.4578
26-35 210-233 17-35 1-3
Palm
Kernel oil
23-30 1.4492-
1.4543
10-18 243-255 4-8 7-12
Pea nut oil - 1.4620-
1.4653
88-98 186-194 1 -

13.0 REFERENCES

Jeness, R. and Pattonss (1959). Principles of Dairy Chemistry. JohnWiley and Sons, inc. USA.
Hamilton, R.J and Rossell, J.B. (1986) Analysis of oils and fats. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd.,
London.
Richard Bolton, E.R. (1999) Oils, fats and fatty foods. Biotech Books Publisher Delhi-110035.
Hamilton, R.J. and Late Bhati, A. (1987) Elsivier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London.
IS : 3508 (1966). Indian Standards. Methods of sampling and tests for ghee (butter fat) Manak Bhawan,
Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi
PFA (1998). Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1959 with PFA Rules 1955. International Law Book
Company, Delhi.
B.S. (1981). Method of analysis of fat and fatty acids B.S : 684 Section 2.13. Determination of iodine value
B.SI., U.K.

28.2 x V x N
W
CHOLESTEROL AND ITS MANAGEMENT:
FACTS AND FIGMENTS





DR. (MS) LATHA SABIKHI
Scientist (SS)
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Despite being the focus of attraction for several decades in medical and media circles,
cholesterol remains one of the most controversial factors that influence our health. There are
varying medical opinions about its relationship to heart disease, thus creating overtones of
uncertainty in the minds of the public. Until recently, many heart problems such as angina,
thrombosis and coronary heart disease were thought to be caused by excess cholesterol, a
term which encompasses both dietary and blood cholesterol. It is now established that while
the former can influence health, it is the latter type - whose levels are often hereditary - which
is the main threat. Recent research has shown that saturated and trans fatty acids can often
raise blood cholesterol to harmful levels. A healthy diet will go a long way to protect against
excessive levels of blood cholesterol and also would help in lowering those that are already
too high.

2.0 WHAT IS CHOLESTEROL?

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like material that is a component of all cells. There are two
types of cholesterol, dietary cholesterol contained in food and blood or plasma cholesterol
that is essential for the body's metabolism. The liver manufactures up to one gram of blood
cholesterol per day. It is involved in the synthesis of certain hormones, vitamin D and bile
acids. The major risks of heart disease caused by high levels of blood cholesterol are
imbedded in the genetic make-up, though diet and obesity are also important causes. While
there is nothing that can be done about heredity, altering the diet can help to alleviate
problems relating to high cholesterol.

3.0 FUNCTIONS OF CHOLESTEROL

Cholesterol is an important structural component of the cell membrane. It functions as
the raw material for bile acids and steroid hormones. Cholesterol plays an important role in
lipid transport in the blood. The liver is the major site that synthesises new fat from
carbohydrates or by recycling of old fat molecules. It packages these endogenous fats (as
distinct from exogenous or dietary fats) with phospholipids, cholesterol, cholesteryl esters,
apo B, apo C and apo E and exports them via very low density lipoproteins into plasma.
Cholesterol is synthesised in the liver from acetyl CoA. One to four g of this fat is
synthesised in the body daily and 10 to 14 g of it is constantly present in the blood. The total
amount of cholesterol present in the body is 100 -150 g.

167

4.0 RISK FACTORS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Blood being an aqueous medium, cholesterol is transported around the body attached
to lipid-containing proteins, the lipoproteins. Of these, the low density lipoproteins (LDL)
carry about three quarters of the cholesterol in the blood. Therefore, high levels of LDL are
usually indicative of high cholesterol levels and imply a higher risk of heart disease, as
opposed to high density lipoproteins (HDL).

High levels of LDL tend to originate from a defect in receptors in the liver that
normally eliminate LDL from blood. While this malfunctioning of the liver is often
hereditary, hormonal disorders which may affect those with hormonal or thyroid problems
also may impair the receptors. This is the main cause of atherosclerosis, the hardening of
arteries associated with a fatty deposit called atheroma. This deposit is made up of scarred
tissue and plaque which contain considerably large amounts of cholesterol. If one of the fatty
plaques on the wall of an artery ruptures, it results in a blood clot (or thrombosis), thus
blocking the flow of blood. The risk of atherosclerosis rises rapidly with increasing age.
When blood cholesterol is oxidised by free radicals it is more damaging to the artery than
native cholesterol, thus implicating free radicals as well, in heart disease.

Women before menopause are less prone to heart disease as oestrogen helps to
increase both the number and efficiency of LDL receptors. The risk of atherosclerosis and
heart disease is further reduced in women, owing the higher levels of HDL.

It is obvious that factors that help increase the HDL levels also point to lower levels
of LDL. Exercise often helps to lower LDL levels and raise HDL. While moderate
consumption of alcohol - three glasses of beer a day or two of wine - may also increase the
HDL levels in people who are not overweight, obesity has a negative effect on increase of
HDL.

The risk posed by obesity can be reversed by losing weight which is usually
accompanied by a fall in blood cholesterol levels. This excludes crash dieting, where any
weight loss is mostly fluid and regained as soon as one resumes normal diet. The most and
only effective way to lose weight is to reduce the intake of fat and refined carbohydrates and
exercise more. It is on the records that people who maintain their weight from an early adult
life do not show the same age-related rise in blood cholesterol levels as experienced by those
unsuccessful dieters who have fluctuating body weights.

The average daily cholesterol intake of British males is about 390 mg daily and that of
women about 290 mg - enough to raise blood cholesterol levels by about 5 per cent.
Fortunately, in most healthy people, the liver automatically manufactures less cholesterol
when dietary levels are high, thus maintaining safe levels of blood cholesterol.

The levels of blood cholesterol are measured in millimoles/litre against which the
risks of heart disease are calculated as indicated in Table 1.
168

Table 1. Cholesterol levels and risk of heart disease

Cholesterol
(mmol/l)
Risk
factor
< 5.2 Low
5.2 6.5 Average
6.5 7.8 Moderate
> 7.8 High

Source: McWhirter, A. and Clasen, L. 1996

While assessing the risk factors, any family history of heart disease as well as the
individual's lifestyle should be considered in addition to the cholesterol levels. As an
example, while in a healthy individual a cholesterol level of about 6.4 might be acceptable it
is alarmingly high for one who has angina or whose family has a long history of the same.

5.0 DIETARY MANAGEMENT FOR REGULATION OF CHOLESTEROL

Interestingly, the level of cholesterol in blood is determined by the amount of
saturated fat in the diet and not by the quantity of dietary cholesterol. Foods rich in
cholesterol are now not thought to dramatically increase the risk of heart disease for healthy
people. However, most experts agree that those with heart problems, a family history of heart
diseases or high blood cholesterol levels should limit dietary cholesterol. Reducing saturated
fats has the greatest effect of all dietary measures on blood cholesterol levels, lowering them
by as much as 14 per cent.

5.1 Foods that are High in Cholesterol Content

High quantities of cholesterol are present in egg yolks, offal (any edible part of
animals apart from the flesh, e.g., liver, kidneys, heart, brain, stomach or tripe, tail, tongue,
feet, pig's trotters), shrimps and prawns. The extent to which these foods - particularly eggs,
which are low in saturated fats (less than 2 g in a large egg), but high in cholesterol (about
448 mg in a single egg yolk) - influence cholesterol levels is still debated. While the World
Health Organisation recommendations suggest that up to ten eggs a week is not harmful, the
British Heart Foundation reports that three to four eggs a week is a safe maximum limit while
its counterpart in the US, the American Heart Association sets the level at three.

5.2 Foods that May Elevate Cholesterol

This category comprises of hard solid cooking fats high margarine and in saturated
and trans fatty acids, fatty meat and meat products such as lamb chops, mince, hamburgers,
bacon, frankfurters, salamis, pates and pies, biscuits, cakes, chocolates and pastries and full
fat dairy products such as hard cheese, cream and butter. Although coconut oil does not
contain cholesterol, the consumption of coconut oil increases the levels of blood cholesterol,
raise the risk of heart attacks as a consequence. Heavy coffee drinking may elevate blood
cholesterol levels. However it is now proved that kahweol and cafestol contained in coffee oil
and released during roasting of the coffee beans are the cause and not caffeine, as thought
earlier. Though caffeine temporarily raises both pulse rate and blood pressure, it has no effect
169
on cholesterol. Coffee that has been brewed by boiling or infusing is rich in the two harmful
substances. So, filtered or instant coffee can be drunk in moderation even by people suffering
from heart problems.

5.3 Foods that May Lower Cholesterol

Wholemeal bread and rolls, rye crispbread and granary bread, fruits such as oranges,
apples, ears, bananas and dried fruit such as apricots, figs and prunes, porridge oats and
breakfast cereals that contain cooked bran, vegetables such as sweetcorn, onions, garlic,
broad beans, red kidney beans and haricot beans are reported to lower cholesterol levels.
Soluble fibre helps to reduce blood cholesterol levels by binding to the cholesterol in bile and
removing it as a waste along with the fibre. Nuts such as walnut and almonds are rich in
polyunsaturated fatty acids, so moderate amounts of these are good for lowering cholesterol
levels. Eating oily fish twice a week will provide the equivalent of one gram per day of
omega-3 fatty acid, that helps to prevent thrombosis. Compounds in garlic help to suppress
cholesterol production in the liver, reduce harmful cholesterol and raise levels of HDL in
blood. A drug for lowering blood cholesterol and sourced from garlic has been patented in
Germany. The recommended daily dose of fresh garlic is about 4 g equivalent to one or two
small cloves. Seeds such as sesame or sunflower may help to lower cholesterol, as the fat
content in these (58 per cent in the former and 48 per cent in the latter) is largely unsaturated.
These should, however be roasted or cooked before consumption in order to destroy protein
toxins such as trypsin inhibitors (reduce protein digestibility) and haemagglutinins (cause
diarrhoea and vomiting).

Seafood was thought to intensify the problem of high levels of blood cholesterol.
Although the dietary cholesterol content of shrimps, prawns, crayfish and squid is high, they
are very low in fat and the cholesterol is poorly absorbed from these foods. Dietary
experiments have indicated that eating shellfish tends to lower cholesterol.

6.0 DRUGS THAT LOWER CHOLESTEROL LEVELS

Pharmaceuticals administered to change the levels of the two lipoproteins generally
benefit those with high, rather than moderately raised levels of cholesterol. Specialists
recommend that for achieving complete advantage from these drugs, they should be
accompanied by a carefully monitored diet.

Several types of drugs are prescribed to lower blood cholesterol and other blood fats.
One group called bile-acid sequestrants (e.g. cholestyramine and cholestipol) act by binding
the cholesterol in the intestine to prevent its re-absorptoion in the blood stream. As these
drugs interfere with the absorption of iron and folate, oral supplements of these nutrients
should be given to children who are on this medication. The effectiveness of these drugs, it is
needless to say, is enhanced when accompanied by reducing saturated fats and cholesterol in
the diet.

High doses of nicotinic acid (1-2 g per day) are sometimes used to treat high blood
cholesterol levels. As an excessive intake maintained over several weeks cause side effects
170
such as flushing of skin and serious liver damage, these should be taken only under medical
supervision.
7.0 OTHER AILMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH CHOLESTEROL LEVEL

A high level of cholesterol in the blood is evidenced to trigger several ailments other
than heart problems. There are reports that suggest that many patients with hearing problems
have either raised blood cholesterol levels and/or are obese. Hard lumps of cholesterol can
form stones in the gall bladder or bile duct. The crystallisation of these substances lead to
gallstones. The crystals latch onto a protein fragment and gradually build up layer on layer.
Studies in the US have suggested that men with high cholesterol levels run a greater risk of
becoming impotent. In half the cases of men over 50 who had complaints of impotence, the
problem was due to a partially blocked penal artery as a consequence of high cholesterol.
Women in the menopausal stage tend to put on weight, which is an indirect cause of high
cholesterol in the blood.

8.0 DAIRY INDUSTRY AND THE CHOLESTEROL MENACE

There was a move taken by the vegetable oil processors and the American Heart
Association in the 1980s to reduce the incidence of heart disease through mass media
advertising and cholesterol screening programmes. As a consequence, the dairy industry, and
in particular, the butter manufacturers lost 50 per cent of their business and methods to
overcome this alarming problem were sought. It was during this time that opportunities in
lipid research to investigate potential methods of cholesterol removal was considered
seriously, with an underlying hope to regain at least a portion of this lost market. The
Nutritional Labelling and Education Act of the USA has specified three categories of
labelling with respect to cholesterol in food. These are 'Cholesterol Reduced' where there
must be a minimum of 75 per cent reduction of cholesterol, 'Low Cholesterol' where the food
must contain only 0.2 mg or less cholesterol per g or 20 mg or less per serving of the food
and 'Cholesterol Free' where there must be only 2 mg of cholesterol per serving in the food.
The criteria of fitting dairy foods into any of these labels entails expensive and lengthy
processing protocols.

9.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR CHOLESTEROL REDUCTION

Cholesterol is bound to milk fat and can be removed by biological, physical or
chemical methods using processes described below.

9.1 Adsorption

Butterfat is liquefied by heating to 70-90C followed by the addition of granulated or
pulverised activated carbon in the ratio 5:1 (fat to absorbent) or 8:1 (fat to activated carbon)
is also practised. The liquid fat is brought into contact with the adsorbent, either in a column
or in a vessel, for a certain residence time. Activated carbon can be replaced by specially
coated glass, ceramics or plastic. Cholesterol is separated from milkfat by adsorptive binding
to reaction particles, as done for colorants and flavours. In order to regenerate the flavour and
colour, butter flavours and b-carotene are added back to the cholesterol-reduced butterfat
(10% of the initial cholesterol remains) at the end of the process.

9.2 Extraction

171
Extraction with cyclodextrins requires melting the milk fat at 40-60C, blending it
with a 1-10% aqueous solution of 60% cyclodextrin and

agitating for 30 min to allow the
complex to form. The complex is removed by centrifugation using a clarifier. Up to 41% of
the cholesterol can be removed in such a process.

9.3 Supercritical Extraction

Another possibility is extraction from butterfat or milkfat by using supercritical
carbon dioxide at temperatures of 40-48C. With the optimal process control (considering
pressure and temperature) up to 90% of the cholesterol can be extracted from milkfat in a
multistage process without any residues. The cholesterol-enriched fat fraction can be used
for purposes other than food manufacturing.

9.4 Fractionated Crystallisation

Here the low melting point milkfat fraction (olein fraction) can be separated from the
high melting point fat fraction (stearin fraction). The cholesterol content is reduced in the
stearin fraction by fractionation, but is enriched in the olein fraction. The cholesterol
distribution between the fractions is not advantageous, as the low-melting point triglycerides
are softer and more valuable from a nutritional point of vies.

9.5 Steam Distillation

Based on the water solubility of cholesterin, anhydrous milkfat (butterfat) is liquefied
under vacuum. The butteroil is elevated to at least 232.2C and pumped to a tall cylindrical
chamber where steam at low pressure is directed counter-current into the incoming oil. The
butterfat is spread over a series of plates in thin layers, thus increasing the stripping
efficiency.

Cholesterol is extracted in a counter-current with steam and is enriched in the
condensate. This process removes 90 to 95 per cent of the cholesterol. Unfortunately, this
process also removes flavours and stability of the fat is also a problem.

9.6 Enzyme Reaction

The enzyme cholesterol reductase can be added so that the cholesterol is converted
into biologically inactive forms, i.e., non-toxic and non-absorbable products (e.g. coposterin).
Direct utilisation of micro-organisms in a free or immobilised form is under consideration, as
their enzymes can decompose cholesterol. It may be possible to use genetically modified
dairy micro-organisms whose enzymes can decompose cholesterol. There are several dairy
micro-organisms that have been found to reduce the cholesterol level in the blood. Nutritional
experiments involving fermented as well as non-fermented dairy products containing live
cells of these organisms have revealed that they have a definite role in decreasing cholesterol
levels in hypocholesterolemic individuals.

10.0 SOME CLUES ON ALTERING FAT INTAKE HABITS

1- Replace butter with a low-fat spread or soft margarine that is high in
polyunsaturates and low in trans fats
2 - If you must eat butter, spread it more thinly
3 - Use semi-skimmed or skim milk in place of full cream milk (not in an infant's diet)
4 - Eat nuts and oily fish occasionally as protein sources instead of animal fats
172
5 - If you must eat meat, use lean meat and trim off excess fat

6 - Use grilling or stewing in place of frying
7 - Use liquid vegetable oils (rapeseed, sunflower, safflower or olive oils) instead of
hard fats
8 - Avoid foods prepared with saturated or hydrogenated fat

The bottom line is to cultivate the habit of using one spoonful of fat where you would
normally use two and half a spoonful where you would, one!

11.0 REFRENCES

Bradley, R.L. 1994. Cholesterol removal from milk fat. Indian Dairyman. 46(5):255-257.
McWhirter, A. and Clasen, L. 1996. Foods that Harm, Foods that Heal - An A-Z Guide to Safe and Healthy
Eating. Reader's Digest Association Ltd., London, NY, Sydney, Cape Town, Montreal.
Spreer, E. 1998. Milk and Dairy Product Technology. (Translated by A. Mixa). Marcel Dekker Inc. New York,
Basel, Hong Kong. p:237.
RANCIDITY IN FAT RICH DAIRY PRODUCTS
AND ITS PREVENTION




Dr. D.K. Sharma
Principal Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Milk fat is still relatively expensive compared to the other milk constituents, it is
obvious that the cost of dairy product and food products that contain milk solids will depend
to a considerable extend on the amount of milk fat which they contain. Milk fat is a rich
source of energy, it serves as a carrier of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and it also
contain significant amount of essential fatty acids (linoleic and arachidonic)

The distinctive role which milk lipids play in dairy products concern flavour. The
rich pleasing flavour of milk fat is not adequately duplicated by any other type of fat. For
this reason, milk fat in form of butter, ghee, ice-cream, coffee and whipping cream has stood
up remarkably well under the competitive on slaught of cheaper fats. The consumer
acceptability of dairy products depends on flavour, body and texture which are related with
the type, amount and state of milk fat present in them. Milk lipids impart soft, smooth, and
rich tasting qualities and overcome flat, hard, grainy, or watery characteristics which are
normally encountered in their absence.

At the same time, milk fat is also significantly and closely related with flavour defects
of fat rich dairy products. The most important single flavour defect of milk and a number of
its products is oxidized flavour. Such terms as cardboard, metallic, oily and off-flavour also
are used to describe this off-flavour. The off-flavour develops in fat rich products is either
due to autoxidation of milk fat or hydrolysis of milk fat by milk or bacterial lipases.

Through this lecture, I would like explain the reasons and mechanisms of off-flavour
development due to oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity and how we can prevent them
practically in fat rich dairy products.

2.0 CHEMISTRY OF MILK FAT

Milk fat is a simple lipid and consists of triglycerides (acylglycerols) which are esters
of trivalent alcohol (glycerol) and fatty acids (mono carboxylic acids). More than 400 fatty
acids have been found in milk fat, of which 10 determines the physical characteristics.
Among chain fatty acids (C
14
, C
16
, C
18
, C
18:2
). The long-chain fatty acids (C
14
, C
16
, C
18
,
C
18:1
). The long-chain fatty acids exist in both the saturated and the unsaturated state. The
ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acid is influenced mainly by type of feed given to the
animal. Milk fat varies from 3.2% to 6.0% in milk. The variation is due to different breeds
and type of feed given to them.

Fat is found in milk in form of spheres or droplets with a diameter of 2-5 m,
consisting of a fat core enclosed by a membrane. The membrane (figure 1) is a multilayered

174
chemical complex. The membrane components are phospholipids, cholesterol, vitamin A,
high melting triglycerides and protein (englobulin).

3.0 FACTOR AFFECTING THE CHANGES IN FAT FLOBULE MEMBRANE

The nature has provided a protective membrane of phospholipids and protein for
simple milk fat (triglycerides) in order to prevent it from coming in contact with oxygen and
other metal catalysts. As long as this membrane is intact, it is difficult for lipase initiation
step of autooxidation or oxidative rancidity.

The fat globule membrane is damaged by mechanical agitation, mixing,
homogenization separation, flow in pipelines and pumps. Negative influences (turbulence,
shear) and inclusion of air can cause strong degradation on the membrane, and separation of
free fat from fat globules can take place. Free fat is then attacked by the natural milk lipase,
which then causes fat degradation and deteriorates the sensory quality of fat containing
products. Further, this free fat is more susceptible to oxidation, which is one of the most
significant process to spoil the flavour of fat containing dairy products.

