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P PH HY YS SI IC CA AL L G GE EO OG GR RA AP PH HY Y
A A. . T Th he e l la an nd ds s & & i it ts s f fe ea at tu ur re es s
Different landform types: broad plains,
rolling hills, rugged plateaus, majestic
mountains, etc.
-> land use & economic development
I. Mountains & Valleys of the Pacific
Region
Location: The region extends from CA to
AK and includes HI
General characteristics
Greatest mountain ranges,
highest/tallest mountains, stunning
scenery
Natures land-building process:
volcanism, faulting, folding.
Erosion: glacier, swift-flowing
streams

HAWAII
Most active & extensively studied volcano in Volcanoes National Park
Kilauea Crater erupts continuously in bubbling, non-life-threatening fashion
Mauna Kea, highest peak, 10,360 m from Pacific floor, worlds tallest mountain in sea

ALASKA
Many towering, snow-clad mountains of fault block origin (Alaska Range)
Have 100 volcanoes, many are extremely active
Mount McKinley (aka. Denali): North Americas highest peak, worlds tallest peak on land, 6,194m, expand
32km
Rank PEAK HEIGHT (km) COUNTRY ORIGIN
1 Mauna Kea & Mauna Loa 10.2 (4.2 SL) US (Hawaii) Volcanic
2 Pico del Teide 7.5 (3.7 SL) Spain (Canary Islands) Volcanic
3 Mount McKinley (Denali) 5.3 - 5.9 (tallest on land) US (Alaska) tectonic
4 Mount Everest 3.6 - 4.6 Nepal/China tectonic

MAINLAND
Hill & low mountains form coastal ranges.
Cause: geologic folding (Pacific & North American tectonic plates colliding)
Inland: fertile valleys for agriculture
Imperial Valley, Central Valley in CA
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Willamette Valley in OR
Lowlands bordering Puget Sound in WA
The Sierra Nevada:
Central CAs towering backbone: uplifted fault block range
Western slope: forest-covered, expand 130 km
Eastern edge: Mount Whitney (4,418 m, highest point in 48 states)
Eastern slope: drop >4,267m in several mile distance
Death Valley: 100km east of MW, 86m below sea level, worlds 3
rd
lowest point of dry land
The Cascades: from northern CA to WA, active volcanic range
Mt Rainier: highest peak, snowcapped, 4,392 m
Mt St. Helens: erupt violently in 1980, caused 57 deaths.

II. Mountains, Plateaus, and Basins of the Interior West
Location: between the Sierra Nevada, the Cascades, eastward to the Rockies, western Texas.
BASINS & RANGES
Basins Feature:
low & scattered mountain ranges separate broad & flat basins.
With/without interior drainage
Water to basins -> evaporates -> salts -> accumulate. (Bonneville Salt Flats, UT; Great Salt Lake, UT;
Salton Sea, CA)
THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU
Location: portions of eastern WA, northeastern OR, western ID
Feature: of volcanic origin (formed millions of years ago by 1,829m layer of magma & lava)
Unique landscapes: 1/6 in loess or powder-like material; hilly, fertile soil & best wheat-growing land
Hells Canyon (2,438m) chasm on Snake River between northeastern OR & western ID; Scoured by water
erosion; deepest river gorge in NA
(>1km deeper than Grand Canyon in
AZ)
Scablands, WA: lunar-like
landscape of bare rock.
Formation:
Thousands of years ago,
during late stages of the ice age, a huge
lobe of glacial ice dammed todays
Clark Fork River near Sandpoint, ID.
Water built up behind the barrier
-> create ancient Lake Missoula (610m
depth) -> ice float -> giant lobe rise ->
immediate breakup of ice -> destructive
flood -> scour everything, leaving scab-
like landscape

The Scablands
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THE COLORADO PLATEAU
Location: Southwests Four Corners area
Feature: alternating layers of sandstone & limestone, Water erosion created towering cliff, many natural
bridges, arches, deep gorges

THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS
Location: from northern NM to MT, into Canada as a mountain chain & AK
A series of mountain ranges with regional names
17 peaks in CO (>4,267m), Mount Elbert: highest in Rockies, 4,399m,
Mountain glaciers scour the jagged terrain: Grand Teton NP in WY, Glacier NP in MT, Rocky Mt NP in CO

III. Interior Lowlands
Location: from the Rockies to the Appalachians
The Great Plains, west of 100
th
meridian, Western margin: 1585m high (Denver, 1585m high, CO)
Eastward, plains drop gradually until they reach Missouri & Mississippi rivers.
Flat terrain broken in places by buttes, mesas, low mountains (Black Hills of SD, Mount Rushmore, highest
here is Harney Peak 2,207m)
The Central Plains: East of Great Plains to foothills of the Appalachians (north-central TX to eastern
Dakotas, eastward to OH & MI),
Agriculture concentration: Central plains as breadbasket: excellent soils, ample moisture, flat land for
equipment.

IV. Appalachian Mountains
Location: from AL to New England
Shape: an accordion-like series of parallel, southwest-northeast-trending ridges & valleys
Cause: geologic folding (forces within earth pushed toward one another, creating a ripple-like landscape)
Feature:
an ancient system of low mountains, highest at 2,037m (Mount Mitchell)
Ancient rivers scour east-west-trending valleys (gaps) creating corridors followed by early people, later
railways, highways

V V. . P Pi ie ed dm mo on nt t & & A At tl la an nt ti ic c & & G Gu ul lf f C Co oa as st ta al l P Pl la ai in ns s
Eastern slope: hilly upland area, drop gradually toward coastal plain. At the joint is a fall zone/line ->
early settlement
Rapidly flowing water -> water-powered saw, flour, other industrial mills, goods transportation (land-based
vehicles, warehouse) -> lively trade, commerce. (30 cities founded)
Gulf coastal plain: an arc from western FL to southern TX
Atlantic coastal plain: from mouth of NYs Hudson River to eastern FL, along the coast, seaports are
developed

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CLIMATES & ECOSYSTEMS


Within temperate mid-latitudes, moderate conditions of weather & climate (-AK, HI)
Extremes are seasonal (exc. aridity)
Settlers found ways to adapt to challenges: water storage, diversion, irrigation, air-conditioning, insulation,
artificial heating
Varied climates offer diversity of natural vegetation, soil conditions, water features

THE SOUTHEASTERN CLIMATE
Humid subtropical
Ample moisture (100-150 cm. P/Y). Gulf Coast, southern FL, parts of Appalachian (150-200cm)
LA is wettest (140cm. P/Y)
Mild winter. Long, hot, steamy summer

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THE NORTHEASTERN CLIMATE
Humid continental climate
Ample moisture < the Southeast
Western: Dry condition (Corn Belt: 50-100cm.M)
Eastern: 100-150cm
Snowfall in winter (cover ground Nov-Apr in north)
Near Great Lakes: 250cm, lake effect snow
Temperature: moderate in summer, frigid in winter
North: in Jan: -12->-18
o
C

EASTERN ECOSYSTEM
Flora:
Dense cover of broadleaf, needleleaf, mixed forest -> today much are cleared for agriculture & other
land use
In southeast, much are returned to woodland
Fauna:
Birds, marine life, mammals-> abound with help from conservation programs
Agricultural lands shrink -> wildlife habitat develops
Soil: thin, acidic, poor in far north; rich in south (destroyed by poor agricultural practices)

THE DRY INTERIOR WEST
Scant moisture (50cm.P/Y)
T
o
depends on latitude & elevation
Nevada: driest state, 23 cm. P/Y
Far from sea = weather extremes -> Interior west: Summer: fiercely hot; Winter: frigidly cold
Las Vegas: driest city, 10 cm. M
Death Valley, CA: driest spot, 3.6 cm, 57
o
C
Tucson, AZ: 1% humidity
Summer: wettest, rain falls in torrential thunderstorm

