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BOILERS &
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HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN BOILERS AND FURNACE SYSTEMS
This booklet is part of the 3E strategy series. It provides advice on
practical ways of improving energy efficiency in boilers and furnace
systems.
Prepared for the European Commission DG TREN by:
The Energy Research Institute
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch 7700
Cape Town
South Africa
www.eri.uct.ac.za
This project is funded by the European Commission and co-funded by
the Dutch Ministry of Economics, the South African Department of
Minerals and Energy and Technology Services International , with the
Chief contractor being ETSU.
Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of
the commission, nor NOVEM, ETSU, ERI, nor any of the information
sources is responsible for the use of the information contained in this
publication
The views and judgements given in this publication do not necessarily
represent the views of the European Commission
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN BOILERS AND FURNACE
SYSTEMS


HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN BOILERS AND FURNACE SYSTEMS
Other titles in the 3E strategy series:
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY: THE 3E STRATEGY
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN ELECTRICITY USE
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN STEAM SYSTEAMS
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN REFRIGERATION
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN INSULATION
Copies of these guides may be obtained from:
Rondebosch 7700
Cape Town
South Africa
Tel No: (+27 21) 650 3892
Fax No: (+27 21) 686 4838
Email: 3E@eng.uct.ac.za
Website: http://www.3e.uct.ac.za
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Energy Research Institute would like to acknowledge the following for their contribution in the production of
this guide:
Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), UK, for permission to use information from the Energy
Efficiency Best Practice series of handbooks.
Wilma Walden of Studio.com for graphic design work (Walden@grm.co.za).
Doug Geddes of South African Breweries for the cover colour photography.
Canadian gov. See other guides.
Gu i d e Bo o k E s s e n t i a l s :
QUICK CHECK-LIST FOR SAVING ENERGY
and MONEY IN BOILERS AND FURNACE
SYSTEMS
This list is a selected summary of energy and cost savings opportunities outline in the text. Many
more are detailed in the body of the booklet. These are intended to be a quick checklist.
BOILERS (CHAPTER 9)
Maintain efficient combustion.
Maintain good water treatment.
Repair water and steam leaks.
Recover heat from flue gas and boiler blowdown whenever possible (see Steam
guidebook).
Ensure good operational control and consider sequence control for multi-plant
installations).
Attempt to match boilers to heat demand. Valve off idle boilers to reduce radiation
losses.
Use flue dampers where appropriate to minimize flue losses when the plant is not firing.
Ensure that boilers and heat distribution systems are adequately insulated.
Blowdown steam boilers only when necessary (see Steam guidebook).
Ensure as much condensate as practicable is recovered from steam systems.
Insulate oil tanks and keep steam or electric heating to the minimum required.
FURNACES (CHAPTER 12)
Minimise heat losses from openings on sealed units such as doors.
Use high efficiency insulating materials to reduce losses from the plant fabric.
Attempt to recover as much heat as possible from flue gases. The pre-heating of
combustion air or stock or its use in other services such as space heating is well worth
considering.
Reduce stock residence time to a minimum to eliminate unnecessary holding periods.
Ensure efficient combustion of fuels where applicable.
Avoid excessive pressure in controlled atmosphere units.
If maintaining stock at high temperature for long periods, consider the use of specialized
holding furnaces.
Make sure excessive cooling of furnace equipment
is not occurring.
Ensure the minimum amount of stock supporting
equipment is used.
Ensure there is effective control over furnace
operating parameters computerized control
should be considered for larger units.
Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................................................................1
2. COMBUSTION..................................................................................................................................................................................................1
2.1 Combustion air.........................................................................................................................................................................................1
2.1.1 Excess Air.....................................................................................................................................................................................4
2.1.2 Glue Gas Analysis....................................................................................................................................................................4
2.1.3 Determination of Excess Air ............................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Heat losses ..................................................................................................................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Heat loss due to incomplete combustion................................................................................................................8
3. HEAT TRANSFER...........................................................................................................................................................................................10
3.1 Conduction...............................................................................................................................................................................................10
3.2 Convection................................................................................................................................................................................................11
3.3 Radiation.....................................................................................................................................................................................................12
4. THE FUELS...................................................................................................................................................................13
4.1 Pipeline gas................................................................................................................................................................................................13
4.2 Liquid Petroleum Gas ........................................................................................................................................................................14
4.3 Fuel Oil........................................................................................................................................................................................................14
4.4 Coal .........................................................................................................................................................................................................15
4.5 Choice of Fuel ........................................................................................................................................................................................16
5. COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT: OIL AND GAS BURNERS..............................................................................18
5.1 Gas Burners .............................................................................................................................................................................................18
5.2 Oil Burners...............................................................................................................................................................................................18
5.2.1 Pressure Jet ..............................................................................................................................................................................18
5.2.2 Air or Steam Blast Atomiser ...............................................................................................................19
5.2.3 Rotary Cup..............................................................................................................................................................................19
5.2.4 Low Excess Air Burners ...................................................................................................................................................19
5.3 Burner Controls....................................................................................................................................................................................19
6. COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT: SOLID FUEL COMBUSTION.......................................................................21
6.1 Stokers.........................................................................................................................................................................................................21
6.2 Chain Grate Stoker.............................................................................................................................................................................21
6.3 Sprinkler Stoker.....................................................................................................................................................................................22
6.4 Fluidised Bed Combustion..............................................................................................................................................................22

7. ENERGY SAVING EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................................................................23
7.1 Flue gas heat exchangers ................................................................................................................................................................23
7.1.1 Economiser (Feedwater heater)..................................................................................................................................26
7.1.2 Recuperator (Air heater) ................................................................................................................................................26
7.2 Accumulators ..........................................................................................................................................................................................26
7.3 Insulation....................................................................................................................................................................................................26
7.4 O2 Analysers ............................................................................................................................................................................................27
7.5 Variable speed fan drives ................................................................................................................................................................28
7.6 Flue gas dampers ..................................................................................................................................................................................28
7.7 Waste heat boilers ..............................................................................................................................................................................28
8. POLLUTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................................29
8.1 Environmental Equipment ..............................................................................................................................................................30
8.1.1 Ash Handling Equipment ................................................................................................................................................30
8.1.2 Air Pollution Control Equipment ................................................................................................................................30
9. BOILERS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................31
9.1 Types of boilers......................................................................................................................................................................................31
9.1.1 Water Tube Boilers..............................................................................................................................................................32
9.1.2 Multi-Tubular Shell Boilers ..............................................................................................................................................34
9.1.3 Reverse Flame or Thimble Boilers..............................................................................................................................36
9.1.4 Steam generators ................................................................................................................................................................37
9.1.5 Sectional Boilers....................................................................................................................................................................38
9.1.6 Condensing Boilers..............................................................................................................................................................39
9.1.7 Modular Boilers ....................................................................................................................................................................40
9.1.8 Composite Boilers ..............................................................................................................................................................41
9.2 Boiler system selection ....................................................................................................................................................................42
10. ENERGY AND COST SAVING FOR BOILERS ..............................................................................................43
10.1 Potential Losses ..............................................................................................................................................................................43
10.2 Boiler Energy Balance ................................................................................................................................................................43
10.3 Minimizing Boiler Losses ..........................................................................................................................................................44
10.3.1 Maintenance saving opportunities..............................................................................................................................44
10.3.2 Blowdown Heat Loss ........................................................................................................................................................45
10.3.3 Heat Transfer ..........................................................................................................................................................................46
10.3.4 Excess Air Reduction..........................................................................................................................................................48

10.3.5 Flue gas heat recovery ......................................................................................................................................................49
10.3.6 Combustion air pre-heat ................................................................................................................................................53
10.3.7 Load Scheduling ....................................................................................................................................................................54
10.3.8 On-Line Cleaning ................................................................................................................................................................56
10.3.9 Flue Shut-Off Dampers ....................................................................................................................................................56
10.3.10 Variable speed fan drives ................................................................................................................................................56
10.3.11 Integrated control ................................................................................................................................................................57
10.4 What to do first a quick checklist ................................................................................................................................58
10.4.1 Check list ..................................................................................................................................................................................58
11. TYPES OF FURNACES ............................................................................................................................................................................59
11.1 Batch Furnaces ................................................................................................................................................................................59
11.2 Continuous Furnaces ..................................................................................................................................................................59
11.3 Direct Fired Furnaces ................................................................................................................................................................60
11.4 Indirect Heated Furnaces ........................................................................................................................................................61
12. ENERGY AND COST SAVINGS FOR FURNACES ............................................................................................................62
12.1 Potential Losses ..............................................................................................................................................................................62
12.1.1 Furnace Energy Balance....................................................................................................................................................62
12.2 Minimizing Furnace Losses ......................................................................................................................................................63
12.2.1 Flue gas heat loss..................................................................................................................................................................63
12.2.2 Heat Loss to incomplete combustion......................................................................................................................66
12.2.3 Radiation Heat Loss............................................................................................................................................................66
12.2.4 Furnace pressure control ................................................................................................................................................67
12.2.5 Furnace efficiencies and Monitoring and targeting ..........................................................................................68
12.3 What to do first a quick checklist ................................................................................................................................69
APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Conversion Tables ................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Boiler Efficiency Test ............................................................................................................................................................................................71
Furnace Efficiency Test ........................................................................................................................................................................................83

1
This guide examines the energy savings potentials
for boilers and selected furnaces. The boiler
section starts with a description of different
boilers plant, combustion equipment used and
fuels available. Environmental impacts are
described, boilers selection processes outlined and
finally a list of measures and a strategy outline for
saving energy in boiler operation.
2. COMBUSTION

In all aspects of boilers and furnaces (including
dryers and kilns) heat is produced from
combustion or by the use of electrical energy. The
heat is transferred to the product or water to
produce stream in the case of a boiler.
The fuel (with the exception of electricity which
heats an element) burns in the combustion
chamber, which varies in shape and size
depending on the application. Common fuels
include pipeline gas, liquid petroleum gas, heavy
fuel oil, lighter oils and solid fuels such as biomass
or coal. If gas is produced on site this can also be
used.
The in the case of a furnace the product is then
exposed directly to the heat generated in the
combustion chamber, flue gas heat or a gas/fluid
that has been heated by the combustion process.
2.1 COMBUSTION AIR
Stoichiometric air represents the amount of air
required for complete combustion with the
perfect mixing of the fuel and air Stoichiometric air
is sometimes called theoretical air. If perfect mixing
is achieved, every molecule of fuel and air takes
part in the combustion process. Excess air must be
supplied to ensure complete combustion of the
fuel because perfect mixing of fuel and air does
not occur. Percentage excess air is defined as the
The guide then moves on to savings in furnaces.
Various types of furnaces and energy saving
measures are described. The emphasis here is on
savings from excess air reduction, combustion air
preheat, correct insulation and furnace pressure
control.
1. INTRODUCTION

2
total amount of combustion air supplied in excess
of the stoichiometric air, expressed as a
percentage of the stoichiometric air.
Total air = Stoichiometric air x (1 % Excess Airr)
Total air = Stoichiometric air (x (1 +
(
100
)
The minimum amount of excess air required
varies with the fuel used and the efficiency of
mixing the air and fuel. If less than the minimum
quantity of air is supplied, some of the fuel will not
burn completely and there is a waste of fuel
energy. Evidence of incomplete combustion usually
shows up as carbon monoxide (CO) in the
products of combustion (flue gas). A continuous
gas analyser, or a manually operated Orsat, can be
used to check for CO in the flue gas.
Too much air also wastes energy. The gases leaving
the furnace are hot and contain heat energy. If
excessive amounts of air are supplied to the
furnace, the excess will also be heated. The effect
on heat losses by varying the amount of air
supplied to the furnace is shown in Figure 1. The
minimum losses occur when the amount of air
supplied is slightly greater than the
stoichiometric amount.
The weight or volume of each element or
compound in the fuel is required to determine the
stoichiometric air. It is often inconvenient to
determine stoichiometric air in this manner, as in
many instances the precise fuel analysis is
unknown or varies. A more convenient method
is to determine the quantity of air per unit of heat
in the fuel, i.e. kilograms of air per gigajoule of heat
in the fuel as fired (kg/GJ). Expressed in this
manner, the stoichiometric air required for
common types of fuel is almost constant. Table 1
provides values for several different types of fuel,
which may be used in boilers or furnaces.
It may be suspected that a supply air fan, air inlet
louvers, ducting or the air flow control method is
inadequate. Knowledge of the required amount of
furnace combustion air enables checking the
adequacy of the air supply system.The combustion
air requirements can be calculated and compared
Figure 1: Zone of maximum combustion efficiency (Source:
Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7. Page 4. Figure 2)
3
to the capacity of the components in the air
supply system.
Combustion air can be supplied to the equipment
by natural or forced draft systems. Natural draft
uses the negative pressure (draft) produced by the
furnace stack to draw combustion air into the
furnace and the resulting flue gases out of the
furnace. The most common example of this is the
ordinary domestic gas furnace. Natural draft is
usually applied only to small furnaces with less
than about one GJ/h heat input.
There are several disadvantages related to natural
draft firing. The amount of combustion air drawn
into the furnace cannot be controlled accurately
and the fuel and air mixing is inefficient.This means
that higher levels of excess air must be maintained
to ensure that complete combustion is achieved
under all conditions.The furnace pressure is always
negative which allows air to leak into the furnace,
and create additional flue gas volume and heat
losses.
Forced draft firing uses a fan to supply combustion
air to the equipment. Airflow is regulated by
means of dampers so that accurate control of the
proportion of air to fuel for various firing rates is
possible. A common method used to achieve this
is to operate the fuel valve and the damper with a
common mechanical linkage. Some form of
adjustable cam is used to vary the relative
positions of the fuel valve and damper to provide
proper fuel/air ratios at all firing rates.
The combustion air fan also provides better
mixing of the fuel and the air. The air is introduced
into the furnace around the burner(s) and vanes,
which produce a swirling motion in the air as it
enters the furnace, can create turbulence. A high-
pressure drop between the air supply and the
furnace is required to produce turbulence, and this
can only be achieved with a forced draft system.
These advantages mean that the excess air for a
forced draft system can be lower than for natural
draft firing, with resulting lower heat losses to the
flue gas.
Forced draft firing permits a slightly positive
furnace pressure at all times. Leaks will then be
from the furnace outwards, which may lead to a
dangerous situation when a furnace door is
opened. Therefore, it is desirable to control
furnace pressure at a slight positive value of not
more than about 10 Pa. This is normally achieved
by regulating a damper in the breeching between
the furnace flue gas exit and the base of the stack.
Example: Combustion air requirements for a furnace using 700 l/h of Number 6 fuel oil, at 15 per cent
excess air can be calculated. From Table 1, theoretical combustion air is 327 kg/GJ.The heating value of fuel
oil with 2.5 per cent sulphur is about 42.3 MJ/L (sulphur content can usually be obtained from the fuel
supplier).
Combustion air requirement = 700L/h x 42.3 MJ / L x 327 kg / GJ x 1.15
Combustion air requirement =
Combustion air requirement = 1000 MJ / GJ
= 11135 kg/h
11135 kg/h
or
1.204 kg / m
3
= 9248 m
3
/h at standard conditions.
4
It may not be possible to maintain furnace
pressure as low as desired if heat recovery
equipment is installed in the flue gas system or if
the stack provides insufficient draft.
2.1.1 EXCESS AIR
The actual percentage of excess air supplied to
the furnace is one of the most informative items
of information to the furnace operator. The most
accurate way of determining this is to analyse the
flue gas leaving the furnace.
2.1.2 FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
A furnace in which heat is produced by the
combustion of fuel can be considered to have fuel
and combustion air as inputs, and flue gas as the
output (Figure 2). Practically all fuels used in
furnaces are hydrocarbons, which contain the
elements hydrogen and carbon. Although some
fuels contain other constituents they are not
usually important to the combustion process. The
hydrogen in the fuel burns to form water vapour,
and the carbon burns to form carbon dioxide
(CO2), or a mixture of carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide (CO). Air contains nitrogen (N2) as well
as oxygen (O2). The N2 does not take part in the
combustion process, except for the formation of
small quantities of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
The major constituents of the products of
combustion are water vapour, CO2, CO, N2, and
any excess O2 left over from the combustion
process. Not all of the constituents will be present
in all instances. The presence of CO indicates
incomplete combustion.
Flue gas analysis can be determined by the use of
a continuous analyser or by periodic sampling. The
sample should be taken as close to the furnace
exit as possible to reduce air infiltration errors.
Some continuous analysers measure O2 content
and record or indicate the results. Other
continuous analysers measure the combustibles
content of the flue gas, which is mostly CO but
may also include some unburned fuel in gaseous
form. If a continuous flue gas analyser is not
available, a sample of the flue gas can be taken and
analysed with the use of an Orsat. The Orsat
determines the percentage by volume of O2, CO2,
and CO in the flue gas. The remaining gas is
assumed to be N2, plus a small quantity of water
Figure 2: Combustion process. (Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7.
Page 6. Figure 3)
5
vapour, which did not condense out of the sample.
There are other manually operated analysers
available, which measure either CO2 or O2 in the
flue gas.These are simpler to use and can be useful
as a cross check against an Orsat.
2.1.3 DETERMINATION OF EXCESS
AIR
Flue gas analysis provides sufficient data to
calculate the excess air to the furnace. In most
furnaces, CO is absent or very low because of high
levels of excess air. For natural gas or fuel oil firing
with no CO in the flue gas, the per cent excess air
can be determined from Figure 3. If other fuels are
used or if CO is present, the following equation
can be used:
% Excess air = O2 0.5CO
% Excess air = x 100
% Excess air = 0.2682N2 (O2 0.5CO)
Where O2 = oxygen by volume in flue gas (%)
CO = carbon monoxide by volume (%)
N2 = nitrogen by volume (%)
Examples: The flue gas analysis by volume on a
furnace burning natural gas gives the following
results:
O2 = 9.8%
CO2 = 6.2%
CO = 0%
From Figure 3, excess air is approximately 79 per
cent. This number can be compared to the
following calculation.
%N2 = 100% - (9.8% + 6.2% + 0%)
= 84%
Figure 3: Excess air versus flue gas analysis. (Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7.
Page 7. Figure 4)
6
% Excess Air = 9.8 (0.5 x 0)
% Excess Air = x 100
% Excess Air = (0.2682 x 84) [9.8 (0.5 x 0)]
= 77%
This value is very high for a furnace burning
natural gas, and the possibility of reducing the
excess air level should be investigated.
Another example will provide greater familiarity
with the calculation procedures. A furnace is
burning coke-oven gas with the following flue gas
analysis.
O2 = 2.1%
CO2 = 10%
CO = 0%
N2 = 87.9% (by difference)
The equation should be used to calculate the
excess air since Figure 3 is not applicable for coke-
oven gas.
% Excess Air = 2.1 (0.5 x 0)
% Excess Air = (0.2682 x 87.9) [2.1 (0.5 x 0)]
= 9.8%
This excess air is quite acceptable for a furnace
burning coke-oven gas.
In a furnace burning natural gas with a deficiency
of air, the flue gas analysis is as follows.
O2 = 0%
CO2 = 11%
CO = 2%
N2 = 87% (by difference)
Figure 3 cannot be used because of the presence
of CO.
% Excess Air = 01 (0.5 x 2)
% Excess Air = (0.2682 x 87) [0 (0.5 x 2)]
= 4.1%
Table 1: Combustion Air Requirements
Fuel Stoichiometric Air Typical Excess Air Total Air kg/GJ As
kg/GJ As Fired (minimum as a %) Fired
Natural Gas 318 5 334
#2 Fuel Oil 323 10 355
#6 Fuel Oil 327 10 360
Coke-oven Gas 1 295 15 340
Refinery Gas 2 312 10 343
Propane 314 5 330
CO 12%
H2 42%
CH4 37%
C2H4 and higher 5%
CO2 Remainder
1
Analysis by volume
CH4 31%
C2H6 20%
C3H8 38%
H2 5.6%
C4H10 and higher 1.0%
Inert Gases Remainder
2
Analysis by volume
7
This means that approximately 4 per cent less
than the theoretical air required for complete
combustion is being supplied to the burners. If the
type of process permits it, increasing the
combustion air supply should reduce the carbon
monoxide.
Occasionally, CO occurs with high O2. This is
usually an indication of poor mixing of the fuel and
combustion air. Sometimes improvements can be
made by adjusting the burner air dampers to
create more turbulence where the fuel and air
mix. In other instances it may be necessary to
replace the burner assembly.
2.2 HEAT LOSSES
The heat discharged from the stack, is usually the
largest loss in a fuel fired boiler or furnace. Flue gas
analysis and flue gas temperature can be used to
calculate the loss. If there is no heat recovery
equipment on the furnace or boiler, these
measurements should be taken at the outlet to
minimize the possibility of the readings being
affected by air infiltration. With heat recovery
equipment the readings should be taken
immediately downstream of the equipment.
The flue gas heat loss has four components, which
can be calculated separately.
Dry gas heat loss.
Heat loss from the water vapour
contained in the combustion air
1
.
produced by the combustion of the
hydrogen in the fuel
2.
produced by the evaporation of moisture
in the fuel
3
.
For natural gas and oil, the moisture in the fuel is
minimal, and the evaporation of the moisture heat
loss can be ignored. The values for flue gas losses
can be calculated using figures from the appendix,
which gives a boiler efficiency test. Figure 4 below
shows this graphically for fuel oil.
1 This is often very small and is a function of atmospheric humidity.
2 This quantity is a function of the fuel and therefore cannot be changed by
operation. It is therefore not included in this discussion.
3 As above this quantity is primarily a function of the fuel and therefore cannot
be changed by operation. It is therefore not included in this discussion.
Figure 4: Flue-gas loss for fuel oil. (Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 6.
Page 12. Figure 10)
8
In practice this loss can vary from 8% to 50%
depending on the fuel. The major influencing
factors are the exit flue gas temperature and the
degree of excess air present. To minimize losses in
coal-fired plant, correct combustion is essential
including better fuel preparation, better stoking
practices and improved control of combustion air
both the undergrate and the overgrate draughts.
The same factors apply to oil-fired boilers. Fuel
preparation should be correct (uncontaminated
and at the right temperature), burners undamaged
and properly maintained, and combustion air
(both primary and secondary) should be
introduced at the right rate and with adequate
turbulence.
For fuels such as coal, biomass, and industrial waste
or municipal refuse, the heat loss from the
moisture in the fuel can be considerable. Wood,
for instance, could have a moisture content of up
to 60 per cent, depending on the source and
capability of the wood burning equipment. Figure
5 shows the variations in the moisture heat loss
for a typical biomass fuel having different moisture
contents at a flue gas temperature of 200 C. At
30 per cent moisture, this fuel heat loss is 5.5 per
cent of the fuel heat content. At 60 per cent
moisture, the loss increases to 21 per cent.
2.2.1 HEAT LOSS DUE TO
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
Heat can also be lost by the incomplete
combustion of fuel, this is indicated by the
presence of CO and, in the case of coal,
combustible material left in the ash.
2.2.1.1 HEAT LOSS TO CO
By controlling the amount of dark smoke
produced, the level of CO can be kept to a
practical minimum. The three influencing factors
are insufficient combustion air, inadequate fuel/air
mixing, or the ingress of cold air freezing the
combustion reaction. The heat loss, which is
measured in terms of the non-conversion of
Figure 5: Flue-gas loss with moisture content for biomass fuel. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 6. Page 13. Figure 11)
9
carbon into carbon dioxide, is relatively small, but
the rapid fouling of heat transfer surfaces under
these conditions adversely influences the boilers
performance.
2.2.1.2 HEAT LOSS TO
COMBUSTIBLES IN THE ASH
(COAL APPLIANCES)
This loss generally varies from 2% to 5%. It is a
clear indication of combustion air starvation for
which there are three possible causes: poor air
distribution under the grate: too thick a fire bed: or
uneven bed thickness resulting from poor stoking
practices.
The unburned combustibles heat loss is not
significant for properly operating oil and gas fired
installations, but it can be for solid fuel units. Figure
1 demonstrates that there could be a minor
unburned fuel loss at the maximum efficiency
point, but the real significance of this figure is that
the losses increase very rapidly as the total air is
decreased. The measure of this condition is
reflected by the presence of significant
combustibles in the flue gas.
In coal, biomass and other solid fuels, unburned
combustible material will be found in the refuse
collected in the ash pit and the fly ash hopper. The
loss should be determined when the boiler is
tested for efficiency.To do so requires a method of
collecting and weighing the refuse under
controlled conditions and laboratory testing the
refuse for its HHV. The loss can be calculated as
shown.
Unburned combustible heat loss = Dry refuse
quantity x Refuse heat content
Where units are:
Heat loss (MJ/kg fuel as-fired)
Dry refuse (kg of refuse/kg of as-fired fuel)
Refuse heat content (MJ/kg of refuse)