Some of the descriptive terms applied to oxidized off-flavour found in milk fat are
shown in Table-1. These are products of autoxidation of the unsaturated fatty acids mainly
oleic, linoleic and linolenic associated with phospholipids. Triglycerides and cholestrol
esters may also be involved. These compounds have an extremely high flavour potency and
are organoleptically detectable at very low concentration.

Table 1. Some descriptive flavours and associated compounds identified in oxidized
milk fats. (Kinsella et al. 1967)

Flavour Compounds
Oxidized Oct-2-ene-3-one, octanel hept-2-enal, 2,4-heptadienal,
n-alkanals (C
2
-C
9
)
Cardboard, Tallowy n-octanal, n-alkanals (C
9
-C
11
) ; alk-2-enals (C
8
and C
9
),
2, 4-dienals (C
7
, C
10
), 2,6 dienal (C
9
)
Oily n-alkanals (C
5
, C
6
, C
7
), hex-2-enal, 2, 4-dienals (C
5
,C
10
)
Painty n-alkanals (C
5
-C
10
), alk-2-enals (C
5
-C
10
) 2,4-dienal (C
7
),
2-alkanone (C
7
)
Fishy n-alkanals (C
5
-C
10
), alk-2-enals (C
5
-C
10
), 2, 4-dienal (C
7
),
2-alkanones (C
3
-C
11
) oct-1ene-3-one
Greasy Alk-2-enal (C
6
), 2, 6-dienal (C
9
)
Metallic Oct-1-en-3-on
Brany Alkanals, non-2-enal
Mushroom Oct-1-en-3-ol
Nuty Octadienal, 2,4-dienals
Fruity n-alkanals (C
5
, C
6
, C
8
, C
10
).




175
4.0 AUTOXIDATION

Oxidation of milk fat in dairy products is of paramount important to their sensory and
textural quality. It leads to the development of rancid off-flavour, cause changes in color or
texture, reduce shelf-life, and/or impair nutritional quality. Some products of fat oxidation
are toxic at relatively low concentrations for example, cyclic monomers and oxycholesterols.
Conversely, a limited degree of milk fat oxidation is often desirable, as in the formation of
typical flavour and aromas in ripened cheeses and fried foods.

4.1 Mechanism of Autoxidation

It is generally established that the autoxidation of lipids occurs largely via a self-
propagating free radical mechanism (Howard, 1973). Since direct reaction of unsaturated
fatty acids with oxygen is thermodynamically difficult, production of the first few radicals
necessary to start the propagation reaction (i.e., initation) must occur by some catalytic
means. It has been proposed that the initation step may take place by decomposition of
preformed hydroxides, via metal catalysis, heat or exposure to light, or by mechanisms where
singlet oxygen is the active species involved.

Upon the formation of sufficient free radicals, the chain reaction is propagated by the
abstraction of hydrogen atoms at positions alpha to double bonds RH R (where RH is the
substrate fatty acid and H is the -methylenic hydrogen atom), followed by oxygen attach at
these locations and resulting in the production of peroxy radicals R + O
2
ROO, which in
turn abstract hydrogen from -methylenic groups of other substrate molecules

ROO + RH ROOH + R

To form hydroperoxides, ROOH, and yield R groups, which react with oxygen, and
so on.

Due to resonance stabilization of the R species, the reaction is usually accompanied
by shifting in the position of double bonds, resulting in the formation of isomeric
hydroperoxides often containing conjugated diene groups Fran Kel (1979). Thus, abstraction
of hydrogen from the two -methylenic groups of soleate gives rise to two resonance-
stabilized alkyl radicals:
11 10 9 9
--CH
2
CH = CH CH
2



11 10 9 10 9 8
CHCHCH + CH CH --CH

Which results in cis-trans isomers of the 8-, 9-, 10-, and 11-hydroperoxides.
Linoleates are much more reactive due to the presence of 1,4-pentadiene system having a
doubly allylic methylene group:

13 12 11 10 9
CH = CH CH
2
CH = CH

CH = CH = CH = CH = CH

And resulting in the formation of isomeric 9- and 13-hydroperoxides.

176
4.2 Factor Affecting Autoxidation

In addition to the degree of unsaturation, increasing temperature accelerated not only
the chain propagation reaction, but peroxide decomposition also, with or without the help of
other catalytic factors like light and metals. The accelerating effect of light was dependent on
wave length. The effect of the visible light appeared to be primarily for accelerating the
decomposition of hydroperoxides. The effect of ultraviolet light was more pronounced, high
energy radiations such as and r-rays exerted pronounced accelerating effects, not only
because they split hydroperoxides but because they also generated free radicals from
molecules of unoxidized substrates. Various mechanism have been proposed to the effect of
trace metals, and more than one mechanism might be operative (Uri, 1961). The effect of
metals as catalysts of autoxidation have been reviewed by Ingold (1962). Lipoxidases also
catalysed the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids to hydroperoxides. Lipoxidases are specific
to substrate; the oxidation of linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid and their esters is
catalysed by liposidases but not the oleic acid, trans isomers of unsaturated fatty acids and
conjugated unsaturated fatty acid and esters (Bedings, 1960).

5.0 PREVENTION OF AUTOXIDATION

Antioxidants are substances that are capable of slowing the rate of oxidation in
oxidizable materials. In foods, many such substances are known to occur naturally.
However, antioxidants, both natural and synthetic, are frequently added as additives to retard
oxidative deterioration of flavor, color, and texture.

5.1 Mechanism

In general, antioxidants function by interfering with one or more of the steps involved
in autoxidation, that is, initiation, the free radical chain reaction, and termination.
Furthermore, certain compounds delay oxidation by rendering ineffective factors that
promote oxidation.

The majority of antioxidants function as free radical scavengers. Due to their
phenolic structure, they act as hydrogen or electron donors. The phenoxy radical formed by,
for example, the reaction of the antioxidant with a fatty acid peroxy radical is stabilized by
delocalization of unpaired electrons around the aromatic ring:











In this manner the reaction of a phenolic antioxidant (AH) with a lipid radical (ROO)

AH + ROO A + ROOH


177
completes with the ability of the peroxy radical to propagate the chain reaction by abstracting
a hydrogen atom from a new substrate molecule:

RH + ROO R + ROOH

Introduction of bulky side chains, for example, branched alkyl side chains, further stabilizes
the phenoxy radical by increasing steric hindrance in the region of the radicals, thus reducing
the chances of propagation by the phenolic radical itself.

Some phenolic compounds, amines, and thiopropionic acid can exert their
antioxidative ability by acting as peroxide decomposers. Other compounds may act as
quenchers of singlet oxygen (e.g., -carotene and tocopherol), as metal chelators or reducing
agents (e.g., ascorbic and citric acids).

5.1.1 Selection of Antioxidants

Antioxidants vary widely in their structure, properties, mode of action, and
effectiveness. The choice of an antioxidant or combination of antioxidants depends on the
specific requirements of the system in which they are used. Ideally, the antioxidant, its
metabolites or decomposition products, should be toxicologically safe at the dosages used,
should not impart off-flavours or colours upon addition, or after processing or storage, and
should be active at low concentrations, easily incorporated in the oil or food product, readily
available at any economic cost, and should have good stability and carry-through
characteristics. Better results are often achieved by using a combination of two or more
antioxidants.

5.1.2 Synthetic Antioxidants

The major phenolic antioxidants permitted as food additives in many countries are
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tertiary
butylhydroquinone (THBQ), and a number of alkyl gallates.

Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA): BHA, a mixture of two isomers (85%, 2-tert-
butyl-4-methoxyphenol + 15% 3-tert-butyl-4-methoxyohenol), is commercially available as
white waxy flakes highly soluble in oil and insoluble in water. It has a phenolic odor, albeit
not noticeable at concentrations used in food. Although its potency is low when added to
vegetable oils containing relatively high concentrations of natural antioxidants, it is
effectively used in combination with other primary antioxidants (e.g., gallates). BHA is
stable under mild basic conditions and provides good carry-through protection but undergoes
significant loss at elevated temperatures due to vaporization.
Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT): Like BHA, 2,3-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol is a
hindered phenol, relatively weak when used alone for vegetable oils, but more effective if
combined with other antioxidants. It is a white crystalline solid with properties similar to
BHA.
Tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ): TBHQ is a white or beige-colored powder,
moderately soluble in oil with very slight water solubility. It has several advantages over the
other authorized antioxidants. It is more potent, more resistant to heat and unlike propyl
gallates, does not cause discoloration since it does not complex with copper or iron.

178
Alkylgallates: These compounds are synthesized by esterification of gallic acid with
primary alcohols. They are highly potent antioxidants due to their trihydroxyl structures.
The lower gallates (e.g., propyl and butyl) have relatively low solubility in oil, but this can be
overcome by increasing the alkyl chain length of the alcohol (e.g., octyl, dodecyl). These
compounds have lower volatility than BHA and BHT. In spite the relative effectiveness of
gallates as antioxidants, their use has been hampered due to their tendency to form colored
complexes with trace metals.
Natural Antioxidants: (Hudson, 1990; Tashir, et al, 1990; Pakorny, 1991) The
presence in living systems of various compounds that protect that the organism against
oxidative damage has long been recognized. Understandably, a great deal of interest has
been generated in screening natural materials for constituents that possess antioxidative
properties. Sources available for such purpose include oils and oil seeds, grains, fruits,
vegetables, bark, roots, herbs and spices, seaweeds, and animal and microbial products.
Some such products have already been prepared and are produced commercially (e.g.,
tocopherol from palm oil). Large-scale screening for natural antioxidants is at present the
subject of extensive research.

Among the naturally occurring antioxidants, plant phenolics are by far the most
prevalent. These include flavonoid compounds, cinnamic acid derivatives, coumarins,
tocopherols, and polyfunctional organic acids. (Charlambous and Katz, 1976)

6.0 CONCLUSION

Milk fat is present in forms of fat globules and protected by a phospholipid-protein
membrane. Any damage to fat globule membrane due to mechanical shear-stress, heat or pH
changes would lead to formation of free fat. This free fat is suceptable to both hydrolytic
rancidity (action of milk lipases and/or bacterial lipases) and oxidative rancidity. The
composition of dairy product, (level & type of fat) texture and physical structure, water
activity and temperature and humidity of storage, way of handling the finished product,
availability of oxygen, metal catalyst, inert gas packaging etc. affect the process of
autoxidation, and development of rancid and oxidative off-flavours. Addition of natural and
synthetic oxidants is a practical solution to shop the chain reaction of autoxidation manifested
by off-flavours (Cardboard, metallic, oily and follwy).

7.0 REFERENCES

Badings, H.T. (1960) Meth. Milk Dairy J. 14, 215.
Frankel, E.N. (1979) Pages 353-390. In: Fatty Acids. Pryde, E.H. ed. Amm. Oil Chem. Soc. Champaign, 111.,
USA.
Hudson, B.J.F. (1990) In: Food Antioxidants. Elsevier Amsterdam.
Kimmsella, J.E., Palton, S. and Dimick, P.S. (1967) J. Am. Oil Chemist, Soc. 44, 449.
Howard, J.A. (1973) In: Free Radical Vol. 11. Kochi, I.K. ed. John Wiley Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York. USA.
Ingold, K.O. (1962) In. Autooxidation and Autixidants Landberg, W.O. ed. Vol. II. AVI Publs. Co. Inc.
Westport.
Tashiro, T., Fukuda, Y., Osawa, T. and Namiki, M. (1990) I. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 67, 508.
Pakprny, J. (1991) Trend Food Sci. Tech. 2, 223.
Charalmbous, G. and Katz, J. (1976). In: Phenolic, Sulfur and nitrogen compounds in Food Flavours. ACS
Series No. 26. Am. Chemical Soc., Washington, D.C. USA.

RENOVATION OF OXIDISED BUTTER FAT



Dr. M.P. Bindal
Ex-Principal Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is no exageration that ghee, the classified butter fat has a vital place in the Indian
Dairy Economy. We have crossed over from deficit (somewhere in 80s and 90s) into
surplus at present. The total milk production in 1995-96 was only 64 MT which is expected
to cross over 80 M.T. now; an increase of roughly 30%. Due to this spectular slrides in
Dairying and Animal Husbandry, India now has achieved the position of No. 1 overtaking
USA and China in milk production. Consequently, we are not only self sufficient but surplus
and through out year market full with milk and milk products. More than 250 milk plants in
organized sector are handling a large quantity of milk and are engaged in the production and
sale of processed milk and milk products. More than 800 perspective entrepreneurs are
expected to enter into market to handle the additional quantity of milk.

About 35-40% total milk produced in India is converted into ghee. Further, out of
total quantity of milk utilized for manufacture of dairy products, roughly 60% is converted
into ghee. This goes to provide about 30 g of butter fat per capita per day against the
nutritional requirement of 50 g per capita per day. However, if we disassociate the 30%
population considered under BPL, the per capita consumption of both milk and ghee would
become even more than nutritional requirement. From nutritional stand point, there may not
be special advantage of ghee over vegetable oil, even than ghee is most expensive and highly
prized dietary fat in India, about three times as much expensive as other edible fats. Then
why the Indian consumer is willing to pay such a high price for ghee. This is mainly due to
the plausible reason that the pleasant natural aroma and flavour of ghee cannot be duplicated
by any other fat or food article. Thus it is only this unparallel flavour profile that makes ghee
so highly over valued. Now what makes dairy flavour different from other flavour? The
ghee flavour is a balanced mixture of several non volatile components present as such or their
precursors in minute concentrations and the most prominent among these are free fatty acids,
carbonyl and lactones. When these components exist in appropriate balanced proportions,
their presence leads to pleasant flavour and aroma. As and when this proportion is distorted
by increasing or decreasing the levels of these components, it leads to massive off flavour and
render the product unfit for consumption and sale as well.

The unsaturated fatty acids present in ghee, no doubt, are nutritionally important, but
they also are prone to oxidation leading to the destruction of natural antioxidants and
formation of colourless and tasteless hydroparoxides which readily decompose to yield
several off-flavour compounds including free fatty acids, carbonyl and lactones making ghee
unacceptable for human consumption and marketable. Such oxidative deterioration of butter
fat and other fat rich dairy products is causing a great concern to the dairy chemists and
technologists. In view of the above situations, attempts have been made at this institute to

180
renovate the ghee that becomes unacceptable to consumers due to oxidative deterioration and
to make it fit for consumption. Attempts have also been successfully made to simulate ghee
flavours in bland products like butter oil and vegetable fats.

2.0 SIMULATION OF GHEE LIKE FLAVOURS IN BUTTER OIL

Ghee and butter oil have fairly similar chemical composition but butter oil has bland
or no flavour and is usually no granular in its frozen state. This difference lies in the
manufacture of butter oil where in the small but significant amounts of milk protein (serum)
milk sugars (butter serum) and milk proteins (sediments) are removed during centrifugation
of molten butter, while during preparation of ghee, these components are treated with butter
fat at high temperatures (110-115C). Consequently heat induced interactions of milk fat
with these milk solids are responsible for generation of pleasant flavour in ghee and these are
altogether absent in butter oil. Based on this hypothesis, the following successful attempt has
been made to simulate ghee like flavour in butter oil. Butter oil was mixed with (i) SMP (ii)
WMP, (iii) Skim Milk dahi powder at 0 to 7% levels and the mixture was heated, under good
stirring, at 100, 110 and 120C (3 mints. and evaluated for flavour score. The final results
showed that when butter oil was treated with skim milk dahi powder (5% level) at 120C for
3 min under good stirring, it gave the best flavour score almost comparable to desi ghee. It
was also noticed that WMP containing additional quantities of milk fat has no special
advantage over WMP in inducing ghee flavour and this also reduced the cost. Further,
treatment of butter oil with dahi powder at 120C/3 mts gave the maximum flavour score and
the temperature-time combination (120C/3 mts) was observed critical for development of
requisite ghee flavour in butter oil.

Spray drying of dahi often choked the pipes in the spray drying unit, the replacement
of spray dried skim milk dahi powder with skim milk dahi as such (20 % w/w) gave equally
good flavour score, the treatment, no doubt was larger.

3.0 SYNTHETIC FLAVOURING MIXTURE TO SIMULATE GHEE LIKE
FLAVOUR IN BUTTER OIL

Based on the knowledge we gained on the flavour profile of ghee, we could identify
and prepare a tailor made synthetic mixture to simulate ghee like flavour in bland butter oil.
The flavour profile of ghee, now, has been well defined which includes prominently free fatty
acids, carbonyl and lactones. Ghee has a complex mixture of 44-46 lactones (Wadhwa and
Jain, 1984), the dominant being C10 and C12 delta-lactones. Similarly, the role of typical
methyl ketone, nonanone-2 has also been emphasized as flavour components of ghee (Gaba
and Jain, 1975). It was also observed that medium chain free fatty acid, mainly decanoic acid
also contibute significantly towards ghee flavour. Based on observations, synthetic mixture
containing delta-lactones (C10 and C12) methyl ketone (nonanone-2) and free fatty acid (C10
acid) were prepared in concentrations (ppm) with different permutations and combinations
and then added to butter oil to simulate ghee flavour. Finally, it was observed that a synthetic
mixture having delta-C10 lactone (3 ppm), delta-C12- lactone (1 ppm), decanic acid (5 ppm)
and nonanone-2 (10 ppm) imparted ghee flavour in butter oil attaining flavour score
comparable to that of desi ghee. This method is simpler, less time consuming and also
economical.


181
4.0 USE OF GHEE RESIDUE TO SIMULATE GHEE FLAVOURS

Ghee residue is an important by-product of ghee industry and it has been found that
annual production of ghee residue is estimated to the tune of 8000 tons (Indian Dairyman,
1985) and now it appears that the figure might have doubled. Ghee residue is a highly rich
repository of flavouring components including carbonyl ( 15 times that of ghee) lactones (220
times that of ghee). In addition, GR also contains very large amount of polar lipids
(phospholipids) and non polar lipids like amino acids, sugars and free -SH-components and
these are important natural antioxidants increasing shelf life of the product. The method is
very simple and includes direct heat treatment of bland product (butter oil or even vegetable
fat) along with water (20%) and ghee residue (10%) at 120C flash. This treatment produced
reasonably good flavour (flavour score 8 out of 10) i.e. comparable to creamery butter ghee.
Such treatment gave neither cooked flavour nor colour problem.

5.0 RENOVATION OF OXIDIZED BUTTER FAT

The problem confronted with oxidized off flavour of ghee relates to the presence of
high proportions of nonvolatile carbonyls that are not easily degradable nor removable and
excess amount of free fatty acids. Consequently any process to renovate a rancid product
should include I) lysis and removal of off flavouring components and 2) to generate
acceptable ghee like flavour in the product. Both these problems have been addressed and
reached a stage where we could successfully renovate ghee oxidized to as advance as PV 10.
It may be noted the ghee as and when developed a PV of I, it becomes unacceptable: The
final method of renovation is reproduced below: (Bindal and Wadhwa, 1991 and 1998)

1) Add Sod. Bicarbonate (1% w/w) to rancid ghee in order to remove excess of free
fatty acids.
2) Pass live or culinary steam for 15-20 mts to facilitate the lysis and removal of off
flavouring components.
3) Cool to remove temperature.
4) Add potable water (equal to ghee), if required.
5) Churn as usual, this will give butter like product.
6) Wash the butter with potable water 5 times to remove water soluble slats and other
components.
7) Add skim milk dahi powder (5 %) or skim milk dahi (20%) or ripened cream
(20%). If the PV of original ghee was above 4, these levels should be doubled.
8) Clarify at 120C for 3 mts.
9) The recovery of fat was 80-85%.
10) Since ghee thus renovated has pretty less shelf life, it was observed that addition
of permissible synthetic antioxidant (BHA, 0.02%) was good enough to increase
its shelf life about close to that of fresh ghee.
11) Use of ripened cream was found superior, fetched better flavour score, restored
yellow colour, increased shelf life in comparison to the use of skim milk dahi.
12) Renovation process did not disturb the physico-chemical properties of ghee
including acid value, R.M. value, polenske value, iodine value, refractive index
and fatty acid composition was not affected.
13) Feeding trials showed no morphological abnormality with any organ in rats fed on
renovated ghee (from rancid with PV upto 5).The fat fed gheerenovated from PV
7 ghee, however, showed toxicity symptoms like inflammation of liver, lungs and
large intestines.

