K S V INSTRUMENTS LTD

Application Note #100

P.O. Box 128, 00381 Helsinki, Finland
E-mail: info@ksvltd.fi www.ksvltd.fi

This application note provides a brief introduction why it is important to measure contact angles and
surface tensions of different surfaces and liquids. Additionally, a brief comparison to other surface
characterization techniques is given. Finally, a list of application areas and industries where these
properties are of importance with short example will be presented. More about what contact angle and
surface tension are and how they can be measured can be found in the other application notes AN #101-
AN #106.

Why measure contact angle and surface tension?

The large influence of surface chemistry has only recently been acknowledged in many industrial fields. In
order to meet the challenges of the increased competition and the challenges of the feature in improving
our quality of life and protecting our environment, the development of new surface-engineered materials
and products are the focus of many fields of today´s scientific research. The precise characterization and
knowledge of the properties of surface engineered materials and liquids are of utmost importance in the
development of new, better performing products with improved qualities. The knowledge of the surface
properties of raw materials and how to manipulate these properties of the material to fit a certain
application has become a key role this process.

Measurement of contact angles and surface tensions provides a better understanding of the interactions
between solids and liquids or liquids/liquids. These interactions play a key role in understanding adhesion,
material wettability, biocompatibility, lubricity of solid surfaces as well as the wetting, washability,
spreading and adsorption of liquids. Contact angle and surface tension measurements provide the
information needed for development and modification of liquids and solid surfaces using today´s
sophisticated surface engineering techniques. Hence, almost any solid or liquid surface can be modified to
fit an application.

How come contact angle and surface tension are so important ?

Molecules inside (bulk) a liquid/solid are in every direction affected by equal attraction forces, whereas the
molecules at the surface lack a neighbor towards the air phase and therefore they have larger attraction
forces towards the liquid/solid than air (see figure below). This leads to a situation where the interface has
excess free energy. This excess free energy is characteristic for any liquid or solid. For liquids a
spontaneous contraction of the surface will take place due to this free energy and the Surface Tension of a
liquid is a direct measure of it. In the case of solids a contraction is hardly ever seen, but still this free
energy is present at the interface of a solid. However, now it is called Surface Free Energy (instead of
Surface Tension as for liquids) and can be accessed by measuring the contact angle of a series known
liquids placed on the solid surface. The dimension of Surface Tension and Surface Free Energy is mN/m.
 The unbalance of interactions at an air/liquid interface

Due to the unbalance of forces at the surface/interface the structure and composition of the
surface/interface is different than in the bulk. Interactions at surfaces/interfaces therefore result in special
orientations of molecules, accumulation of certain types of molecules at the interface, separation of
positive and negative charges. This often results in a situation where the surface/interface properties are
completely different from the properties of the bulk material. The knowledge of the properties of the
outermost layer of a material is therefore very important in many cases.

Combined analysis of surface tension and contact angle gives information about the properties of the
outermost layer of a surface in a simple way.

Contact Anngle and Surface Tension measurements vs. Other Surface

Characterization Techniques ?

Methods based on Tensiometry and Goniometry to measure contact angles and surface tensions are very
useful techniques for surface and liquid characterizations due to their university, accuracy and simplicity.
KSV Instrument manufactures tensiometers (Sigma 70 series) and Goniometers (CAM 200 and CAM 100)
for educational purposes, R&D and industrial applications.

A large range of other surface characterization methods such as X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS
or ESCA), Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS), Raman and
IR spectrometry also exists. However, these techniques penetrates more or less into the surface, while
Tensiometry and Goniometry are the only techniques to access the properties of the outermost layer of the
surface/interface. Furthermore, the techniques mentioned above are very expensive (hundreds of thousands
of dollars), while a Tensiometer or Goniometer can be obtained for 10-20 000 USD.

Of course, Tensiometry and Goniometry techniques do not give exact information about the chemical
composition of the surface/interface such as XPS, SIMS and IR spectrometry does, but they are fast,
simple and accurate techniques for quick checks of for example surface treatments of solids or liquid
formulations.

Imaging tools such as Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscopy (TEM and SEM), Scanning
Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) are also widely used for surface
characterization. Apart from being very expensive techniques these are laborious techniques to work with.

Consequently, Tensiometry and Goniometry can be seen as complementary techniques giving supporting
information to other surface characterization methods and/or techniques that can be used to guideline the
researcher in the right direction before a more elaborate analysis with a much more expensive surface
characterization tool is started.
Application areas

Biomaterials
Advances in medical and dental technology have been at the forefront of the materials revolution. These
new and surface-modified biomaterials are being employed to create disposable contact lenses, IOL's,
catheters, dental prosthetics and biocompatible implants. The artificial materials need to have certain
wettability properties (Surface Free Energy) to avoid rejection of the human body for example for body
implants, and to ensure a good adhesion between the tooth and embodiment in the case of dental surgery.
The wettability of contact lenses of cleaning solutions can be examined by contact angle measurements.
The effectiveness of the cleaning solution formulation for contact lenses can be improved, by optimizing
the surface free energy of the lens, changing the formulation of the cleaning liquid and measuring contact
angles.