The transfer of heat from the burner flame to the
product can be by conduction, convection, or
radiation, and in most instances a combination of
all three.
3.1 CONDUCTION
Heat transfer to the product by conduction is only
significant in indirect heated equipment, where the
product is isolated from the flame by a heat
exchange surface. Muffle furnaces and furnaces
using radiant tube heaters (Figure 6) are examples
of indirect heating arrangements. Heat conducted
through a solid can be calculated.
Q = k x A x T x 3.6
Q =
Q = t
Where, Q = Heat conducted (kJ/h)
k = Thermal conductivity of solid
[W/(mC)]
A = Surface area (m
2
)
T = Mean temperature differen-
tial across solid (C)
T = Thickness of solid (m)
3.6 = Conversion factor from watts
to kilojoules per hour.
The foregoing equation shows that rate of heat
transfer increases in proportion to surface area,
and to temperature differential across the solid,
and is inversely proportional to material thickness.
3. HEAT TRANSFER

Figure 6: Radiant Tube Gas-Fired Rotary Furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)

(Energy Management Series 7. Page 13. Figure 7)
10
11
Example: A muffle furnace has a 10 mm thick, high nickel steel enclosure with a surface area of 55 m
2
.
Useful heat to the product, all of which is transmitted through the wall, is 1.9 GJ/h.The thermal conductivity
of high nickel steel is 31 W/(mC). The temperature drop through the muffle wall can be determined as
follows:
Heat Conducted = 31W / (mC) x 55m
2
x DT x 3.6
Heat Conducted =
Heat Conducted = 0.01 m
Heat conducted is 1.9 GJ/h, or 1.9 x 10
6
kJ/h
Rearranging the equation,
T = 1.9 X 10
6
X 0.01
T =
T = 31 X 55 X 3.6
= 3.1C
The temperature drop across the enclosure is 3.1C at the specified rate of heat transfer.
surface increases, but not proportionally. The

following equation can be used for gases:
Q = 23.46 x A x T x V
0.78
x d
Where, Q = Rate of convection heat transfer
(KJ/h)
A = Area of heat transfer (m
2
)
T = Temperature differential between
solid and fluid (C)
V = Fluid velocity (m/s)
d = Gas density (kg/m
3
)
3.2 CONVECTION
Heat transfer by convection takes place at the
boundary between a solid wall and a gas or liquid.
Intermingling takes place between the stagnant
layer of fluid at the wall and the moving fluid
stream next to the stagnant layer. Tests on rate of
heat transfer by convection show that the rate is
proportional to surface area and temperature
differential between the solid and the fluid. It also
increases as the velocity of the fluid over the wall
Example: A furnace is 3 metres long and has a 1 metre by 1 metre cross-section. Flue gas flows through
the furnace at an average velocity of 0.5 m/s with a gas temperature of 500C.The temperature differential
between the furnace walls and the flue gas averages 150C. For most practical purposes, the density of air
can be used for flue gas. From standard references, the density of air at 500C is 0.458 kg/m
3
. The average
rate of heat transfer by convection to the walls, floor and roof can be determined as follows.
Furnace area swept by flue gas = (1 + 1 + 1 + 1) m x 3m
= 12 m
2
Q = 23.46 x 12m
2
x 150C x (0.5m/s)
0.78
x 0.458kg/m
3
= 11 263 kJ/h
12
3.3 RADIATION
Heat transfer by radiation becomes significant for
temperatures above 600C. A hot body emits
radiation in the form of heat, which can be
received by another solid body in the path of heat
radiation. In an electric furnace or boiler, the walls
or tank, which are heated by the electrodes, emit
heat radiation to the furnace contents.
The amount of heat radiated from a solid body is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature, and directly proportional to its
emissivity. Absolute temperature is the number of
degrees above absolute zero and is measured in
Kelvin (K), which is equivalent to degrees Celsius
plus 273.
Emissivity is a measure of the heat radiated from
an object compared to that radiated from a similar
sized black body at the same temperature. The
maximum value of emissivity is that of the black
body; which is 1. Typical emissivity values for
furnace walls and oxidized steel are 0.8 to 0.9.
Because both the hot body, (the furnace wall) and
the cooler body, (the furnace contents) are
emitting radiation, the net total heat received by
the contents is the difference between the heat
emissions of the two bodies. The equation for a
furnace is:
Q = K x F x [( T1
4
( T2
4
]
Q = K x F x
Q = K x F x [(100) (100) ]
Where, Q = Rate of radiation heat transfer
(kJ/h)
K = Black body coefficient (20.6)
F = Overall radiation factor
depending on emissivity and
surface areas of the furnace
walls and contents
T1,T2 = Absolute temperature of hot
and colder bodies respec-
tively (K)
F = A1
F =
F = 1 + ( A1 ) ( 1 1)
F = 1 + ( A1 ) ( 1 1
F = e1 +
(
A2
)(
e2 1
)
Where, A1 = Surface area of furnace
contents exposed to walls
(m
2
)
A2 = Surface area of furnace walls
(m
2
)
e
1
= Emissivity of furnace contents
e
2
= Emissivity of furnace walls
Example: A furnace with a square cross section of 1 metre by 1 metre is heating carbon steel billets
100mm by 100mm.The furnace wall temperature is 1000C.The furnace floor does not radiate heat. From
Table 3, the emissivity of a fireclay brick furnace wall is 0.75, and the emissivity of oxidized carbon steel is
0.80. The heat input to the billet per metre of length when the steel is heated to 650C can be calculated.
A1 = (0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1) x 1
= 0.3m
2
A2 = (1 + 1+1) x 1
= 3m
2
F = 0.3
F =
F = 1 + ( 0.3 ) ( 1 1)
F = 1 + ( A1 ) ( 1 1
F = 0.8 +
(
3
)(
0.75 1
)
= 0.234
T1 = 1000C + 273
= 1273K
T2 = 650C + 273
= 923K
13
Heat radiated/metre length
Q = K x F x [( 1273
4
(923
4
]
= 20.6 x 0.234 x
Q = K x F x [( 100 ) (100 ) ]
= 91 604 kJ/h
Radiation also takes place from hot gases to the
furnace contents. This method of heat transfer
does not follow the same laws as the radiation
from solid bodies. Radiation from a luminous flame
is higher than from a clear flame of hot gases.

4. the fuels

Each conventional fuel differs from the others in
its combustion characteristics, and this influences
heat transfer. Fuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous,
and either commercial or waste. Commercial
fuels are fossil fuels, which are extracted,
treated/refined to varying degree and sold
nationwide by organizations such as oil companies.
Waste fuels are by-products or adjuncts of
processing or domestic activities and are,
obviously, only economically available locally.
Factors other than simple conversion to heat must
also be considered, including those relating to: the
storage and handling of the fuels, maintenance,
environmental impact etc. All of these influence
the overall efficiency and true cost of burning a
fuel.
4.1 PIPELINE GAS
Because gas mixes so readily with air and burns
without producing smoke and soot, boiler and
furnace maintenance costs are low. Natural gas
burners tend to be simpler with fewer mechanical
parts and are also therefore cheaper to maintain.
Natural gas would normally be the preferred fuel
for burning in boiler plant if convenience alone is
considered. It does not have to be stored; in
common with all the gaseous hydrocarbons it
mixes readily with combustion air to burn clearly;
and, ideally, the products of combustion are just
water and carbon dioxide. These basic arguments
would seem to carry a great deal of weight because
globally the majority of new boiler and furnace
installations in recent years have been gas tired.
The availability of an adequate gas supply at
individual sites needs to be checked in advance as
local constraints in the distribution system can
sometimes lead to delays in providing a
connection. A second factor is safety. Complying
with legislation regarding the supply and use of gas
involves some specialised equipment that has to
be maintained.
14
Thirdly, burning gas does cause pollution. While
the pollutants do not include smoke or noxious
substances, they do include gases that contribute
to the so-called greenhouse effect. Gas, being
composed predominantly of methane, is in itself
one such gas. Carbon dioxide, which is produced
by the combustion of all fuels, is another: its
production is not only unavoidable but also
desirable as its presence indicates complete
combustion of the gas. However, pipeline gas also
produces oxides of nitrogen (NOx). This is
because the gas burns at high temperatures and
this provides the additional energy necessary to
make the oxygen and nitrogen in the air combine.
As regards the pricing of gas, the actual price that
a customer will pay, as for any fuel, depends on the
amount used and the type of supply, and can vary
over a wide range. Prices are generally competitive
with oil products, for example with gas oil for firm
gas supplies and with heavy fuel oil for
interruptible supplies. Continued plant operation
during interruptions of an interruptible supply
requires a boiler to be dual-fuel fired usually with
oil as an alternative. In firing these two fuels the
burner would normally be set to achieve the most
effective results on gas, because gas is used for
most of the year, with oil firing only on the few
days of interruption sometimes experienced.
4.2 LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is used to describe
two fuels: propane and butane. In practice the vast
majority of installations use propane. All the
general comments about natural gas apply equally
to LPG.
One major difference between the two fuels is
that LPG requires both storage facilities and the
special precautions needed in relation to leakages.
The first can be very significant in terms of both
the capital cost of a project and its overall
operational and maintenance costs. The storage
tanks involved are pressure vessels and therefore
subject to both annual and long-term inspection
and testing. If a customer owns his own tanks he is
responsible for carrying out all inspections and
tests at his own expense. In practice, many
customers lease or rent the tanks from the fuel
suppliers, eliminating both this responsibility and
also that of general maintenance.
The second major difference is that LPG is heavier
than air. If natural gas, which is lighter than air,
escapes, all sources of ignition should be removed
and windows opened: it will then disperse
naturally. LPG, on the other hand, may find its way
down into pipe ducts, cable tunnels, drains, cellars
etc., and will not disperse unless forced to using a
fan. This characteristic influences the location of
storage tanks in relation to buildings, hollows,
drains, cellars etc. and plant location may be
affected.
4.3 FUEL OIL
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
The other fuel users mainly require the lighter
fuels petrol, kerosene, diesel, oil, gas oil etc. This
end of the barrel also provides the main
feedstock requirement for the petrochemicals and
plastics industries. However, the primary
separation of oil provides mainly the heavier more
viscous fuel oils, which potentially cause problems
in storage, handling, combustion and
environmental pollution. The main advance of fuel
oil, on the other hand, derives from the fact that
these heavier fractions tend to be cheaper.
Problems relating to fuel oil storage include both
the capital cost of the storage tanks and the
problem of handling the oil. Fuel oils are viscous
liquids, which become thicker and more
intransigent the colder they become. Gas oil, the
lightest and least viscous of the fuels, will usually
remain in liquid form no matter how cold the
15
winter. This either allows it to flow under gravity
from the tank to the burner or enables it to be
easily pumped. This holds true unless prolonged
periods of cold weather occur where the
temperature remains below freezing for a week or
more. Under these conditions, some of the waxes
contained in the oil begin to alter into sticky solids.
Typically, these solids build up on the filters in the
burner supply line, eventually blocking them.
Although this is an infrequent occurrence, some
exposed sites have installed electric trace heating
on the filters and/or the external distribution
pipework as a precaution.
The heavier grades of oil require heating in order
to remove them from the tank at all.To reduce the
amount of energy required for pumping the oil to
the burners, an appropriate pumping temperature
should be maintained.
Table 2 shows the recommended minimum
storage temperatures for the different grades of
oil and also the minimum temperatures for
optimising pumping costs. The temperatures given
in this table, especially for the heaviest oils are only
meant as an indication. With the exception of gas
oil, the general trend is for the heavier and more
viscous oil grades to require higher storage and
pumping temperatures.
The oil is heated either electrically or by taking
steam from the boiler, thereby reducing its overall
efficiency. The uncontrolled overheating of oil can
be very expensive, and uninsulated or poorly
insulated tanks or pipes are also a major waster of
energy.
Considerable energy is wasted if all the oil in a
tank is heated to the required pumping
temperature, and it is also bad practice to have
too much hot oil circulating and not being used by
the burners. A well designed hot oil ring main
circulates sufficient oil plus about 10% in order to
meet the maximum demand for all the burners it
serves. Fresh oil is drawn from the storage tank as
required, but the storage tank never forms part of
the basic circulation system thereby allowing all
the oil to heat up to the pumping temperature.
This ensures that both the size and the capital and
running costs of the oil heaters are kept to a
practical minimum.
The penalty of this oil heating requirement is that
it is uneconomic to use these heavier grades of
fuel oil on small boiler plant. Below 3 MW heavy
oil would be inefficient and, for bunker oil, 20 MW
is probably the lower limit. However, the market
price for the heavier fuel oils over recent years has
encouraged their greater use.
Provided that a grade of fuel oil is delivered to the
burner in good condition and at the correct
temperature for the burner, the production of
smoke or carbon monoxide should be minimal.
Table 2: Recommended Minimum Storage Temperatures for Different Grades of Oil
Fuel Oil Grade Viscosity Minimum Storage Typical Pumping
Type * *Cst @ 100C Temperature C Temperature C
Gas/Oil D 1.0 None stated None stated
Light E 8.2 10 10-12
Medium F 20.0 25 30-35
Heavy G 40.0 40 55-60
Bunker H 56.0 45 70
* Refers to BS 2869 - 1986.
16
The fact that all fuel oils contain some sulphur
means that sulphur oxides (SOx) are produced
during combustion. Such gases are now
considered to contribute to the global pollution
problem. Oil, however, burns at a lower
temperature than the gaseous fuels and therefore
produces less NOx gases.
4.4 COAL
The clean burning of solid fuels presents a
problem because the air required for combustion
is less readily available to the mass of fuel,
compared with atomised liquid fuels and gas. As a
result, coal burning has been responsible for most
of the traditional forms of air pollution smoke,
soot, grit and dust. Modern coal plant using
microprocessor control, on boilers with improved
stoker design, has eliminated this problem.
Stringent control of SOx and particulates can be
achieved through the use of limestone injection,
cyclones and bag filters.
Throughout the sub-tropical and temperate
regions of the world coal deposits are generally
significantly larger than crude oil or natural gas
deposits. As crude oil prices have risen, many oil-
importing countries with significant coal deposits
have undertaken considerable research into coal
burning and, in some cases, have implemented
policy decisions promoting the use of coal for
boiler firing.
Coal is the cheapest of the available conventional
fuels. Furthermore, coal prices tend to be more
stable than prices for other fuels, and long-term
price contracts with only moderate built-in
increases are available.
A coal-fired plant does, however, incur higher
capital and operating costs. As well as the boiler or
furnace plant itself, the capital cost incurred
includes bunkerage, coal handling equipment, and
facilities for ash removal, handling and storage.
Operational costs are high because, despite
considerable development efforts by plant
manufacturers to reduce the labour component, it
is rare that coal fired plants are ever fully
automated and unmanned.
Maintenance costs are also significantly higher than
for the other fossil fuel. The difficulty of achieving
clean combustion means that the boilers require
more frequent cleaning. Both the fuel and the ash
are very hard and abrasive so levels of wear and
tear on coal and ash handling equipment are high.
The disposal of ash in a manner that avoids
pollution is a significant operational component
and, in some regions of the country, can be a costly
business.
Low combustion temperatures limit pollution
from NOx, but the SOx released by coal
combustion must be considered. Both the calorific
value and the sulphur content of coal vary from
source to source. The average South African coal
sold into the industrial market has low sulphur
content and is less polluting than the heavier fuel
oils.
4.5 CHOICE OF FUEL
The choice of fuel is not a simple matter. It involves
balancing a number of factors including the capital
cost of the plant, the price of the fuel, and
operating and maintenance costs. Some
consideration should also be given to likely future
changes in fuel and pricing policies and to
pollution control legislation.
17
Table 5 summarises those advantages and
disadvantages that can be estimated and quantified
for each fuel.
Table 4: Calorific values of Some Fuels
Fuel Calorific ValueMJ/Unit
Gas
Natural Gas 38.0/cu m
LPG Propane 50.0/kg
LPG Butane 49.3/kg
Fuel Oil
Gas Oil 38.0/liter
Heavy Oil 41.0/litre
Coal 29.0/kg
Table 5:The pros and cons of various fuels.
COAL FUEL OIL NATURAL GAS LPG
Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
Capital Capital Cost For: Capital Cost For:
Cost For:
Tanks Storage Tank (or
Bunkerage leased)
Insulation
Fuel Handling
Heavy Fuel Oil
Ash Handling
Running Cost For: Running Cost For: Running Cost For:
Tank Heating Fuel (Especially for Small Fuel Cost
Installations)
Heavy Fuel Oil
Interrupt Tariff
Heavy Oil as Second Fuel
Maintenance Maintenance Costs Maintanance Costs For: Maintenance Costs
Costs For: For: For:
Safety Equipment Safety Equipment
Wear from Abrasive Boiler/Furnace
Fuel &Ash Cleaning
Boiler Cleaning Burners
Environmental Costs: Environmental Environmental Costs: Environmental
Costs: Cost:
Smoke Emission High NOx
Smoke Emission High NOx
Grit &Dust Emission
Sulphur Emission
Sulphur Emission
Clean up Heavy Fuel Oil
Ash Disposal Cost Higher NOx
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
L
o
w