182
6.0 REFERENCES

Dairy out look, Indian Dairyman. 1985.
Gaba, K.L. and M.K. Jain, 1975. Organoleptic and chemical evaluation of flavour change during storage of ghee
prepared from fresh and ripened desi butter. Ind. J. Dairy Sci. 28, 278.
Wadhwa, B.K. and M.K. Jain 1985. J. Food. Sci. 22, 24-27.
Wadhwa, B.K., M.P. Bindal and M.K. Jain 1977. Simulation of ghee flavour in butter oil. Ind. J. Dairy Sc. S30,
314-18.
Bindal, M.P. and B.K. Wadhwa. 1991. Renovation of rancid ghee. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 44, 323-26.
Bindal, M.P., B.K. Wadhwa and V.K. Kansal, 1998. Renovation of rancid ghee: Evaluation for its composition
and toxicity. J. Dairying, Foods and Home Science, 17, 25-30.
RECENT TRENDS IN DETECTION OF ADULTERANTS
IN MILK FAT






Dr. Darshan Lal
Principal Scientist
Dairy Chemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal, 132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ghee, the clarified butter fat, is one of the principal dairy products in India. It has an
important place in Indian diet because of its good flavour, pleasant aroma, high calorific
value, besides being a source of valuable nutrients such as fat soluble vitamins and essential
fatty acids. However, its supply falls short of demand particularly in the lean season.
Therefore, to extend the available supplies and to earn extra profits, ghee is adulterated by
unscrupulous traders with cheaper oils / fats such as vegetable oils and fats, animal body fats,
mineral oils etc. which is an unethical practice and health hazard. The problem of adulteration
is further complicated by the fact that the composition of ghee varies with the species, season
and the diet given to the animals.

Several methods have been developed for the detection of adulteration in ghee which
are based on physico- chemical properties, fatty acid profile, sterol analysis, solidification
behaviour etc. and are briefly described below:

2.0 METHODS BASED ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

2.1 Melting Point

Body fats (36-51.3C) and vanaspati (37.8-38
o
C) have slightly higher melting point
(Winton and Winton, 1999) while vegetable oils (20-30C) have slightly lower melting point
than milk fat (28-41C). In general, buffalo milk fat (32.4-34.2C) has slightly higher melting
point than cow milk fat (30.6-31.2C) and ghee from cotton tract area shows considerably
higher melting point (43.0-44.0C), which resembles with that of animal body fats. However,
adulteration with body fats (buffalo, goat, pig and sheep) up to 20 percent level does not
introduce significant change in the melting point of ghee and, therefore, the method is not
found t o be useful for the detection of adulteration (Sharma and Singhal, 1995).

2.2 Opacity Test

Singhal (1980) developed an opacity test to detect the adulteration of ghee with
animal body fats. Test is performed by taking a clear melted fat sample (5g) in a test tube
(8cm x 1.5cm) and maintained at 501C for 30 min. Test tube is then transferred to 23C
water bath and the opacity time (time taken by the clear melted fat sample to become opaque
i.e. O.D 0.5) is recorded at 590 nm in a colorimeter. Normal ghee takes more than 35
minutes, whereas animal body fats (buffalo, goat and sheep) takes only 10 to 20 seconds to
become opaque. By opacity test, the adulteration with buffalo, goat and sheep body fats at 5
184
percent level and above could be safely detected (Sharma and Singhal, 1996). However, the
limitations of this test are that the detection of pig body fat up to 10 percent level is difficult
and ghee from cotton tract area also cannot be distinguished. Test also fails to detect the
body fats in ghee in the presence of vegetable oils (Singhal, 1987). In a modified procedure,
Panda and Bindal (1998a) recorded the opacity time as the time required by a fat sample at
23C to acquire the O.D. in the range of 0.14 to 0.16 and consequent transmittance of 68 to
72. Opacity time of pure ghee (14-15 min) is found to be much higher than that of ghee
adulterated with animal body fats (2-9 min at 10% level and 3-11 min at 5% level of
adulteration) and much lower than that of ghee adulterated with vegetable oils (21-25 min at
10% level and 19-21 min at 5% level of adulteration).

2.3 Butyro Refractometer (B.R.) Reading

The values for B.R. readings of milk fat (40-45) and vegetable oils and fats (above
50) are so wide apart (Singhal, 1980; Gunstone et al., 1994) that this property could be safely
employed as an index for milk fat adulteration with vegetable oils and fats, except coconut oil
(35-39) and palm oil (39-40). B.R. readings are recorded at 40
o
C (ISI, 1966). The B.R.
readings of animal body fats are in the range of 44 to 51. Adulteration of milk fat with animal
body fats and vanaspati at a level of 5 to 20 percent increased its B.R. readings (Sharma and
Singhal, 1995). Recently, some workers (Lal et al., 1998) have developed a simple platform
test for the detection of vegetable oil (refined mustard oil) added to milk at a level higher than
10 percent of the original fat on the basis of increase in B.R. reading of the fat.

2.4 Fractionation of Milk Fat

Fractionation of fat with or without the use of solvent under suitable conditions of
time and temperature combinations, followed by examination of fractions thus obtained has
been exploited by some workers as a tool to detect foreign fats in milk fat. Bhalerao and
Kummerow (1956) separated the fat into solid (30%) and liquid (70%) fractions after
dissolving it in the hot absolute alcohol and maintaining the same at 20C for 2 hours. The
solid fraction was further fractionated using acetone at 0C and keeping it overnight in order
to increase the concentration of adulterant in one of these fractions. The acetone soluble
fraction was iodinated and subsequently subjected to refractive index measurement. Using
this method, the presence of foreign fats at 10 percent level could be detected.

Panda and Bindal (1998b) studied the crystallization behaviour at 17C of fat
dissolved in a solvent mixture of acetone and benzene (3.5:1). They reported that pure ghee,
ghee adulterated with body fats (10% level) and ghee adulterated with vegetable oils and fats
(10% level) respectively took 19 min, 3 to 15 min and 22 to 23 min to crystallize. They
concluded from the study that even low level adulteration in ghee of animal body fats and
vegetable oils and fats could be detected.

2.5 Critical Temperature of Dissolution (CTD)

Critical temperature of dissolution (temperature at which turbidity appears on gradual
cooling of the fat dissolved in a warm solvent or solvent mixture) is a characteristic of a
particular fat. Bhide and Kane (1952) observed the CTD values for ghee and vanaspati in the
range of 39 to 45C and 62 to 72C, respectively, employing a 2:1 (v/v) mixture of 95 percent
ethanol and iso-amyl alcohol, and reported that gross adulteration of ghee with vanaspati
could easily be detected. Similarly, the presence of body fats in ghee can be detected by
185
employing either a single solvent such as absolute alcohol or a solvent mixture of 95 percent
ethyl alcohol and iso-amyl alcohol in 2:1 .

2.6 Bomer Value

Bomer value is defined as the sum of the melting point of saturated triglycerides
(isolated by diethyl ether method) and twice the difference between this melting point and
that of the fatty acids obtained. The Bomer value of both cow and buffalo ghee ranges
between 63 to 64, whereas those of animal body fats, e.g., goat, sheep and buffalo ranges
from 68 to 69 and that of pig body fat from 75 to 76. Singhal (1987) reported that the Bomer
value of ghee increased on adulteration with body fats even in the presence of vegetable oils
but not when vegetable oils alone were added. The method could be used as a confirmatory
test for the detection of pig body fat in ghee. However, genuine cotton tract ghee which
behaved similar to adulterated ghee samples could not be sorted out by this test and hence
may be mistaken as adulterated ghee.

2.7 Microscopic Examination of Fat

Microscopic examination of the sterol crystals (ISI, 1966) has also been employed in
the detection of adulteration of milk fat with vegetable oils and fats. If the sterol crystals
only show the form of a parallelogram with an obtuse angle of 100, which is characteristic
for cholesterol, the fat sample is considered to be free from vegetable fat. However, if the
sterol crystals show the elongated hexagonal form with an apical angle of 108, which is
characteristic for phytosterols, or if some of the sterol crystals have a re-entry angle
(Swallows tail), which is characteristic for mixtures of cholesterol and phytosterols, the fat
sample is considered to contain vegetable fat.

2.8 Spectroscopic Methods

Spectroscopic methods using visible (400-800 m), ultraviolet (200-400 m) and
infrared (2-15 ) regions have been used by many workers for characterizing fats and oils.

2.8.1 Tests Based on Visible Spectroscopy

Jha (1981) applied this technique for the detection of Cheuri (Madhuca butyracea) fat
in ghee, a common adulterant in Nepal. Pure ghee showed no absorption band in visible
range (600-700 nm), whereas Cheuri fat showed an absorption band with maxima between
640 and 680 nm. Even 5 percent Cheuri fat content added to ghee could be detected in this
range.

2.8.2 Tests Based on Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy

UV absorption spectroscopy has been applied for characterizing the various oils and
fats including milk fat. Sharma (1989) examined the UV spectrum of unsaponifiable matter
extracted from ghee and animal body fats between 200 to 320 nm and observed first
absorption maxima between 215 to 220 nm for both fats. Whereas, the ghee samples showed
a second maxima at 270 nm, which was shifted to 280 nm in case of animal body fats.
However , on this basis adulterated ghee could not be differentiated from pure ghee.


186
2.8.3 Tests Based on Infra-Red (IR) Spectroscopy

Infra-red absorption has been extensively used in the analysis of lipids especially for
cis- and trans- isomers. Unsaturated fatty acids of natural vegetable oils and fats are in cis-
configuration and are isolated (non-conjugated). Partial hydrogenation or oxidation may
result into formation of trans-isomers. Animal and marine fats may also contain small
amounts of natural trans-isomers (Kirk and Sawyer, 1999). Bovine milk fat contains a low
level (5%) of trans fatty acids in comparison with hydrogenated vegetable oils, in which the
value may be as high as 50 percent due to non-stereospecific hydrogenation (Fox and
McSweeney, 1998). For demonstrating the presence of hydrogenated fats in milk fat, some
workers observed that the absorption maxima at 10.36 gets increased by the addition of
hydrogenated fats containing iso-oleic acids (trans-octadecenoic acids). Recently, Sato et al.
(1990) used near IR spectroscopic method for the detection of as little as 3 percent foreign fat
in milk fat.

3.0 METHODS BASED ON CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

3.1 Tests Based on Fatty Acids

Before the advent of modern analytical techniques, like, GLC, TLC, paper
chromatography, etc., physico-chemical constants such as Reichert-Meissl, Polenske, iodine,
saponification values and BR reading were used as a measure of fatty acids. However, these
constants give information about the groups of acids rather than individual fatty acids. Based
on the differences in the fatty acids, either as a group or individually, several tests have been
developed for detecting adulteration of milk fat with foreign fats, which are described below:

3.1.1 Tests Based on Physico-Chemical Constants

3.1.1.1 Reichert-Meissl Number: This constant for milk fat is quite significant since it is
primarily a measure of butyric acid and caproic acid. The value for milk fat ranges
between 17 to 35, which is well above the value (generally 1) for all other fats and
oils except coconut oil and palm kernel oil for which the value ranges between 4 to 8
(Singhal, 1980).

3.1.1.2 Polenske Number: This constant is substantially a measure of caprylic and capric
acid. The polenske value for milk fat ranges from 1.2 to 2.4. This value for other oils
and fats ( Winton and Winton, 1999) is also low (less than 1) except the coconut oil
(15-20) and palm kernel oil (6-12)

3.1.1.3 Iodine Number: This constant is a measure of unsaturated linkages present in a fat.
The iodine number for milk fat ranges from 32 to 37 which is low in comparison to
most other fats (Singhal, 1980). Animal body fats show slightly higher iodine value
ranging from 36 to 49. Whereas, for vegetable oils, the value is very high (74-145)
except coconut oil (6-10) and palm kernel oil (10-18). For hydrogenated fats, it lies in
the range of 70 to 79.

3.1.1.4 Saponification Value: Saponification value gives an indication of average molecular
weight of fatty acids present. For milk fat, animal body fats, vegetable oils and
hydrogenated fats, the value ranges from 225 to 237, 192 to 200, 170 to 197 and 197
to 199, respectively. Coconut oil and palm kernel oil show higher saponification
value ranging between 243 to 262 (Singhal, 1980).
187
Sharma and Singhal (1995) employed the physico-chemical constants for detecting
the animal body fats (buffalo, goat, sheep and pig) added to buffalo and cow ghee and
reported that the values for Reichert-Meissl, Polenske, and BR indices remained within the
legal limits for normal ghee, when adulterated with animal body fats at 20 percent level.

3.1.2 Tests Based On Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) of fatty acids

Cow and buffalo milk fats contain a variety of fatty acids ranging from 4:0 to
18:3.Body fats like tallow and lard contain mostly palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0) and oleic
acid (18:1), while vegetable oils consist mainly of palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic (18:2)
acids . Coconut oil is the best known exception, containing lauric (14:0) and myristic (16:0)
acids in very large amount (Rangappa and Achaya, 1974).

Sharma and Singhal (1996) analysed the buffalo ghee samples adulterated with body
fats (buffalo, goat, pig) and vanaspati at 20 percent level and noted that short and medium
chain fatty acids decreased while long chain fatty acids increased on adulteration. Panda and
Bindal (1997) employed this technique for the detection of adulteration in ghee with
vegetable oils at level as low as 5 percent using C
18:2
or C
22:1
as marker acid.

Many workers have used different fatty acids ratios for checking the adulteration of
milk fat with vegetable oils, margarine, beef tallow, lard, substituted fats, synthetic fats, etc.
(Sharma and Singhal, 1996; Panda and Bindal, 1997).

3.2 Tests Based on the Nature and Content of Triglycerides

Butterfat is composed predominantly of triglycerides with 26 to 52 carbon number,
while animal depot fats and common vegetable oils other than coconut and plam kernel oil
have 50 to 54 carbon number. Coconut and palm kernel oil contain short and medium chain
length triglycerides with 30 to 52 carbon number, a range almost similar to butterfat.

3.2.1 Tests Based on Gas Liquid Chromatography of Triglycerides

Using GLC, Kuksis and McCarthy (1964) detected the presence of vegetable fat and
lard in butterfat at 5 to 10 percent level based on the increase in the content of high molecular
weight triglycerides, C
52
and C
54
peaks, respectively. Precht (1992) compared the
triacylglycerol composition of different fats as analyzed by GLC and designed multiple
linear regression equations by which foreign fats could be detected with substantially
improved sensitivity. However, the method was suitable only when a single foreign fat was
added to milk fat. Currently, European Union (EU) applies the method of Precht (1992) for
triglyceride analysis as an official method for evaluating the milk fat purity.

3.3 Tests Based on the Nature and Content of Unsaponifiable Constituents (Natural
or Extraneous)

Milk fat contains unsaponifiable matter( USM ) in the range of 0.30 to 0.45 percent
by weight chiefly consisting of cholesterol (0.25 to 0.40% by weight of fat). Vegetable oils
have USM in the range of 0 to 2 percent, while animal body fats like lard and tallow have
USM in the range of 0 to 1.0 percent.

188
Sterols and tocopherols are the two most important constituents of USM, which have
been used to detect the vegetable fats in milk fat by using various techniques like GLC, TLC,
paper chromatography, etc.

3.3.1 Tests Based on Sterols

Cholesterol is the characteristic sterol of animal fats, while sterols from plant sources
consist of a mixture collectively called as phytosterols and include -sitosterol, stigmasterol,
campesterol, brassicasterol, etc.The sterols can help to distinguish between fats of animal and
vegetable origin, since the melting point of cholesterol acetate (114C) is substantially lower
than that of the acetates of any of the phytosterols (126-137C).

IDF (1966) recommended a TLC method for the detection of vegetable fats in milk fat
based on the appearance of a small band of -sitosterol acetate in addition to the major band
of cholesterol acetate using reversed phase system consisting of undecane / acetic acid-
acetonitrile saturated with undecane. Ramamurthy et al., (1967) using thin layers of CaCO
3

and soluble starch (10 gm + 4 gm) impregnated with liquid paraffin and a solvent system
consisting of methanol : acetic acid : water (20:5:1, v/v) as a developer reported that the
presence of cottonseed oil, groundnut oil, sesame oil and hydrogenated fats at 10 to 13
percent level and coconut oil at 25 percent level in ghee could be detected on the basis of Rf
values of 0.53 and 0.44 for cholesterol and phytosterols, respectively.

Using GLC technique, -sitosterol has been shown to be an index of vegetable fat
addition. However, by this method, addition of body fats cannot be detected as body fats also
have cholesterol.

3.3.2 Tests Based on Tocopherols

Tocopherol content of butterfat is low as compared to most vegetable oils and fats,
with the exception of coconut oil . Therefore, addition of vegetable fats to butter will result
in a significant increase in tocopherol content of adulterated butterfat. Accordingly,
vegetable fats and oils added to ghee could be detected on the basis of tocopherol content.
However, body fats and coconut oil added to milk fat could not be detected.

3.3.3 Tests for Mineral Oils

Adulteration of common edible oils with cheaper mineral oils, such as paraffin oil,
heavy and light fuel oil, petroleum jelley, etc. has become widespread phenomenon because
of the price difference. Unlike oils and fats, mineral oils are not saponifiable by alkali. This
characteristic behaviour of mineral oils has been used as the basis for their detection in edible
oils and fats. Using Holdes test, the presence of as little as 0.3 % of mineral oil in a fat can
be detected by saponifying 10 drops of test sample (1 ml) with 5 ml of 0.5 N ethanolic
potassium hydroxide solution and adding to the hot soap solution 5 ml of water in 1 ml
portions noting the appearance of turbidity after each addition (Winton and Winton,1999).

3.4 Tests Based on the Content of Specific Fatty Acids

Certain specific fatty acids such as butyric acid, erucic acid, iso-valeric acid, iso-oleic
acid, cyclopropenoic acids, etc. which are either characteristic or absent in milk fat or present
189
in less quantity as compared to adulterant fats have been used as an index for the detection of
foreign fats in milk fat.

3.4.1 Butyric Acid

Butyric acid is found only in milk fat, but not in adulterant fats. Any decrease in
butyric acid content of milk fat below 9.6 mole percent would indicate adulteration with
foreign fat.

3.4.2 Iso-Valeric Acid

The presence of iso-valeric acid in dolphin oil has been used as the basis for its
detection in milk fat using ascending paper chromatography.

3.4.3 Cyclopropenoic Acids

Fatty acids containing cyclopropene ring, viz., malvalic (C
18:1
) and sterculic (C
19:1
)
acids which are altogether absent in milk fat, but are characteristic of cottonseed oil have
been used as a tool for the detection of cottonseed oil in milk fat and also to distinguish
cotton tract ghee from normal ghee using Halphen test or methylene blue reduction test
(Singhal, 1980).

4.0 METHODS BASED ON SPECIFIC CONSTITUENTS OF FATS

4.1 Baudouin Test

Addition of 5 percent sesame oil ( as a tracer component ) to vanaspati is compulsory
as a marker for detecting the adulteration of latter in ghee by Baudouin test. The method is
based on the development of a permanent crimson colour due to the reaction between furfural
and sesamol formed by the hydrolysis of sesamolin (present in sesame oil) in the presence of
concentrated HCl.

4.2 Phytosterol Acetate Test

As mentioned earlier, the melting point of cholesteryl acetate (114-115C) is lower
than that of phytosteryl acetates (125-137C). Melting point of steryl acetates > 117C
indicates the adulteration of ghee with vegetable oils ( Rangappa and Achaya, 1974).
Halphen Test: This test is based on the development of a crimson colour due to the reaction
between cyclopropenoic acids (constituents of cottonseed oil) and Halphen reagents (1%
sulphur solution in CS
2
+ equal volume of iso-amyl alcohol) after incubation for an hour in a
boiling bath of saturated sodium chloride solution. This test finds its application for
differentiating the cotton tract ghee from normal ghee (Singhal, 1980) as well as for the
detection of cottonseed oil in milk fat.

4.3 Methylene Blue Reduction Test

This test is also based on the cyclopropenoic fatty acids present in cottonseed oil
which instantaneously reduce the methylene blue dye. Reduction of dye indicates either the
presence of cottonseed oil in milk fat or ghee from cotton tract area. Normal ghee will not
reduce methylene blue (Singhal, 1980).
190
4.5 Hydroxamic Acid Test

It is a colorimetric test which is used to distinguish between butterfat and other fats
(Nelson, 1954) based on the fact that fats derived from milk will form water soluble
hydroxamic acid iron complexes. These complexes appear as a pink to purple colour in
water layer. The hydroxamic acid-iron complexes formed from fatty acid esters of plant fats
except coconut oil and those of animal fats are insoluble in water and do not contribute a
distinctive pink to purple colour to the water layer.

5.0 CONCLUSION

From the above review, it is clear that the detection of foreign fats in milk fat is a very
complex phenomenon. Although several methods based on the physico-chemical
characteristics of oils and fats have been developed to detect the various types of adulterant
fats such as animal body fats and vegetable oils in milk fat, but most of the methods are quite
tedious, time consuming and have one or the other limitation. Literature also reveals that pig
body fat (lard) among the animal body fats, and coconut and palm oils among the vegetable
oils, pose lot of difficulties owing to their resemblance with milk fat in many respects. The
detection methods available till date are mainly based on the physico-chemical constants,
fatty acid profile, sterol analysis, partial solidification behaviour, etc. But, most of these
methods fail when a mixture of body fats and vegetable oils and fats is added to milk fat.
However, fractionation approach for enriching the solid fraction with body fats and
hydrogenated fats, and liquid fraction with vegetable oils is expected to hold a good potential
to be exploited for solving the problem of adulteration.