Pharmaceuticals
By applying special surface treatments to pharmaceutical powders the distribution and dissolving behavior
of the powder can largely be influenced. The controlled release, wettability and dissolving behavior of an
orally ingested pharmaceutical powder, tablet and capsule, or transdermally applied drug product in
various body fluids can be improved with the help of contact angle and surface tension measurements. This
enables the development of more safe and effective time-released pharmaceuticals.

Composites
"New-age materials" constructed of structural reinforcing fibers and resin matrix systems have replaced
many of the traditional metals and other heavier and weaker materials. Composites are found in a wide
range of products used in aerospace, automotive and sporting good applications. The adhesion between
the fiber and resin matrix system can be optimized, by finding the right formulation of the resin matrix with
proper wetting properties against the fiber.

Semiconductors
The cleanliness of semiconductor surfaces is of utmost importance in the semiconductor industry. The
surface free energies of clean and treated surfaces (mainly nitrides and oxides) used in semiconductor
industry are directly correlated to the cleanliness and surface composition of the surface. Therefore,
contact angle measurements are a highly suitable quality control method in this field.

Paper, Film & Ink Products

The advent of new environmentally friendly water-based inks has sparked new research in coating
processes in the paper industry to improve ink adhesion and support recycling efforts. Adhesion of inks
and protective coatings to polymer film products used in the production of photographic and electronic
media and in the packaging of food and electronic products are also benefiting from surface chemistry
technology. For example, all materials involved in an offset printing process (paper, metal and rubber
surfaces, printing ink and dampening solution) need to have a certain surface free energy or surface tension
in order to obtain an optimum printing quality. A container for juice requires different surface energies on
the outside (printability) than on the inside (liquid-resistant), while a sheet of newspaper should have the
same properties on both sides.

Paints & Coatings

With the increased use of plastic and composite materials in automotive applications and new water-based
paints with special surfactant mixtures, drives for new preparation methods for obtaining stable emulsions
for storage shelf life and long-lasting adhesion between the coating and substrate surfaces (paper, metal,
wood, plastic etc.). Therefore, the optimization of the interfacial tension between the particle and carrier
for example in the paint formulation and measurement of interaction, i.e. contact angle, between coating
and substrate are critical in the coating processes. In addition, new and improved coating formulations
such as the anti-weather polymer sealant covering the car body or the preservative covering the stain on
your wood deck are all important products that provide a protective barrier from the environment. The
effectiveness of the coating formulation and the coating process of for example a car body coating can be
accessed by measuring the hydrophobicity (i.e. contact angle) of the lacquer surface.

Adhesives
Nowadays a large range of material combinations are more easily and durably connected by using
adhesives, instead of using soldering, welding and mechanical connection as in the past. The adhesion
between different composite structures (glass-metal, leather-fabrics, wood-paper) and the wetting of the
adhesive on the substrate can be accessed by contact angle measurements.

Cosmetics
Shampoos, conditioners or other cleaning products are only effective when the surface of the hair or the
cleaned surface is receptive to the product. The cleaning process of shampoos and the effectiveness of
cleaning solutions can be followed by measuring the contact angle. The surface tension is a measure of the
effectiveness of surfactant solutions. The interfacial tension plays an important role when developing time
and temperature stable emulsions for various cosmetics products such as suntan, toothpaste and body
creams and lotions. For example, a stable dispersion of Titanium Oxide used in suntan can be obtained by
optimizing the surface free energy of the solid particles and the surface tension of the liquid carrier.
Superabsorbent personal hygiene products such as baby diapers have been studied with the contact angle
method to improve absorbency and provide protection against wetness.

Textiles
The application of water and stain or static-resistant coatings is widespread in the textile industry.
Everything from carpet fibers to surgical gowns to cross-country ski apparel involves surface treatments
applied to a textile material providing important barriers for protection from the elements. The wettability
of single fibers or fabrics as well as the hydrophobicity and homogeneity of the coating can be checked by
contact angle measurements.

Environment
Environmental issues have surfaced in almost every form of manufacturing and in many instances the focus
of product improvement research involves surface chemistry measurement technologies. Pesticides that
adhere to a leaf and are less likely to wash into the soil obviously need to be replaced less often. The
surface tension of the pesticide or fertilizer formulations directly affects their spreading on plant leaves or
in soil, which influence the effectiveness of the formulation. The contact angle of different pesticide
formulations on plant leaves can be used for finding the optimum composition of the pesticide formulation.
Oil polluted areas can be treated by surfactant solutions, and the cleaning process can be followed by
contact angle measurements on the treated samples.

And Many More

The examples of application areas given above are only the most important ones that can be covered by
contact angles and surface tension. Do not hesitate to contact us with any questions concerning any
application areas.