C
o
s
t
C
h
e
a
p
e
r

T
h
a
n

G
a
s
N
o

S
t
o
r
a
g
e
N
o

S
u
l
p
h
u
r
N
o

S
u
l
p
h
u
r
18
In order to ensure the proper mixing of fuels with
combustion air and the correct flame shape, for
maximum heat transfer from the flame to the
water/steam or heated product, specialized
equipment is used. The type of equipment is
dependent on the furnace/boiler conditions and
the fuel or fuels of choice. (Boilers and furnaces
can be set up to fire more than one fuel.)
5.1 GAS BURNERS
Apart from the safety requirements in their
design, gas burners are essentially simple. Very
small boilers use a simple atmospheric burner,
which entrains its combustion air from its
surroundings. However, as the air and gas are not
forced to mix, surplus air is required to ensure
complete combustion. This surplus is heated and
then passes out via the flue, thereby reducing
boiler efficiency.
A larger boiler with a fully enclosed combustion
chamber needs a burner that will force the air and
gas to mix thereby controlling the length and
shape of the flame. The quantity of combustion air
can be precisely controlled to maximise
combustion efficiency.
Natural gas mixes readily with air.The ring-type gas
burner consists of a circular barrel ringed with
multiple outlet ports. The spud type burner
consists of a ring of 4 to 8 single barrels, each with
a widened end containing multiple outlet ports. In
either case the register surrounds the barrels with
air.
Many boilers are equipped with combination
natural gas and oil burners with the second fuel
used as back up for the prime fuel.
5.2 OIL BURNERS
Oil burners are more complicated because the
fuel has to be in the right condition for clean and
rapid combustion. This entails atomising the oil
into small droplets of the correct size, which can
only be done if the oil is at the right temperature
and therefore the right viscosity. At too low a
temperature the droplets are too big: combustion
is poor and produces soot and smoke. At too high
a temperature the droplets can be too small,
passing through the flame too rapidly to burn. In
neither case is the full energy content of the fuel
being used: furthermore, the heat transfer surfaces
become fouled.
Oil burners are of three basic types. The simplest
and most widely used is the pressure jet where
the oil is pumped at pressure through a nozzle.
The air or steam blast type uses gas pressure to
shatter the oil into droplets, while the Rotary Cup
uses centrifugal force to break the oil up. Each
type of burner has its benefits and disadvantages.
5.2.1 PRESSURE JET
Advantages:
Very simple in construction and cheap to
replace.
Comes in many sizes to suit most
applications.
5. combustion equipment: oil and
gas burners

19
Can produce all flame shapes from long
and thin to short and fat so can fit all
types of boiler or furnace combustion
chamber.
Disadvantages:
Prone to clogging by dirty oil so needs
fine filtration.
Limited turndown ratio of only 2:1.
Easily damaged during cleaning.
Highest oil pre-heat temperature requi-
red for atomisation.
5.2.2 AIR OR STEAM BLAST
ATOMISER
Advantages:
Very robust in construction.
Good turndown ratio of 4:1.
Good control of the combustion air/fuel
over the whole firing range.
Good combustion of the heavier fuel oils.
Disadvantages:
Energy used either as compressed air or
as steam for atomisation.
5.2.3 ROTARY CUP
Advantages:
Good turndown ratio of better than 4:1.
Good atomisation of heavy fuel oils.
Lowest oil pre-heat temperature required
for atomisation.
Disadvantages:
Most complex and costly to maintain.
Electrical consumption required for the
cup drive.
Oil and gas burners produced or sold in this
country have to meet statutory safety and
emission standards.
5.2.4 LOW EXCESS AIR BURNERS
Standard natural gas and oil burners operate at 10
to 15 per cent excess air at full capacity and higher
excess values at lower firing rates. The increasing
excess air with decreasing firing rate phenomenon
results from burner registers, which are fixed at
settings that provide best results at full capacity.
Low excess air burners permit operation at 2 to 5
per cent excess air. A reduction of excess air from
15 to 5 per cent would reduce fuel costs by
almost 1 per cent.These savings result from higher
cost features as follows:
Better design of the air diffusers, air
register, and burner, which achieve better
mixing and combustion.
Burner registers which are modulated
with the tiring rate to provide better
combustion at firing rates below 100 per
cent.
5.3 BURNER CONTROLS
In conjunction with the choice of burner type,
consideration must be given to the control system
required. The simplest ON/OFF control means
either that the burner is firing at full rate or that it
is off. The major disadvantage with this method of
control is that the boiler is subject to large and
often frequent thermal shocks every time the
boiler tires. Its use is therefore limited to small
boilers with an output up to 300 kW.
Slightly more complex is the HIGH/LOW/OFF
system where the burner has two firing rates. The
burner operates first at the lower tiring rate and
then switches to full firing as needed, thereby
overcoming the worst of the thermal shock. The
20
burner can also revert to the low-fire position at
reduced loads, again limiting thermal stresses
within the boiler. Typically this type of system is
fitted to boilers with an output of up to 3.5 MW.
A modulating burner control will alter the firing rate
to match the boiler load over the whole turndown
ratio. Every time a burner shuts down and restarts,
the system must be purged by blowing cold air
through the boiler passages: this wastes energy and
reduces efficiency. Full modulation, however, means
that the boiler keeps firing, and fuel and air are
carefully matched over the whole firing range to
maximise thermal efficiency and minimise thermal
stresses.Typically this type of control can be fitted to
boilers above 1 MW.
In matching a burner and a control system to a
boiler three factors must be taken into
consideration.
The maximum output of the plant:
Whether the load is steady or fluctuating:
The fuel being used.
An ON/OFF control, for instance, is not suitable
for heavy fuel oil
The basic choices as they relate to oil burners are
summarised in Figure 7. There is always some
overlap between burner types and control system
types but the preferred combinations are outlined.
Figure 7:Type of fuel oil with recommended burners and controls. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 67. Figure 38.)
21
Because carbon burns fairly slowly and coal needs
to be in the combustion chamber for a relatively
long period for the air to reach it and cause
complete combustion, many forms of stoker (for
transferring coal to the grate) have been
developed. Some have experienced periods of
popularity and have now declined, while others
have stood the test of time.
Coals from different pits or washeries can have
very different combustion properties.
Furthermore, coals from the same pit that have
been stocked for long periods are very different
from newly mined coal. As a result a boiler
combustion system must be regularly adjusted to
maximise energy conversion. In the following
section only those types of stoker that would be
fitted to a boiler with an output of 1.5 MW and
above are considered. Below this level there is
limited choice: each boiler comes with its own
proprietary form of stoker, screw feeding the coal
either onto the top of the fire or pushing it up
from below.
Three basic types of stoking system are commonly
used with the larger boilers - two of them
traditional designs and one a relatively modern
development.
6.1 STOKERS
Stokers are mechanical devices that burn solid fuel
in a bed at the bottom of a combustion chamber.
They are designed to permit continuous or
intermittent fuel feed, fuel ignition, adequate
supply of combustion air, release of gaseous
products, and disposal of ash.
Stokers are classified according to the manner in
which the fuel reaches the fuel bed. In an underfed
stoker, the fuel and air enter the burning zone
from beneath the bed. Overfed stokers have the
fuel entering the combustion zone from above, in
the opposite direction to the airflow. The
spreader-type overfeed stoker delivers fuel so that
a portion burns in suspension while the remainder
falls and burns on the moving grate.
6.2 CHAIN GRATE STOKER
The chain grate stoker has for many years been
the most widely used method for firing coal on
medium sized industrial and commercial boilers,
even though it is relatively expensive to buy,
operate and maintain. To reduce operating costs
equipment manufacturers are working to develop
a fully automatic system requiring little or no
intervention from trained operators.
The coal is fed onto one end of a moving steel
belt. As the belt moves along the length of the
furnace, the coal burns before dropping off the
end as ash. Some degree of skill is required,
particularly when setting up the grate, air dampers
and baffles, to ensure clean combustion leaving the
minimum of unburnt carbon in the ash and to
achieve maximum heat transfer in the furnace
chamber.
This type of stoker will only operate effectively
using certain types and qualities of coal. Coal must
be uniform in size, as large lumps will not burn out
completely by the time they reach the cod of the
grate. Furthermore, small pieces or fines may
block the air passages in the grate and make it
6. combustion equipment:
solid fuel combustion

22
more difficult for combustion air to reach the coal.
The grate also relies on having a layer of ash on
top of it to protect it from the highest
temperatures of the burning coal, so using coals
with a very low ash content will result in rapid
grate damage.
6.3 SPRINKLER STOKER
The sprinkler stoker is an original mechanical
stoker system, which has been brought up to date.
The principle is to spread fresh coal on top of an
already, burning firebed. Once the system has been
set up to spread this coal evenly it is simple to
operate and has many fewer mechanical parts to
maintain than the chain grate stoker.
Many units of this type have been manufactured
with control systems very similar to those for gas
or oil-fired boilers. Fuel feed rate and combustion
air are adjusted in parallel to give a turndown ratio
of 3:1. The chain crate stoker can also achieve this
but the sprinkler can be regulated much more
quickly.
This type of stoker was popular initially because it
was very much cheaper than the chain grate
equivalent. Its main drawback was that it had to be
de-ashed by hand. Effort has been put into
developing an automatic de-ashing system but,
obviously, this has considerably eroded the
sprinkler stokers price advantage.
Like the chain grate stoker, this type of stoker is
selective with regard to fuel size. Fines in the coal
are picked up by the combustion air and flue gases
and carried through the boiler. This can cause
considerable erosion within the boiler and result
in high grit emissions from the stack.
6.4 FLUIDISED BED
COMBUSTION
Fluidised bed combustion is the most recent coal-
burning technology, the fuel being fed onto a hot,
air-agitated bed of refractory sand.This system has
two main advantages:
1. It is much less selective in terms of fuel quality
and can burn not only very poor coal with a
high ash content but even industrial or
commercial waste.
2. The lower combustion temperature involved
allows cheaper materials and refractories to be
used in its construction.
However, this technology is still new and is in the
experimental stage in South Africa.
23
A short description of common equipment used
for saving energy in boilers and furnaces follow. In
some cases these are discussed further under the
energy savings sections of either boilers or
furnaces.
7.1 FLUE GAS HEAT
EXCHANGERS
Since most of the heat losses from a fuel fired
furnace appear as heat in the flue gas, the recovery
of this heat can result in substantial energy savings.
A common method is to install a heat exchanger
at the furnace exit.
A heat exchanger can be used to transfer heat
from the hot flue gas to the incoming combustion
air, or to the heat water used elsewhere in the
plant. The rate of heat transfer is proportional to
the surface area of the heat exchanger, and to the
mean temperature differential between the flue
gas and the combustion air.
Q = U x A x LMTD x 3.6
Where, Q = Rate of heat transfer (kJ/h)
U = Heat transfer coefficient of
heat exchanger [W/(m
2
C)]
A = Surface area of heat ex-
changer (m
2
)
LMTD = Logarithmic mean tempe-
rature difference (C)
3.6 = Conversion factor from
watts to kilojoules per hour
LMTD = T1 T2
LMTD =
LMTD = T1
LMTD = Ln
LMTD = (T2 )
Where, LMTD = Log mean temperature dif-
ference (C)
T1 = Greater temperature differ-
ence between the flue gas
and the heated air or water
(C)
T2 = Lesser temperature differ-
ence between the flue gas
and the air or water (C)
Ln is the natural logarithm
A heat exchanger may be used to heat water with
the heat from flue gases. An important design
consideration is how close the heated water
temperature should be to the temperature of the
hot gas entering the exchanger. It is not possible to
heat the fluid to a temperature above the
temperature of the hot gas entering, regardless of
the relative fluid and hot gas flows. Small
temperature differentials imply large heat
exchanger surfaces. This is illustrated by the
following example.
7. energy saving equipment

24
Figure 8:Tempering Air Heat Exchanger. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 7. Page 18. Figure 11.)
Example of savings
A heat exchanger is to be added to a dryer which is exhausting 450 000 m
3
/h of moist air at 100C. The
exhausted air is used to heat up 350 000 m
3
/h of incoming air from an ambient temperature of 10C to
85C, which is within 15C of the hot exhausted air (Figure 8). The heat exchanger design has a heat
transfer coefficient quoted by the manufacturer of 28 W/(m
2
C). Heat given up by the exhausted air is
equal to the heat gained by the incoming air, since there are no significant heat losses in a heat exchanger
of this type. Density of air at standard conditions is 1.204 kg/m
3
, and specific heat is 1.006 kJ/(kgC). The
surface area of the heat exchanger required can be calculated as follows:
Cold air heat gain (Q) = Volumetric flow x Density x Specific heat x Temperature rise
= 350 000 m
3
/h x 1.204 kg/m
3
x 1.006 kJ/(kgC) x (85-10)C.
= 31.79 x 10
6
kJ/h
Exhaust air heat loss = Volumetric flow x Density x Specific heat x Temperature drop
= 450 000 x 1.204 x 1.006 x (100C Tout) kJ/h
Cold air heat gain = Exhaust air heat loss
This can be expressed as:
31.79 x 10
6
= 450 000 x 1.204 x 1.006 x (100C Tout) kJ/h
Rearranging the equation:
(100C - Tout) = 31.79 x 10
6
(100C - Tout) =
(100C - Tout) = 450 000 x 1.204 x 1.006
= 58.3C
25
Heat exchanger exhaust temperature, Tout = 100C 58.3C = 41.7C
Maximum temperature differential, T1 = 41.7C 10C
= 31.7C
Minimum temperature differential, T2 = 100C 85C = 15C
The logarithmic temperature difference (LMTD) is:
LMTD = 31.7 C 15 C
LMTD =
LMTD = 31.7 C
LMTD = In
LMTD =
(
15 C
)
= 22.3C
Cold air heat gain (Q) = 31.79 x 10
6
kJ/h = 28 W/(m
2
C) x A x 22.3C x 3.6 kJ/Wh
Surface area, A = 31.79 x 10
6
Surface area, A =
Surface area, A = 28 x 22.3 x 3.6
= 14 142m2
If the cold air is heated to within 5C of the exhausted moist air instead of 15C, the size of the heat
exchanger required in increased considerably. The calculations are as follows:
Temperature of heated air = 100C 5C
= 95C
Cold air heat gain = 350 000 m
3
/h x 1.204 kg.m
3
x 1.006 kJ/(kgC) x (95 10)C
= 36.03 X 10
6
kJ/h
(100C Tout) = 36.03 x 10
6
(100C Tout) =
(100C Tout) = 450 000 x 1.204 x 1.006
= 66.1C
Tout = 100C 66.1C
= 33.9C
T1 = 33.9C 10C
= 23.9C
T2 = 100C 95C
= 5C
LMTD = 23.9 C 5 C
LMTD =
LMTD = 23.9 C
LMTD = In
LMTD =
(
5 C
)
= 12.1C
Surface Area (A) = 36.03 x 10
6
Surface Area (A) =
Surface Area (A) = 28 x 12.1 x 3.6
= 29 541 m
2
26
7.1.1 ECONOMISER (FEEDWATER
HEATER)
This is applicable mostly to boilers, and is an
option used for heating incoming boiler water by
cooling the flue gases. The equipment is a gas-
liquid heat exchanger. Care must be taken not to
allow the flue gases to cool below the sulphur
dew point. Economizers can be considered where
hot water is required. For furnaces, if the use of
hot water and the operation of the furnace do not
always occur simultaneously, it may be practical to
install an insulated hot water storage tank. This
would level out the effect of variations in the hot
water supply and demand.
7.1.2 RECUPERATOR (AIR HEATER)
In a recuperator air entering the combustion
chamber is preheated using the heat of the hot
exhaust flue. This is an important measure for
furnaces where preheating the feed with flue gases
is more difficult that for boilers.The hot gas passes
inside tubes arranged in bundles. The combustion
air is directed over the outside of the tubes by
means of a series of baffle plates. Combustion air
pre-heat has always been regarded as the poor
cousin of the economizer for boilers because air
pre-heaters are large and less efficient than a gas-
liquid heat exchanger - or economizer - used to
heat boiler feed water.
7.2 ACCUMULATORS
Boilers produce steam to meet demand. When
spikes in this demand occur, or the load is uneven,
it is often the case that an extra boiler would have
to be used intermittently, or output of several
boilers would rise to meet this demand. In the first
case this can be inefficient due to losses associated
with the heating and cooling of the boiler shell. In
both cases, some of the required boiler capacity
(and running and capital outlay) could have been
avoided by using an accumulator.
An accumulator effectively stores or accumulates
steam from boilers during times of low demand
and then can release it during short high demand
intervals.
7.3 INSULATION
Insulation is used to retain heat within the furnace
or boiler enclosure. Common insulation materials
include calcium silicate, mineral fibre, ceramic fibre,
cements, cellular glass and glass fibre. An indication
of the heat loss from the hot walls of a furnace or
boiler is given in figure 9.
It should be noted that the reduction in the temperature differential to 5C would require the heat
exchanger area to be slightly more than doubled. An increase in design temperature rise of the incoming
air from (85C 10 0C) = 750C to (95C 10C) = 85C results in an increase in heat recovery of
(85 C 75 C)
(85 C 75 C) x 100 = 13%
75 C
A careful analysis of capital costs and savings in fuel costs for different possible heat exchanger sizes is
important.
27
A significant development in this field, for furnaces,
has been the use of ceramic fibre insulation, which
is a better insulator than solid refractory material
and also requires less heat to reach the operating
temperature. The disadvantages are higher initial
cost and low resistance to physical damage. A layer
of refractory on the bottom of the furnace and
other areas subject to damage is normally used to
protect the ceramic fibre. Further layers of
ceramic fibre insulation can be installed on the
outside of the refractory as required.
7.4 O2 ANALYSERS
Systems for checking the O2 or CO2 content of a
boiler flue gas have been available for a long time
but, historically, none have been sufficiently reliable
to be incorporated in an automatic control
strategy. Portable or permanently installed O2 or
CO2 monitoring equipment used by a well trained
and intelligent boiler operator is still the best
method of limiting excess air and hence increasing
efficiency.
The production of the zirconium cell for O2
detection has made available a reliable measuring
system, and this has resulted in the development
of various systems, which automatically control the
amount of excess air, thereby overcoming
variations in the fuel and air parameters. Using
these oxygen detection feedback controllers,
usually termed oxygen trim control, allows much
lower excess air levels to be achieved throughout
the operating range.
The simplest systems use the feedback signal to
adjust the combustion air damper via a secondary
(tory) linkage. The most sophisticated systems
feed directly back to a microprocessor unit, which
sets the combustion air/fuel ratio.
Figure 9: Energy loss from furnace or boiler wall as a function of wall temperature.
(Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7. Page 23. Figure 12.)
28
7.5 VARIABLE SPEED FAN
DRIVES
Popular in Europe and Japan are variable speed
drives for motors.They are used in this context, to
drive combustion air fans. By varying their speed
(together with electrical input) to match air
required electrical energy can be saved during
periods of partial load. Conventionally the airflow
is limited via dampers, while the motor runs at a
fixed speed. At low loads this can lead to a
disproportionately high electricity demand.
Variable speed drives are economically less
attractive in South Africa due to relatively low
electricity charges.
7.6 FLUE GAS DAMPERS
For situations where boilers or furnaces are
regularly shut down because of changes in load,
the heat loss caused by the chimney effect
drawing cold air through the boiler can be
significant. This is particularly true when a number
of units are connected to a common header and
are operated in a cascade manner.
In the past the main problems encountered
included designing dampers that were virtually gas
tight, and incorporating a control system that
would prevent the boiler firing against a closed
damper. Today, automatic gas-tight shut-off
dampers for installation in a boiler exit flue are
widely available. In the case of forced draught (FD)
oil and gas burners a cheaper alternative is
available, particularly for retrofit situations: this
involves the installation of an automatic damper at
the combustion air fan inlet.
7.7 WASTE HEAT BOILERS
Waste heat boilers use hot flue gas to produce
steam. In most instances there is a common steam
header into which the waste heat and fuel fired
boilers are connected. The fuel fired boilers will
then supply the difference between the steam
demand and the steam supplied by the waste heat
boiler.
Economizers are often used with waste boilers to
preheat the feedwater to the boiler. The hot flue
gas passes through the boiler before going to the
economizer.