6.0 REFERENCES

Bhalerao, V.R. and Kummerow, F.A. 1956. Modification of the refractive index method for the detection of
foreign fats in dairy products. J. Dairy Sci., 39(7): 947-955.
Bhide, P.T. and Kane, J.G. 1952. Critical temperatures of dissolution of ghee and hydrogenated oils (vanaspati).
Indian J. Dairy Sci., 5(4): 183.
Fox, P.F. and McSweeney, P.L.H. 1998. Dairy Chemistry and Biochemistry. Blackie Academic and
Professional, London.
Gunstone, F.D., Harwood, J.L. and Padley, F.B. 1994. The lipid handbook, 2nd Edn., Chapman & Hall,
Chemical Database.
International Dairy Federation 1966. Detection of vegetable fat in milk fat by thin layer chromatography of
steryl acetates. FIL-IDF, 38
IS : 3508. 1966. Methods of sampling and test for ghee (bufferfat). Indian Standards Institution, Manak
Bhavan, New Delhi.
Jha, J.S. 1981. Spectrophotometric studies of Cheuri (Madhuca butyracea) fat and ghee mixtures. J. Amer. Oil.
Chem. Soc., 58: 843-845.
Kirk, R.S. and Sawyer, R. 1999. Pearson's composition and analysis of foods. Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
Kuksis, A. and McCarthy, M.J. 1964. Triglyceride gas chromatography as a means of detecting butterfat
adulteration. J. Amer. Oil Chemists Soc., 41: 17-19.
Lal, D., Seth, R., Arora, K.L. and Ram, J. 1998. Detection of vegetable oils in milk. Indian Dairyman, 50(7):
17-18.
Nelson, W.L. 1954. A rapid test for distinguishing between butterfat and fats from plant and other animal
sources. Food Technology, 8: 385-386.
Panda, D. and Bindal, M.P. 1997. Detection of adulteration in ghee with vegetable oils using GLC based on a
marker fatty acid. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 50(2): 129-135.
Panda, D. and Bindal, M.P. 1998a. Detection of adulteration in ghee with animal body fats and vegetable oils
using opacity test. J. Dairying, Foods & Home Sci., 17(1): 31-36.
Panda, D. and Bindal, M.P. 1998b. Detection of adulteration in ghee with animal body fats and vegetable oils
using crystallization test. Indian Dairyman., 50(9): 13-16.
191
Precht, D. 1992. Detection of foreign fat in milk fat. 1. Quantitative detection of triacyl-glycerol formulae.
Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und-Forschung, 194: 1-8.
Ramamurthy, M.K., Narayanan, K.M., Bhalerao, V.R. and Dastur, N.N. 1967. A TLC method for detection of
adulteration of ghee with vegetable fats. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 20(1): 11.
Rangappa, K.S. and Achaya, K.T. 1974. Indian Dairy Products. Asia Publishing House, Mysore.
Sato, T., Kawano, S. and Iwamoto, M. 1990. Detection of foreign fat adulteration of milk fat by near infra-red
spectroscopic method. J. Dairy Sci., 73: 3408-3413.
Sharma, R. and Singhal, O.P. 1995. Physico-chemical constants of ghee prepared from milk adulterated with
foreign fat. Indian J. Dairy Sci. & Bio. Sci., 6: 51-53.
Sharma, R. and Singhal, O.P. 1996. Fatty acid composition, Bomer value and opacity profile of ghee prepared
from milk adulterated with foreign fats. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 49(1): 62-67.
Sharma, S.K. 1989. Studies on unsaponifiable matter of ghee (clarified butterfat) and animal body fats with a
view to detect adulteration. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed
University), Karnal, India.
Singhal, O.P. 1980. Adulterants and methods for detection. Indian Dairyman, 32: 771-774.
Singhal, O.P. 1987. Detection of adulteration in butterfat. NDRI Annual Report, pp.64-65
Winton, A.L. and Winton, K.B. 1999. Techniques of food analysis. Allied Scientific Publishers, Bikaner.

MEDICINAL VALUE OF GHEE



Dr. S. K. Kanawjia
Principal scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ghee known as Ghritam, Havish, Sarpish, rognezand, samn, maslea and Ajya, was
produced in ancient India as early as 1500 B.C. The rigveda, which is the oldest collection of
Hindu hymes, contains numerous references on Ghee(Achaya, 1997), showing its
importance in Indian diet. In the Middle East also similar type of products were being made
since equally ancient times (Sserunjogi, 1998). Ghee is also marketed in Australia, Armenia,
many African and Asian countries, Belgium, The Netherlands, New Zealand, UK and
USA.There exists a separate therapy called, GOVAIDAK", which uses several types of
medicated ghee for the treatment of various diseases, thus elucidating the medicinal
properties of ghee(Adhvaryu, 1994).

According to PFA rules (1976), ghee is the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk
or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no colouring matter is added. In India,
mainly cow and buffalo milk is used for ghee production. Following Table (1) shows the
major and minor constituents of cow and buffalo milk ghee.

Growing consumer consciousness over the ill effects of food consumption has led to
development of Specialty food products. Now a days people dont want only fat, protein and
carbohydrates but prefer to have some components in food which would increase consumer
longevity. Producing and marketing nutraceuticals and functional foods has become a big
business. Nutraceutical is any substance that is a food or a part of a food that provides
medical or health benefits including prevention and treatment of disease (DeFelice, 1995).

Consumption of fat rich products is decreasing steadily worldwide, mainly due to
various simplistic nutrition messages showing association of fat intake with some diseases
like cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Contrarily, consumption of ghee, a product with
almost 100% fat, has beneficial effects on health as revealed by many workers. As such milk
fat contributes unique characteristics to the appearance, texture, flavour and satiability of
dairy foods and is a source of energy, essential fatty acids, fat soluble vitamins, and several
other potential health promoting components. Also ghee finds a valuable place in treatment of
various diseases in Indian medicine.

2.0 GHEE AS A FOOD

Fats in general are storehouse of energy in body and form integral parts of all body
cells. The fat layer beneath the skin helps in maintaining the body temperature. Delicate
internal organs and some bony projections are protected against chance injury by thick
cushioning of fatty tissues, apart from these, consumption of ghee as a food provides certain
health benefits as it contains anticarciniges, antiatherogens and vitamins.
193

In Indian diet ghee is considered as superior food fat over other fats and is preferred
for cooking and other food preparations. The health benefits from ghee can be fundamentally
categorized as, those that are obtained from consuming ghee as a food and those that are
obtained by using ghee as a medicine.

Ghee is a valuable source of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. They perform
various physiological functions in the body. Their levels in ghee varies with species, storage
conditions and manufacturing method. Loss of these nutrients can be effectively controlled
by certain environmental factors during storage, and the intensity of heat treatment that
accelerates the overall process of oxidation. Dietary modifications can also increase the
vitamin A and E content in ghee as they are of mainly dietary origin. However average ghee
consumption by Indians provides only vitamin E, in sufficient quantity and rest of the fat
soluble vitamins are mainly obtained from the fat sources other than milk fat.

Ghee is observed to improve the growth rate and digestibility up on consumption, it is
a rapid source of energy as compare to other vegetable oils. When fat is consumed in the
form of ghee, the lower chain fatty acids are quickly absorbed and metabolized. Studies have
suggested that peak absorption of ghee occurs rapidly than other vegetable fats. Ghee also
improves digestibility of other food components. Kehar et al., (1956) reported improvement
of digestibility of protein by 36% and biological value by 62% when cow milk ghee was
added to a diet sub optimal for vitamin A. Milk fat in general was found to enhance ones
digestion efficiency, chronic sufferers from digestive disorders could eat meals baked or
cooked in a certain amount of butter fat with out pain, but not of other fats. Mineral
absorption from diet increases with ghee consumption. Studies have shown that cow milk
ghee increases the retention of calcium up to 45% and phosphorus up to 57%.

3.0 GHEE AS A MEDICINE

Ghee has been ascribed a very important place as a medicine in Indian medicine,
Ayurveda. It is used in various disorders both externally as well a internally. Ayurveda has
identified ghee as a Madhura Rasa i.e., can be used from birth and in some parts of India
ghee and honey mixture is given to newborn babies (Pandya, 1996). Classical texts of
Ayurveda have classified medicinal properties of different ghee based up on species,
manufacturing method and storage period.

3.1 Based on Species

Although for majority of the medicinal uses cow milk ghee is preferred, Ayurvedic
texts have described eight-mammalian ghee useful for medication purposes viz. cow, buffalo,
goat, sheep, camel , elephant, mare and human.

Cow milk Ghee is good for eyes, heavy in digestion and strength giving. It increases
virility, and appetite. It also increases the intelligence capabilities and radinance.
Buffalo milk Ghee is heavy in digestion and proves remedial in haemoptysis.
Goat milk Ghee is appetizing, and light in digestion. It is also eye invigorating and
strength increasing.
Camel milk Ghee is anti toxic, appetizing and pungent in digestion. It is helpful in
treatment of oedema, worms, cutaneous infections, abdominal glands, and ascites.
Ewe milk Ghee is light in digestion and beneficial in rigour, phthisis.
194
Mare milk Ghee is light in digestion, anueretic and astringent in taste.
Elephant Ghee is astringent in taste, and brings about a suppression of stool and
urine. It is helpful in treatment of poisoning, worms, and cutaneous affections.
Human milk Ghee is light in digestion, antitoxic, appetizing and helpful in treatment
of eye diseases.
(Bhisagratna, 1963)

3.2 Based on Method of Production

The major difference between different methods is the fermentation process, in some
method ghee is prepared from fermented milk or cream whereas some methods prefers ghee
production from fresh milk.

This difference in methods of production may change the levels of micronutrients in
ghee. Fermentation may cause change in the activity of a particular component in food
system and that may lead to change in health benefits of ghee prepared by different methods.
According to Osada et al., (1994) activity of sphingomyelin obtained from youghurt, a
fermented milk product, is 14 times better than shpingomyelin from other sources. It induces
secretion of a hormone interferon- 14 times more, this hormone plays a vital role in
secretion of antiviral proteins therefore, sphingomyelin from fermented milk play a vital role
in antiviral therapy. Similarly ghee prepared from fermented and unfermented milk may act
differently as far as health point of view is concerned. Ayurveda have differentiated
medicinal properties of ghee made from fresh milk and fermented milk.

Sweet milk Ghee is cool, prevents diarrhea, beneficial in eye diseases and eliminates
blood impurities.
Fermented milk Ghee is an appetizer, beneficial to eyes, provides strength, virility
and eliminates some fevers. (Adhvaryu.1994)

Although in ayurvedic texts nothing is mentioned about fermentation type i.e.
controlled or uncontrolled. Also for most of the medicines cow milk ghee is preferred so, this
classification might have been made essentially for cow milk ghee.

3.3 Based on Storage Period

Old ghee is considered immensely superior for external applications in Aryurvedic
treatments; it has been used in the treatment of variety of skin diseases. However, for general
dietary purposes fresh ghee is recommended.


The various classes of ghee depending upon their storage period are:

Puran Ghee is one year old Ghee and used in treatment of coma, U.T.I, ear problems, eye
diseases and in healing of wounds.
Kumbha Ghee is 11 to 100 years old Ghee and used in treatment of fever, cough, epileptic
fits and skin diseases.
Maha Ghee is the ghee stored for more than 100 years and generally used for wound healing
and massage.
(Pandya, 1996)

195
4.0 MEDICATED GHEE

There are about 55-60 medicated ghee reported in ayurvedic literature and they are
used for the treatment of various diseases (Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia, 1963). Medicated ghee
is always prepared with selective forfication with herbs, so as to acquire all the required fat-
soluble therapeutical components of the herbs (Saxena, 1996). Different medicated ghee with
their main application is listed in the Table (2).

4.1 Method for Preparation of Medicated Ghee

Classical texts of ayurveda have described different treatment for the manufacturing
of different medicated ghee, depending up on the herbs used and its physical form i.e
powder, paste, or liquid. Prasher(1999) has reviewed different methods of preparations and
suitability of different ghee with specific process. However, a generalized method of
preparation is described in detail in sharangdhar samhita, a classical ayurvedic text. The
whole process is summarized in the below given chart.
HERBS
1 PART
GHEE
4 PARTS
LIQUID
16 PARTS
BOILING
WATER EVAPORATION
REQUIRED CONSISTENCY
COOLING & STORAGE
FILTERATION

In this process medicated ghee is prepared by mixing one part of herbs with 4 parts of
ghee and 16 parts of liquid (water, milk or extract of herb), and boiled till all water
evaporated from the mixture. Once the boiling is completed, ghee is clarified, cooled to room
temperature, and stored in appropriate containers.

4.2 Methods of Application

Medicated ghee is used for various external and internal applications.
- External applications
* Netratarpan: submerging eye in medicated ghee.
* Massage
* Applied in the form of paste.
- Internal applications
* Used in panchkarma (an ayurvedic treatment)
* Oral ingestion.

4.2.1 External applications

For external applications generally aged ghee, which is stored for more than a year is
used, where as in Netratarpan (eye submerging) generally fresh ghee is recommended. In this
treatment a layer of blackgram flour is made around eyes and medicated ghee is filled into it
196
and allowed for 25-30 minutes, it improves eyesight and used in treatment of various eye
diseases. Some types of medicated ghee are also applied in the form of paste to cure various
skin diseases. Shatdhaut ghrit a medicated ghee made by washing ghee for 100 times with
water is used in treatment of swelling, pimples and relieves burns and related pains
(Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia, 1963).

4.2.2 Internal applications

A) Panchakarma is done to remove toxic materials from the body. Medicated ghee is used
in following pachkarma treatments.
- Forced vomiting
- Medical enema
- Nasal administration of drugs.

These procedures are always preceded with some specialized treatments intended to
prepare the body for panchkarma treatment, they are known as poorvakarma. Ghee is used
in one of them, oleation, in which ghee is given to the patient in increasing quantities up to
300gm/day for a specific period or till the patient shows characteristics required for a
particular Panchkarma process (Dave et al., 1991)

Forced vomiting is intended to clean the upper gut by oral ingestion of emetic drugs.
It is very much helpful in the case of food poisoning or other type of poisoning. For the
treatment of food poisoning 150-200 gm of ghee is mixed with hot milk and then given to the
patient, this causes a severe spell of vomiting and removes out the poison from the body
(Pandya, 1996). It is also used in the treatment of bronchial asthma.
Medical enema is helpful in treatment of G.I disorders. It is a process in which
medicines are directly introduced to the rectum; the effectiveness of this method is more as
therapeutical components directly enters the blood without passing through liver.
Nasal administration is essential for ayurvedic treatment of almost all ailments
above the neck. It is of three types purgative, nourishing and palliative. Appropriate type is
selected according to diseases and its acuteness (Dave et al., 1991).

B) Oral Ingestion of medicated ghee is being used in treatment of many diseases in
Ayurveda and is also found handy in treating diseases like asthama, ulcer, cardiac and skin
diseases. (Table-3)

Table 3. Some medicated ghee and herb(s) used in treatment of diseases by oral
ingestion method.

Medicated
ghee(ghrit)
Herb(s) used Diseases
Arjuna ghrit
Vasa ghrit
Yastimadhu ghrit
Panchtikta ghrit

Terminalia arjuna
Adhatoda vasica
Glycrrhizza glabra
Tinospora cordifolia,,
Azadirechta indica,
Salanum xanthocarpum
Heart diseases
Asthma
Ulcers
Skin diseases

Source: Prasher, 1999; Joshi, 1998; Barvaliya, 2001; Adhvaryu, 1994.
197
HPTLC studies have shown the presence of vasicinone, an antiasthamine agent in
vasa (ghrit) ghee prepared with herb Adhatoda vasica for treating asthama. Clinical studies
showed marked improvement in 92.59% cases in 21 days. Also had an additional benefit in
reducing serum cholesterol level by 30.16% (Prasher et al., 1999). Antiatherogenic effect of
ghee is well established. Along with antioxidant effects of herb due to phenolic compounds
and flavonoids, medicated ghee is used in treatment of heart diseases (Arjuna ghrit). In most
of treatments, so far it is not well established whether ghee or components of ghee have the
disease curing ability or the herb extracts. One such study by Joshi et al., 1998, revealed that
effect of herbs and herb extract was high when used along with ghee as compared to its usage
in powder or tablet form.

Well this could put us in a situation to explore the components of ghee responsible for
such results. Pharmaco clinical studies showed that Panchtikta ghee (ghrit) prepared with
different methods has different effect on various therapeutic aspects (Barvaliya et al., 2001).
A thorough study on the components and properties of ghee and effect of different processing
conditions used in medication is on the anvil. This could lead us to diversify the usage of
ghee in a well-organized commercial way.

5.0 CONCLUSION

Value addition has been the main feature in modern food technology. Evolution of
food products not just as a nutrient source but also which benefits an individual from dietary
risks is underway and many such products under functional foods, health foods, medical
foods do exist in market. Various types of special ghee like ginger ghee, garlic ghee are
available in the market for specific uses. Of course, they are priced very high (up to Rs.1000-
1200 /kg). Also medicated ghee is available, but process specifications are not well defined.
Every pharmaceutical firm has its own different process treatment parameters for
manufacturing such products. Very few studies have been conducted in assertaining the exact
components, their concentrations in these kinds of ghee, which are responsible for beneficial
effects. It has been already discussed that processing parameters do affect the functional
quality of the product. But the exact nature is yet to be revealed. Many of the properties like
anticarcinogenic, antiatherogenic etc. are surely exhibited by the components of ghee, their
mechanisms need thorough research. In many formulations, it is stated that herbs that are
used have more influence when formulated along with ghee. The reasons are to be explored
and established.
198
Table 1. The major and Minor constituents of cow and buffalo milk ghee

Constituent Buffalo Cow
Saponifiable constituents

Tryglycerides*
Short chain (%)
Long chain (%)
Trisaturated (%)
High melting (%)

Partial glycerides*
Diglycerides (%)
Monoglycerides (%)
Phospholipids (mg %)
Unsaponifiable constituents
Total cholesterol (mg %)
Lanosterol (mg %)
Lutein (g/g)
Squalene (g/g)
Carotene (g/g)
Vitamin A (g/g)
Vitamin E (g/g)
Ubiquinone (g/g)
Flavour components
Total carbonyls (M/g)
Volatile carbonyls (M/g)
Head space carbonyls (M/g)
(Gas stripped carbonyls)



45.3
54.7
40.7
8.7


4.5
0.6

42.5


275.0
8.27
3.1
62.4
0.0
9.5
26.4
6.5


8.64
0.26
0.027




37.6
62.4
39.0
4.9


4.3
0.7

38.0


330.0
9.32
4.2
59.2
7.2
9.2
30.5
5.0


7.2
0.33
0.035
Source: Sharma, 1981.
199

Table 2. Different medicated ghee used in ayurvedic treatments

Medicated ghee(ghrit) Treatment Medicated ghee(ghrit) Treatment
Arjuna ghirt
Anantadhya ghrit
Amruta ghrit
Amrutadi ghrit
Amrutprash ghrit
Asta mangal ghrit
Ashok ghrit
Ashwagandha ghrit
Kalyan ghrit
Indukant ghrit
Kamdev ghrit
Kumar kalyan ghrit
Kulthadya ghrit
Kushadhya ghrit
Kantakari ghrit
Chavyadi ghrit
Changeri ghrit
Chitrak ghrit
Jirkadhya ghrit
Tikta ghrit
Trifla ghrit
Dashmulshatpal ghrit
Dadimadi ghrit
Durvadya ghrit

Heart diseases
Syphilis
Leprosy
Leprosy
Anti-ageing
Child diseases
Leucorrhoea
G.I. disorders
Madness
G.I. disorders
Leprosy
Child diseases
Stone
Stone
Cough
Piles
Immunopotentiation
Spleen&Liverdisorders
Improves digestion
Leucoderma
Eye diseases
Cough
Anemia
Leprosy
Dhanyak ghrit
Dhanvantar ghrit
Narach ghrit
Patoladhya ghrit
Palanbhedi ghrit
Panchcoal ghrit
Panchgavya ghrit
Panchtikta ghrit
Phal ghrit
Bindu ghrit
Bhrami ghrit
Shatavari ghrit
Shatavari ghrit
Manha shiladi ghrit
Mahakalyanak ghrit
Maha badrick ghrit
Maha chaitas ghrit
Maha trifla ghrit
Rohtik ghrit
Varunadi ghrit
Som ghrit
Chagladhya ghrit
Yastimadhu ghrit
Vasa ghrit
U.T.I.
Diabetes
Ascites
Eye diseases
Piles
G.I. disorders
Hysteria
Psoriasis
Female disorders
Digestive disorders
Hysteria
Female disorders
Ulcer
Asthma
Madness
Leucoderma
Hysteria
Eye diseases
Spleen&liver Disorders
Piles
Infertility
Tuberculosis
Ulcers
Asthma