Aridity near the Sierra Nevada & Cascades

Semi-permanent high pressure maintains aridity in desert Southwest
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Mojave Desert, Sonora Desert: Afternoon t
o
: >40
o
C
Wisdom, MT; Stanley, ID; Bellemont AZ: High elevation -> low temperature. Lowest: -57
o
C
WESTERN ECOSYSTEM
Flora: Steppe, prairie: Water available -> soil fertile
Fauna: Bison, deer, elk, antelope
THE PACIFIC REGION
Border Pacific ->coastal CA has mild, pleasant Mediterranean climate (20s
o
C, 75-125 cm P/Y, summer
drought) -> inflow of migration
Soggy West Coast marine climate (moist & temperate) (AK panhandle, north of CA)
Summer: cooler; Winter: warmer
Some locations: years without snowfall (different than Cascades)
Area west of mountain: Wettest spot
Several locations in Cascades, Sierra Nevada: receive several hundred inches of snowfall each winter
Seattle, WA: weeks without sunshine
Olympic NP, wettest spot: northwestern WAs Olympic Peninsula (380cm, M)
WAs Mount Baker Ski Area: snowfall record (29m)

ECOSYSTEM
Flora:
Remarkable forests.
Reliable moisture + high relative humidity (frequent fog) => tree growth, fire suppression
Recent years, reduced harvest =>needle-leaf evergreen forest provide high quality lumber
Worlds tallest tree: Hyperion (115.5m),
redwood in undisclosed location (northern CAs Redwood
National Park)
Worlds oldest tree: Methuselah (<4,800-year-
old bristlecone pine in CAs White Mountains)
Worlds largest tree by mass: General
Sherman Tree (1,486.6m
3
, 11.1m of a base diameter)

HAWAII
Humid tropical climate, microclimatic conditions
Maui: some environmental record: Mount Puu
Ulaula: (Mediterranean-type landscape on 3,050m slope) 10
km of nearly all of Earths ecosystems (-polar)
Kauai: desert environment with scant vegetation (grasses, scrub plants, cacti, irrigated culture)
Mount Waialeale: wettest spot (168.5cm, P/Y) due to orographic effect (rain), rain shadow (aridity)

ALASKA
Summer: short, cool; Winter: long, severe
Southern coast: temperatures moderate
Juneau (capital), Anchorage (largest city): warmer in winter (> Lower 48)
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Inland: t
o
-61
o
C -> 40
o
C
Adequate moisture
ECOSYSTEM (AK)
Fauna: Animal: bears (black, brown- Polar bear, Grizzly bear, Kodiak), deer, moose, caribou, seals, walrus,
whales, seafood (fish, crab)
Flora: Taiga (or boreal) forest: larch, pine, spruce aspen; Tundra (far north); Shallow soils + short growing
season => stunted ecosystem (moss, clump grasses, hardy flowering plants, lichen)

WATER FEATURE
Importance for:
agriculture,
industry (maritime transportation, hydroelectricity-producing dams),
commerce, recreational activity (fishing)
=>largest cities grow around a river mouth or natural harbor, oasis sites
Problematic: water pollution & depletion

Oceans
Bordered by 3: Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic
Safe from potentially hostile neighbors,
countless marine resources,
scenic beauty,
shipping access to the world,
atmospheric moisture (melting Arctic Ocean ->global navigation to Europe, Asia)