29
Sulphur compounds produced by combustion,
escape into the atmosphere and have various
effects. These include the production of acid rain
and ambient pollution that is hazardous to human
health. It has also been postulated that other
products of combustion, such as CO2 are causing
global problems, and this has led to an emphasis
on Green policies in many countries.
Combustion products which are widely report to
be damaging to the atmospheric environment are
particulate emission, sulphur compounds (SOx),
nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4) and nitrogen compounds (NOx).
Although a process for producing low sulphur fuel
oils has been in existence for many years, it is
expensive: it adds to the cost of a litre of oil and
leaves sulphur residues which have to be disposed
of without causing alternative forms of pollution.
Limestone, when burned with coal will, however,
trap 80% or more of the sulphur released by the
fuel. The sulphur content of natural gas is very
small and nearly all of that is deliberately added as
the stenching agent (so that the gas can be
detected).
There are basically two systems for removing
sulphur from flue gases: the wet scrubbing method
which washes the SOx out using water: and the
dry method of adsorbing the SOx onto limestone
type compounds. The wet process produces a
dirty acid that has to be disposed of without
causing pollution, and the dry method produces
quite large volumes of spent absorber, which,
again, must be disposed of safely.
CO2 is inevitably formed as a result of burning any
conventional fuel. Again, it could to some extent
be removed either by wet scrubbing or by
absorption. The current emphasis is on improving
overall combustion efficiency so that less fuel is
burned: this, in turn, reduces the production of
CO2.
Particulate emissions are considered to be the
most dangerous in the South African context.
Ambient particulate levels are high and believed
to be the most significant cause to poor
respiratory health among South Africans. While
some particulates are emitted into the
atmosphere others are caught in pollution control
equipment or (especially with larger particles) in
the combustion equipment. This has to be
responsibly managed.
The production of NOx can be restricted by
correct design of the combustion systems. The
most significant problem occurs with those fuels
having the highest flame temperatures, i.e. fuel oil
and gas. However in the case of coal a significant
contributor to nitrogen oxide formation is the
nitrogen content of the fuel, which is generally
higher than in oils and gas. A great deal of research
has gone into developing low excess air burners,
which have been shown to limit NOx production.
Plant manufacturers are being compelled to
incorporate these new standards into their
designs. However, it is not enough for a boiler
operator merely to have bought plant, which
meets the new standards: he will have to
demonstrate that it achieves those standards in
day-to-day operation.
It is also recognized that ash and grit from coal-
8. POLLUTION

30
fired equipment contain undesirable substances
such as heavy metals etc. These also offer the
potential for environment pollution, and their
disposal and dumping will similarly be subject to
greater control in the future.
8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL
EQUIPMENT
8.1.1 ASH HANDLING EQUIPMENT
All solid fuels produce ash that must be removed.
The ash is in bottom ash and fly ash forms.
Bottom ash is from the coarse particles of slag
that fall into the ash pit under the combustion
chamber. Fly ash is the fine ash that is carried with
the flue gas and deposits in the hoppers beneath
the economizer air heater dust collector and
precipitator. The conveying of this ash can be
achieved mechanically, or by mixing the ash with
air or water and blowing or pumping the mixture.
Electrical energy is expended on drives for
conveyors pumps, compressors or blowers and
care should be taken in the operation and
maintenance to ensure that system energy is
minimized.
8.1.2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
These systems are designed to reduce fly ash
(particulates), sulphur oxide and nitrous oxide
emissions from the boiler plant. This equipment is
not usually required on small boilers firing natural
gas or oil.
Mechanical cyclone collectors (dust collec-
tors) remove particulates by centrifugal
and gravitation forces developed in a
vortex separator. Their use is now limited
to small stoker-fired units because of their
low collection efficiency of very small
particles.
Electrostatic filters precipitators electrically
charge suspended particles in the gas and
then attract them to collecting plates with
an electric field. The collecting plates are
then trapped to cause the particles to
drop into hoppers. Precipitators can be
designed for a high collecting efficiency of
98 per cent or more.
Fabric filters, or baghouses, have a long
history of applications in dry and wet
filtration processes to recover chemicals
or control stack emissions. The dirty gas is
passed through fabric filters with the
particulate matter forming a cake on the
fabric.The deposit is periodically removed
from the filter by mechanically shaking the
fabric, or by a pulse of air. Fabric filters can
be designed for collecting 99 per cent of
particulates or more.
Lime or limestone scrubbing is the oldest
method of removing sulphur dioxide from
flue gas. The boiler flue gas enters a
Venturi scrubber and contacts the
injected absorbent lime slurry.The flue gas
then passes through a vertical spray
tower where the slurry and absorbed
sulphur compounds are washed out of
the gas.
All items of pollution control equipment use
varying amounts of electrical energy that
significantly increase the energy used per plant
output. It is imperative that operation and
maintenance staff keep this equipment in first-rate
working order.

31
The boilers considered in this guide are limited to
those that produce either steam or hot water
from the combustion of a fuel. While electrode
boilers are used for generating steam from
electricity, they are not considered here. The
majority of energy savings measures described
below are limited only to combustion processes
and are not applicable to electrode boilers. The
exceptions to this include issues relating to blow-
down and insulation. These concepts may be
applied to saving energy in electrode boilers with
minor adjustments.
9.1. TYPES OF BOILERS
There are various types of boilers that have
different configurations and run on various fuels.
The configurations are described below.
If operated correctly, all types of modern boiler
are more or less equally efficient at converting fuel
into steam or hot water. Table 1 indicates the
expected thermal efficiencies obtainable for
different boiler types, based on the gross calorific
value of the fuel.
Although different types of boiler appear to vary
considerably in their construction, all boilers
consist basically of a furnace chamber in which
heat is transferred directly from the flame by
radiation, and flue gas passages where the heat is
primarily transferred by convection to water being
heated. Two-thirds of the heat transfer to the
water takes place in the furnace and the remaining
third in the flue gas passages. Heat not transferred
is lost in various forms.
There are two fundamental types of boiler: the
water tube type where the water is contained in
pipes and the hot combustion gases pass around
them; and the shell or fire tube type where the
opposite is true. All other boilers are derivatives of
these two types and have been designed to meet
either differing size or dimensional limitations, or
differing operational requirements.
The boilers described below include:
water tube boilers,
multi-tubular shell boilers,
reverse flame or thimble boilers,
steam generators,
sectional boilers,
9. BOILERS

Table 6: Boiler Efficiency According to Boiler Type

Boiler Type Efficiency %
Condensing Gas 88-92
High Efficiency Modular 80-82
Shell Boiler Hot Water 78-80
Shell Boiler Steam 75-77
Reverse Flame 72-75
Cast Iron Sectional 68-71
Steam Generator 75-78
Water Tube with Economiser 75-78
32
condensing boilers,
modular boilers and
composite boilers.
9.1.1 WATER TUBE BOILERS
Water tube boilers tend nowadays to be
considered only for large steam outputs, which
often require superheated steam. For most
industrial and commercial applications, however, a
multi-tubular shell boiler is more appropriate. Only
if the requirement is for an industrial output above
20 MW and/or at pressures above 24 bar or
steam temperatures above 340C is it necessary
to use a water tube boiler.
The reason for this is that water tube boilers cost
more to build for a given steam output than do
multi-tubular shell boilers. The shell boiler can be
entirely factory fabricated, mounted on a skid with
all its associated equipment (such as feedwater
pump. burner. and control panel), and then
delivered direct to site. The output and pressure
limits for the shell boiler are, however, determined
by the feasibility of transporting the completed
unit from the fabrication plant to the site.
The output from water tube units starts at about
8.5 MW and rises to power-station-sized units
rated at 2000 MW and above. At the bottom of
the range, units can be manufactured and
delivered to the site in one piece. The larger units
are manufactured in sections and delivered for site
erection. A typical schematic of an industrial water
tube boiler is shown in Figure 10.
9.9.1.1 PACKAGED WATER TUBE
BOILERS
Natural gas or oil fired units are usually delivered
as factory assembled packaged boilers. Packaged
boilers range in size from about 1500 to l90 000
MJ/h, which covers the normal size range of most
boilers. For solid fuels, the boilers are site erected,
as the large size of the combustion chamber and
fuel-firing equipment does not make shipment
possible.
The water to be heated is carried inside banks of
steel tubes, with the hot gas on the outside of the
tubes. The most common boilers consist of a
drum connected by vertical tubes (downcomers)
to a lower drum or header(s). The downcomers
can be heated or unheated. A further set of tubes
(risers) connects the two drums and forms the
walls of the combustion chamber (Figure 10).
Natural circulation begins when the heat supplied
to the risers exceeds that supplied to the
downcomers, thereby producing a mix of steam
and water in the risers of less density than that of
the water in the downcomers.
The traditional water tube boiler relies on water
circulation occurring as a result of the thermal-
siphon effect: the hot water to the boiler is lighter
and rises, drawing in colder water at the bottom
to replace it. A variation that allows for a more
compact design using smaller diameter tubes is the
forced circulation boiler, where the feedwater is
pumped through the water tubes.
Hot water boilers are similar in appearance and
operation to steam units. The circulation of water
through the tubes is achieved by pumping.
Water tube boilers are not often used for hot
water production. If they are used for this
purpose, it is usually as a Lamont boiler.The major
potential problem with this type of boiler occurs
whenever a power failure stops the circulation
pumps, especially in the case of coal fired plant,
steam is generated within the tubes and this can
lead to overheating of the metal, softening and
subsequent tube failure unless the fire can rapidly
be drawn and cooling air can be provided at the
convective tube bank. This type of plant cannot
therefore be used in a fully automated, unmanned
boiler house.
33
Figure 10:Water Tube Boiler with Natural Convection. (Source: ETSU)
Figure 11: Forced Water Circulation Water Tube Boiler. (Source: ETSU)
34
One of the main advantages of the water tube
boiler in the 10-20 MW range, where it is in direct
competition with the shell boiler, is its ability to
react rapidly to load changes. The water tube unit
contains only a fraction of the water in a shell
boiler so the thermal inertia of the system is much
smaller.
Water tube boilers can be tired using any
individual conventional fuel or they can operate as
multi-fuel units.
All watertube boilers are capable of operating
continuously at any load, from about 15 to 100
per cent of the rated capacity. The highest thermal
efficiency normally occurs at about 85 per cent of
rated capacity, with efficiencies falling more
significantly at loads lower than 60 per cent. The
small internal water capacity permits quick
response to sudden steam demand changes, and
frequent start-up and shutdown operation.
The best energy utilization of a watertube boiler
results from steady demand at 85 per cent of
rated capacity with the avoidance of sudden
swings in demand or frequent shutdowns.
9.1.2 MULTI-TUBULAR SHELL
BOILERS
These are essentially shell and tube heat
exchangers where the combustion gas passes
through tubes immersed in water. Firetube boilers
usually burn natural gas or oil, although some, with
a firebox type of combustion chamber, can be
installed on top of a coal or wood burning stoker.
They can generate dry saturated steam or hot
water up to a maximum pressure of 1700 kPa
(gage). The output ranges from 350 to 28 000
MJ/h. The boilers are shop assembled and
delivered with integral burner, forced draft fan, and
controls.
As materials and manufacturing processes
improved, thinner metal came to be used for the
tubes allowing more tubes to be accommodated.
At this stage in its development the basic boiler
was rather long and thin and required a large
boiler house area. By making the hot gases go
backwards and forwards through a series of tubes,
the boilers were designed to be shorter and fatter,
and heat transfer rates were improved. The
modern multi-tubular packaged boiler is the logical
conclusion to this evolutionary process. The
packaged boiler is so called because it comes as a
complete package. Once delivered to site it
requires only the steam, water pipework, fuel
supply and electrical connections to be made for
it to become operational.
These boilers are classified by the number of
passes - the number of times the hot combustion
gases pass through the boiler. The combustion
chamber is taken as the first pass after which there
may be one two or three sets of fire-tubes. The
most common boiler is, a three-pass unit as shown
in Figure 12 with two sets of fire-tubes and the
exhaust gases exiting through the rear of the
boiler. Older two-pass units transfer heat less
efficiently, fewer fire-tubes giving a smaller heat
transfer and the flue gases still containing
considerable heat when they leave the boiler.
Many such units have had equipment fitted to
recover some of this potentially lost heat into the
boiler feedwater.
Four-pass units are potentially the most thermally
efficient but fuel type and operating conditions
may prevent their use. When this type of unit is
fired with heavy fuel oil or coal at reduced output,
the heat transfer can be too good. As a result the
exit flue gas temperature can fall too low causing
corrosion of the flues and chimney and possibly of
the boiler itself. The four-pass boiler unit is also
subject to high thermal stresses especially if large
load swings occur suddenly: these can lead to
stress cracks or failures within the boiler structure.
35
Another classification is related to the chamber at
the end of the combustion chamber before the
hot gases enter the fire-tubes. If this chamber is
entirely contained within the water shell it is
classified as a wet-back boiler, and if the chamber
is refractory mounted on the outer plating of the
boiler the boiler is classified as a dry-back unit.The
wetback configuration reduces the number of fire-
tubes and hence, marginally, the boiler size by
increasing the heat transfer area at the point
where the flue gases are hottest. Multi-tubular
shell boilers are available which will fire any of the
conventional fuels or any form of industrial or
commercial waste.
The original convention was to produce two types
of shell boiler: one with a small combustion
chamber and many fire-tubes for firing gaseous or
liquid fuels: and one with a larger diameter
combustion chamber and fewer fire-tubes for
firing solid fuels. The design variation resulted not
only from the need for more space to incorporate
a coal stoking system but also from the very
different flame temperatures and combustion
characteristics of the various fuels. Older units
were also separately designed for gas and oil firing,
again because of the combustion characteristics of
the two fuels. Many of the older oil-fired units had
to be de-rated when converted to gas firing:
without this de-rating the temperature of the flue
gases entering the first pass of tire-tubes was
found to be too high, causing additional thermal
stress and leading to early boiler failure. Some of
the modern units, however, are manufactured with
an intermediate size of furnace tube and are
capable of firing all three fuels.
Recent design trends have been towards
incorporating many more fire tubes of a smaller
diameter in the boilers to make them more
compact. However, one of the major advantages
of the older types of shell boiler is their very large
water content which provides a large potential
steam reservoir during periods of rapidly
Figure 12: Schematic of multi-tubular three-pass boiler. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 51. figure 30.)
36
increasing load. The large water surface area also
results in drier steam. Modern designs eliminate
this advantage, making shell boilers behave more
like water tube units, but at the same time the
lower water content of the modern boilers means
that they can generally be heated through and
brought on-line more quickly.
Boilers rated up in 12 MW are usually supplied with
a single burner or stoker and those between 12 and
20 MW with two burners or stokers, each in a
separate furnace chamber. In some of these twin
furnace units the flue gases from each chamber are
kept separate until they meet at the boiler exit. The
advantage of this is that it is possible to operate the
plant with only one burner firing, giving a much
lower minimum output from the boiler. If the flue gas
passages are combined, single burner firing may
result in the flue gas temperature falling too low,
thereby causing corrosion.
Multi-tubular shell boilers dominate the market for
outputs between 3 and 20 MW. Even below 3
MW, derivatives of this basic design predominate.
9.1.3 REVERSE FLAME OR THIMBLE
BOILERS
As indicated above, the major problem with multi-
tubular shell boilers is thermal stress brought
about by differential expansion. The expansion of
the furnace tube is much higher than for the first
pass of smoke tubes - and this, again, is higher than
for the second pass. This puts stress on the tube
plates supporting each end of the boiler.
The reverse flame or thimble boiler is an attempt
to reduce the problem by using a floating
combustion chamber. As shown in Figure 13 the
Figure 13: Schematic of reverse flame boiler. (Source: ETSU)
37
combustion chamber is only attached to the front
tube plate.
These boilers are still classified as three-pass units
but two passes occur within the combustion
chamber as the flame reverses and only one pass
involves convective fire-tubes. In practice the
additional heat transfer from the second pass
through the combustion chamber is relatively low
making this design little better than a two-pass
conventional shell boiler
The other main advantage of the reversing flame
is that it reduces the length of combustion
chamber required making the boiler more
compact. Space is often a problem when hot
water or steam boilers are installed within existing
boiler-houses or buildings, so the relatively small
floor area required by a thimble boiler can be an
advantage.
As there are relatively few short fire-tubes in the
final pass, heat transfer rates are low resulting in
high flue gas exit temperatures. Heat transfer can
be improved by increasing the turbulence within
the flue gases, and many manufacturers fit metal
spirals or turbulators within the tubes to improve
efficiency.
Units of this type are currently manufactured for
both steam and hot water production and are
available in the 150 kW 3 500 kW range. The
flame-shape requirement means that only fuel oil
or gases can be used, and most boilers of this type
operate most efficiently when fired by fuel oil.
9.1.4 STEAM GENERATORS
Steam generators are derived from the water
tube type of boiler. In practice they are small
forced-circulation water tube boilers. As
manufactured they are very compact, lightweight
and capable of producing steam very rapidly from
a cold start-up. They therefore react very quickly
to load fluctuations.
Unlike the conventional water tube boiler there is
no steam/water separation header drum (Figure
14). The water, as it is pumped through the
combustion chamber, partially flashes into steam,
and then passes through a steam separator so that
dry process steam is available. The water from the
separators is then returned to the feedwater for
recirculation.
Heat transfer rates can be improved by reducing
the stagnant layers of gases and water that adhere
to both sides of a heat transfer surface: stirring or
increasing the turbulence can achieve this.
Fundamental to the design of a steam generator is
the maintenance of a high level of turbulence in
both the water and the flue gases: this ensures
high heat release rates and good thermal
efficiency.
Its small physical size, lightweight construction and
rapid steaming potential make this type of boiler
especially suitable for decentralised steam
distribution systems. It does, however, have two
disadvantages: because of its very high evaporation
rate good feedwater quality is essential, usually
necessitating the use of demineralised water;
secondly, the steam generator does not cope well
with high impulse steam loads.
Where a high peak demand occurs for a relatively
short period it is better practice to fit a smaller
steam generator together with a steam
accumulator, which gives a reserve of steam similar
to that, provided by a conventional shell boiler
Steam generators are manufactured to provide
outputs ranging from 75 kW to 2.5 MW (a few
hundred to 3,000kg/hr). Their major advantage is
that they occupy very little space, even when
allowance is made for water treatment
equipment. They can therefore be sited almost
anywhere within a factory. This means that if new
38
equipment is installed requiring steam at, say, 10
bar, and if the existing distribution system is at 7
bar, a single generator dedicated to that new
equipment could readily be installed. The
alternative is to increase the existing distribution
pressure, which may not be possible from an
engineering point of view: even if it is feasible, heat
and leakage losses will significantly increase.
9.1.5 SECTIONAL BOILERS
Cast iron sectional boilers are an oddity in that
they do not obviously fall into one of the two
fundamental boiler categories described above. In
principle, however, they more closely resemble a
shell boiler.
For many years cast iron sectional boilers
dominated the low output end of the market for
the generation of low and medium temperature
hot water (LTHW and MTHW). Within the 10-
30kW output range only small steel and steel
sectional boilers provide any competition. At
higher output levels there is competition first from
modular and condensing boilers (subsequently
described) and then from the thimble boiler up to
about 750 kW.
The major advantage of the cast iron sectional unit is
that it is much more resistant to corrosion than an
equivalent steel boiler when flue gas temperatures fall
too far. When firing natural gas or LPG this
consideration is trivial, but it is of much greater
significance when firing fuel oil or coal. Another
advantage is that the method and the robustness of its
construction reduces the effect of thermal stress
making it ideal for small space-heating applications
where the burner will fire on and off quite frequently.
Figure 14: A steam generator. (Source: ETSU)
39
To some extent the cast iron boilers pre-
eminence is being challenged by stainless steel
welded boilers which are more compact, much
lighter in weight and more energy efficient.
However, the former unit still offers a cheap and
very tolerant package suited to LTHW
applications.
9.1.6 CONDENSING BOILERS
The problem of corrosion caused by condensing
flue gases has plagued boiler designers for many
years. Hot flue gases may be wasteful from an
energy point of view but their natural buoyancy in
a chimney means that combustion air is drawn
into the boiler and flue gases can be removed
without using electrical energy to drive fans. Until
recently, therefore, boilers were designed to
maintain flue gas temperatures at a sufficiently high
level to avoid condensation and corrosion. For
LTHW applications, with water temperatures of
80C and below, this has always proved impossible
in practical terms and, as indicated in the previous
section, the solution has been the widespread use
of cast iron sectional boilers.
The cooled combustion products of natural gas
are only very slightly corrosive compared with oil
or coal.This means that all the heat - both sensible
heat and the latent heat of the water vapour
produced during combustion - can safely be
recovered, and condensing boilers have therefore
become a practical alternative. These basically
involve the incorporation of a heat exchanger in
the exhaust flue as shown in Figure 15.
Because some corrosion will still occur, the original
designs used two different materials for the heat
exchangers: cast iron and stainless steel. Stainless
Figure 15: Condensing boilers. (Source: ETSU)
40
steel heat exchangers are now more widely used
because they are very much more compact and
so can be fitted to boilers as small as 30kW. Units
are now manufactured up to 600 kW and the
principle can still be applied to larger units: in the
latter case, the heat exchanger is referred to as a
condensing economiser.
In general, these units are fired using natural gas or
LPG. As it is the sulphur content of the fuel that is
responsible for the corrosion, any low sulphur or
clean fuel can be used. The alternative is to clean
the flue gases before the flue vapour is condensed,
so for larger boilers a condensing economiser
might be installed after a flue gas desulphurisation
process.
The energy from the heat exchanger is used to
pre-heat the feedwater going to the boiler. The
lower the feedwater temperature, the more heat
is recovered by the heat exchanger thereby
increasing the efficiency of the complete boiler
package. Figure 16 shows that efficiency
improvements of up to 10% are achievable.
9.1.7 MODULAR BOILERS
Where the demand for heat varies on an hourly,
daily and monthly basis, as with space heating for
large commercial premises, the installation of a
single large boiler is not very efficient. A boiler is
most efficient when operating continuously at
about 85% of its rated output so. Under these
circumstances, it is more energy efficient to install
several smaller boilers and to operate only the
number necessary to meet the heat demand.
The logical outcome of this reasoning is the
installation of modular boilers consisting of a
number of identical small units controlled in
cascade fashion. The earliest systems used
conventional cast iron sectional or small steel shell
boilers and, for larger installations, this has
remained the case. However, high-efficiency heat
exchange units have been specifically designed for
the lower end of the output range.
The advantage of modular systems is that the
Figure 16: Condensing boiler efficiency graph. (Source: ETSU)
41
many turndown stages allow individual units to
operate close to their maximum efficiency at all
times. In a well designed system no water
circulates through the boiler when it is off, and this
reduces the potential heat loss. Figure 17 shows
the type of pipework and valve layout that would
typically be installed. Such systems are under fully
automatic control and are either oil or gas fired.
There is no upper limit to the maximum output
from a modular boiler set because, if more heat is
required, another boiler or heat exchanger unit
can be added. The basic building blocks of the
system start at about 10kW but units of 100kW
or more could equally be used. A full financial
assessment would be required to define the ideal
modular boiler set for a particular potential
installation.
9.1.8 COMPOSITE BOILERS
A composite boiler is not, as its name implies, a
cross between a shell boiler and a water tube
boiler. This type of boiler is used to burn two
different fuels - often a waste product or waste
heat and a conventional hydrocarbon fuel. The
waste or solid fuel is fired in one combustion
chamber and the hot combustion gases pass to a
second combustion chamber where the
conventional fuel is fired to make sure that total
combustion has been achieved. Depending on the
design, the hot gases from the first chamber may
pass over part of the boiler heat transfer surfaces
before entering the second chamber. Alternatively,
the gases may only pass through the boiler after
combustion has been completed.
It is becoming increasingly popular to take
advantage of the energy stored in various
industrial and commercial wastes rather than to
incur the often considerable expense of disposal.
Originally, use was made of conventional
incinerators attached to waste heat boilers, but
the efficiency of heat recovery was usually low.The
Figure 17: Schematic of Modular Boiler System. (Source: ETSU)
42
composite boiler is one outcome of an ongoing
design and development programme for waste
burning boilers, which has been undertaken by
manufacturers.
9.2 BOILER SYSTEM
SELECTION
This Guide has examined the various problems
associated with boilers, fuels and pollution. If all
these factors are taken into consideration, boiler
system selection becomes more difficult, and
additional guidelines are required.
The first decision involves the selection of a steam
or hot water system: the appropriate choice is
usually very clear. The next step is to evaluate the
overall size of the system and how the load is likely
to fluctuate. A large steady load ideally requires
large boilers, but a load, which fluctuates on an
hourly, a daily or a seasonal basis, will be met more
efficiently if several smaller boilers are installed.
The third step is to identify the appropriate boilers
for the job. The flowchart in figure 18 offers
guidelines for the selection of steam boilers based
on the output and conditions required. Generally,
for each output level several boiler choices are
available.
Small boilers are fuelled only by gas or oil, so the
costing is fairly simple. All fuel options, however,
are open in the case of the larger boilers so more
information on capital, operating and maintenance
costs must be obtained either from equipment
manufacturers or, possibly, from existing plant
users. In all cases, when the selection of new or
replacement boiler plant is undertaken
consideration should be given to the installation of
Combined Heat and Power (CRP) schemes.
Figure 18: Boiler selection flow chart for steam boilers. (Source ETSU)
43
10.1 POTENTIAL LOSSES
4
To optimise the operation of boiler plant it is
necessary to understand where energy wastage is
likely to occur. Figure 19 shows all the inputs and
outputs for a typical oil or gas-fired boiler. With
coal-fired plant there would be additional losses in
the heat and combustible content of the ash. For
an oil-fired steam boiler with the characteristics
listed below an overall thermal efficiency of 75% is
normal under typical operating and maintenance
procedures.
Boiler rating 2.7 MW
Steam Pressure 7 bar g
Feed Water Temperature 50C
Flue Gas Temperature 232C
10.2 BOILER ENERGY
BALANCE
The three sources of boiler heat energy input are
the fuel, feedwater and combustion air. The major
energy source is from the fuel, which can be
expressed in terms of MJ/m
3
for gas and MJ/L for
oil. In the case of some oils it is necessary to heat
the oil in the storage tank sufficiently to permit
pumping and then heat it further prior to going to
the burner. The thermal energy of the oil as it is
delivered to the boiler should be added to the
higher heating value of the oil to represent the total
fuel energy input.
The feedwater temperature must also be
10. energy and cost saving for
boilers