Source: Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia, 1963
200

Table 4. The major and Minor constituents of cow and buffalo milk ghee

Constituent Buffalo Cow
Saponifiable constituents

Tryglycerides*
Short chain (%)
Long chain (%)
Trisaturated (%)
High melting (%)

Partial glycerides*
Diglycerides (%)
Monoglycerides (%)

Phospholipids (mg %)
Unsaponifiable constituents
Total cholesterol (mg %)
Lanosterol (mg %)
Lutein (g/g)
Squalene (g/g)
Carotene (g/g)
Vitamin A (g/g)
Vitamin E (g/g)
Ubiquinone (g/g)
Flavour components
Total carbonyls (M/g)
Volatile carbonyls (M/g)
Head space carbonyls (M/g)
(Gas stripped carbonyls)




45.3
54.7
40.7
8.7


4.5
0.6


42.5



275.0

8.27

3.1

62.4

0.0

9.5

26.4

6.5


8.64

0.26

0.027




37.6
62.4
39.0
4.9


4.3
0.7


38.0



330.0

9.32

4.2

59.2

7.2

9.2

30.5

5.0


7.2

0.33

0.035
Source: Sharma, 1981.



201

6.0 REFERENCES
Achaya, K.T.(1997). Ghee, Vanaspati and special fats in India. In Lipid Technologies and Applications, eds.
F.D. Gunstone and F.B. Padley, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. 369-90.
Adhvaryu, R.P. (1994). Sarangdhar Samhita: Ghrit and Taila. Sahitya Samkul, Surat, India.
Barvaliya, R. (2001). A comparative pharmaco-clinal study of Panchtikta Ghrita prepared by different methods
in Ekakustha (Psoriasis). M.D Thesis, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar, India.
Bhishagratna, K. (1963). Susruta samhita(Eng. Translation) Vol-I pp. , Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Varanasi,
India.
Dave, G.K., Dave, R.H., and Dave, N.G.(1991). Panchakarma Kalpana. Sarswati Pustak Bhandar, Ahemdabad,
India.
DeFelice, S.L., (1995). The nutritional revolution: its impact on food industry R&D Trends. Food Sci. Technol.
6, 59-61.
Joshi, S. (1998). A comparative pharmaco-clinical study of Churna, Ghrita, and Sharkara of Yastimadhu in
Parinama Shoola with special reference to Duodenal Ulcer. M.D Thesis, Gujarat Ayurved University,
Jamnagar, India.
Kehar, N.D., Krishnan, T.S. and Chanda, R.(1956). Studies on fats, oils and vanaspati. Manager of publications,
Vet. Res. Inst., Izatnagar, India.85-90.
Osada, K., Naigira, K., Tachibana, H., Shirahata, S. and Murakami, H. (1994). Enhancement of interferon-
production with sphingomyelin from fermented milk. Biotherapy. 7,115-23.
Pandya, T.N.(1996). Ghrit. Ayu Research Jr., 17(9),1-4.
Parodi, P.W. (1994). Conjugated linoleic acid: an anticarcinogenic fatty acid present in milk fat. Aust. J. Dairy
Technol. 49(2):93-97.
Parodi, P.W. (1996). Milk fat components -- possible chemopreventive agents for cancer and other diseases.
Australian J. Dairy Technol. 51:24-32.
Parodi, P.W. (1999). Symposium: A Bold New Look at Milk Fat. J. of Dairy Science 82:1339-1349.
Prasher, R. (1999). Standardization of Vasa Ghrita and its extract form and their comparative pharmaco-clinical
study with special reference to Swasa Roga (Asthma). M.D Thesis, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,
India.
Saxena, R.B., and Daswani, M.T. (1996). Study of Dairy Ghrita. Ayu Research Jr., 17(9),8-10.
Sserunjogi, M.L., Abramsen, R.K., Narvhus, J. (1998). Areview paper: Current knowledge of ghee and related
products. International dairy journal. 8(8), 677-88.
Zaveri,K.(2000). Hridayrog, Bhansali Trust, Surat, India.
NUTRITIONAL ATTRIBUTES OF MILK FAT




Dr. Vinod K. Kansal
Principal scientist
Animal Biochemistry Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the past years, milk fat has received adverse publicity in terms of its effect on the
blood cholesterol level of the consumers. Dairy products may make an appreciable
contribution to saturated fat intake; for this reason restricted use of full cream milk is usually
included in the physicians dietary recommendation. A 250 ml of cow milk contains 9-10 g of
fat and an equal amount of buffalo milk contains 15-22 g fat. Principal of fatty acids of milk
are palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid, while the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) is very low. However, the nutritional and metabolic effects of milk fat cannot be
judged solely on the basis of its fatty acid components. Other important considerations that
should be born in mind are: the proportion of total calorie derived from milk fat, the form in
which the milk fat is consumed, i.e., whether the fat is consumed pure or along with non-fat
portion of milk, digestibility and other dietary value of milk fat, and habitual diet with which
it is consumed (composition of invisible fat of foods and other dietary factors which alter
lipid metabolism, atherogenesis and thermobosis).

2.0 REQUIREMENTS, FUNCTION AND METABOLISM OF FAT

2.1 A Brief Overview

Fat is a concentrated form of energy in the diet. It is particularly useful for infants
and children to meet their energy requirement by increasing the energy density and
decreasing bulk of the diet. It is a vehicle for fat soluble vitamins and provide essential fatty
acids (EFA) namely linoleic and alpha linoleic acid. Dietary fat should provide 15% of total
energy (40% in case of infants) and the quality should be such that 20% of its energy should
be furnished by EFA. The fat present in cereals, pulses and vegetables (invisible fat)
provides almost 7% energy, of which 28-29% is furnished from EFA. The minimum visible
fat (fat derived from oils, ghee, butter and vanaspati) requirement is, therefore, should be 20
g/person/day. Fat consumption in excess of normal requirement results in excess calorie
intake, and is harmful and , infact, a risk factor for obesity, cardiovascular diseases and other
associated complications. High fat/calorie intake raises blood lipids, and promotes
atherogenesis and thermobogenesis, therefore, the upper safe limit of fat intake is that no
more than 25-30% of total calories by derived from fat.

The types and composition of fatty acids in dietary fat are also important in human
health. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) and mono-unsaturated fatty acids are mainly oxidized for
cellular energy need and the excess is stored in the body. Linoleic acid is converted to long-
chain PUFA which are integral components of cell membranes and essential for membrane
functions (fluidity, receptor activity and membrane bound enzymes).


203
The lipids in plasma are circulated in combination with proteins called lipoproteins,
and these are chylomicrones, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins
(LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Dietary lipids are largely carried by
chylomicrones. VLDL transport lipids that are synthesized in the body. LDL carry
cholesterol from the liver to various peripheral tissues including blood vessels. The plasma
levels of LDL is strongly correlated with atherogenesis. Since HDL scavenge excess
cholesterol from the tissues to liver for degradation, it is considered a protective molecule.

2.2 Composition of Milk Fat

Milk fat is composed of mainly triacylglycerols (96-99%) with a small amount of
diacylglycerols (0.3-1.0%), phospholipids (0.1-0.3%), cholesterol (0.2-0.4%), free fatty acids
(0.1-0.4%) and traces of monoacylglycerols and others. The content of short chain fatty acids
(up to C8) in milk is relatively small. The major fatty acids in milk fat are palmitic acid (24-
28%), oleic acid (23-28%), myristic acid (13-14%) and stearic acid (11-12%). PUFA that
occur in milk fat only at about 1% level are linolenic and linoleic acid. Milk fat also contains
lactones which contribute to the flavour of milk fat to some extent. The compounds
responsible for the typical aroma of milk fat are acetoin, diacetyl, aldehydes, ketones,
lactones, alcohols, esters, dimethyl sulphide and free volatile fatty acids.

Milk fat is a good source of vitamin A. The average total vitamin A content in cows
milk fat is 2000 I.U. per 100 g and in buffalos milk fat 900 I.U. per 100 g. Both vitamin A
and carotene contribute to the total vitamin A activity in milk fat. The carotene contributes on
an average of about 30% of it in cows milk fat. Buffalos milk fat contains either no
carotene or only traces of it. Vitamin D content varies 20-60 I.U. per 100 g in cows milk fat.
The average vitamin E content varies from 2.6 mg per 100 g in buffalos milk fat to 3.5 mg
per 100 g in cows milk fat. About 95% of the vitamin E consists of alpha-tocopherol, which
has the highest vitamin E activity, while the remainder consists of gamma-tocopherol.

2.3 Digestibility of Milk Fat

Milk fat is most easily digestible of the various fats and oils. The reason for the good
digestibility of milk fat are to be found in the state of dispersion of milk fat globules and its
fatty acid composition. Milk fat globule particles upto the size of 100 m in diameter can
pass through directly into the lymphatic ducts. It seems that even large particles are able to
penetrate the intestinal epithelium probably chiefly at the tips of the villi. On the other hand,
other dietary fats have to be at least partially emulsified in the small intestine by the bile,
pancreatic enzymes and intestinal lipases before they can pass through the intestinal wall,
either in the form of a fine emulsion or, mainly, in the form of degradation products. When
milk fat emulsion is broken and dehydrated in the form of butter oil or ghee then, enzymatic
breakdown takes place in the lumen and fine dispersion of a mixture of triacyglycerols,
diacylglycerols and monoacylglycerols and free fatty acids is formed before they are
absorbed by the mucosa.

Milk fat has relatively high content of short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids
which are more easily absorbed than the long-chain ones. The degree of digestibility of milk
fat is 99%, while that of natural palm oil is 91%. The short-chain fatty acid are taken up
directly by the blood of portal vein in the form of free fatty acids (FFA), while long-chain
fatty acids first form chylomicrones and then reach the blood circulation via the lymph
vessels. The digestibility of fat is also affected by the position of the individual fatty acids in

204
the triacylglycerols (TG) because lipase attacks first of all, the other fatty acids, producing
1,2 diacyglycerols (DG) followed by 2-mono acylglycerols (MG). The fat is absorbed in the
form of MG and FFA. In milk TG, short chain fatty acids chiefly butyric acid and caproic
acid are found in the outer position and the long chain fatty acids occupy position 2. The TG
containing short chain fatty acids are hydrolysed more rapidly by lipase than TG containing
long chain fatty acids. It is interesting to note that milk lipase is specific for hydroxy position
1 and 3 in the milk TG. Butyric acid is uniformly distributed in milk fat, and it is thought that
a molecule of TG always contains only one molecule of butyric acid, which make TG more
rapidly attacked by lipase.

2.4 Dietary Value/Nutritional Benefits of Milk Fat

Because milk fat is easily digested and absorbed, it puts relatively little strain on the
body. It is, therefore, a valuable dietary constituent in diseases of stomach, intestinal tract,
liver, kidney as well as gall bladder and disorders of fat digestion.

Short chain and medium chain fatty acids with 4-12 carbon atoms, which occur in a
relatively high concentration in milk fat, are reported to have antimicrobial activity. Gram-
negative organisms are said to be inhibited more by short chain fatty acids than by long chain
ones. A fungicidal and bactericidal effect of short chain and medium chain fatty acids against
certain acid-resistant bacteria and moulds has been reported (Gurr, 1981). The short chain
fatty acids in milk fat also promote the growth of Lactobacillus bifidum in the intestine.

Milk drinking is sometimes recommended as protection against the effects of
ulceration. The protective effect of milk phospholipids on the gastric mucosa of rats has been
described. This concept has been extended to human gut (Kivinen et al., 1992).

Fat in general is regarded as a cancer risk factor, although not necessary for all types
of cancers. However, a specific fatty acid (a cis-trans isomer of linoleic acid) has been
identified in milk, which appears to be an inhibitor of cancerous growth in colon and
mammary gland. A recent epideminlogical study found a protective effect of cheese
consumption against lung cancer and speculated that this fatty acid plays a role.

The fat content of mothers milk represents more than 50% of the energy which
satisfies the bodys high energy requirements. In baby feeding a sufficient fat supply is
essential for thriving babies, a rosy and smooth skin, a good subcutaneous fat deposit as well
as resistance to bacterial infections.

In infants, the fat is absorbed into the circulation as particles via the lympthatic
system, since the glands responsible for the digestion of fat are not fully developed. The fat
from mothers milk is more easily absorbed than that of cows milk. Mothers milk also
contain lipase which play an important role in digestion of fat. The mothers milk lipase is
highly active and is stimulated by bile salts.

Milk fat has a relatively low content of essential fatty acids (EFA). It must not be
concluded, however, that milk fat should therefore be replaced with another fat with a higher
linoleic acid content in order to prevent deficiencies. The EFA requirement is only 30% of
total calories. It can be assumed that EFA are available in required amounts in normal diet,
since two-third of EFA requirement is met from invisible fat present in dietary cereals, pulses
and vegetables. Mothers milk fat has relatively higher EFA content than cows or buffalos

205
milk fat. The babies fed purely on cows milk or buffalos milk do not receive sufficient
amounts of EFA, even then the risk of a deficiency of linoleic acid is not likely, provided that
this diet is not given for too long. The deficiency of EFA is manifested as histological
changes of skin, an infantile eczema and low growth rate.

Finally, no food is nutritious if it is not eaten and an important role of fat, and milk
fat in particular, is to enhance the enjoyment of food.

3.0 MILK FAT AND CORONARY HEAT DISEASES (CHD)

The milk fat has often implicated in CHD because of its cholesterol content and
composition of its fatty acids. The proceeding discussion, however, will show that it is not
correct to judge the implication of milk fat on cholesterol metabolism and development of
arteriosclerosis solely on the basis of its fatty acids and cholesterol content.

The cholesterol content of milk fat is relatively low. The average cholesterol content
of cows and buffalos milk is 2.8 and 1.9 mg/g fat respectively. The body itself synthesizes
cholesterol in higher amounts than what is absorbed from the diet. Cholesterol is chiefly
formed in the liver from acetyl CoA; 1-4 g of cholesterol is synthesized daily, 10-14 g is
constantly present in the blood and the total amount in the body is 100-150 g.

A cholesterol rich diet has often been used to produce hypercholesterolaemia and
arteriosclerosis in experimental animals. But these results cannot be transferred to humans
because the cholesterol metabolism of various experimental animals is quite different from
that of humans and because the experimental conditions have often been extreme. The
experimental animals have low serum cholesterol levels and absorbs much more of the
cholesterol supplied by the feed than humans. Humans absorb 10-14% of dietary cholesterol,
while the corresponding values for rats were 50-80%, for monkeys and dogs 40-75% and for
rabbits up to 90%. When based on body weight basis, the cholesterol absorption capacity of
humans is only 1% of that of the animals mentioned above.

According to lipid hypothesis, saturated fatty acids (SFA) increase serum cholesterol
levels and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) decrease it. Since hypercholesterolaemia is
thought to be related to the incidences of arteriosclerosis and CHD, the demand is often made
that dietary fat having low proportions of PUFA be replaced by oils which are rich in PUFA.
The idea that excess of SFA and/or cholesterol were associated with development of CHD
arose from epidemiological association between high total fat intake, high animal fat intake,
high serum cholesterol, and incidences in several countries (Enselme, 1969). The conclusion
made from such empirical studies, however, have been criticized by many researchers
(Renner, 1983) in that the population that consumed fat with higher PUFA/SFA ratio also
consumed less calories from sugars and total fat. In fact, a diet containing optimum amount
of calories and essential constituents, wherein the type of dietary fat has no significance, is a
real safeguard against high mortality from arteriosclerosis.

In view of certain reports that consumption of PUFA decreased serum cholesterol
levels, lots of propaganda have been made to include, in diets, oils rich in PUFA. In fact
there are indications that an excessive intake of PUFA can have adverse effects. Lowering of
serum cholesterol levels by PUFA is attributed partly to a redistribution of cholesterol into
other body tissues. An increased excretion of cholesterol in the form of bile acids may

206
accelerate the formation of gall stones (Renner, 1983). A high intake of PUFA reduces the
conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid, and hence to growth factors.

Excessive intake of PUFA increases the vitamin E requirements. Oxidation products
of PUFA such as peroxides may cause alteration in the membranes of blood carpuscles. The
diets containing predominantly either oleic or linoleic acid result in LDL enriched in either
oleic or linoleic acid respectively. The PUFA-enriched LDL are much more susceptible to
oxidation. Hodgson et al., (1993) found that higher the linoleic acid content of adipose tissue
higher the degree ofatherosclerosis.

In a controlled clinical trial, extending over 8 years, the incidences of death from
cancer was found to be greater in a group which had been given dietary fat containing around
40 g of PUFA daily. Although it is not conclusively proven whether growing tumors need
PUFA. The effect of PUFA increases the vitamin E requirements. Increased excretion of
cholesterol in the form of bile acids due to a diet rich in PUFA may lead to increase
colonization of the intestine with bile degrading bacteria, which are thought to be
carcinogenic. In view of above considerations, the excessive intake of PUFA may be
harmful. The diet needs to be balanced one containing animal as well as vegetable fats and
should satisfy requirements of PUFA and essential fatty acids. An excessive intake of
energy, resulting in excess weight, is one of the major reasons of altered cholesterol
metabolism and arteriosclerosis. A reduction in energy intake and a loss in body weight
protect to some extent from CHD.

3.1 Milk has Cholesterol Lowering Factors

Many investigations have shown that milk has a hypocholesterolaemic effect in
humans and experimental animals. Several experiments with volunteers have shown that
cholesterol level does not rise when as much as 2 litres of milk is consumed daily. On the
contrary, the cholesterol level was often reduced. Experiments with animals have shown that
even buffalos milk, that contained 7% fat, lowered plasma cholesterol levels (Srinivasan and
Kansal, 1986). Studies have shown that in rabbits, the process of atherogenesis induced by
atherogenic diet was slowed down by including skim milk in the diet; the deposition of fat in
arteries, the cholesterol esterification by lecithin: cholesterol acyl transferase in plasma, the
platelet aggregation, the proliferation of smooth muscles in arteries were decreased by milk
(Aggarwal and Kansal, 1991a, b,c, 1992, 1993). Both decreased biosynthesis and increased
cholesterol breakdown to bile acids in liver were reported to be the reasons of
hypocholesterolaemic effect of milk (Kansal and Chawla, 1984; Srinivasan and Kansal,
1988). Milk decreased the generation of NADPH (reductant required in cholesterol
biosynthesis) via pentose phosphate pathway of glucose oxidation (Chawla and Kansal,
1983).

Although the nature of factors has not been fully understood, the orotic acid present in
milk whey and an other nucleotide associated with proteose-peptone fractions of milk
(Ahmed et al., 1979) are believed to have cholesterol-reducing property. It has been
suggested that the regular in take of milk keeps blood vessels healthy.

4.0 REFERENCES

Aggarwal R.A.K. and Kansal, V.K. 1991a. Indian J. Med. Res., 94: 147.
Aggarwal, R.A.K. and Kansal, V.K. 1991b. Milchwiss., 46: 355.

207
Aggarwal, R.A.K. and Kansal, V.K. 1991c. Milchwiss., 46: 766.
Aggarwal, R.A.K. and Kansal, V.K. 1992. Indian J. Med. Res., 96: 55.
Aggarwal, R.A.K. and Kansal, V.K. 1993. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 46: 104.
Ahmed, A.A., McCarthy, R.D. and Porter, G.A. 1979. Atherosclerosis, 32: 347.
Chawla, K. and Kansal V.K. 1983. Milchwiss. 38: 1963
Enselme, J. 1969. In Unsaturated fatty acids in Atherosclerosis, 2
nd
ed. (Translated by R.D. Plumer) Pergman
Press Ltd., Oxford, U.K.
Gurr, M.I. 1981. J. Dairy Res., 48: 519.
Hodgson, J.M. et al., 1993. American J. Clin. Nutr. 58: 228.
Kansal, V.K. and Chawla, K. 1984. Indian J. Nutr. Dietet., 21: 54.
Kivinen, A., Tarpila, S., Salminen, S. and Vapaatalo, H. 1992. Milchwiss., 47: 694.
Renner, E. 1983.. In Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition, W-Gmbh, Volkswirtschaftlicher Verlong,
Munichen.
Srinivasan, S. and Kansal, V.K. 1986. Milchwiss., 41: 136.
Ssrinivasan, S. and Kansal, V.K. 1988. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 41: 469.
Tsai, C.A., Elias, J., Kelly, J.J., Lin, R.C. and Robson, J.R.C. 1976, J. Nutr., 106: 118.








