.

Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior and its origins,
development, organizations, and institutions.
[1]
It is a social science that uses various
methods of empirical investigation
[2]
and critical analysis
[3]
to develop a body of
knowledge about human social actions, social structure and functions. A goal for
many sociologists is to conduct research which may be applied directly to social
policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical
understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from themicro level of
individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social
structure.
[4]

The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class,social
mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality and deviance. As all spheres of human
activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency,
sociology has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects, such
as health, medical, military and penal institutions, the Internet, education, and the role
of social activity in the development ofscientific knowledge.
The range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchersdraw
upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguisticand cultural
turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative,hermeneutic,
and philosophic approaches to the analysis of society. Conversely, recent decades
have seen the rise of new analytically,mathematically and computationally rigorous
techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis.
[5][6]

Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has
origins in the common stock of Western knowledge and philosophy, and has been
carried out from as far back as the time of ancient Greek philosopher Plato if not
before. The origin of thesurvey, i.e., the collection of information from a sample of
individuals, can be traced back to at least the Domesday Book in 1086,
[9][10]
while
ancient philosophers such as Confuciuswrote on the importance of social roles. There
is evidence of early sociology in medievalIslam. Some consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-
century Arab Islamic scholar from North Africa, to have been the first sociologist and
father of sociology;
[11]
his Muqaddimah was perhaps the first work to advance social-
scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict.
[12][13][14][15][16][17]
Concerning
the discipline of sociology, he conceived a theory of social conflict. He developed the
dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as well as the concept of a
"generation", and the inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors
conquer a city. Following a contemporary Arab scholar, Sati' al-Husri, the
Muqaddimah may be read as a sociological work: six books of general sociology.
Topics dealt with in this work include politics, urban life, economics, and knowledge.
The work is based around Ibn Khaldun's central concept of 'asabiyyah, which has
been translated as "social cohesion", "group solidarity", or "tribalism". This social
cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; it can be
intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. Ibn Khaldun's analysis looks at how
this cohesion carries groups to power but contains within itself the seeds
psychological, sociological, economic, political of the group's downfall, to be
replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound by a stronger (or at least younger
and more vigorous) cohesion.
The word sociology (or "sociologie") is derived from both Latin and Greek origins.
The Latin word: socius, "companion"; the suffix -logy, "the study of" from Greek -
from , lgos, "word", "knowledge". It was first coined in 1780 by the
French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieys (17481836) in an
unpublished manuscript.
[18]
Sociology was later defined independently by the
French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte (17981857), in 1838.
[19]
Comte used
this term to describe a new way of looking at society.
[20]
Comte had earlier used the
term "social physics", but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most
notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavored to unify history,
psychology and economics through the scientific understanding of the social realm.
Writing shortly after the malaise of theFrench Revolution, he proposed that social ills
could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach
outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [18301842] and A General View of
Positivism (1848). Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after
conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, in the progression of human
understanding.
[21]
In observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in
science, and having classified the sciences, Comte may be regarded as the
first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.
[22]

Sociology is the study of how society is organized and how we experience life. It has
been taught in British universities since the very beginning of the twentieth century,
first at the London School of Economics and soon after at Liverpool University. These
and other pioneering departments did groundbreaking research in major social issues
such as poverty and crime.

Sociology today is one of the most popular subjects. Many sociological ideas, such
as 'moral panic' and charisma, are now in everyday use. But the questions sociology
asks have lost none of their challenge and excitement. Some of them are so
important that we are still grappling with them in new ways.

It was the sociology of deviance that proposed the startling idea that some forms of
punishment make it more likely that people will commit further offences. Once
branded a criminal, they argued, it is very difficult to remake a successful life within
the law. This is exactly the point made by opponents of Anti-Social Behaviour Orders.