Figure 19: Boiler inputs and losses. (Source ETSU)
4
A comprehensive boiler heat balance is given in the appendix. This gives both the direct and indirect method for evaluating efficiency, and a
breakdown of the losses.
44
considered as part of the energy input (i.e. higher
temperature feed-water requires less heat energy
from the fuel to be converted to steam). The
feedwater temperature can be used to determine
this heat energy input level. The energy content of
the feedwater is the enthalpy (hf) as determined
in steam tables corresponding to the feedwater
temperature.
Combustion air is normally drawn from within the
boiler plant, but it may be ducted from outside
and heated with steam. A higher combustion air
temperature will reduce the energy input required
from the fuel.
10.3 MINIMIZING BOILER
LOSSES
Energy loss is a crucial topic in terms of efficient
boiler plant operation. The losses that follow
can be influenced by design and operating
factors.
The major controllable heat losses and hence
the target areas for improvement are detailed
below.
10.3.1 MAINTENANCE SAVING
OPPORTUNITIES
Some significant energy savings can be made by
careful maintenance, specific examples are given
below:
1. Maintain proper burner adjustments. It is a good
idea to have an experienced burner
manufacturers representative adjust the
burners. The operator can then identify the
appearance of a proper burner flame for future
reference. The flame should be checked
frequently, and always after any significant
change in operating conditions.
2. Overhaul regenerative air heater seals. Excessive
amounts of air can leak from the air side to the
gas side of the air heater if the seals are in poor
condition. This results in increased forced draft
fan power consumption and may reduce the
maximum boiler capacity.
3. Check boiler easing for hot spots. Hot spots are
an indication of excessive heat losses from the
boiler enclosure. The temperature of the
surface of the outer skin should not be more
than 50C, although higher temperatures may
Figure 20: Boiler Energy Balance. (Source: ETSU)
45
be unavoidable where insulation cannot be
installed, such as around the burner assembly.
Eliminating hot spots is a safety measure, and
will help to maintain comfortable working
conditions.
4. Replace or repair missing and damaged
insulation. Substantial quantities of heat are lost
from bare steam and hot water lines.
5. Replace boiler doors and repair leaking door
seals. Leakage of air or gas will create the same
problems as described in Example 4. In
addition, an open furnace door will cause
considerable heat loss by radiation of heat
from the furnace to the outside. There is also a
danger that a furnace upset will cause hot gas
to be ejected suddenly through the opening to
create a personnel safety hazard.
6. Repair malfunctioning steam traps. Steam traps
may fail in the open or the shut position. An
open steam trap will pass excessive quantities
of steam to increase the heat loss. A closed
trap will not permit condensate to escape. If
the trap is connected to a heat exchanger, the
heat exchanger will gradually fill with
condensate and eventually fail to operate. If the
heat exchanger is heating outside air, the
condensate may freeze in winter and damage
the tubes of the unit. If the closed trap is
draining a steam line, excessive condensate
may build up in the line to cause water
hammer in the system.This may damage fittings
and equipment. A regular steam trap
maintenance program is a very positive step
toward minimizing energy losses.
7. Calibrate and tune measurement and control
equipment. A common cause of deteriorating
boiler efficiency is operation at higher excess
air values than necessary. If the combustion
control system is not operating properly there
is a tendency to increase the air flow to ensure
that the fuel-air ratio will not become
excessive for load changes or upset conditions.
If the fuel-air ratio is too high, meaning that
there is a deficiency of combustion air, there is
a possibility of unstable combustion conditions,
which could lead to a furnace puff . A
properly operating combustion control system
will permit operation at the lowest attainable
excess air level while maintaining proper
combustion during load changes. Typically a
reduction in the excess air from 20 to 10 per
cent will increase the efficiency 1.5 per cent.
10.3.2 BLOWDOWN HEAT LOSS
This loss varies between 1% and 6% and depends
on a number of factors:
total dissolved solids (TDS) allowable in the
boiler water:
the quality of the make-up water, which
depends mainly on the type of water treatment
installed (e.g. base exchange softener or
demineralisation):
the amount of uncontaminated condensate
returned to the boilerhouse:
boiler load variations.
Correct checking and maintenance of feedwater
and boiler water quality, maximising condensate
return and smoothing load swings will minimise
the loss. The installation of blowdown heat
recovery systems will help to control the loss.
EXAMPLE
Diverting the flash steam to the de-aerator and/or putting the blowdown water through heat exchangers
to heat the feedwater make-up can recover blowdown heat.
46
10.3.3 HEAT TRANSFER
In modern shell and water tube boilers some 70%
of the total heat transfer takes place in the
combustion chamber by radiation. The three
factors influencing radiant heat transfer are:
1. Flame temperature:
2. Flame shape:
3. Fouling of heat transfer surfaces.
In principle a bright clear flame or fire bed, which
fills the combustion chamber without
impingement, satisfies all the criteria for
satisfactory heat transfer.
10.3.3.1 RADIATION HEAT LOSS
The radiation heat loss of a boiler is primarily a
function of the applied thermal insulation.
Insulation reduces the heat radiating from the
boiler and maintains the outside surfaces at a
temperature low enough for safety. The surface
temperature normally determines the quality and
thickness of the insulation on the various sections
of the boiler. Most safety regulations require that
metal surfaces within reach of personnel not
exceed 500C. The heat loss from the casing is
difficult to measure accurately. Figure 21 is derived
from the American Boilermakers Association
Standard Radiation Chart, and can be used to
estimate the heat loss. Radiation loss is
independent of the type of fuel fired, and use of
this chart requires only knowledge of the output
rating of the boiler and the nature of the furnace
walls.
Consider a boiler evaporating 13 500 kg/h of dry saturated steam at 1400 kPa (absolute) with a blow-
down rate of 5 per cent. The feedwater is supplied to the boiler at 1500 kPa and l05C.
Enthalpy of boiler water at 1400 kPa (absolute) 830.1 kJ/kg
Blowdown heat = 13 500 x 0.05 x 830.1 (above 0C)
= 560 317 kJ/h
A study of the steam and feedwater systems shows that 75 per cent of the blowdown heat is recoverable.
The boiler operates 5000 hours per year and fuel costs R50/GJ.
Annual savings = 560317 x 0.75 x 5000 x 50
Annual savings =
Annual savings = 1 x 10
6
= R10 506
Blowdown heat recovery equipment including a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the blowdown
water to treated water make-up, plus the associated piping, costs in total about R150, 000.
Simple payback = R150000
Simple payback =
= 1.4 years
47
Figure 21: Radiation Loss from Boiler. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Mangement Series 6. Page 13. Figure 12.)
Example 1
For example, consider a packaged watertube boiler with a full load rated output equivalent to 50 GJ/h
with all four furnace walls water cooled. From the chart, the heat loss due to radiation would be 0.65 per
cent of gross heat input. Note that if the boiler were operating at half capacity, the radiation loss would be
14 per cent of gross heat input. It can therefore be seen that a penalty will be paid, in increased percentage
radiation losses if a boiler is operated on part load for an extended period of time. The absolute heat loss
to the flue gas would be lower at part load, because the gas volume is lower. However, the overall boiler
efficiency would likely be lower.
The remaining 30% of heat transfer is by convection from the hot flue gases and this is determined mainly
by the flue gas velocity and degree of surface fouling.The fouling of heat transfer surfaces is a result of soot
and ash on the fire side and incorrect water treatment on the water side. In order to minimise the
thickness of the boundary layer limiting heat transfer rates modern shell boilers use smaller multiple tubes
and in some cases, induce additional turbulence to increase combustion gas velocity.
Example 2
Add insulation to areas previously left uninsulated or increase thickness in areas already insulated: Boilers
installed 15 to 20 years ago were sometimes insulated for reasons of personnel protection rather than
energy conservation. Insulation thickness was selected to give an outside casing temperature of 55C. If
additional insulation was added to reduce the skin temperature to 40C, the energy saving could amount
to at least 0.25 per cent of the annual fuel bill. Also, some areas out of the reach of operating staff may
not be insulated.
48
10.3.4 EXCESS AIR REDUCTION
10.3.4.1 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF
EXCESS AIR
For every fuel it is possible to calculate the exact
amount of air that is needed for combustion. In
practice, some surplus air is required to ensure
complete combustion, the amount varying with
the type of fuel being burned. Any further excess
air is heated, passes through the boiler and is
passed out of the stack, thereby reducing system
efficiency.
The effect on boiler efficiency of reducing excess
air is shown in Figure 22.
When setting up a combustion system the aim is
to use the minimum amount of excess air, which
will ensure clean safe combustion. This minimum
will depend both on the type of fuel and on the
type of burner/stoker employed. Table 7 gives
guidelines for good practice concerning the
quantities of excess air required for four different
fuels. Newer equipment should be able to achieve
the lower values in the range, but some older
equipment will have difficulty achieving even the
higher values.
Figure 22: Increase in boiler efficiency per 1% reduction in excess air versus stack temperature.
(Source: ETSU) (Good Practice Guide 30. Page 78. Figure 45.)
Table 7: Recommended Excess Air Levels for Boilers
Fuel Excess Air (%) O2 in Flue Glass (%)
Min Max Min Max
Natural Gas 10.0 15.0 2.0 2.7
Fuel Oil:
Light 12.5 20.0 2.3 3.5
Heavy 20.0 25.0 3.3 4.2
Coal 30.0 50.0 4.9 7.0
NB the above settings are typical for boilers without low excess air combustion equipment.
49
Simply adjusting the excess air is not necessarily
sufficient: the air must mix with the fuel at the
correct point. Almost all combustion systems use
two sources of combustion air: the air which
immediately mixes with the fuel to initiate
combustion (the primary air): and that used to
complete the combustion (the secondary air). It is
essential that these are available in their correct
ratio to obtain complete, clean combustion.
Unless there is a system for regularly checking the
flue gas constituents, greater excess air has to be
used to allow for variations in the operating
parameters. These might include:
changes in fuel composition - especially
for coal and heavy fuel oil;
changes in the density of air between
summer and winter, wet to dry etc;
wear and tear, standard of maintenance,
and the age of the combustion
equipment.
10.3.4.2 AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
Automatic controls may be added to a boiler
system to ensure correct air ratios. In this case a
number of factors, such as the boiler firing rate,
can be incorporated within the system. The initial
setting up of this type of computer-based system
requires the O2 at a number of firing rates to be
input, usually in the form of a straight line. Many
systems incorporate a self-learning capability,
which will modify the initial program, tailoring it
exactly to the characteristics of an individual boiler
burner/stoker configuration.
10.3.5 FLUE GAS HEAT RECOVERY
Most of the heat losses in a boiler are in the flue
gas. The flue gas temperature should be as low as
possible above the dew point of sulphur gases,
which could condense into acids, attacking the
stack and associated equipment.
EXAMPLE
A boiler burning natural gas is operating at 60% excess air. Boiler efficiency has been tested and found to
be 77%. Annual fuel costs are R4 000 000. Recalibration of the controls and minor repairs to the burner
windbox dampers cost R20 000. These changes permit operation at 40% excess air.
A reduction in excess air from 60% to 40% results in a reduction in flue gas losses from 21% to 19% at a
flue gas temperature of 210C. Assuming that other losses and the flue gas temperature remain
unchanged, the boiler efficiency will be 79%.
Annual fuel cost at 40% excess air = R4 000 000 x 77 = R3 898 730
Annual fuel cost at 40% excess air = R4 000 000 x = R3 898 730
Annual fuel cost at 40% excess air = R4 000 000 x 79 = R3 898 730
Annual savings = R4 000 000 - R3 898 730
= R101 270
Payback = R20000 = 0.2 year (2.4 months)
Payback = = 0.2 year (2.4 months)
Payback = R101270 = 0.2 year (2.4 months)
By ensuring that the flame is of a clear bright colour and nearly fills the combustion chamber, and that
excess air is kept to a minimum, an increase in overall thermal efficiency of some 5% can be achieved.
50
Figure 23 shows the typical corrosion curve for a
fuel oil and indicates two temperature hands
where severe corrosion will occur: around the
acid dew point, where concentrated acids
chemically attack the metal, and around the water
dew point, at which point the acids are much
diluted and become even more corrosive.
All fuels display this pattern, but the upper or acid
dew point temperature depends on the amount
of sulphur present in the fuel (Figure 24). In order
to prevent corrosion becoming a significant
problem, either in the boiler or in the exit flue and
chimney, a temperature above the acid dew point
must be maintained. Most modern three-pass shell
boilers have flue gas exit temperatures around
200C and, except when firing a clean fuel (i.e.
natural gas, LPC or gas oil), it is uneconomic to
attempt heat recovery.
10.3.5.1 ECONOMISER INSTALLATION
Flue gas economisers have been in use for a long
time on both shell and water tube boilers of older
design. Most of these consist of large cast iron heat
exchangers. Cast iron is used because it is more
resistant to the acid corrosion, which is inevitable
at start-up and shut-down. Figure 25 shows a
simple schematic of a boiler economiser
arrangement.
Much simpler but less efficient economisers have
also been installed. These consist basically of a
water jacket round the stack.
The increase in overall thermal efficiency
achievable by using recovered heat to increase the
feedwater temperature is shown in Figure 26. In
general, for every 1C increase in feedwater
temperature there is an approximate drop of 4C
in the flue gas temperature.
In the case of clean fuels with a minimal sulphur
content it is possible for flue gas exit temperatures
to be below the water dew point temperature
without causing significant corrosion problems, as
shown earlier for condensing boilers. A
condensing economiser is merely an extension of
this principle.
The introduction of an economizer into the boiler
breeching will increase the pressure drop in the
flue gas system. In a forced draft boiler, this may
mean the installation of a new forced draft fan, or
at least a new impeller and motor. The resultant
increase in combustion chamber pressure may
necessitate changes to the burner. In an induced
draft system, the induced draft fan may be
changed, but the combustion chamber pressure
and burner will remain the same. There will be an
additional water-side pressure loss that may mean
a modification to the boiler feed pumps and
motors. The temperature of the gas to the stack
will be less, which reduces the stack draft.
Feedwater piping modifications, economizer
support, and possible breeching modifications
must be evaluated.
Example
The analysis that follows is based on the actual addition of a free standing economizer to a forced draft
packaged water-tube boiler producing a maximum of 20 000 kg/h of superheated steam at 3100 kPa
(gauge).
The natural gas fired boiler operated with 10 per cent excess air, 300 C gas outlet temperature and a
51
tested efficiency of 80 per cent. Before conversion, the boilers annual fuel consumption was 292 780 GJ
at a cost of R42.4/GJ. The modification included changes to the F.D. fan, burners and feed pump motors.
The total cost of the project was reported to be R1 580 000 (1984).
Annual fuel cost before conversion = 292 780 GJ x R42.40/GJ
= R12 413 870
After conversion, the excess air was still 10%, but the exit flue gas temperature had decreased to 180C.
The reduction in the flue gas heat loss would be equal to 4.8 per cent. An additional radiation loss of 0.2
per cent of the fuel input can be allowed for the economizer heat transfer efficiency of approximately 96
per cent. Thus, the heat recovered in the economizer = 4.8 - 0.2 = 4.6 per cent of fuel input.
Annual steam heat = 292 780 x 0.8
= 234 224 GJ
Fuel energy after conversion = 234224
Fuel energy after conversion =
Fuel energy after conversion = (0.80 + 0.046)
= 276 860 GJ
Annual fuel cost after conversion = 276 860 x 42.4
= R11 738 860
Annual fuel savings = R12 413 870 11 738 860
= R675 010
Simple payback =
= 2.34 years
Generally the potential for energy saving will depend on both the type of boiler installed and the fuel used.
For a typical older-model shell boiler with a flue gas exit temperature of 260C an economiser could
reduce temperatures to 200C, increasing the feedwater temperature by 15C and raising the overall
thermal efficiency by 3%. For a modern three-pass shell LTHW boiler firing natural gas with a flue gas exit
temperature of 140C a condensing economiser would reduce the exit temperature to 65C, giving an
increase in thermal efficiency of 5%. An economiser must be correctly sized so that the heat transfer does
not cause the water temperature to exceed the system operating temperature or to be flashed off to
steam.
52
Figure 23:Typical corrosion curve for fuel oil. (Source: ETSU)
Figure 24: Flue gas dew point versus fuel sulphur content. (Source: ETSU)
Figure 25: Schematic of an economiser. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 88. Figure 56)
53
10.3.6 COMBUSTION AIR PRE-HEAT
Combustion air pre-heat has always been
regarded as the poor cousin of the economiser
because air pre-heaters are large and less efficient
overall. In order to improve thermal efficiency by
1% the combustion air temperature must be
raised by 20C. Furthermore, most gas and oil
burners used on boiler plant were not designed
for high air pre-heat temperatures and a
maximum increase of 50C is usually all that can
be tolerated.
The usual heat sources for combustion air pre-
heating include:
heat remaining in the flue gases:
higher temperature air drawn from the
top of the boiler house:
heat recovered by drawing the air over or
through the boiler casing to reduce shell
losses.
The two latter sources tend to be the most
commonly used as they require little additional
equipment.
When considering an airheater, the burner
manufacturer should be consulted to determine
the maximum allowable combustion air tempe-
rature. This could be as low as 250C, and it is
unlikely to be higher than 400C since that would
require alloy steels instead of carbon steel.
The introduction of an airheater will increase the
pressure loss on the flue gas and combustion air
systems. A forced draft system, with only a single
F.D. fan, may require the insulation of a new fan
and motor. For a balanced draft system, both fans
may have to be replaced, although a new impeller
and motor might be sufficient. The forced draft
system may also include modifications to the
burner, as the combustion chamber pressure will
increase significantly. New air and gas ductwork
must be installed, and modifications to the stack
may be necessary.
Modern burners are, however, available which can
stand much higher combustion air pre-heat
Figure 26: Feed-water temperature and boiler efficiency. (Source: ETSU)
54
temperatures. It is therefore possible to consider
installing a heat exchanger in the exit flue as an
alternative to an economizer. Figure 27 shows the
energy-saving potential of this technique.
The combustion air intake can sometimes be
relocated to the top of the boiler house to use
heated air and save energy, as in the example that
follows.
10.3.7 LOAD SCHEDULING
When a boiler is being operated at low loads
some of the losses remain constant and are not
dependent on the firing rate. Shell losses resulting
from radiation and convection, for instance, remain
largely the same whether the burner is operating
or not, so a boiler having a shell loss equivalent to
2% of fuel fired at full firing will have a loss
equivalent to 6% at one third firing.
At lower firing rates the flame does not fill the
furnace chamber so heat transfer rates fall. This is
compensated for in the reduced flue gas velocity
through the convection tubes.
In the case of fuels containing significant sulphur
content, continuous firing below 30% of rated
boiler output may result in boiler metal
temperatures falling below the sulphur dew point.
This, in turn, can cause smutting and, possibly, rapid
corrosion.
The best practice is to use boilers that will
operate at 60% or more of their rating under
EXAMPLE
A boiler firing No.2 oil uses 14 500 kg/h of air at 20C average temperature. Installation of a duct to the
top of the boiler house increases the average air temperature to 30C. The specific heat of the air is 1.01
kJ/kgC.
Heat recovered = 14 500 kg/h x (30 - 20)C x 1.01 kJ/kgC
= 146 450 kJ/h
The boiler operates 6000 hours per year, and the fuel costs R50/GJ.
Annual fuel savings = 146 450 x 6000 x 50
Annual fuel savings =
Annual fuel savings = 1 x 10
6
= R43 930 per year
The ducting cost is R100 000.
Simple payback = = 2.3 years
Generally, the savings achieved will depend on the type of system installed. Ducting hot air from the top
of the boiler house typically results in savings of 1%, while savings of 2% are more typically achieved by
drawing combustion air over/through the boiler casing.
55
normal firing conditions. For LTHW and MTHW
systems this is easily achieved using a modular boiler
system. For steam boilers, however, the solution is
not so simple since, in many cases, each boiler is
rated to meet the plants maximum load
requirement. Where the steam is used for process
and space heating there will be a significant
reduction in load once the space heating is turned
off in summer. A smaller boiler, correctly sized for the
summer load should therefore be installed.This also
applies in the case of lame hot water systems.
Steam systems that have low base loads but high
peak demands over relatively short periods always
cause fuel efficiency problems. Older boilers had a
very high thermal storage capability because of
their very high water content, but modern
practice produces boilers with many more tubes
and much less water. In some cases, therefore, a
smaller boiler firing at a steady higher rate into a
steam accumulator as shown in Figure 30 is a
more thermally efficient solution.
Figure 27: Efficiency increase versus air pre-heat. (Source: ETSU)
Figure 28: Schematic of a steam accumulator. (Source: ETSU)
56
Matching the load can result in a thermal efficiency
improvement of around 2%. The cost saving
resulting from the prevention of sulphur corrosion
by proper load scheduling may be much greater.
10.3.8 ON-LINE CLEANING
Metal surfaces in the path of the combustion gases
need regular cleaning to remove sooty deposits,
especially when firing solid fuels. Soot blowers of
various kinds have been used to remove soot and
dust both from shell and water tube boilers and
from economisers and air pre-heaters.Traditionally
these comprised high-speed steam or compressed
air jets, but recent developments have produced
infra-sound and ultra-sound units. The correct
installation and use of soot blowers reduces
maintenance and retains the optimum efficiency of
the plant over an extended period.
Incorrect water treatment can lead to scale
formation, which is a much better insulator than
soot or ash. It is not only lack of water treatment
that causes the problem, however. In many
instances, over enthusiasm in adding treatments,
on the basis that a bit more will be even better,
leads to the formation of insulating coatings on the
water side of heat transfer surfaces.
Incorrect water treatment, poor combustion and
poor cleaning schedules can easily reduce overall
thermal efficiency by 2%. However, the additional
cost of maintenance and cleaning must be taken
into consideration when assessing savings.
10.3.9 FLUE SHUT-OFF DAMPERS
For situations where boilers are regularly shut
down because of changes in load, the heat loss
caused by the chimney effect drawing cold air
through the boiler can be significant. This is
particularly true when a number of boilers are
connected to a common header and are operated
in a cascade manner.
The best-known solution is to install dampers in
the exit flues. In the past the main problems
encountered included designing dampers that
were virtually gas tight, and incorporating a control
system that would prevent the boiler firing against
a closed damper.
Today, automatic gas-tight shut-off dampers for
installation in a boiler exit flue are widely available
(Figure 29). In the case of forced draught (FD) oil
and gas burners a cheaper alternative is available,
particularly for retrofit situations: this involves the
installation of an automatic damper at the
combustion air fan inlet.
It is difficult to put an exact figure on the potential
saving from shut-off dampers as each boiler
installation has different operating parameters and
operating periods. A saving of 1% in fuel
consumption is, however, usually achieved.
10.3.10 VARIABLE SPEED FAN DRIVES
The overall potential of modem variable speed
drives has been widely explored. For large boiler
plant fitted with induced draught (ID) fans, the
control of combustion air is generally achieved by
throttling the damper. These dampers, however,
tend to be designed more for simplicity and
reliability than for accurate control and most give
a very poor control characteristic at the top and
bottom of the operating range. Multi-opposed-
bladed dampers and iris type dampers have much
better control characteristics.
If the load characteristic of the boilers is variable,
it maybe economic to replace the dampers with a
variable speed drive. However, up to now there
has been very little experience of using such drives
with individual boilers rated at up to 20 MW.
57
10.3.11 INTEGRATED CONTROL
Major advances in control technology using the
microprocessor have entirely changed strategies
for control. Historically each part of a process or
plant was treated individually, the appropriate
controls being fitted for temperature, flow etc.
With microprocessor contacts, the process can be
examined as a whole, allowing all aspects to be
optimised simultaneously. This type of control is
now available for boiler plant.
The control can be as simple as the oxygen trim
control already mentioned or can involve a
completely integrated system that operates the
boilers and all the associated equipment
automatically. The only limit to the amount of
information that can be gathered is the number of
sensors and signal converters installed. Equally
there is no limit to the number of plant items that
can be controlled using the information collected.
The advantages of a centralised control system are
numerous, and include the following:
faults are recognised and reported more
quickly;
a decline in performance is recognised at
an earlier stage; and
maintenance scheduling can be
incorporated into the system.
The automatic control of plant items begins with
the boiler and combustion system: this can be
designed to include sequencing of the boilers to
ensure that the correct number of boilers of an
appropriate capacity is on line to meet the
expected demand. This will maximise overall
efficiency.The water treatment equipment will also
be subject to automatic control, normally including
the automatic regeneration of ion exchange beds.
Outside the boiler house, changes in process
requirements, reflected in the rate at which
temperature or pressure varies, can be used to
anticipate the extent of future load swings.
The only limit to such a system is the imagination
of the control designer. However, not all the
functions of a sophisticated controller need by
Figure 29: Schematic of a flue shut-off damper and interlock. (Source: ETSU)
58
used: they can simply be there for application as
and when required.
10.4 WHAT TO DO FIRST
A QUICK CHECKLIST
The boilerhouse is very often the largest single
user of energy on a site, and it is important that its
performance is under constant review. There
should be a comprehensive boilerhouse logging
programme in place, which includes the
monitoring of the following parameters:
fuel consumption;
heat output;
flue gas conditions;
make-up water consumption;
subsidiary electricity consumption.
The frequency of checks will depend on the plant
and manpower availability, but weekly or
preferably daily checks should be made. An
important measure of the performance of a boiler
plant is the specific boiler efficiency.This is the ratio
between useful heat production and energy
consumed, i.e.:
Heat transferred to heating medium:
(usually steam or water) x 100%
Fuel Input
The heat transferred to the heating medium
cannot normally be determined directly, though
indirect measurements, such as fluid temperatures,
pressure and volume flow rates can be used.
Electronic combustion analysers can be used to
check efficiencies and monitor trends, particularly
before and after maintenance.
In addition it is always worth undertaking a more
comprehensive boilerhouse audit, to highlight heat
losses and take into account subsidiary energy
usage. The biggest part of this exercise is to assess
the portion of the primary fuel energy lost in the
boilerhouse. The main heat losses for a typical
installation, in order of importance, are:
flue gas losses;
heat losses from boilerhouse heat
distribution system;
blowdown losses;
heat losses from boiler shell;
ash losses (coal-fired plant);
fuel heating (oil-fired plant).
Methods which can be used to assess these losses
are detailed in Saving Energy and Money
booklets which cover, amongst other things, the
economic use of oil-fired, gas-fired and coal-fired
boiler plant respectively.
A significant amount of electrical energy is used in
the typical boilerhouse for circulating pumps,
combustion fans, etc. Where a dedicated kWh
meter is installed for the boilerhouse this should
be read regularly, though an estimate of electricity
consumption can be determined from motor
duties and running hours if necessary.
Make-up water consumption should be
monitored to give early warning of system leaks.
The recovery of uncontaminated condensate on
steam systems should be maximized, saving on
energy, water and chemicals. Where there are
significant year round requirements for process
heating, typically in excess of 5,000 hours/annum,
the feasibility of combined heat and power (CHP)
should be investigated.
10.4.1 CHECK LIST
Maintain efficient combustion.
Maintain good water treatment.
Repair water and steam leaks.
Recover heat from flue gas and boiler
blowdown whenever possible.
Ensure good operational control and
59
consider sequence control for multi-plant
installations.
Attempt to match boilers to heat
demand. Valve off idle boilers to reduce
radiation losses.
Use flue dampers where appropriate to
minimize flue losses when plant not firing.
Ensure that boilers and heat distribution
systems are adequately insulated.
Blowdown steam boilers only when
necessary.
Ensure as much condensate as practicable
is recovered from steam systems.
Insulate oil tanks and keep steam or
electric heating to the minimum required.
11. TYPES OF FURNACES