FAT-RICH DAIRY POWDERS



Dr. Sitaram Prasad
S.G.Institute of Dairy Technology
Patna-800014

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Conversion of milk and milk products into powders has taken a long way since
invention of drying equipment (spray dryer by Percy in 1872 and drum dryer by Just in 1902)
and development of processes. In sharp contrast to the phenomenal production of non-fat-dry
milk (NFDM) since 1940s, the annual output of dried whole milk remained limited on the
consideration of short shelf-life due its tendency to oxidize rapidly. However, due to the food
urgency of the World War-II, extensive efforts were made to improve the quality of dried
high-fat products. During the last five decades, a number of dried high-fat dairy products
have been developed for convenience, economic conservation, transportation, storage and
utilization.

2.0 NOMENCLATURE AND COMPOSITION

The composition of high-fat dairy powders vary according to their applicability,
stability, quality and shelf-life requirement. The composition of some of the high-fat dairy
powders is given in the Table-I.

Table 1. Composition of powdered high-fat dairy products, percent by weight

Dried Product Constituent, % by weight
Fat Protein Carbohydrate Ash Moisture MSNF Emulsifier Others
Whole milk 25-29 24-32 31-38 5-6 1.4-6.4 71-75 - 1.0
Ice-cream mix 25-45 - 7-44 - 1.0-4-0 25-47 .5-2 -
Cheddar cheese 48-54 35-42 3-4 3-4 2-8 46-50 - 2-6
Shortening 30-80 - 2-35 - 0.5-5 5-30 3-20 -
Cream 40-75 10-25 15-30 2-5 0.5-4 30-55 - -
Butter 80-90 -- 9-10 -- 0.5-2 10-20 0.5-8 0.5-2
Cheese spread 50-56 - - - 2-3.5 - - 1.5-2
Chhana 35-43 45-47 4-5 4-5 2-4 - - -
Shrikhand 15-33 - 40-45 - 2-4 - - -
Khoa 30-35 25-28 30-35 5-6 3-4 - - -
Infant food 18-24 12-22 50-73 2-7 3-4 - - -

Only removal of moisture from the natural fat-rich dairy products would not always
convert them into powdered form. Dry butter or butter concentrate contains all components
of real butter except water, i.e. about 98% fat, 2 to 5% NFDM and less than 0.1% water.
anhydrous butter fat or butter oil exclusively obtained from butter or cream contains not less
than 99.3% butter fat and not more than 0.5% water. However, it is not in powder form and
hence the difference from butter powder.


209
3.0 MANUFACTURING PRINCIPLE

Fat-rich dairy products can be made into powder either by encapsulating the milk fat
with non fat material(s) followed by removal of moisture or by crystallizing liquid fat into
solid flakes or powder particles. Because of the ease of production, wider applicability and
greater stability of the product, and availability of versatile drying equipments, the former
approach has been extensively adopted for making fat-rich dairy products. In this method,
the quality of the dairy powders is governed by the type and amounts of ingredients, and
additives besides the processing parameters.

Some patents have also been reported for manufacturing powdered fats consisting
almost entirely of fat to be obtained either by a spray cooling or a liquid film and flaking roll
method. But being essentially crystallizing techniques, such procedures involve expensive
refrigeration. Such product unlike encapsulated powder has to be stored and handled
carefully under low temperature conditions.

4.0 INGREDIENTS AND ADDITIVES

Depending upon the type of product i.e. powder to be made, the ingredients, including
raw material, fat source, encapsulating material, emulsifying and sequestering agents,
flavouring material, etc are mixed to form a slurry/emulsion of suitable composition, total
solids and viscosity before drying. There is too much diversity in ingredients and additives,
and manufacturing techniques, for the preparation of different fat-rich dairy products. This
paper primarily deals with the manufacture of cream/butter powders.

4.1 Source of Fat

Since fat is the major constituent of the high-fat powders, the quality of the product
and its use depend on the quality, type and form of the fat used. The source of fat for
cream/butter powder can be cream, white butter, butter oil, ghee and fractionated butterfat.

Cow or buffalo-milk cream, ripened to 0.3% lactic acidity produces a more acceptable
butter powder in comparison to unripened product, particularly when the powder is to be
reconstituted for use as high-fat spread. Sour cream powder is usually not fat all satisfactory
for reconstitution purposes. However, a process was patented (Noznick, 1967) for the
manufacture of dried sour cream using acidified cream (pH, 4.0 to 4.7; fat, 16 to 32%) having
a temperature of not more than 5C prior to spray drying. In another patent (Noznick et al,
1974), sour cream powder was made by mixing 2.5% peptizing agent, such as disodium
hydrogen phosphate, with normal cultured cream at pH 4.6 and then drying the mixture.

A readily water soluble powder can be made by using melted butter oil or unsalted
butter with an emulsifier and alkaline solution of edible casein. However, butter powder
made from cream is observed to deteriorate less during storage than that made from
dehydrated butterfat. Successful manufacture of powdered whippable cream from a mixture
of anhydrous milkfat and NFDM has been reported (Kieseker et al, 1979 a, b).

Butter powder containing 80% fat from ghee with added SMP or sodium caseinate
had low bulk density and flowability, and high free-fat content. The high-fat spread made out
of it had poor body and texture, spreadability, flavour and overall sensory scores as compared
to the products made from cream. (Prasad and Gupta, 1984). Butter powder made from hard

210
milk fat fraction had less tendency to stick in the cooler bed but showed lack of flavour as
such or after baking. Butter powders made from both fractions, however, were poorer in
sensory scores in comparison to that made from unfractionated butterfat or cream (Prasad and
Gupta, 1983).

4.2 Type of Encapsulating Materials

Fat-rich dairy powders are generally manufactured by drying a homogenized mixture
of fat and an aqueous dispersion of non-fatty materials such as proteins, starches or gums to
provide them free flowing characteristics.

In most cases, skim milk solids along with some other substances have been used to
provide better encapsulation of fat and greater flowability. Both concentrated and dried-skim
milk can be used. Ion exchange-treated, calcium-reduced skim milk has been observed
helpful in the production of highly soluble, non-feathering and free from oiling-off coffee
whiteners.

Proteinaceous materials like alkaline caseinate, ion-change/calcium sequestered
casein and sodium caseinate are effective encapsulating materials. Powdered fat for
whippable mixtures can be obtained by homogenizing and spray drying mixtures containing
sweetening agents, proteins, glycerol monostearate (GMS) and lecithin (Bibby and Sons,
1968). Water soluble protein like casein, gluten and soyprotein with or without skim milk
solids can also be used (Hayashi and Takama, 1968; Prasad & Gupta, 1983 and 1984).

A high-fat powdered product has been prepared by spray drying an aqueous emulsion
(pH 6.0-6.2) of mixture of 20% dried whey and 80% butter oil, fractionated fat, concentrated
cream or butter oil plus hydrogenated groundnut oil (Ballschimeter and Heinen, 1965). A
process has been standardized wherein an aqueous mixture of fat and milk SNF including
buttermilk was emulsified before drying (Bratland, 1973). Replacement of 10% solids with
buttermilk solids resulted in significant improvement in the flavour and particle size of cream
powders of 50% and 70% fat (Sharma, 1978).

Carbohydrates like sugar, lactose, glucose etc. along with proteinaceous material have
been used to provide protective layer to the fat, but act as sweetening agents as well in some
special powders. Crystallized alpha-lactose hydrate improves flow and dispersion
characteristics when dry blended with cream powder (Chrysler and Almy, 1950).
Emulsifying butter oil with a concentrated solution of SMP lactose, maltose, caseinates and
starch (40:35:14:10:1) and spray drying produced a powder of 75 to 80% butterfat (Sadini,
1978).

4.3 Emulsifying and Stabilizing Agents

Adition of emulsifiers and stabilizers, singly or in combination, aids in emulsification
and/or stabilization of the system. Glycerol monostearate (GMS) and glycerol lactosetearate
(GLS) are the most suitable and frequently used emulsifiers . A whippable fat powder can be
made with 10 to 20% emulsifiers like mono-and di-glycerides, lactylated glyceryl esters,
propylene glycol esters and sorbitan esters either alone or in combination (Rayner, 1973).

The addition of lecithin (0.1 to 3.0%) to the mix prior to homogenization improves
not only the emulsion stability but also the solubility and other functional properties of the

211
powder. A wide variety of emulsifying/stabilizing agents (0.1 to 10.0%) like gum acacia,
xanthan gum, sucrose monostearate and sucrose monolaurate can also be used in cream/butter
powders.

4.4 Sequestering & Peptising Agents

The main purpose of the addition of phosphates (sodium hexametaphosphate, sodium
tetraphosphate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, sodium hydrogen phosphate) and citrates of
alkali metals (sodium citrate) at 1 to 2% level is to utilize their buffering and chelating
properties which result in reduced viscosity of the liquid mix, prevent feathering of powder in
hot coffee/tea, stabilize the emulsion and enhance the solubility and reconstitutability of the
dried product.

4.5 Flavouring Materials

Butter powder is flavoured sometimes by adding salt, sugars and/or flavour
concentrates (vanilla, fatty acids), particularly when it is meant for use as spread to improve
the acceptability.

4.6 Free Flowing Agent

Flowability, an important desirable characteristic of powder for its handling and use,
is largely governed by the composition of the product. The flowability of cream/butter
powder can be improved by dry blending of sodium aluminum silicate or starch (Prasad &
Gupta, 1984).

5.0 PROCESSING PARAMETERS

Manufacturing fat-rich-dairy powders essentially comprises steps such as, selection of
raw materials, dispersal and blending of ingredient, homogenization, pasteurization and
packaging. The stabilization of fat phase and the quality of powders depend on various
processing parameters such as properties of the raw materials, proportions and sequence of
addition of ingredients, and conditions of homogenization and drying.

5.1 Blending of Ingredients

The stabilization of fat phase appears to depend on the level of protein and on the type
and concentration of stabilizer, in addition to the correct homogenization conditions.
Sufficient protein must be present to coat the fat globule and stabilize the mix when spray
dried. During blending of different ingredients, the solids content can cause partial gelation
during homogenisation at 68C or above and production of excessive viscous mix emulsion.

5.2 Homogenisation

Homogenisation helps in obtaining a uniform fat emulsion, provides physical stability
to the powder by strong coating and makes powder free-flowing by reducing its free fat
content. The extent of homogenization and sequences of addition of emulsifying agent and
non-fat solids are determinants of the quality of product with regard to its end use.
Insufficient homogenization pressure produces a powder which, on reconstitution, churns in
whipping. On the other hand, too high pressure inhibits whipping of the reconstituted mix.

212
The powder obtained without homogenization is sticky and difficult to convey in the dryer.
Slight pressure destabilizes the fat emulsion, liberating free fat. Droplets of clear oil appears,
when such powder is added to hot coffee.

5.3 Pasteurisation

Different time-temperature combinations, ranging from 63C to 93C from 0 - 30 min
holding depending on the TS content, viscosity, type and nature of the ingredients etc., are
used to ensure safety in consumption and to enhance shelf-life. At times, even higher heat
treatments (115.5C to 126.5C for 15 to 10 minutes) have been employed.

5.4 Drying

The high-fat powders can be made using spray-or foam-drying process, the former
being used most commonly. The injection of nitrogen into the dryer feed during foam drying
reduces heat-induced off-flavours and makes the product less greasy.

The manufacture of spray dried fat-rich powders presents several operational
problems. The tendency of the product to adhere to the walls of the drying chamber and air
ducts increase directly with the increases in the ratio of milkfat to SNF. The increased
stickage results in the build up of a greasy mass and greater free fat content in the product.
Hence, a dryer, designed to prompt and continuous removal of the product from the drying
chamber and immediate cooling, is recommended.

It is important to reduce rubbing, friction or abrasive action of dry particles, while fat
is in melted form, to avoid rupturing of the globule membrane and seepage of melted fat.
Better quality of powder is obtained if cyclone separator is replaced by bag filters. Vibrators
and pneumatic sweeps are two alternatives for product removal from dryer surface. A
conveyor belt, designed to transport powder from spray dryer, is better than pneumatic
system to cause minimum damage to the product.

The quality of the powdered fat is governed by spraying technique, the construction of
the dryer, the method of air feed and the drying parameters including inlet and outlet air
temperatures, and feed temperature.

5.5 Cooling

After drying, the fat-rich powder must be cooled rapidly to solidify the fat, and
handled carefully to minimize shattering of the thin films of dry milk solids surrounding the
fat globules in order to prevent it from lumping. The powder should be stored at refrigeration
temperature for several hours before packaging. Packing the powder while hot would lead to
lump formation due to its own weight in the bag. A fluidized-bed powder cooler should be
used.

6.0 PACKAGING, STORAGE AND SHELF-LIFE

Fat-rich dairy powders, having very little moisture, are prone to oxidative
deterioration. Therefore, their packaging and storage need protection from air and light.
These powders keep well for long period under the normal storage conditions without any
refrigeration and do not melt even when exposed to tropical temperatures.

213
Variety of packaging materials, such as, barrels, wooden boxes, paraffined inside and
lined with parchment, fiber drums, capsules, polyethylene bags, sachet, plastic lined paper
bags, foil laminates and hermatically sealed tins have been used. Stacking the bags on top of
another may cause expression of free fat in the product resulting in lumpiness and thus,
decreasing the flowability.

Fat-rich dairy powders can be stored at room temperatures or at low temperature with
or without oxygen and in presence or absence of inert gas for several months. At lower
temperatures (5-15C) the product can be stored for longer periods in rigid, light proof
containers under nitrogen gas.

The acceptability of the powder is dependent on its composition and storage
conditions. Fluctuating storage temperatures, particularly in the range of melting point of fat,
would decrease flowability by imparting body firmness or soft lumpiness.

Development of flavour defects in fat-rich powders may take place as in dry whole
milk mainly due to oxidation. Low metallic ion-concentration, along with low oxygen
content and low storage temperature, may delay the oxidative changes.

7.0 APPLICATION AND USES

Fat-rich dairy powders have wide commercial and house-held application with
special market possibilities for use in house, hospital and military bases. These powders
withstand tropical conditions better than their original counterparts. Such a product has
applications in food industry, where there is need for blending fats or oils with other dry
ingredients. Cream/butter powders can also be used in cake mixes, ice-cream mixes, bread
mixes, sauce mixes, cake toppings, tea/coffee whiteners, soup/sauce/dessert creamer,
reconstituted milk, cream spread, biscuits, icings, fruit cakes, fillings etc.

Production of fat-rich powders are very useful in tropical countries like India, where
there is distinct by seasonal milk production. Surplus milk in the peak season can be
preserved in these forms for utilization after reconstitution in lean period.

8.0 REFERENCES

Ballschimeter, H.M.B. 7 Heinen, E.A. (1965) Milchwisenchaft, 20:70-73.
Bibby, J. & Sons Ltd. (1968) British Patents 1, 124, 734.
Bratland, A. (1973) British Patents, 1, 318, 045.
Chrysler, L.H. & Almy, E.F. (1950) U.S. Patents 2, 503, 866.
Gayashi, Y. & Takama, N. (1968) U.S. Patents 3, 393, 075.
Just, J.A. (1902) U.S. Patents 712, 545.
Kiesekar, F.G; Zadow, J.G. 7 Aitken, B. (1979 a,b) Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 34:21-24, 112-113.
Noznick, P.P. (1967) U.S. Patents, 3, 357, 838.
Noznick, P.P., Tatter, C.W. & Chenauf, C.N.F. (1974) U.S. Patents 3, 792, 178.
Percy, S.R. (1872) U.S. Patents 125, 406.
Prasad, S. & Gupta, S.K. (1983) Asian J. Dairy Res. 2: 196-200.
Prasad, S & Gupta, S.K. (1984) J. Food Sci. Technol., 21: 211-219.
Rayner, P.B. (1973) Flavour Ind. 4:379-380.
Sadini, V.(1978) XX Int. Dairy Cong., Paris, E: 891.

DEVELOPMENTS IN PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION
OF GHEE-RESIDUE








Dr. B.B. Verma
Senior Scientist
Dairy Technology Division
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ghee-residue, brownish solid mass obtained as a by-product in ghee manufacture,
contains considerable amounts of milk fat, protein and minerals. According to one estimate
about 27.5 percent of total milk produced in the country is diverted for ghee making (Dairy
India, 1997). Taking an average yield of ghee-residue (GR) as one-tenth the quantity of ghee
produced, at present level of ghee production of about 9,06,000 tones, the bulk of GR
produced per annum works out to about 90,600 tones. A look at the chemical composition
and yield of GR obtained from various sources (Table 1) will give an idea of the huge
quantity of nutrients in terms of fat, protein and mineral that go in ghee-residue.

Table 1. Chemical composition and yield of ghee-residue (Hand pressed)

Source of Average % Chemical composition Yield
Ghee-residue fat ___ (%) (Kg per100 Kg)
(buffalo milk) Moisture Fat Protein Lactose Ash
From
Desi butter 77.0 13.4 33.4 32.8 15.4 5.2 1.6
Creamery
butter
(unsalted)

85.0

5.7

65.0

25.5

Trace

3.8

1.2
Sweet cream 67.0 4.1 63.2 18.0 12.3 2.4 7.7
Sour cream 67.0 8.0 38.8 41.6 7.3 4.3 5.1
Washed
sweet cream
71.0 1.7 80.8 16.2 Trace 1.3 3.5

Keeping quality of all types of GR clarified at 120C is about 3 months (Prahlad, 1954). Its
shelf life can further be increased to more than 4 months by pressing it in cake form
(Viswanathan, 1971)

Ghee-residue, particularly one obtained from creamery-butter, has higher content of
phospholipid about 17.3% of its total fat (Santha and Narayanan, 1978). In general
phospholipid content of ghee-residue decreases as period of heating increases due to the
transfer of phospholipids from ghee-residue to ghee. Phospholipid acts synergistically with
reducing substances in ghee-residue and protects it from oxidative defect. Higher
phospholipid (a good emulsifier) content of ghee residue is beneficial in developing certain
products were emulsification of fat and aqueous phase is desired. Ghee residue has poor
quality of protein because of its lower lysine content. Its supplementation with some good

215
quality protein like skim milk powder sharply increases its PER (protein efficiency ratio)
from 0.66 to 2.4 (Relwani, 1979).

2.0 RECOVERY OF GHEE FROM GHEE RESIDUE

In dairy plants, attempt is made to recover as much ghee as possible from ghee
residue. Two methods of recovery of ghee from ghee-residue have been developed
(Viswanathan et al, 1973).

2.1 Centrifugal Process

This consists of heating ghee residue in water (65C) so as to transfer the occulted
ghee of the residue to water. Ghee is subsequently recovered by centrifuging the water-fat
phase. This method yields about 25% ghee (46% efficiency).

Pressure technique

This consists of subjecting the heated ghee-residue (65-70C) to a limited pressure in
hand screw or hydraulic press. This method gives a yield of about 45% (extraction efficiency
of about 67%). This method has been recommended for adoption as it is simple, efficient,
more practical, economical and requires no electricity or sophisticated equipment.

3.0 TREATMENT AND PROCESSING OF GHEE-RESIDUE

Ghee residue has soft and smooth texture but gets progressively hardened during
storage. The change in the textural characteristics of ghee-residue is much faster particularly
during the first 15 days and by the end of a month its grain becomes very hard and gritty. In
order to eliminate the undesirable characteristics it is necessary to process it so as to yield a
soft and smooth texture essential for edible preparations. Before subjecting the residue to
any-treatment, its lumps are broken and then pulverized by passing through 40 mesh sieve. A
number of treatments of ghee residue (Table 2) have been suggested (Prahlad, 1954).

Table 2 Comparison of chemical composition of ghee-residue subjected to various
processing treatments.

Particulars Treatment
I
Treatment
II

Treatment
III IV
Treatment
V VI
Before After Before After Before After After Before After After
Acidity
(ml N/10
NaOH/g)

18.8

9.2

20.6

-

18.1

10.3

-

20.6

5.0

--
Moisture 13.3 49.7 13.8 65.0 15.3 61.5 70.7 13.8 49.0 68.0
Fat 52.2 26.7 49.8 18.5 46.8 18.2 15.0 49.8 22.0 15.4
Protein 19.7 17.6 19.9 10.8 19.9 16 10.1 19.9 23.6 12.0
Lactose 11.5 3.8 12.5 2.5 13.1 1.1 1.6 12.5 1.2 1.4
Ash 3.3 2.2 4.0 3.2 4.3 2.3 2.6 4.0 3.2 3.2


216
All the treatments make the processed residue soft and smooth. The trend of changes
brought about in the constituents of residue remains same. Residues absorb considerable
amount of moisture, its acidity reduces; in case of treatments II, IV and VI acidity reduces to
nil. Fat and lactose contents of the residue also reduce considerably. Washing of residue
with 50% alcohol followed by cooking in soda, i.e treatment IV is best so far as removal of
excess fat from the residue is concerned. Autoclaving of this residue after incorporating 2%
vinegar lowers the moisture content and improves the texture of the product.