Lakes
90% worlds natural lakes formed by glacial action
In Pleistocene (ice age), glaciers reached into US (Ohio, Missouri rivers) & formed in many of higher
mountain ranges
=>Most lakes in the northeastern & north of Ohio, Missouri rivers; reservoirs, water bodies formed behind
dams in Southeast & West.
Great Lakes: worlds largest system of freshwater (esp. Lake Superior); -> Canadas St. Lawrence River ->
Atlantic (water route)
Rivers
Major river system: by Mississippi & its 2 major tributaries, Ohio, Missouri rivers
Drain 41% of 48 states
Missouri- Mississippi river: 5,970 km long, distance < Nile, Amazon
Barges navigate rivers upstream to Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN; Pittsburgh, PA; Sioux City, IO
New Orleans, LA, near mouth of Mississippi: leading seaport (before Hurricane Katrina 2005)
Many eastern rivers importance: Hudson River towards New York city
In Southeast, 1933, during Great Depression, the TVA ( Tennessee Valley Authority) built 50 dams =>create
jobs, clean & inexpensive source of (hydroelectric) area, reservoirs for recreational activities, control
flooding
In Southwest, the Rio Grande & Colorado River flow southward across desert landscapes.=> cities,
agriculture:
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The Rio Grande: from the Colorado Rockies -> central NM -> TX (border between US & Mexico);
dammed in 3 locations ->regional agriculture, dry along lower course
The Colorado River controlled by 8 dams & reservoirs (Glen Canyon Dam, Lake Powell, Hoover
Dam, Lake Mead) -> booming population, economic growth (Phoenix, Tucson, AZ, CAs Los
Angeles basin, San Diego, Imperial Valley, Las Vegas, coastal southern CA)
In Pacific Northwest, the mighty Columbia & its chief tributary, the Snake River -> hydro-electric energy,
irrigation, domestic use, recreational activities.

Groundwater
Ground water is water deposits stored in an aquifer, its upper limit is the water table.


Groundwater: tapped by wells, reach surface through springs

In arid regions, an aquifer: nonexistent or lie >300m under (desert Southwest)
Quality & quantity of groundwater deposits in sharp decline:
aquifer contaminated by seepage of pollutants,
earthen material (e.g salt & sulfur) cause foul taste/odor, reduce water quality,
Water used faster than being replaced: esp. near cities in West; from SD to the TX panhandle, water
for irrigation taken from Ogallala Aquifer
=> solution: find alternative water source, develop an economy in balance with available water resources

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDSHaz

Earths atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere,
biosphere wreak havoc on land, property, human life.
(difference: hazard->risk vs. disaster-
>damage)
Population concentrations vs environmental
hazards, natural disaster:
Most dangerous: Pacific Coast states,
eastern half of country (where majority of Americans
live)
Coastal regions, wooded areas,
lakeshores, river valleys, mountains (->potential
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environmental risks) -> people flock
Great Plains, Great Basin (->safest places) ->lowest population density
US Demographics: People tend to live in hazard-prone areas
(refer to p.43) deaths by disaster < deaths by accidents, violence, smoking due to:
Forecasting is improved -> people alerted -> take precautions (hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards,
floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions)
Engineering & site selection with safety: dams, levees, preservation of wetlands, reforestation,
cellars (from tornadoes), firefighting strategies & technology (from conflagrations)

Types of hazards
Atmospheric hazards: hurricanes, tornadoes, heavy flood-causing rain, blizzards, ice-related storms (hail,
sleet), lightning, drought
Hurricane: in the Gulf & Atlantic coastal zones, (6/10 natural disasters): water (>wind) cause most
destruction (wind push water -> high waves, torrential rains -> severe flooding); Hurricane Katrina
(New Orleans, LA) breach protective levees, drop 38 cm of rain. Damage: $80 billion.
Tornadoes, blizzards, hail, ice storms, flooding: most of eastern half
Blizzards, drought, flooding: in Great Plains, much of interior West
The Pacific Coast
Hazard-prone area, within Ring of Fire area (seismic, volcanic activities). From Cascades to Alaska,
Hawaii: active volcanoes
In 1980, WAs Mount St. Helens erupted violently, caused 57 deaths
From southern CA to AKs Aleutian Islands, Pacific & North American plates slide, crunch, grind against
one another => most earthquake-prone zones
Anchorage, Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles on geologic faults -> in constant peril (Earth creep,
Landslides in La Conchita (CA), 2005, raging wildfires, periodic droughts)