The purpose of a process furnace is to apply heat
to the contents in a controlled manner. The
furnace may be used for heating metals to a
precisely controlled temperature for heat
treatment, or for melting. Furnaces are
manufactured in many different types and sizes,
some of which are described in this section.
Furnaces may be batch or continuous type.
Furnaces, which generate heat by burning fuel, may
be of the direct or indirect fired types. Furnaces
are also heated from electric resistance heaters.
11.1 BATCH FURNACES
Batch furnaces process the product in batches,
which means that the furnace doors must be
opened and closed at the beginning and end of
the batch cycle. Since this is a significant source of
energy loss, the loading and unloading times
should be minimized. It is also important to load
the furnace completely to minimize the energy
loss per unit of product.
Figure 31 shows a crucible melting furnace used
for nonferrous metals. Metal scrap is loaded into
the furnace in batches, and the molten metal
tapped off as required.
Figure 30 shows a high temperature electric
furnace used for the heat treatment of steel.
11.2 CONTINUOUS
FURNACES
Continuous furnaces process the product
continually by moving it through the heating zones
on chains or conveyors. Since the loading and
unloading doors are open all or part of the
operating time, there is a significant heat loss
through these openings. Continuous furnaces also
may have a significant heat loss because of the
conveying mechanism, which is heated to the
operating temperature with the product. If the
conveyor cools off outside the furnace before re-
entering the loading area, the energy required to
heat the conveyor is not used productively. Thus, it
60
is better if the conveyor stays within the heated
furnace area. An example of this type of furnace is
shown in figure 32.
11.3 DIRECT FIRED
FURNACES
The products of combustion are in direct contact
with the product being heated in a direct fired
furnace. The heat transfer process from the flame
to the product is more effective than with an
indirect heated furnace, where the flue gas is not
in direct contact with the product. The higher rate
of heat transfer which can be achieved with direct
fired furnaces can lead to local surface overheating
of the product, unless the furnace temperature is
properly controlled.
Figure 30: High Temperature Electric Box furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
Figure 31: Crucible furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
61
11.4 INDIRECT HEATED
FURNACES
In indirect heated furnaces the products of
combustion are not in direct contact with the
product being heated (Figure 33). Heat is
transferred through some form of heat exchanger.
This type of furnace may be used to provide a
controlled environment for oxidizing or reducing,
by introducing an artificial atmosphere
independent of the combustion process. Since the
heat transfer from the flame to the product is not
as effective as the direct fired furnace, it can be
expected that the flue gas temperature will be
higher, resulting in higher heat losses unless heat
recovery is used.
There are a few special considerations for indirect
fired furnaces, which affect the heat balance
calculations. If a controlled atmosphere is
maintained inside the furnace, the heat input and
output of the gas entering and leaving the furnace
must be included in the heat balance. If heat is
required for the preparation of the atmosphere,
the energy required in the gas generator must be
included as part of the total heat input to the
furnace. Electrical energy used for refrigeration or
other purposes in the gas generator must also be
included.
Figure 32: Continuous type furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
62
12.1 POTENTIAL LOSSES
5
As with boilers, to optimise the operation of
furnace plant it is necessary to understand where
energy wastage is likely to occur.
12.1.1 FURNACE ENERGY BALANCE
Basically the furnace energy balance is similar to a
boiler energy balance. Energy is taken into the
furnace from:
The fuel. This includes both the heat of
combustion and the heat carried in as a
function of the fuels temperature.
Combustion air. This air entering the
combustion chamber contains heat as a
result of its temperature.
The feed. Whatever it is that is to be
heated contains heat as a result of its
temperature.
Figure 33: An indirectly heated furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Mangement Series 7. Page 13. Figure 7.)