Treatment I: Loosely tieing the residue in the form of bundle and cooking in boiling water
for 30 min.
Treatment II: Cooking the residue in boiling 1.0% sodium bicarbonate for 30 min.
Treatment III: Washing the residue with 50% alcohol and then cooking in boiling water for
30 min.
Treatment IV: Washing the residue with 50% alcohol followed by boiling in 1% sodium
bicarbonate
Treatment V: Autoclaving the residue (15 PSI/10 min) obtained from III after incorporating
2% vinegar
Treatment VI: Autoclaving the residue obtained from IV after incorporating 2% vinegar.

4.0 UTILIZATION OF GHEE-RESIDUE

4.1 Preparation of Confections

The physico-chemical properties of processed ghee-residue is very suitable for
preparation of confections. It contains the major constituents in suitable proportion and
possesses fine texture that imparts requisite body to such products. Further the treatment
during processing of these confections involve heating to such an extent that it completely
arrests enzymic activity and flavour deterioration in the final product. The higher fat content
in the residue quite often obviate the need for addition of oils and fats in its preparation
(Prahlad, 1954).

4.1.1 Preparation of candy

The recipe for candy preparation is processed ghee-residue- 1 kg, sugar 500 to 625 g,
dry coconut powder 125 to 250 g. A 50% sugar syrup is made, processed ghee residue is
thoroughly mixed with the help of suitable ladle. The mixture is heated on low fire with
continuous stirring to evaporate moisture. When the mass becomes sufficiency sticky,
coconut powder is added. The candy is evenly spread on a plate and cooled (5-10C) for
about an hour and cut into small cubes and wrapped in parchment paper.

4.1.2 Preparation of chocolate

Recipe for preparation of chocolate consists of processed ghee residue 1 kg, sugar 500
to 625 g, cocoa powder 60 to 90 g and skim milk powder 250 g. To a 50% sugar syrup,
processed ghee-residue is added and thoroughly mixed with a ladle. The contents are
desiccated on a low flame till a dough is formed. At this stage cocoa and skim milk powder
are added and stirred vigorously till pat is formed. Finished product is spread on a plate and
cooled overnight and cut into slabs or cubes and wrapped in parchment paper. The product
has a shelf life of more than 3 months.


217
4.2 Preparation of Edible Pastes

For preparation of edible paste for sandwich, processed ghee-residue is first mixed
with salt @ 2.5-3% and then with marmite (a) yeast product @ 0.1-0.5%. The whole mass is
heated on a low fire for about 5 min till a paste is formed. An edible paste for dosa and
samosa can be prepared if chatni powder @ 2-4% is used instead of marmite. Both these
preparations, if properly packaged, can remain marketable for 2 months (Prahalad, 1954).

4.3 Preparation of Burfi-type Sweet

Verma and De (1978) prepared burfi-type sweet from ghee-residue processed in 0.5
per cent sodium bicarbonate for 30 min. Processed ghee residue is mixed with khoa in the
proportion of 1:1 of total solids content. Sugar is added @ 75% of the total solids
(khoa+ghee residue). The whole mass is heated and worked rigorously for 10-15 minutes so
as to dissolve the added sugar completely. At this stage about one-third of the sweetened
mass is separated and chocolate powder @ 8% of the total solids of the processed residue and
khoa is thoroughly mixed into it. This portion containing the dissolved chocolate is applied
as a thin layer over the remaining two-third of the mixture, which has already been spread-out
as a thick layer on a well-greased tray. The mass is cooled and when set out into pieces of
uniform size and shape. The product has a sensory score of 7.5 (like moderately to very
much) on 9-point Hedonic scale.

4.4 Preparation of Bakery Products

Barawake and Bhosale (1996) prepared nankatai type cookies and sponge cake from
processed ghee-residue from ripened cream. In this study a part of vanaspati for used in
preparation of these products was replaced by ghee-residue fat. Replacement of vanaspati fat
upto a level of 30 and 20% for cookies and sponge cake respectively resulted in acceptable
quality of products. The product is reported to have a sensory score of 7.15 and 7.45
respectively. Use of ghee-residue enriched both the bakery products in protein content as
compared to control.

4.5 As Flavour Simulant

4.5.1 Vegetable fat

Wadhwa & Bindal (1996) Simulated ghee-flavour in vegetable fat. Vegetable fat is
mixed thoroughly with water (20%) at 20-25C to obtain butter-like product. To this, ghee-
residue (10%) is mixed well and clarified at 120C/flash, filtered through 4-fold muslin cloth
and centrifuged 3000 rpm for 10 min. the flavour score of vegetable fat is reported to be 7.0
as against 5.0 for untreated vegetable fat and 8.0 for pure ghee. The authors further reported
that microwave processing for 4 min of vegetable fat with ghee-residue along with water
produced better flavoured product (flavour score 8.0).

4.5.2 Simulation of ghee-flavour in butter oil

Butter oil can also be simulated with ghee flavour by addition of ghee-residue (10%)
essentially following the procedure given for vegetable fat (4.5.1)



218
4.5.3 Enhancing flavour of dairy ghee

Dairy ghee, especially one prepared from fresh creamery-butter (without ripening);
has mild flavour. Ghee-residue can be used to enhance (10%) and clarified at 120C, filtered
through 4-fold of muslin cloth and subsequently centrifuged to get residue free ghee with
enhanced flavour.

5.0 REFERENCES

Borawake, K.N. and Bhosale, D.N. 1996. Utilization of ghee residue in preparation of Nankatai type cookies
and sponge cakes. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 49, (2): 114:119.
Dairy India. 1997. Dairy Industry Scenario. Page 17.
Pagote, C.N. and Bhandari, V. 1988. Antioxidant Properties and nutritive value of ghee-residue. Indian
Dairyman 40(2):73-77.
Prahlad, S.n. 1954. By-products of Indian Dairy Industry-Ghee rersidue. M.Sc. thesis. Bombay University,
Bombay.
Santha, I.M. and Naraynan, K.M. 1978. Composition of ghee residue. J. Food Sci. Technol. 15: 24-2.
Verma, B.B. and De, S. 1978. Preparation of chocsidu Burfi from ghee residue. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 31 (4):
370-374.
Viswanathan, K. Rao, S.D.T. and Reddy, B.R. 1973. Recovery of ghee from ghee residue. Indian J. Dairy Sci.
26: 245.













219
APPLICATION OF SYSTAT STATISTICAL SOFTWARE
PACKAGES TO DAIRY RESEARCH






Dr. D. K. Jain
1
and Adesh K. Sharma
2

Principal Scientist
1
and Scientist
2

Computer Centre
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

With the advent of personal computers (PCs) in 1980s software technology is
constantly growing. Substantial reduction in hardware costs and advancements in
microcomputer technology have given rise to more and more sophisticated graphical user
interface (GUI) oriented PC-based software packages in almost every sphere of life. Many
software packages with GUI features for scientific and statistical data analysis applications
for PC users are now easily available, e.g. SPSS, SYSTAT, MS-Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, LP-88,
Limdep, Lingo, Lindo etc. This presentation intends to practically demonstrate such a most
widely used software package viz. SYSTAT 7.0 with specific emphasis to their application to
Dairy research data analysis problems.

1.1 Introduction to SYSTAT software package

Systat package provides a powerful and comprehensive statistical analysis system in a
graphical environment through descriptive menus and simple dialogue boxes to assist various
researchers to perform most of the scientific data analysis work more efficiently and
effectively. This is a window based application software in which most of the analysis tasks
can be accomplished simply by pointing and clicking the mouse. Systat is exclusively used
for statistical analysis and graphics and covers most of the statistical procedures that are
frequently used in dairy research viz., animal breeding, dairy processing, dairy economics,
dairy extension, education, etc. Hence, it is a worthwhile package to use for solving problems
related to dairying applications. There are four types of windows (i.e., working areas) viz.,
main window, data window, graph window and command editor and each window in turn
comprises of a number of user-friendly menus viz., file, edit, data, graph, stats, etc.

1.1.1 Main window

The main window provides menus for various general file operations such as opening,
saving and printing data and output files, editing outputs, transforming data, running
statistical analysis and producing graphs. The results of all kinds of analysis are displayed in
this window.








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It contains a toolbar that provides quick access to many standard statistical techniques
and graphs. The main window is also a place where Systat's alternative command interface
can be used. The Important menus contained in this window include:
File: This menu is to create new data and command files; open data files including Systat,
Excel, Lotus, and dBase files; save statistical output; print the contents of the Main
window; and submit commands from the clipboard or from a command file.
Edit: Use the edit menu to cut, copy, and paste statistical output and other text in the Main
window; find and replace text strings in the window; clear text and output from the
window; insert notes and titles into output; change font and characteristics (including
color and size) for new output; and change Systat options including variable display
order in dialog boxes, display of statistical Quick Graphs, and use of the command
prompt in the Main window.
Data: This menu used to transform data values; sort cases in the data file based on the
values of one or more variables; transpose cases (rows) and variables (columns);
merge data files; select subsets of cases and specify grouping variables that split
the data file into two or more groups for analysis; and access Systat's Basic and
Matrix programming procedures.
Graph: This menu is used to create various type of graphs (histograms, bar charts, pie charts,
etc.) and other graphical displays.
Stats: Use this menu to run statistical procedures, including descriptive statistics,
correlation, linear regression, analysis of variance and many others.

1.2 Data window

The data window contains menus for opening, saving and printing data files, editing
data, and transforming data. The data file is displayed in row-by-column (spreadsheet)
format. Each row is a case, and each column is a variable. It is a place where user can
enter/edit /view data in a data file.








Menus contained in this window are as follows:

File: This menu is to create new data files; open data files including Systat, Excel, Lotus,
and dBase files; save and print data files.
Edit: Use the edit menu to cut, copy, and paste data into data window; find a specific case or
variable; change Systat options including variable display order in dialog boxes,
display of statistical Quick Graphs, and use of the command prompt in the Main
window.
Data: This menu is used to transform data values; sort cases in the data file based on the
values of one or more variables; transpose cases (rows) and variables (columns);
merge data files; select subsets of cases and specify grouping variables that split the
data file into two or more groups for analysis; and access Systat 's Basic and Matrix
programming procedures.

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1.3 Graph window

The result of graphs is displayed in this window. It contains menus for opening,
saving, printing and editing graphs. If there are more than one graph, use the scroll bar on the
graph window to move between graphs.







Menus contained in this window are as follows:
File: This menu is used to open, save and print graphs.
Edit: The edit menu is used to copy graphs; change font characteristics including color and
size; change drawing attributes; and change Systat options including variable display
order in dialog boxes, display of statistical Quick Graphs, and use of the command
prompt in the Main window.
View: Use this menu to move between graphs; switch between graphs view and page view;
access the Dynamic Explorer, which enables you to transform plot points and rotate 3-
D graphs; and turn the display of the toolbar and rulers on and off.
Graph: Use the Graph menu to change the scale ranges on graph axes; control display of tick
marks, change colors and fill patterns for graph elements; change style and size of
plot symbols; and transpose axes.

1.4 Command Editor

The command editor is used to create and edit command files and save commands
generated during a session. Commands can also be submitted directly from the command
editor. This window contains menus for opening and saving command files, submitting
commands and editing command files. A command file is a kind of program file, which
contains a set of instructions used to produce the statistical analysis results. Instead of typing
the commands at command prompt in main window, the user can write all the instructions in
a command file and subsequently, this file is submitted to produce the results. There is no
need to retype the instructions again and again. Menus contained in this window are as
follows:
File: This menu is used to open and save command files, submit commands, and print
command files.
Edit: The edit menu is used to edit command files; change font characteristics including
color and size for command files; and change Systat options including variable
display order in dialog boxes, display of statistical Quick Graphs, and use of the
command prompt in the Main window.










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2.0 SYSTAT- APPLICATION TO DAIRY RESEARCH DATA ANALYSIS

Systat covers most of the statistical methods and techniques that are commonly used
by teachers, scientists and researchers working in the allied areas of dairy science viz. dairy
cattle breeding, dairy processing, dairy economics, dairy extension, and the like. This paper
portrays application of computer based package for scientific and statistical data analysis in
the specialized area of Dairying through some practical examples Which will greatly enhance
the data analysis capabilities of the participants.

2.1 Frequency Distribution, Histograms and Sstatistics

Example-1: The birth weight in kilogram of 50 male calves is given below:

Birth weight (in kg) of 50 male calves
25 27 21 20 22
27 29 30 23 26
33 30 27 28 24
22 24 25 30 29
25 26 20 27 35
22 23 25 26 28
29 29 21 27 29
30 29 21 27 29
30 32 23 24 28
26 25 22 26 29

1)Prepare a frequency table as follows :
Weight (kg) No. of Calves
<= 22
23-25
26-28
29-31
>=32

2)Draw a histogram; 3)Calculate mean and standard deviation.

Solution :First of all prepare a data file with single variable to store the values of weight as
follows:
1. Data file creation
Create a data file structure in data editor by selecting File New Data option
from main window as shown below :







2. Data entry
Enter the data in file as given below :
Weight: 25, 27, 21, 20, 22, 27, 29, . . . 26, 29

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3. Analysis
A) Frequency table
To prepare a frequency table first we have to create class intervals by using label
utility of SYSTAT package. Then cross tabulate the data against these class intervals. To
achieve this task follow the steps given below.
a) Through commands
Type the following commands at command prompt or create a command file through
command editor and then submit it by selecting File Submit File from main window :
LABEL WEIGHT / ..22='<=22' 23..25='23-25' 26..28='26-28' 29..31='29-31
'32..='>=32'
XTAB
TABULATE WEIGHT
b) Through menus
From main window, select Data Label and fill the options in dialog box as given
below and click on OK button:









Select Stats Crosstabs One-way from main window and fill the options of
dialog box as given below. The results can also be saved in a new Systat data file for
further use by clicking on the option "Save last table as data file" of the dialog box :









Click on Ok button of the above menu.
c) Results
Frequencies
Values for WEIGHT
<=22 23-25 26-28 29-31 >=32 Total
+----------------------------------------------+
| 9 11 14 13 3 | 50
+----------------------------------------------+
B) Draw a histogram
To draw a histogram, first save the labels created above in same data file with a new
variable name. Then use this variable on X-axes to draw graphs like bar, histogram etc. The
data values (labels) of this field may be arranged in specific order in output of the graphs.
Follow the steps given below:


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a) Through commands: Type the following commands at command prompt or create a
command file through command editor and then submit it by selecting FileSubmit File
from main window:
LET GRP$ = LAB$(WEIGHT)
ORDER GRP$ / SORT='<=22','23-25','26-28','29-31','>=32' DATA
DENSITY GRP$/ HIST
b) Through menus
From main window, select DataTransform Let and fill the options in dialog
box as given below and click on OK button :





From main window, select DataOrder and fill the options in dialog box as given
below and click on OK button :






From main window, select Graph Histogram Let and fill the options in dialog
box as given below and click on OK button :






c) Results





C) Calculation of statistics - mean and standard deviation
To find out the mean & SD of birth weight, first open the file (if not already in use)
and follow the steps given below :
a) Through commands: Type the following commands at command prompt or create a
command file through command editor and then submit it by selecting File Submit File
from main window :




225
USE 'C:\SYSTAT\DATA\APREX1.SYD' (if file is not already open)
STATS
STATS WEIGHT / Maximum Mean Minimum SD N
b) Through menus
From main window, select File Open Data and then enter the file name and path
in the dialog box and click on OK button.
From main window, select Stats Descriptive Statistics Basic Statistics and fill
the dialog box as given below and also click on the various options of central
tendency which you require. After that select OK button.








c) Results
WEIGHT
N of cases 50
Minimum 20.0000
Maximum 35.000
Mean 26.300
Standard Dev. 3.460

2.2 The t-test

Example-2: Given below is the gain in weight ( in kg.) of two groups of alpine goats fed on
two diets A and B respectively :

Gain in Weights ( in kg.)
Diet A 25 30 23 35 30 32 28 29 31 26 23 15 18
Diet B 44 45 34 22 10 40 25 35 32 26 38 39 30 22 47 29 40

Test , if the two diets differ significantly as regards their effect on increase in weight of goats.

Solution: This is a problem of unpaired t-test. In SYSTAT it is called two group t-test. Here
we have to create one variable for group which will identify the two data sets and one
variable for observations. Follow the steps given below to create data file and for data
analysis.

1. Data File Creation
Create a data file structure in data editor by selecting File New Data option
from main window as shown below :







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2. Data Entry: Enter the data in file as given below:
DIET$ WEIGHT DIET$ WEIGHT
A 25 B 44
A 30 B 45
A 23 B 34
A 35 B 22
A 30 B 10
A 32 B 40
A 28 B 25
A 29 B 35
A 31 B 32
A 26 B 26
A 23 B 38
A 15 B 39
A 18 B 30
B 44 B 22
B 45 B 47
B 34 B 29
B 22 B 40

3. Analysis
a) Through commands: Type the following commands at command prompt or create a
command file through command editor and then submit it by selecting FileSubmit File
from main window:
TTEST
TEST WEIGHT * DIET$
b) Through menus:
Select Stats t-test Two Groups from main window and fill the options of
dialog box as follows:







Click OK button of the above menu.
c) Results: Two-sample t-test on WEIGHT grouped by DIET$
Group N Mean SD
A 13 26.538 5.681
B 17 32.824 9.793
Pooled Variance t = -2.059; df = 28;
Difference in Means = -6.285; 95.00% CI = -12.537 to -0.033
2.3 Correlation and regression
Example-3: Milk production ( in million tones) for the year 1980 to 1997 is given below. Fit
a regression model y = a * b
t
for projecting the milk production in the coming years. Find the
values of A & B.