Do you wonder what fuels our apparent fixation with celebrity? Is it just gossip in a
modern form? Is it that it provides endless, easily obtained content for our multiplying
TV channels, newspaper pages and magazines? Could it be both? Or even
something much more profound about the class system of modern Britain? You may
be already thinking 'But class doesn't mean anything any more'. Are you sure? Why
is the number of years you can expect to live still associated with your occupation?
What about the way that your gender, religion, and ethnic background open up or
close down opportunities in your life? What kinds of spiritual faith do people have in
Britain today? And how far do the media affect how personal lifestyle choices are
viewed by wider society?

Sociology is not just about Britain. It also deals with global issues like the
environment, migration and 'globalization' itself. How do these social changes affect
people at every level of their social life? Is it possible to be a true citizen of Europe or
must you be British or French or Polish? What if your parents came from Trinidad,
Bangladesh or Wales? Which comes first? Or are there other ways to look at identity?
How important is the job that you do for your sense of self and your future? Are
national governments able to ensure that most people have a job and will be
supported with health and social care when they need it? Or are most government
policies made with the demands of vast transnational corporations in mind?

These are vital questions. If you become a sociology student you will not be provided
with quick answers. What you will discover is how to think about these issues for
yourself: what are the questions behind the questions? Generations of students have
found that sociology makes them look at the world in new ways and this is why so
many of us who teach it feel passionately about it - and why it is still pioneering after
more than a hundred years.
Areas Of Sociology
Sociology is a very broad and diverse field. There are many different topics and
scopes in the field of sociology, some of which are relatively new. The following are
some of the major areas of research and application within the field of sociology. For
a full list of sociology disciplines and areas of research, visit the sociology
disciplines page.
Family. The sociology of family examines things such as marriage, divorce, child
rearing, and domestic abuse. Specifically, sociologists study how these aspects of
the family are defined in different cultures and times and how they affect individuals
and institutions.
Deviance And Crime. These sociologists, also called criminologists, examine
cultural norms, how they change over time, how they are enforced, and what
happens to individuals and societies when norms are broken. Deviance and social
norms vary among societies, communities, and times, and often sociologists are
interested in why these differences exist and how these differences impact the
individuals and groups in those areas.
Demography. Demography refers to a population's composition. Some of the basic
concepts explored in demography include birth rate, fertility rate, death rate, infant
mortality rate, and migration. Demographers are interested in how and why these
demographics vary between societies, groups, and communities.
Social Inequality. The study of social inequality examines the unequal distribution of
power, privilege, and prestige in society. These sociologists study differences and
inequalities in social class, race, and gender.
Health And Illness. Sociologists who study health and illness focus on the social
effects of, and societal attitudes towards, illnesses, diseases, disabilities, and the
aging process. This is not to be confused with medical sociology, which focuses on
medical institutions such as hospitals, clinics, and physician offices as well as the
interactions among physicians.
Work And Industry. The sociology of work concerns the implications of technological
change, globalization, labor markets, work organization, managerial practices, and
employment relations. These sociologists are interested in workforce trends and how
they relate to the changing patterns of inequality in modern societies as well as how
they affect the experiences of individuals and families.
Race And Ethnicity. The sociology of race and ethnicity examines the social,
political, and economic relations between races and ethnicities at all levels of society.
Topics commonly studied include racism, residential segregation, and the differences
in social processes between racial and ethnic groups.
Military. Military sociology looks at the military as a social group rather than an
organization and examines issues related to coerced collective action, survival in
vocation and combat, civilian-military relations, and interactions between other groups
or government agencies.
Education. The sociology of education is the study of how educational institutions
determine social structures and experiences. In particular, sociologists might look at
how different aspects of educational institutions (teacher attitudes, peer influence,
school climate, school resources, etc.) affect learning and other outcomes.
Religion. The sociology of religion concerns the practice, history, development, and
roles of religion in society. These sociologists examine religious trends over time, how
various religions affect social interactions both within the religion and outside of it,
and relations within religious institutions.
The Internet. Sociology of the Internet includes the analysis of online communities
(newsgroups, social networking sites, etc.) and virtual worlds. Sociologists are
interested in the social implications of the Internet and how virtual communities and
worlds are transforming real communities and societies across the globe.