12. ENERGY AND COST
SAVINGS FOR FURNACES

5
A furnace energy efficiency test is described in the appendix. This gives the direct method for evaluating efficiency, and a breakdown of the losses.
63
Energy is then lost from the furnace in various
forms:
Flue gas. The products of combustion
leave the furnace at a temperature higher
than incoming fuel and combustion air.
Surface heat transfer. As the furnace
temperature is higher than the
surrounding environment heat is lost from
the combustion zone to the environment
as a result of conductive, radiative and/or
convective heat transfer.
Escaping furnace air. If the internal
pressure of the furnace is too high hot
gases will escape to the surroundings
through leaks, openings and doors.
Conversely if the pressure on the inside
of the furnace is higher than the
surroundings then cold air will be drawn
into the furnace, requiring additional heat
to maintain a steady furnace temperature.
12.2 MINIMIZING FURNACE
LOSSES
12.2.1. FLUE GAS HEAT LOSS
The same comments apply here as applied to
boilers and have been included in the section on
combustion.
The major influencing factors are the exit flue gas
temperature and the degree of excess air present.
Fuel preparation should be correct
(uncontaminated and at the right temperature),
burners undamaged and properly maintained, and
combustion air (both primary and secondary)
should be introduced at the right rate and with
adequate turbulence.
12.2.1.1 EXCESS AIR REDUCTION
A continuous O2 and Combustibles analyser is the
best arrangement, but the cost is high. Sampling
tests with an Orsat or other chemical means can
be a reliable guide to proper combustion
conditions. Readjustment of the fuel/air ratio
control should be performed promptly if required.
Below table 8 and 9 give a list of typical excess air
ratios for various fuels and typical savings that can
be realized through excess air adjustment.
Classification Standard air ratio
Melting furnace for metal casting 1.3
Steel slab continuous reheating furnace 1.25
Metal reheating furnace other than steel 1.3
slab continuous reheating furnace
Continuous heat treating furnace 1.3
Gas generator and gas reheating furnace 1.4
Petroleum refinery furnace 1.4
Pyrolyzer and reformer 1.3
Cement baking furnace 1.3
Alumina baking furnace and lime baking 1.4
furnace
Continuous glass melting furnace 1.3
Table 8: Standard air ratio for Industrial furnace
64
Furnace Air ratio Air ratio after correction
temperature before 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00
(C) correction
700 1.70 11.6 14.9 17.9 20.8 23.4
1.60 7.72 11.1 14.3 17.3 20.1
1.50 3.86 7.43 10.7 13.8 16.7
1.40 3.76 7.27 10.5 13.5
1.30 3.65 7.01 10.1
1.20 3.48 6.74
1.10 3.38
900 1.70 18.7 23.5 27.7 31.5 34.9
1.60 12.5 17.6 22.2 26.3 29.9
1.50 6.23 11.7 16.6 21.0 25.0
1.40 5.94 11.3 16.0 20.2
1.30 5.66 10.7 15.2
1.20 5.29 10.1
1.10 5.06
1100 1.70 30.8 37.3 42.6 47.1 51.0
1.60 20.6 28.0 34.1 39.3 43.7
1.50 10.3 18.6 25.6 31.4 36.4
1.40 9.43 17.3 23.8 29.4
1.30 8.67 15.9 22.1
1.20 7.91 14.7
1.10 7.36
1300 1.70 55.0 61.9 67.1 70.9 74.0
1.60 36.7 46.5 53.6 59.1 63.4
1.50 18.3 31.0 40.2 47.3 52.9
1.40 15.7 27.2 35.9 42.7
1.30 13.7 23.9 32.1
1.20 11.9 21.3
1.10 10.7
Table 9: Calculated values of % saving
65
12.2.1.2 INSTALL A HEAT
EXCHANGER IN THE FLUE
GAS OUTLET
The cost of heat exchangers is significantly affected
by the temperature of the gas entering the unit.
Careful consideration should be given to
introducing cold air into the gas stream, if required,
to lower the gas temperature enough to use
economic materials. Stainless steels or alloys
cannot be used for temperatures above 950C.
If the recovered heat is used to preheat the
combustion air, the burner manufacturer should
be consulted to determine the maximum
allowable air temperature. Frequently, this will be
as low as 250C. It is unlikely to be higher than
400C since that would require alloy steels instead
of carbon steel. If it is not practical to heat the
combustion air, it may be possible to heat process
water or to install a waste heat boiler to utilize the
beat energy in the flue gas.
Introduction of a heat exchanger will increase the
pressure drop in the flue gas system, which means
that the combustion air fan capacity will be
reduced. It may be necessary to install a new fan
or impeller and drive motor. It is possible that the
furnace pressure will be increased unless there is
sufficient draft available from the stack to
overcome the added resistance across the heat
exchanger. Because of these and other possible
complications, it is suggested that the furnace
manufacturer or a consulting engineering firm be
retained to make an evaluation of the proposed
changes.
The economic and technical analysis that follows is
based on an actual installation of high-alloy
recuperators applied to an indirectly heated,
continuously operating, heat-treating furnace. A
custom-designed triple-pass recuperator was
bolted to the exhaust leg of each of the 24 radiant
tube heaters of the furnace, and each of the
existing induced draft burners was replaced with a
sealed positive pressure burner. The modification
also included a blower system for the supply of
combustion air, and improvements to the controls
to reduce excess air from 15 to 20 per cent
before conversion to 8 to 10 per cent. Total cost
of the project was R1 200 000.
Before conversion, the fuel consumption per
burner was measured at 193 000 kJ/h, or 4.63 GJ/h
for the furnace with all burners in service. The
furnace operates 6 days per week, 24 hours per
day and the allowance for down time or part load
operation is 15 per cent. Gas costs R42.40 per
gigajoule.
Annual fuel cost before conversion
= (100 15)
= x 24 h/d x 6 d/wk x 52 w/yr
100
x 4.63 GJ/h x 42.4/GJ
= R1 249 490
To estimate the savings, it is necessary to
determine the recuperator performance. Flue gas
leaves the radiant tubes at 1100C, and enters the
recuperator at this temperature. The gas leaves
the recuperator at 650C and the combustion air
is heated from ambient to 500C.
To isolate the performance of the recuperator
from other savings, it is assumed that excess air
before and after conversion remains at 20 per
cent. The intersection of 20 per cent excess air
and 1100C on Figure 5 (extrapolated) indicates
that 64 per cent of the heat supplied in the fuel is
lost in the flue gas.
Flue gas heat loss/burner= 64
Flue gas heat loss/burner= x 193 000
Flue gas heat loss/burner= 100
= 123 500 kJ/h
The remainder, or 69 500 kJ/h, enters the furnace
through the radiant tube.
After conversion the stack gas temperature
dropped to 650C. Using 20 per cent excess air
66
and 650C flue gas temperature shows that about
40 per cent of the heat supplied is lost, and 60 per
cent enters the furnace. It is reasonable to assume
that the amount of heat entering the furnace
through each radiant tube does not change when
a recuperator is installed, as the gas temperature
leaving the tube remains at 1100C. Sixty per cent
of the heat supplied per burner after conversion,
equals 69 500 kJ/h.
Burner energy = 69 500 = 115 800 kJ/h
Burner energy = = 115 800 kJ/h
Burner energy = 0.6 = 115 800 kJ/h
Flue gas heat
loss/burner = 115 800 - 69 500
= 46 300 kJ/h
Energy savings = 24 (burners)
x (123 500 - 46 300)
= 1 852 800 kJ/h
= 1.85 GJ/h
Savings = 1,85
Savings = x 100
Savings = 4.63
= 40%
The actual fuel consumption savings were 48 per
cent. Part of the discrepancy is because of the
difficulty of measuring flue gas temperatures and
airflows, hence excess air quantities accurately. The
modification introduced two further areas of
potential savings. One of these was the improved
airflow control and the resulting reduction in
excess air to 8 per cent.
The second area of savings results from the
changes made to the control system and this is
difficult to estimate. Before conversion, burners
were operated at a fixed setting and turning
selected burners on and off controlled furnace
temperature. Heat was lost from the furnace to
radiant tubes not in service, because of natural
convection of outside air through these tubes.This
loss was eliminated with the new modulating
control system.
The annual fuel savings were 48 per cent of R1249
490 or about R600 000. Based on the capital cost
of R200 000 the payback period for this project
was 2 years.
12.2.2 HEAT LOSS TO INCOMPLETE
COMBUSTION
This is discussed in the section on combustion. An
important aspect of this is the proper mixing of
fuel and combustion air in the furnaces burner.
Burner Assembly
It is good practice to have an experienced burner
manufacturers representative set up the burner
adjustments. Furnace operators can then identify
the appearance of a proper burner flame for
future reference. The flame should be checked
frequently, and always after any significant change
in operating conditions affecting the fuel,
combustion air flow, or furnace pressure has
occurred.
The installation of a modern design burner
assembly can permit operation at lower values of
excess air, thus reducing stack losses. A new burner
assembly can also be the means to provide full
automation for start-up and shutdown. In a
multiple burner installation automation will permit
start-up and shutdown of burners to follow
varying load patterns, rather than modulating the
load on individual burners over a wide range.
Burners generally operate more efficiently at high
loads, so improvements in part load economy can
be expected if some burners are shut down.
Provision should be made to shut off the
combustion air to idle burners. This avoids losses
due to excess air entering the furnace and not
taking part in the combustion process.
12.2.3 RADIATION HEAT LOSS
The same comments that were made for boilers
67
apply here. The radiation heat loss of a furnace is
primarily a function of the applied thermal
insulation. Insulation reduces the heat radiating
from the boiler and maintains the outside surfaces
at a temperature low enough for safety.The quality
and thickness of the insulation on the various
sections of the furnace are normally determined
by the surface temperature. Most safety
regulations require that metal surfaces within
reach of personnel not exceed 50C.The heat loss
from the casing is difficult to measure accurately.
Re-insulating Furnace Enclosure
Older furnaces may use refractory brick for the
furnace lining. If the furnace has to be rebuilt, it is
frequently economical to use ceramic fibre blanket
insulation. If refractory brick is required to
withstand rough handling, an outer layer of
ceramic fibre can be used.
Since ceramic fibre is a much better insulator than
refractory brick, care should be taken to ensure
that the inner layer of refractory is not
overheated, since its average temperature will be
higher. During a tour of a plant it is noticed that a
furnace appears to be radiating substantial
quantities of heat. Temperature measurements of
the surface average 200C on the walls and 250C
on the roof.The outside dimensions of the furnace
are 2 m by 2 m by 6 m long. It is decided to
reinsulate the furnace to give a maximum surface
temperature of 50C, to provide operator safety
and heat savings.
Taking heat losses as 21.5 MJ/(m2.h) at 250C,
11.6 MJ/(m2.h) at 200C, and 1.7 MJ/(m2.h) at
50C.
Roof area = 2 m x 6 m
= 12 m
2
Wall area = (2m x 6m x2) + (2m x 2m)
= 32 m
2
Heat loss before reinsulation
= [21.5 MJ/(m2h) x 12 m2] + [11.6 MJ/(m2h)
x 32 m2]
= 692.2 MJ/h
Heat loss after reinsulation
= 13 MJ/(m2h) x (12 m2 + 32 m2)
= 74.8 MJ/h
Note that the heat loss to the floor is not
considered to be significant.
Energy savings = 692.2 - 74.8 MJ/h
= 617.4 MJ/h
The furnace operates 4000 hours per year, and
fuel costs R50/GJ.
Annual savings = 617.4 MJ / h x 4000 h / yr x R50 / GJ
Annual savings =
Annual savings = 1000 MJ / GJ
= R123 480/yr
12.2.4 FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL
Maintaining a slight positive furnace pressure can
control air leakage into or gas leakage out of a
furnace.The control damper in the furnace flue gas
ducting or the related control should be
readjusted if the furnace pressure is not at the
correct value.
Replace Warped or Damaged Furnace Doors or
Covers
Furnace doors or covers, which are warped,
damaged or missing can be a source of
considerable leakage of air into or gas out of the
furnace. Doors or covers with tight fitting seals
should replace these. Further improvement would
result from installing power operators on the
doors to minimize the time the doors are open, as
well as make it easier for the operators.
68
The following example illustrates the possible
saving by replacing a missing door. A 0.25 m2 door
is noted to be missing from a furnace operating at
900C. Heat radiated through the opening is 400
MJ/(m
2
.h). The furnace operates 4000 hours per
year and fuel costs R50 per GJ.
Annual heat loss = 0.25 m2 x 400 MJ/(m2.h)
x 4000 h
= 400 000 MJ/yr
= 400 GJ/yr
Annual savings = R50 x 400
= R20 000/yr
This saving will be reduced slightly by the heat loss
from the closed door. Some additional savings may
result from the elimination of air leaking into or
gas escaping from the open door.
12.2.5 FURNACE EFFICIENCIES AND
MONITORING AND
TARGETING
High temperature process plant, such as furnaces
and kilns, are used in a variety of industries. There
is a wide range of plant used, and it may be of a
continuous or batch nature. However, the basis
under which an energy audit is undertaken on all
high temperature processes is very similar.
As with boilers, a specific efficiency for the process
plant can be calculated but it is more usual to use
the specific energy consumption:
Specific energy consumption
= Energy consumption
Product throughput
This gives a good measure of the relative plant
performance, and requires only good production
records and energy consumption figures to be
kept.
Efficiency for furnaces will be defined as the
amount of heat taken up by the product versus
the heat added in the form of fuel. For a furnace it
is important to estimate and trend the changes of
efficiency over time. Due to the nature of the
process, efficiencies are far smaller than those for
a boiler. A small change in efficiency will result in a
large change in specific fuel consumption. Any
changes are therefore important. In the appendix
the direct method for furnace efficiency
calculations is outlined for a furnace of any kind.
As regards monitoring equipment the, minimum
suggested is to have the ability to determine the
energy used per unit of output, so that significant
deviations from this can be identified and
corrective action taken.The fuel or watt meter can
be a portable instrument which may be used on
several furnaces. Additional instrumentation would
be required to identify individual losses.
Measurement of flue gas temperature and oxygen
content can be used to indicate flue gas loss. If a
heat exchanger is used to recover heat from the
flue gas, temperature measurements of the gas
and air in and out of the heat exchanger can be
used to check the performance.
Relocate Combustion Air Intake to Recover Heat
Within the Building
Heat generated inside the plant tends to rise,
resulting in significant temperature differences
between floor and ceiling. If the furnace has a
forced draft fan it is often possible to install
lightweight ducting from the ceiling to the fan
intake. Alternatively, the ducting may be routed to
an adjacent shop if considerable heat is
simultaneously being generated and vented
outside. Care should be taken to size the ducting
adequately to minimize the pressure drop.
A furnace using 5000 kg/h of combustion air
draws inside air at 20C average temperature.
Installation of a duct to the ceiling increases the
average air temperature to 30C.
69
Heat recovered = c x DT x w
= 1.006 kJ/(1KgC)
x (30 - 20)C x 5,000 Kg/h
= 50 300 kJ/h
The furnace operates for 6000 hrs per year and
the fuel costs R50/GJ
Annual fuel savings = 50 300 x 6000 x 50
Annual fuel savings =
Annual fuel savings = 1 x 10
6
= R15 090 per year
The cost of the ducting is R15 000.
Simple payback = R15 000
R15 090
= 1.0 year
RECOVERY OF HEAT FROM EQUIPMENT
COOLING WATER
It is often possible to use the warm water
discharge from equipment coolers for purposes
such as process washing. In some systems the
water discharge may be too cool to be useful. In
these instances the installation of a water flow
control valve and temperature controller may be
helpful. The water flow is controlled automatically
from the water temperature at the cooler outlet
so that the water temperature is high enough to
be useful, while maintaining proper cooling. The
control system will also reduce water use.
12.3 WHAT TO DO FIRST A
QUICK CHECKLIST.
In a well controlled plant there should be a good
correlation between energy consumption and
production rate.The more scatter on the graphical
plot the worse the process control. The offset on
the graph, i.e. the energy consumption at zero
production, represents the level of standing losses.
These are typically made up of:
flue gas losses (except on electrically
operated plant);
structural heat losses;
heat loss by radiation from openings;
loss of furnace gases at openings;
heat loss to conveyers, rollers, etc;
heat loss to charging equipment and
mechanisms;
heat removed by cooling circuits.
It is worth measuring or calculating the level of
these heat losses to identify areas for potential
improvement.
Minimise heat losses from openings, such
as doors, on sealed units.
Use high efficiency insulating materials to
reduce losses from the plant fabric.
Attempt to recover as much heat as
possible from flue gases. The pre-heating
of combustion air or stock or its use in
other services such as space heating are
well worth considering.
Reduce stock residence time to a
minimum to eliminate unnecessary
holding periods.
Ensure efficient combustion of fuels
where applicable.
Avoid excessive pressure in controlled
atmosphere units.
If maintaining stock at high temperature
for long periods, consider the use of
specialized holding furnaces.
Make sure excessive cooling of furnace
equipment is not occurring.
Ensure the minimum amount of stock
supporting equipment is used.
Ensure there is effective control over
furnace operating parameters
computerized control should be
considered for larger units.
6
Specific fuel consumption is the ratio of fuel consumed to kg of
product heated.

70
APPENDIX
CONVERSION TABLES.

Table A1: Mass Equivalent
FROM/TO KILOGRAM METRIC TON (USA) TON (UK) OUNCE POUND POUND
TON (a) (b) (c) (USA) (UK)
MULTIPLY BY
1 Kilogram 1.000 1.000x10
-3
1.102x10
-3
9.842x10
-4
3.527x101 2.205 2.425x10
3
1 Metric 1.000x10
3
1.000 1.102 9.842x10
-1
3.527x10
4
2.205x10
3
2.425x10
3
ton (a)
1 Ton 9.072x10
2
9.072x10
-1
1.000 8.929x10
-1
3.201x10
4
2.000x10
3
2.200
(USA) (b)
1 Ton (UK) 1.016x10
3
1.016 1.120 1.000 3.584x10
4
2.240x10
3
2.464x10
3
(c)
1 Ounce 2.835x10
-2
2.835x10
-5
3.124x10
-5
2.790x10
-5
1.000 6.251 6.873x10
2
1 Pound 4.536x10
-1
4.536x10
-4
5.000x10
-4
4.464x10
-4
1.600x10
-1
1.000 1.100
(USA)
1 Pound 4.124x10
-1
4.124x10
-4
4.545x10
4
4.059x10
-4
1.455x10
1
9.083x10
-1
1.00
(UK)
(a) Also referred to overseas as tonne
(b) Also referred to overseas as short ton
(c) Also referred to overseas as long ton
Table A2:Volume Equivalent
FROM/ LITER CUBIC GALLON GALLON BARREL PINT PINT CUBIC
TO METRE (USA) (UK) (USA) (USA) (UK) FOOT
MULTIPLY BY
1 Litre 1.000 1x10
-3
2.642x10
1
2.200x10
-1
6.289x10
-3
2.113 1.760 3.531x10
-2
1 Cubic 1x10
3
1.000 2.642x10
2
2.200x10
2
3.289 2.113x10
3
1.760x10
3
3.531x10
1
metre
1 Gallon 3.785 3.785x10
-3
1.000 8.327x10
-1
2.381x10
-2
8.000 6.662 1.337x10
-1
(USA)
1 Gallon 4.546 4.546x10
-3
1.201 1.000 2.860x10
-2
9.606 8.000 1.605x10
-1
(UK)
1 Barrel 1.590x10
2
1.590x10
-1
4.200x10
1
3.498x10
1
1.000 3.360x10
2
2.799x10
2
5.615
(USA)
1 Pint 4.732x10
-1
4.732x10
-4
1.250x10
-1
1.041x10
-1
2.976x10
-3
8.328x10
-1
8.328x10
-1
1.671x10
-2
USA
1 Pint 5.683x10
-1
5.683x10
-4
1.501x10
-1
1.250x10
-1
3.574x10
-3
1.0001 1.0001 2.006x10
-1
(UK)
1 Cubic 2.832x10
1
2.832x10
-2
7.481 6.231 1.781x10
-1
4.984x10
1
4.984x10
1
1.000
foot
71
Steam generators boiler heat balance and
efficiency calculations
The calculation of the efficiency of a boiler involves
a comparison between the energy supplied in the
coal with the energy transferred to the feedwater
to convert it to superheated steam.
The heat balance on the other hand concerns the
identification of the magnitude of all the heat flows
into and out of the boiler.
It is therefore possible to calculate the efficiency of
a boiler in one of two ways:-
1) The Direct Method where the energy gain of the
working fluid (water and steam) is compared
with the energy content of the boiler fuel;
Table A3: Energy and Heat Equivalent
FROM/TO JOULE CALORIE THERM BTU THERMIE ERG kWh
MULTIPLY BY
1 Joule 1.000 2.388x10
-1
9.479x10
-9
9.478x10
-4
2.389x10
-7
1.000x10
7
2.788x10
-7
1 Calorie 4.187 1.000 3.968x10
5
3.968x10
-3
1.001x10
-6
4.187x10
7
1.163x10
-6
1 Therm 1.055x10
8
2.520x10
4
1.000 1.000x105 2.521x101 1.055x10
15
2.930x101
1 BTU 1.055x10
3
2.520x10
2
1.000x10
-5
1.000 2.521x10
-4
1.055x10
10
2.930x10
4
1 Thermie 4.186x10
6
9.995x10
5
3.967x10
5
3.967x10
3
1.000 4.186x10
13
1.163
Erg 1.000x10
7
2.388x10
8
9.479x10
-16
9.478x10
-11
2.398x10
-14
1.000 2.778x10
-14
kWh 3.600x10
6
8.599x10
5
3.413x10
-2
3.412x10
3
8.600x10
-1
3.600x10
13
1.00
Table A4: Multipliers and Equivalents
1 Toe 42Gj
1 Tse 29.3 Gj