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Year (t) Milk Production
(Y)
1980 33.5
1981 35.5
1982 36.5
1983 38.0
1984 40.0
1985 42.0
1986 43.0
1987 46.0
1988 47.0
1989 49.0
1990 51.5
1991 54.5
1992 58.0
1993 62.0
1994 65.0
1995 68.0
1996 72.0
1997 76.0


Solution: This problem can be solved in two ways. In the first method, use linear regression
model of SYSTAT package. For this convert the equation y = a * b
t
into linear form by
taking logarithm of both sides. The new equation will be Y = A + B * t , where Y = Log(y),
A = Log(a) and B = Log(b). Use this linear equation to find the regression coefficient &
constant. Take antilogarithm of A & B to get the values of a & b. In the second method, use
non-linear regression model of SYSTAT where the equation y = a * b
t
can directly be used for
regression analysis. Before doing the analysis we have to prepare a data file.
1. Data file creation
Create a data file structure in data editor by selecting FileNewData option from
main window as shown below:







2. Data entry
Enter the data in file by creating three fields as given below :

YEAR T MP
1980 1 33.5000
1981 2 35.5000
1982 3 36.5000
... ... ...
1996 17 72.0000
1997 18 76.0000

3. Analysis

i) Using linear model
First create a new variable say LOGMP by taking the log value of variable MP. The
variable LOGMP will be used as a dependent variable and T as independent variable in the
regression analysis. Follow the steps given below to calculate regression coefficients.

a) Through commands: Type the following commands at command prompt or create a
command file through command editor and then submit it by selecting FileSubmit
File from main window:


228
LET LOGMP = LOG(MP)
REGRESS
MODEL LOGMP = CONSTANT + T
ESTIMATE

b) Through menus: From main window, select DataTransformLet
and fill the options in dialog box as given below and click on OK button:






Select Stats RegressionLinear from main window and fill the options of
dialog box as given below and select OK button after that.






c) Results













Take antilogarithm of regression coefficient and constant values to find a and b. Give the
command CALC at command prompt for antilogarithm as follows:
>CALC EXP(3.4502)
31.5067
Therefore, the value of constant viz., a is 31.5067.
>CALC EXP(0.0476)
1.0488
Therefore, the value of regression coefficient viz., b is 1.0488.
ii) Using nonlinear model: To use nonlinear model there is no need to create an
extra variable. We will use the original variables T and MP and write the equation
y = a * b
t
as such, where y is MP. Follow the steps given below for performing the
analysis:
a) Through commands: Type the following commands at command prompt or create a
command file through command editor and then submit it by selecting FileSubmit File
from main window:


Dep Var: LOGMP N: 18 Multiple R: 0.9975 Squared multiple R: 0.9950
Adjusted squared multiple R: 0.9947
Effect Coefficient Std Error t
CONSTANT 3.4502 0.0091 379.4717
T 0.0476 0.0008 56.6353
Analysis of Variance
Source Sum-of-Squares df Mean-Square F-ratio

Regression 1.0964 1 1.0964 3207.5625

Residual 0.0055 16 0.0003
229
NONLIN
MODEL MP = a*b^t
ESTIMATE / GN
b) Through menus
Select Stats Regression NonlinearModel/Loss from main window and fill
the options of the dialog box as given below and click OK button after that.





c) Results: Dependent variable is MP ;
Raw R-square (1-Residual/Total) = 0.9997
Mean corrected R-square (1-Residual/Corrected) = 0.9952;
R(observed vs predicted) square = 0.9952


Wald Confidence Interval
Parameter Estimate A.S.E. Param/ASE Lower < 95%> Upper
A 31.0874 0.3514 88.4721 30.3425 31.8323
B 1.0500 0.0009 1144.1780 1.0481 1.0520

2.4 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Example-4 The following data on milk yield was collected for a herd from two states
consisting of four breeds in four different lactations (parity):
State: Haryana
Lactation

Breeds
Hariana Tharparkar Sahiwal Red Sindhi
1 18 23 21 23
2 19 25 22 27
3 21 22 24 26
4 20 21 23 25



State: Panjab
Lactation

Breeds
Hariana Tharparkar Sahiwal Red Sindhi
1 25 30 26 29
2 36 32 29 25
3 35 29 30 27
4 37 30 38 28
Create a single file to analyze the data for variation among breeds and lactations for each
state separately and draw your conclusions.
Solution: This is a problem of two-way ANOVA (RBD). Here lactation is replicate and
breed is effect and interaction between replicate and breed is not required. The data file
will have four variable one each for state, lactation, breed and milk yield. The variable

230
state$ will be used for grouping the data state wise. Follow the steps given below to
create data file, data entry and analysis.
1. Data file creation
Create a data file structure in data editor by selecting FileNewData option
from main window as shown below:





2. Data entry
Enter the data in file as given below:
.
STAT
E$
LAC
T$
BREE
D$
MY
Harya
na
1 Hariana 18
Harya
na
2 Hariana 19
Harya
na
3 Hariana 21
Harya
na
4 Hariana 20
Harya
na
1 Tharpar
kar
23
Harya
na
2 Tharpar
kar
25
Harya
na
3 Tharpar
kar
22
Harya
na
4 Tharpar
kar
21
Harya
na
1 Sahiwal 22
Harya
na
2 Sahiwal 24
Harya
na
3 Sahiwal 23
Harya
na
4 Sahiwal 23
Harya
na
1 Red
Sindhi
27
Harya
na
2 Red
Sindhi
26
Harya
na
3 Red
Sindhi
25
Harya
na
4 Red
Sindhi
25

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Panjab 1 Hariana 25
Panjab 2 Hariana 36
Panjab 3 Hariana 35
Panjab 4 Hariana 37
Panjab 1 Tharpar
kar
30
Panjab 2 Tharpar
kar
32
Panjab 3 Tharpar
kar
29
Panjab 4 Tharpar
kar
30
Panjab 1 Sahiwal 26
Panjab 2 Sahiwal 29
Panjab 3 Sahiwal 30
Panjab 4 Sahiwal 38
Panjab 1 Red
Sindhi
29
Panjab 2 Red
Sindhi
25
Panjab 3 Red
Sindhi
27
Panjab 4 Red
Sindhi
28
3. Analysis
a) Through commands: type in the following commands at the command prompt or create a
command file through command editor and then submit it by selecting FileSubmit File
from the main window:
BY STATE$
MGLH
CATEGORY LACT$ BREED$ / EFFECT
MODEL MY = CONSTATNT + LACT$ + BREED$
ESTIMATE
b) Through menus
Select DataBy Groups from main window and fill the options in dialog box as
given below and click on OK button:








Select Stats GLM Estimate Model from the main window and fill the options of
dialog box as follows:


232








Click on Category button of the above menu and fill the new dialog box as given
below:









Select Continue option from the above menu after entering the required values and
then select OK.
c) Results
i) The following results are for:
STATE$ = Haryana
Effects coding used for categorical variables in model.
Categorical values encountered during processing are:
LACT$ (4 levels)
1, 2, 3, 4
BREED$ (4 levels)
Hariana, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Tharparker
Dep Var: MY N: 16 Multiple R: 0.91 Squared multiple R: 0.82
Analysis of Variance
Source Sum-of-Squares df Mean-Square F-ratio
LACT$ 11.00 3 3.67 2.00
BREED$ 66.50 3 22.17 12.09
Error 16.50 9 1.83
ii) The following results are for:
STATE$ = Panjab
Effects coding used for categorical variables in model.
Categorical values encountered during processing are:
LACT$ (4 levels) 1, 2, 3, 4; BREED$ (4 levels) Hariana, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal,
Tharparker
Dep Var: MY N: 16 Multiple R: 0.73 Squared multiple R: 0.54 Analysis of Variance
Source Sum-of-Squares df Mean-Square F-ratio
LACT$ 66.25 3 22.08 1.67
BREED$ 72.75 3 24.25 1.84
Error 118.75 9 13.19










Adesh K. Sharma
Scientist
Computer Centre
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Multimedia in computer terminology refers to the integration of multiple media such
as visual imagery, text, video, sound and animation, which together can multiply the impact
of your message. The integration of multimedia technology into the communication
environment has the potential to transform an audience from passive recipients of information
to active participants in a media-rich learning process. The introduction of multimedia or any
other computer based information technology is not intended to substitute for a presenter.
This new technology is rather intended to provide the presenter with a powerful tool that can
greatly enhance communication by delivering a multi-sensory experience. However, a
multimedia information kiosk or Internet Web site can be designed to provide information to
users with or without human intervention.

Most of the advantages of multimedia manifest themselves in presentation
applications. Earlier it was not easily possible to present large amounts of highly condensed
information to an audience while retaining everyone's interest. However, with the advent of
multimedia technology, it has now become possible as people see in color, focus on motion,
and hear in surround sound. Multi-sensory presentations improve comprehension and hold
the audience's attraction.

2.0 DESKTOP MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATOR

While using a computer-assisted presentation program, one must be able to
differentiate among the four levels of presentations, viz., slide-presentations, multimedia
presentations, interactive multimedia presentations and multimedia Internet Web sites.

Slide presentations: These are linear presentations (one slide after another) developed
using primarily text, graphics (clipart) and/or pictures. No interaction or branching
(connection or linkages between different parts or sections of the presentation) is possible
in this type of programs.
Multimedia presentations: These presentations can be developed using text, graphics,
charts, sounds, digitized video, computer animations and/or pictures in which no
interaction between user and computer has been incorporated. The interaction, (exchange
of ideas or messages) can take place between the presenter (communicator) and the
audience.
Interactive multimedia presentations: These presentations are developed with the same
elements as those in the preceding category but incorporate built-in interaction between
user and computer. This interaction can be in the form of data entry (entering
MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION: A MODERN
TECHNIQUE FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING
234
alphanumeric answers), selection of possible answers or alternatives (multiple-choice or
true/false questions), interaction with screen objects, requests and receipt of printouts, and
other possibilities. This type of program format is appropriate for information kiosks,
personnel training programs and computer-assisted education programs.
Multimedia Web pages: This kind of presentation or application is initially developed
using the aforementioned tools, but it needs to be compressed using specialized tools.
These tools allow the application to be played back through a Web browser. These
applications have the potential to become interactive by taking advantage of Web site
hypertexting capabilities or by accessing databases external to the Web site.
Presentation tools
Title of Software Manufacturer
Aldus Persuasion Adobe Systems Inc.
Astound Gold Disk Inc.
Forshow Bourbaki
IconAuthor AimTech Corporation
ImageQ Image North Technologies
Macromedia Director Macromedia
Q/Media Q/Media Software Corp.
MS-PowerPoint Micro-Soft Inc.
Lotus Freelance Graphics Lotus
Authorware Professional for Windows Macromedia

3.0 CREATING MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATIONS

A computer-based presentation consists of a set of computer visuals that are designed
to produce and deliver the relevant information to an audience. The visuals, also called slides
can be pure text such as a list of bullets, a table of data, a graphic object like a bar chart, a
drawing, or a scanned logo, etc. The modern multimedia presentation software provide us to
create/import the data, organize these visuals into a presentation, sort them, include transition
effects, and the ability to incorporate multimedia effects like audio, animation, and video into
a presentation. The presentation is stored in a file that can be later edited. The presentation
can be played back on a computer monitor or projected onto a screen using a multimedia
LCD projector to address a large audience like a class of dairying students.

3.1 Creating presentations with MS-PowerPoint

PowerPoint is a complete presentation graphics package. It can be used to produce a
professional-looking presentation. It makes you an independent producer of your own high-
quality presentations. When PowerPoint opens, you see the following startup dialog box:









235
Select the 'Blank presentation' and click 'OK' button. You will see the following slide layout
menu showing various auto layouts.












Using a slide layout is an easy way to begin building a presentation. So, you select an
appropriate layout for your slide by locating the desired one and clicking 'Ok' button.
Suppose you wish to prepare a title slide, then you should select the appropriate slide as
shown along with its name in the above Auto Layouts box. You will see the following slide
layout:













You can add the presentation title and sub-title at the designated places on the slide as shown
above. Now suppose that you want to make a slide to hold some text as a list of bullets.
Select the appropriate slide layout labeled 'Bullets List' in the Auto Layouts box through
Insert New Slide options on the toolbar. You will see the following slide:
















236
Here, you can write the slide title along with other text for the slide. Similarly, you can
prepare various slides which may incorporate text, graphic objects, and a combination of the
two.

3.2 Saving a slide presentation

After preparing the slides you should save them in a presentation file through
FileSave As ... options on the toolbar as follows:













The PowerPoint attaches a secondary name .ppt to your presentation files, e.g., if you name
your presentation as DemoCas, it will be stored as DemoCas.ppt.

3.3 Background color and design layout

PowerPoint comes with hundreds of color schemes, each designed to give your
presentation a different look. It's easy to experiment with different color schemes. For
example choose a new color scheme from FormatSlide Color Scheme ... options on
toolbar as follows:













From the above Color Scheme box you can select new colors for the background and text.
You must choose the background color first, then a text color and then a combination of other
colors to complete the new color scheme.

Also, you can apply design templates provided by PowerPoint. On common task
toolbar, click Format Apply Design..., find and select the design you want to use or any




237
presentation whose design you want to use and then click Apply button. The whole process
is shown here under:













4.0 CREATE ANIMATED SLIDES

You can use the Custom Animation command on the Slide Show menu to set all the
animation effects you want for a slide. For example, you can set text to appear by the letter, a
word, or a paragraph. You can have graphic images like scanned research photographs, logos
(e.g., scanned Logo and photograph of Dairy Technology Students taking demo in the
Experimental Dairy Plant at the NDRI are shown just below), drawings etc.,









and other objects such as charts and movies appear progressively, and you can even animate
the elements of an object. You can also change the order in which objects appear on a slide,
and you can set timings for each object. The whole process is shown in following image:





















238
Also sound and movie clips can be added from different sources like on-line Gallery,
Internet, etc., to the slide through InsertMovies and Sounds options on toolbar as
follows:

4.1 Add transitions to a slide show

In slide or slide sorter view, select the slide or slides you want to add a transition to.
















On the Slide Show menu, click Slide Transition. In the Effect box, click the transition you
want, and then select any other options you want. To apply the transition to the selected slide,
click Apply. To apply the transition to all the slides, click Apply to All.












Playback a slide show





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To play back (or view) the slide show, click Slide Show View Show on common
toolbar as follows:


5.0 CONCLUSION

The applications of this software in the areas of teaching, research and extension
education are enormous. Mostly in academics, we find it quite useful; teachers can create
class-room presentations and students can create projects and presentations regarding their
assignments, seminars etc. It can be further used for digitizing rare research photographs in
order to preserve the important images and photographic information (i.e. creating a digital
photo album) which can be shared with the students and others. Also, you can add voice to
each and every slide to explain the context of the photograph. Once you run the slide show it
will give you an impression as if you are watching a movie. Moreover, efforts can be made to
develop automatic electronic slide shows which can demonstrate a newly developed
technology, process or technique to the students/ farmers/ professionals working in industry,
during dairy melas (i.e. carnivals) or the like forums. These are only a few applications of the
software, however, by stretching your imagination you can even find a lot more new practical
applications.

6.0 REFERENCES

John Villamil Casanova, et. al., Multimedia: An introduction, Prentice Hall of India.
Multimedia special supplement, Data Quest, May 1997
Multimedia special supplement, Data Quest, Feb. 15, 1998, Pages 104-117.
PC Quest, Nov. 1994, Pages 51-56 and Dec. 1995 Pages 87-96.
Software Manual, MS-Office-97(PowerPoint).
The client server, Dec. 1995, Pages 11-14, Digital Equipment (India) Limited, Bangalore.
Winn L. Rosch, Multimedia Bible, SAMS Publishing and Prentice Hall of India.


SEARCH TECHNIQUES FOR PRINTED AND ONLINE
INFORMATION SOURCES FOR DAIRY RESEARCH






Y.K. Sharma
1
and B.P. Singh
2

Technical Officer
1
and Senior Technical Assistant
2
National Library in Dairy Science
NDRI, Karnal-132001

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A lot of primary information sources relevant to dairy research is available in print as
well as online in different forms such as books, journals, conference proceedings, annual
reports, theses, CD-ROM and internet. These information sources are processed for easy
search of bibliographic information for reporting in different secondary and tertiary
information sources. It is desirable for a user to understand this process in order to fetch the
most relevant and useful information to his research and to save valuable time and money. In
this paper an attempt is made to explain the process i.e. search techniques for online
information sources which will also be helpful for printed information sources.

2.0 SELECTING SEARCH TERMS

The first step of designing a search strategy is to determine the main concept or
concepts from the topic of the research. Once the main concepts are determined, it is required
to choose search terms (keywords) for these concepts. In a simple case, the search term used
to describe the concept will be the same as the search term (keyword) used in the search. For
example, if search is for the learning about milk, the main concept is milk and the same is the
search term for searching.

In other cases, use of two or more terms to describe to the search concept. For
example, if the information is required for advances in manufacture of cheese during 1990-
2000, in this case main concepts are manufacture, cheese and 1990-2000 with the terms
manufacture and cheese. For this purpose a search statement is made. A search statement
may be any one or the combination of the following:


Description Search Example
A word Fat
A number 1994
Any combination of letters 3M
and/ or numbers
A phrase Dairy Products
A phrase with an operator in advances in Fat-Rich products
quotes (an operator that is a
stop word will be ignored)

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A hyphenated phrase or Milk-Fat
descriptor
A root (truncated) word, SNF* differ
indicated by an asterisk
A word with wildcard(s) Los?es
indicated by one or more
question marks
A previous search request, #5
preceded by the # sign
Any of the above, combined Cow or calf or #3
with an operator
Any of the above, grouped with (Cow or buffalo) in ti
parentheses for clarity

3.0 FINDING THE CORRECT SEARCH TERM

Many databases use a controlled vocabulary and specified set of terms are used when
indexing records. If the keywords selected initially do not match the controlled vocabulary
of the database (information source), the desired search results are not retrieved. For
example, in the CABCD database, the controlled vocabulary term for beet fat is tallow. If
the search is made for beet fat, no record will be retrieved as they may have been indexed
under the term tallow.

So if the keywords chosen initially do not retrieve the desired results, the search
should be made for the synonyms or related terms used in the database. The synonyms or
related terms may be determined by using the Index or by using the Thesaurus.

4.0 USING THE INDEX

Most of the information sources/databases have an Indices. An index is a alphabetical
list of all words and hyphenated phrases used in the free text (non-limit) fields of that
database. For each term, the Index lists the number of times it occurs and the number of
records in which it occurs. Index can also be used to check the spelling of terms or to see if
they occur in the database, or to look for synonyms.

5.0 USING THE THESAURUS

Many databases (information sources) have a thesauruses i.e. a list of the controlled
vocabulary like index but in thesaurus the relationship of the terms used is also expressed.
For some databases such as CABCD, AGRIS, AGRICOLA and FSTA, the concerned
thesaurus is available online with the database. Printed versions of some of these thesauri are
also available directly from the database producers.

6.0 REFINING SEARCHES

Sometimes the search does not return the required exact results. In some cases, too
many records are retrieved and in other cases, too few. The following are the ways to tailor
the original search concepts to fit to the vocabulary used in the database. Technically the
process is known as narrowing or broadening of the search to get the desired results.
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7.0 NARROWING A SEARCH

When the search retrieves too many records, the following techniques are used to
narrow the search.

Using Operators: the operators are words which have a special meaning in the search
software. These are used to combine search terms into a more complex search statement.
Four operators i.e. and, with, near, and not are specially useful for narrowing the
search. The operator and retrieves the records which have both the terms in same record
and the operator with searches the record which have both the terms in the same field.
The Operator near searches for both terms that appear in the same sentence and
(presumably) have an even closer relationship than either and or with and the operator
not excludes records containing the search terms from the results.
Field-specific searching : This technique is useful for eliminating false results and it is
used to narrow or limit search in a particular field.
Using Keywords (Descriptors): Databases commonly have special descriptor fields that
indicate the main topic or the focus of the record. These descriptor fields often
abbreviated as DE in computer databases and in printed sources as keywords. They
contain hyphenated terms for which search may be made.
Using Limit fields: Each online information source called database contains several
specially indexed fields known as limit fields. Limit field typically contain information
common to a large number of records such as publication year or language.
Using the Index : The index may be used to find more specific terms to describe the
search topic. The index is specially useful in narrowing searches to records by a particular
author.
Using the Thesaurus: Like index it is helpful in locating more specific narrower terms to
narrow the search. The subheadings can also be used by adding them with the help of
hyphen.

8.0 COMBINING TECHNIQUES TO NARROW A SEARCH

The above techniques can also be combined to narrow searches. For example, we can
use operators with field-specific searching. In the cases of combined techniques the
parentheses are used to clear the meaning of the search statement. For example, the
following search statement may be used to search records for research on harvesting of fat.
(Fat and harvest) in DE.

In this statement, the and operator is used to search for only those records that
contain both fat and harvest. In addition, by using the in operator search is restricted to the
Descriptor field (DE) only and it is also ensured that the fat remains the main focus for the
search. Here the parentheses is used to group fat and harvest. Parentheses are often required
in complex search statements to ensure search software interprets statement correctly. If the
parentheses is omitted, software will search for fat and (harvest in de), separately.



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9.0 BROADENING A SEARCH

When the search retrieves too few records, the following search techniques are used
to broadening the search for increasing the number of retrieved records:
Use of or operator for synonymous terms for example fat or snf will search for record
having either fat or snf.
Truncation i.e. use of asterisk (*) at the end of a word or word root for example fat* will
search for fat and fatty.
Wildcard searching i.e. use of wildcard symbol (a question mark) to search for alternate
characters within a word for example che?se will retrieve for cheese and chease.
Using the index which works in conjunction with the or operator to help us broaden a
search. The index is more efficient than truncation when several search terms required
with the same root.
Omitting hyphens from descriptors: this technique is specially useful for picking up
references where the term is not the first word in a phrase.
Using the Thesaurus: following ways may be used to broaden the search using
thesaurus:
Using broader term
Selecting multiple terms
Exploding search terms
Using all subheadings
Lateral searching-choosing search terms from retrieved records: This technique of
selecting additional search terms from previously retrieved records is an excellent way to
broaden a search.
Searching other discs and databases: Broaden the search by searching more than one disc
from a database set or by continuing search on another database. For example CABCD
and FSTA databases my be searched for fat-rich dairy products.

10.0 OUTPUTTING SEARCH RESULTS

Once the records are retrieved, records may be browsed and marked for later printing
or downloading, the records can be downloaded to save them on floppy or hard disk as a file
for printing or for sending through Email etc. The records may be saved in a variety of
formats by changing the settings for the print, and download options.

11.0 CONCLUSION

Before searching for the various information sources, if the above mentioned search
techniques are used , the retrieved search results will be more relevant and useful. It will also
save the time, money and energy of the researchers, which may be utilized for some other
purposes for boosting up the dairy research.

12.0 REFERENCE

PC-SPIRS : User Manual, Ver.3.3, Silver-Platter International, Ltd, London, 1994,
http://www.silverplatter.com.
WINSPIRS User Manual, 4.x., Silver-platter International, London, 1999. http://www.silverplatter.com.
CABCD : User Manual, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Slough, 1994.
CAB Thesaurus, 2 Vol., Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Slough, 1999.
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Online Informaion and retrieval : Concept principles and techniques. Harter, Stephen P., Academic Press,
Orlado, 1986.