boiler efficiency test

72
2) The Indirect Method where the efficiency is the
difference between the losses and the energy
input.
Before these two methods are discussed in more
detail, it is necessary to define the terminology
used.
Calorific Value (CV) - The energy released by a
fuel when it is completely burnt and when the
products of combustion are cooled to the original
fuel temperature is known as the calorific value of
the fuel.
The combustion of any fuel with hydrogen as a
constituent produces water vapour. If the products
of combustion are at a high temperature, the
water will leave the system as vapour and will
carry with it the energy represented by the energy
of superheated steam. However, if the gases are
cooled, the vapour will condense and reject this
energy.
Thus it is possible to have two distinctly different
calorific values for fuels containing hydrogen - the
gross calorific value (GCV) and the net calorific
value (NCV). The GCV assumes that the water
vapour from combustion has been condensed to
a liquid, while the NCV does not assume
condensation of the vapour.
Those in favour of the use of the lower Calorific
Value argue that practical power cycles are not
able to use the energy contained in the vapour,
while those who prefer the Gross Calorific Value
feel that this is a problem of the cycle rather than
one of the fuel.
By convention, it is common to use the Gross
Calorific Value in boiler calculations.
Coal Analysis
Customary practice in reporting the components
of a coal is to use two different analyses, known as
proximate analysis and ultimate analysis.
Proximate Analysis is defined as the determination
of moisture, volatile matter, and ash, and the
calculation of fixed carbon by difference.
Ultimate Analysis of a dried sample is defined as
the determination of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur,
nitrogen and ash, and an estimate of oxygen by
difference.
Analysis on an as-received basis includes the total
moisture content of coal received at the plant.
Similarly, the as-fired basis includes the total
moisture content of the coal as it enters the boiler
furnace or pulverises.
The Direct Method of Boiler Efficiency
Calculation
As mentioned earlier, the direct method consists
of a direct comparison between the fuel energy
input and the energy gain of the working fluid.
Energy Input = Coal Flow Rate x G.C.V.
Energy Output = Steam Flow Rate
x Enthalpy Gain
Efficiency = Energy Output
Efficiency =
Efficiency = Energy Input
Note that:-
1. The power requirements of the boiler
auxiliaries (e.g. fans and pumps) are not
normally included in this calculation.
2. The accurate measurement of steam flow at
high temperatures and pressures is difficult and
it is thus more common to measure the flow
of feedwater to the boiler.
DIRECT METHOD EXAMPLE
Gross Calorific Value of the Coal = 27,32 MJ/kg
73
Measured Values
Coal Flow 3,3kg/s
Feedwater Flow 30,4kg/s
Feedwater Temperature 175,4C
Superheater outlet temperature 450,0C
Superheater Outlet pressure 4,00 Mpa
Energy Input
= Coal Flow Rate x Gross Calorific Value
= 3,3 x 27 320
= 90 156 kJ/s (Kw)
Energy Output
= Steam Flow Rate x Enthalpy Gain
= 30,4 x (3330 - 743) kJ/s
= 78 644,8 kJ/s
Efficiency = Energy Output
Energy Output
= 78 644,8 x 100%
90 156,0
= 87,32 %
The Indirect Method of Boiler Efficiency
Calculation
In order to calculate the boiler efficiency via the
indirect route, all the energy losses that occur
within the boiler must be established. These losses
are conveniently related to the amount of fuel
burnt (i.e. kilojoules per kilogram of coal
consumed or to the amount of energy supplied
(i.e. losses as a percentage of the energy content
of the fuel). In this way it is easy to compare the
performance of differently rated boilers.
For the purposes of illustration, typical values,
which would have been obtained from a boiler
efficiency test, are included below and these values
are used to demonstrate the equations derived for
the boiler losses.
Ultimate Analysis of the Coal (% by mass)
Carbon 64,6%
Hydrogen 4,0%
Oxygen 7,0%
Ash 14,4%
Moisture Inherent 3,4%
-Superficial 4,1%
Nitrogen 1,0%
Sulphur 1,5%
100%
Gross Calorific Value 27,32MJ/kg
Flue Gas Analysis
CO2 14,9%
CO 0,4%
O2 4,4%
N2 80,3%
100,0%
Measured Values
Carbon in ash 12,87%
Flue Gas Outlet
temperature 139,0 C
Ambient Dry Bulb Air
Temperature 30,0 C
Ambient Wet Bulb Air
Temperature 22,0 C
The various losses associated with the operation
of a boiler are discussed below.
Energy Loss Due to Unburned Carbon
Small amounts of carbon will be left in the ash and
this constitutes a loss of potential heat in the fuel.
To assess these heat losses, samples of ash must be
analysed for carbon content. The quantity of ash
produced per unit of fuel must also be known.
With this information, the unburned carbon loss
can be expressed as:-
74
Quc = mash CVc Ca..(1)
Where Quc = Unburned Carbon Loss
(kilojoules/kg fuel)
mash = Ash Content of Fuel
(kilograms/kilogram)
CVc = Calorific Value of Carbon
(33 820 kJ/kg)
Ca = Carbon content of the ash,
expressed as a fraction of the total
ash quantity.
EXAMPLE 1
Quc = mash CVc Ca
= 14,4 x 33820 x 12,87
= x 33820 x
= 100 x 33820 x 100
= 626,78 kJ/kg of coal
or = 626,78
or = x 100%
or = 27 320
= 2,29%
Mass of unburned
carbon = mash Ca
= 0,144 x 0,1287
= 0,0185 kg carbon/kg fuel
Energy Loss due to the Dry Flue Gas
There is an energy loss associated with the fact
that the nitrogen, which enters the boiler as a
constituent of the combustion air, leaves the boiler
at a higher temperature. Additionally, the gaseous
combustion products leave the boiler at an
elevated temperature. This energy is lost to the
system.
This is the greatest boiler loss in a correctly
operated system and can be calculated with the
following formula:
Gfd = mg cp (Tg Ta) ..(2)
where Qfd = Dry Flue Gas Loss
mg = Mass Flow of Gas
(kg gas per kg of fuel)
cp = Specific Heat of the Gas. The
approximate value for dry air can
be used (1,005kJ/kg C)
Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving
the boiler (C)
and Ta = Temperature of the gas entering
the boiler (C)
It will be seen from the above formula that the
losses are directly proportional to the gas flow and
to the temperature difference of the gas across
the boiler. Consequently, any increase in the excess
air quantity will increase the magnitude of this loss.
On the other hand, a reduction in the
temperature difference will reduce the loss. To
achieve this reduction, economizers and air
heaters are used to reduce the exhaust gas
temperature, while the inlet air suction is often
situated in the warm region of the power station,
immediately below the roof.
The above equation relates the Dry Flue Gas Loss
to the mass flow of gas. To calculate the efficiency,
it is necessary to relate this loss to the mass of fuel
burned. In other words, we need to know how
much gas one kilogram of fuel will generate.
In the ideal case:
Carbon in Fuel Process Carbon in flue gas
All the carbon in the fuel is converted in the boiler
into gas which contains carbon, in the form of
C02. Therefore over a given period of time:-
Carbonin = % Carbon in the fuel x mass of fuel
Carbonout = % Carbon in the flue gas x mass of
flue gas
Since carbon cannot be destroyed, Carbonin
= Carbonout
75
% Carbon in fuel x mass of fuel = % Carbon in
flue gas x mass of flue gas
or Mass of flue gas = % Carbon in fuel
Mass of fuel % Carbon in flue gas
In other words:-
Kilograms Dry Flue Gas
Kilograms Fuel
= % by weight of carbon in the fuel
% by weight of carbon in dry flue gas
As shown above, not all the carbon is burnt and
some of it remains in the ash. Therefore instead of
referring to the weight of carbon in the fuel, the
weight of carbon consumed should be used and
the above equation becomes:-
Kilograms Fuel
= % by weight of carbon consumed
% by weight of carbon in dry flue gas
A further correction is required to improve the
accuracy of this equation. At the moment the
equation ignores the fact that sulphur burns to SO2.
The easiest way of including the sulphur in the fuel
is to add the carbon equivalent of sulphur to the
carbon consumed. It can be proved that as far as the
production of flue gas is concerned, sulphur
produces less gas than carbon in the ratio of 12 to
32 (the molecular weights of the two elements
concerned). The above equation then becomes:-
Kilograms Fuel
= % carbon consumed + sulphur x 12/32
= % by weight of carbon in dry flue gas (3)
The next problem is to establish the percentage
by weight of carbon in dry flue gas. Without going
into the proof, it can be shown using Avogadros
law (which implies that masses of equal volumes
of gases will be proportional to their molecular
weights) that:-
The mass of carbon in 1 kg of dry flue gas
= 12 CO2 + 12 CO (4)
= (4)
= 44 CO2 + 32O2 + 28CO + 28N2 (4)
where C02, CO, O2 and N2 refer to the percentage
volumes of the components in the flue gas.
Substituting equation (4) into equation (3), it is
possible to calculate the kilograms of dry flue gas
produced for each kilogram of fuel burnt.
Multiplying this answer by equation (2) (the dry
flue gas loss in terms of flue gas flow), enables the
Dry Gas Loss per mass of fuel burnt to be
established.
EXAMPLE 2
The mass of carbon in 1 kg of flue gas
= 12 CO2 + 12 CO (4)
=
= 44 CO2 + 32O2 + 28CO + 28N2 (4)
= 12 x 14,9 + 12 x 0,4
=
= 44 x 14,9 + 32 x 4,4 + 28 x 0,4 + 28 x 80,3
= 0,0601 kg carbon I kg flue gas
Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel = 0,646 kg
Calculated mass of unburnt
carbon = 0,0185 kg
Therefore mass of carbon
consumed = 0,6275 kg
Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
= Percentage sulphur x 12
= Percentage sulphur x
= Percentage sulphur x 32
= 1,5 x 12
100 32
= 0,0056
Mass of Dry Gas per kg of Fuel
= Carbon Consumed
+ Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
Carbon in the Flue Gas
76
= 0,6275 + 0,0056
0,0601
= 10,53 kg dry gas/kg fuel
But Qfd = mg cp (Tg Ta)
= 10,53x 1,005 x (139 - 30)
= 1 153,96 kJ/kg fuel
or = 1153,96 x 100 %
27 320
= 4,22 %
Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating
the Moisture in the Fuel
Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as
a superheated vapour. This moisture loss is made
up of the sensible heat to bring the moisture to
boiling point, the latent heat of evaporation of the
moisture, and the superheat required to bring this
steam to the temperature of the exhaust gas. This
loss can be expressed in the following
Qcm = mw [cpw (Tsat Ta) + hfg
+ cps (Tg Tsat)] (5)
where Qcm = Fuel Moisture Loss
mw = Moisture (kg moisture/kg fuel)
cpw = Specific heat of water (kJ/kgC).
A value of 4,18 is typical over the
temperature range of interest.
Tsat = The saturation temperature at
which the water evaporates.
For the sake of simplicity, this
temperature is assumed to be
1OOC.
hfg = The latent heat of evaporation of
water at 1000C and 1 bar.
(2 258 kJ/kgC).
cps = Specific heat of steam (kJ/kgC).
A value of 2,01 corresponding to
a temperature of 100C can be
used.
Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving
the boiler (C)
Ta = Temperature of the gas entering
the boiler (C)
EXAMPLE 3
Qcm = mw [cpw (Tsat Ta) + hfg
+ cps (Tg Tsat)]
Moisture in the fuel = (3,4 + 4,1)
100
= 0,075 kg moisture/kg fuel
Qcm = 0.075 x [4,18 x (100-30)
+ 2 258 + 2,01
x (139-100))
= 197,17 kJ/kg fuel
or = 19717 x 100%
27320
= 0,72 %
Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating
the Moisture Formed by the Combustion of
Hydrogen
The combustion of hydrogen causes a heat loss
because the product of combustion is water. This
water is converted to steam in the boiler and this
carries away heat, particularly because of its latent
heat content.
The chemical equation for the reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen is:-
2H2 + O2 = 2 H2O
Considering molecular weights; 4 + 32 = 36
In other words, 1 kg of hydrogen will produce 9 kg
of water. The equation for the hydrogen loss can
therefore be expressed as follows:-
Qhf = 9 mh [cpw (Tsat Ta) + hfg
+ cps (Tg Tsat)] (6)
where Qhf = Fuel Hydrogen Loss
mh = Hydrogen in the Flue Gas
(kg hydrogen/kg fuel)
cpw = Specific heat of water (kJ/kgC).
A value of 4,18 is typical over the
temperature range of interest.
77
Tsat = The saturation temperature at
which the water evaporates.
For the sake of simplicity, this
temperature is assumed to be
1OOC.
hfg = The latent heat of evaporation of
water at 100C and 1 bar.
(2 258 kJ/kgC).
cps = Specific heat of steam (kJ/kgC).
A value of 2,01 corresponding to a
temperature of 1OOC can be
used.
Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving the
boiler (C)
Ta = Temperature of the gas entering
the boiler (C)
EXAMPLE 4
Hydrogen in the fuel = 4,0 %
Moisture produced by combustion of H2 as % of
fuel = 4,0 x 9
= 36% or 0,36 kg moisture/kg fuel
+ cps (Tg Tsat)]
- 0,36 x (4,18 x (100-30) + 2 258
+ 2,01 x (139-100)]
- 946,44 kJ/kg fuel
or = 946,44 x 100%
27320
- = 3,46%
Energy Loss Due to Incomplete Combustion
Products formed by incomplete combustion could
be mixed with oxygen and burned again with a
further release of energy. Such products include
CO, H2, and various hydrocarbons and are
generally only found in the flue gases from older
chain-grate boilers. Carbon monoxide is the only
gas whose concentration can be determined
conveniently in a power plant test.
While it is relatively easy to determine the
volumetric percentage of carbon monoxide in the
flue gas, as in the case of the dry gas losses, it is
necessary to relate CO to the mass of fuel burnt.
The energy loss can then be calculated by
multiplying the mass of CO by its calorific value
(10143 kJ/kg)
In equation (3), the mass of dry flue gas was
related to the mass of fuel burnt. i.e.
Kg Dry Flue Gas
Kilograms Fuel
= % carbon consumed + % sulphur x 12/32
% by weight of C in dry flue gas
If % carbon consumed + % sulphur x12/32 = A,
then the above equation can be rewritten as:-
K Dry Flue Gas
Kilograms Fuel
= A (7)
= Weight of C in dry flue gas
Weight of dry flue gas
Using Avogadros law once again, it can be shown
that the ratio of CO to the weight of dry flue gas
is:-
= 28CO
weight of dry flue gas
Multiplying both sides of equation (7) by this ratio
yields:-
Left-Hand Side
Kg Dry Flue Gas x Kilograms CO = Kilograms CO
Kilograms Fuel Kg Dry Flue Gas Kilograms Fuel
Right-Hand Side
= A x weight of dry flue gas x 28CO
Weight of C in dry flue gas weight of dry flue gas
= A x 28CO
Weight of C in dry flue gas
78
Hence: -
Kilograms CO = (% carbon consumed
+ % sulphur x 12/32)
x 28 CO
Kilograms Fuel 12CO2 + 12CO
Multiplying this value by the calorific value of
carbon monoxide (10 143 kJ/kg) loss due to
carbon monoxide per kilogram of fuel burnt.
EXAMPLE 5
The percentage of carbon monoxide in 1 kg of
fuel
= (% carbon consumed + % sulphur
x 12/32) x 28 CO
12CO2 +12CO
= (62,75 + 1,5 x 12/32) x 28 x 0,4
12 x 14,9 + 12 x 0,4
= 3,86 %
or = 0,0386 kg CO/kg fuel
Calorific Value of CO = 10 143 kJ/kg
CO Heat Loss/kg fuel = 10 143 x 0,0386
= 391,74 kJ/kg fuel
or = 391 74 x 100%
27320
= 1,43 %
Energy Loss Due to Superheating Vapour in the
Combustion Air
Vapour, in the form of humidity in the incoming air,
is superheated as it passes through the boiler.
Since this heat passes up the stack, it must be
included as a boiler loss.
This loss is given by the following formula:-
Qfm = cp (Tg Ta) (9)
Where Qfm = Air Vapour Loss ( ki l oj oul es / kg
vapour)
cp = Specific Heat of the Vapour
(kJ/kgC).
A value of 2,01, corresponding to a
temperature of 100C can be used.
Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving the
boiler (C)
and Ta = Temperature of the gas entering
the boiler (C)
To relate this loss to the mass of coal burned, the
moisture content of the combustion air and the
amount of air supplied per unit mass of coal
burned must be known.
The mass of vapour that air contains can be
obtained from psychrometric charts and typical
values are included below:
Dry-Bulb Wet Bulb Relative Kilogram
Humidity Water per
Temp C Temp C (%) kilogram
Dry Air
20 20 100 0,016
20 14 50 0,008
30 22 50 0,014
40 30 50 0,024
The materials entering a boiler for combustion
purposes are the fuel and the combustion air. The
total mass of the products of combustion must
therefore equal the sum of the mass of the fuel
and air.The products of combustion consist of wet
flue gas and ash. Hence:-
Mass of (Fuel + Air)
= Mass of (Wet Flue Gas + Ash)
or
Mass of Air = Mass of (Wet Flue Gas + Ash - Fuel)
The wet flue gas mass is the sum of the mass of
79
the dry gases plus the moisture contained in the
fuel and the moisture from the combustion of
hydrogen.
EXAMPLE 6
From psychrometric charts, at 30C dry bulb
temperature and 22C wet bulb temperature, the
relative humidity is 50% and the moisture content
of the air is 0,014 kg/kg.
Qfm = cp(Tg Ta)
= 2,01 x (139 30)
= 219,09kJ/kg vapour
or = 219,09 x 0,014kJ/kg of dry air entering
boiler
= 3,07kJ/kg
Mass of Air = Mass of (Wet Flue Gas
+ Ash Fuel)
Mass of dry gas/kg fuel = 10,53 kg/kg
(from Example 2)
Moisture in fuel = 0,075 kg/kg
(from Example 3)
Moisture from H2 = 0,36 kg/kg
(from Example 4)
Total Wet Gas/kg fuel = 10,97 kg/kg

Total Ash Content 0,144 kg/kg
(from Analysis)
Total fuel burnt 1 kg (by definition)
Therefore Mass of Air = 10,97 + 0,144 1
= 31,03 kJ/kg fuel
Combustion Air
Moisture Loss = 10,11 x 3,07 kJ/kg fuel
31,03 kJ/kg fuel
or = 31,03 x 100 %
27320
0,11 %
Radiation and Unaccounted Losses
The remaining heat losses from a boiler consist of
the loss of heat by radiation from the boiler
casting into the surrounding boiler house.
Additionally, the losses associated with the
incomplete combustion of the fuel to hydrogen
and hydrocarbons in the flue gas are included
here. Further, there can be a sensible heat loss
from the hot ash which leaves the boiler.
In a relatively small boiler, with a capacity of 10
MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses could
amount to between 1% and 2% of the gross
calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW
boiler, values of between 0,2% and 1 % are typical.
Radiation and unaccounted boiler losses. Lower
curve for radiation only is based on data in the
American power test code. The unaccounted
losses are primarily due to moisture in the
combustion air and sensible heat in the refuse.
They could be larger particularly if unburnt gases
are present but not detected.
Heat Balance
Having established the magnitude of all the losses
mentioned above, a simple heat balance will give
the efficiency of the boiler. The efficiency is the
difference between the energy input to the boiler
and the heat losses calculated.
80
BOILER HEAT BALANCE
EXAMPLE SOLUTION
Ultimate Analysis of the Coal (% by mass)
Carbon ____%
Hydrogen ____%
Oxygen ____%
Ash ____%
Moisture Inherent ____%
- Superficial ____%
Nitrogen ____%
Sulphur ____%
100%
Gross Calorific Value ____ MJ/kg
Flue Gas Analysis
CO2 ____%
CO ____%
O2 ____%
N2 ____% (or by difference)
100,0%
Measured Values
Carbon in ash ____%
Flue Gas Outlet temperature ____C
Ambient Dry Bulb Air Temperature ____C
Ambient Wet Bulb Air Temperature ____C
Unburnt Carbon Loss
Mass of unburned
carbon = massash % x Carbonash %
100 100
= ____ x ____
100 100
= ____ kg carbon/kg fuel
Unburnt Carbon
Loss = kg C/kg Fuel x CVcarbon
_____ x 33 820 kJ/kg fuel
or = Carbon Loss x 100%
GCV of fuel
= ______ x 100
= ____%
Dry Flue Gas Loss
The mass of carbon in 1 kg of flue gas
= 12 CO2% + 12 CO%
44 CO2% + 32O2% + 28 CO%
+ 28 N2%
= 12 x + 12
44 x ____ + 32 x ____ + 28 x ____
+ 28 x ____
= ______ kg carbon / kg flue gas
Loss due to:- KJ/kg fuel %
1) Unburnt Carbon in Ash 626,78 2,29
2) Dry Flue Gas 1153,96 4,22
3) Moisture in the Fuel 197,17 0,72
4) Moisture from Hydrogen 946,44 3,46
5) Incomplete Combustion (CO Loss) 391,14 1,43
6) Moisture in the Combustion Air 31,03 0,11
7) Radiation and Unaccounted Losses 273,20 1,00
TOTAL LOSSES 3619,20 13,23
BOILER EFFICIENCY i.e. (100% - LOSSES) 86,77%
81
Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel = ____kg
Calculated mass of unburnt carbon = ____ kg
Therefore mass of carbon consumed = ____kg
Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
= Percentage sulphur x 12/32
= ____ x 12
100 32
= ____kg
Mass of Dry Gas per kg of Fuel
= Carbon Consumed
+ Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
Carbon in the Flue Gas
= +
_______
= ____ kg dry gas / kg fuel
But Qfd = massgas x cp x (Tgas Tambient air)
= ____ x 1,005 x (____ - ____)
= ________kJ / kg fuel
or = ______ x 100 %
____
= _____%
Moisture in the Fuel
Qcm = mw [cpw (Tsat Ta) + hfg + cps (Tg Tsat)]
Moisture in the fuel = ( % + %)
100
= _____ kg moisture/kg fuel
Qcm = _____ x [4,18 x (l00 - ___) + 2 258
+ 2,01 x (___ - l00)]
= ______ kJ/kg fuel
or = _______ x l00%
____
= ____%
Hydrogen Loss
Hydrogen in the fuel = _____%
Moisture produced by combustion of H2 as % of
fuel
= _____ x 9
= _____% or _____ kg moisture/kg fuel
+ cps (Tg Tsat)]
= _____x [4,18 x (l00 - ___) + 2 258
+ 2,01 x (___ - l00)]
= ______ kJ/kg fuel
or = _____ x 100 %
___
= ______ %
Incomplete Combustion
The percentage of carbon monoxide in 1 kg of
fuel
= (% carbon consumed + % sulphur
x 12/32) x 28 CO
12CO2 + 12CO
= ( + x 12/32) x 28 x
12 x ____ + 12 x ____
= ____ %
or = ____ kg CO/kg fuel
Calorific Value of CO = 10 143 kJ/kg
CO Heat Loss/kg fuel = 10 143 x _____
= ______ kJ/kg fuel
or = _____ x 100 %
___
= ____ %
Moisture in the Combustion Air
From psychrometric charts, at _____ dry bulb
temperature and ______ wet bulb temperature,
relative humidity is ___%and the moisture content
of the air is _____ kg/kg.
Qfm = cp (Tg Ta)
= 2,01 x (___ - ___)
= _____ kJ/kg vapour
or = ____ x ____ kJ/kg of dry air
entering boiler
= ____kJ/kg
82
Mass of Air
Mass of dry gas/kg fuel = Mass of (Wet Flue
Gas + Ash - Fuel)
Moisture in fuel
= _____ kg/kg
Moisture from H2 = _____ kg/kg
Total Wet Gas/kg fuel = _____ kg/kg
Total Ash Content = _____ kg/kg
(from Analysis)
Total fuel burnt = 1 kg (by
definition)
Therefore Mass of Air = _____ + _____ -1
= _____ kg dry air/kg
fuel
Combustion Air
Moisture Loss = _____ x _____ k J / k g
fuel
= _____ kJ/kg
fuel
or = _____ x 100 %
___
= ____ %
Loss due to:- KJ/kg fuel %
1) Unburnt Carbon in Ash
2) Dry Flue Gas
3) Moisture in the Fuel
4) Moisture from Hydrogen
5) Incomplete Combustion (CO Loss)
6) Moisture in the Combustion Air
7) Radiation and Unaccounted Losses
TOTAL LOSSES
BOILER EFFICIENCY i.e. (100% - LOSSES)
BOILER HEAT BALANCE

83
The following gives a direct method methodology
for calculating the efficiency of a heating furnace. It
is more simplified than the boiler example given
above due to the range of different furnace
configurations, where constant heating and cooling
make it difficult to calculate the non-steady losses
explicitly.
The energy required to heat any material is given
by the mass, M, multiplied by the specific heat, Cp,
multiplied by the temperature rise. The energy
required to heat a solid with specific heat Cps
from Tos to some final temperature Tfs is
therefore:
energy to heat solid = M Cps (Tfs - Tos)
The energy required to melt a material at its
melting temperature is the mass, M, multiplied by
the latent heat of melting, Lm:
energy to melt material at melting temperature = MLm
The energy required to raise the temperature of
a liquid is analogous to that of the solid and is the
mass, M, multiplied by the specific heat of the
liquid, Cpl, multiplied by the temperature rise from
the starting temperature, Tol, to the final liquid
temperature, Tfl. So:
energy melt to final temperature = M CPl (Tfl - Tol)
Calculating the process efficiency:
Energy is delivered at some efficiency which,
because this is a straight line, clearly is not
dependent on the amount of material being
processed and can be expressed as a constant, e.
If the process, as in the aluminium melting furnace,
is taking the material through from solid to liquid,
the temperature range is continuous and the final
solid temperature Tfs and the starting liquid
temperature,Tol are both the melting temperature,
Tm. The overall energy requirement to heat from
solid at temperature Tos to liquid at Tfl is:
Energy = MCps (Tm Tos) + Lm + Cpl (Tfl Tm)
Energy =
Energy = e
M is a common term and a graph of energy vs.
production is expected to be a straight line of
slope, m, where:
m = Cps (Tm Tos) + Lm + Cpl (Tfl Tm)
m =
m = e
A value of m can be determined from the graph.
Cps,Tm, Lm and Cpl are characteristics of the material
and can be looked up in reference books. Tos and
Tfl, the initial and final temperatures, are process
parameters of which management should already
be aware.
Everything in this expression except the efficiency,
e, is known.
The slope of the line e is 2.585 Gj/te. Take the
pouring temperature to be 730C. The specific
heat capacity of aluminium from ambient
temperature to the melting point at 661C is
1.061 kJ/kg/0 and for the liquid is 1.177 kJ/kg/C.
The latent heat of melting is 396 kJ/kg.
slope = 1.06 x (661 25) + 396 + 1.177 )760 661) = 1,152
slope = 1.06 x (661 25) + 396 + 1.177 )760 661) = 1,152
slope = e e
The efficiency of the furnace is therefore:
furnace efficiency test

84
e = 1,152
e = 1,152 = 45%
e = 2,585
This level of efficiency is quite good for a gas-fired
furnace in this application.
Selecting specific heat data
It is important to select the right data on specific
heats. Specific heats vary with temperature and,
where not specified, tend to be quoted in
reference texts at, or around, 25C (298K). This
can be rather misleading - particularly in high
temperature processes. Heat capacity is often
quoted in reference texts as the molar heat
capacity, which is the energy required to raise one
gram-molecular weight (the molecular weight
expressed in grams) by 1C. So, to convert this to
a kg basis, divide by the molecular weight and
multiply by 1,000. To calculate the molecular
weight of a material, add the atomic weights of its
constituent elements in the proportions of its
chemical formula.
Note: Very precise information (which is usually
the best to use) on heat capacities, and the
temperature ranges over which they are valid, is
often provided in reference texts as the numerical
values of coefficients A. B. C and D in an equation
of the form:
Cp = A + BT + C + DT
2
Cp = A + BT + C + DT
2
Cp = A + BT +T2 + DT
2
For some materials it may be necessary to use
several such formulae to cover the range of
temperatures required. For comprehensive
information on specific heats, latent heats of fusion
and evaporation. Specialist textbooks on the
processes in use in specific industries usually also
provide this information.

85

SOURCES OF
FURTHER
INFORMATION
For the latest news in energy efficiency technology:
Energy Management News is a free newsletter issued by the ERI, which
contains information on the latest developments in energy efficiency in
Southern Africa and details of forthcoming energy efficiency events.
Copies can be obtained from:
Rondebosch 7700
Cape Town
South Africa
Tel No: (+27 21) 650 3892
Fax No: (+27 21) 686 4838
Email: eri@eng.uct.ac.za

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BOILERS &

Figure 6: Radiant Tube Gas-Fired Rotary Furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)

surface increases, but not proportionally. The

Table 6: Boiler Efficiency According to Boiler Type

Total Wet Gas/kg fuel = 10,97 kg/kg

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