X INTRODUCTION

You have learnt that one of the seven SJ base quantities is temperature.
Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of an object or
material. What causes the rise or decrease of temperature. In this topic, you will
learn the difference between temperature and heat. You will also discover that a
two objects are in contact with each other, heat will flow from the hotter object to
the colder object until an equilibrium condition is reached. Thermal equilibrium
is reached when the two object reaches a point where the temperature of both
objects are the same.

T
T
o
o
p
p
i
i
c
c
5
5

X
Heat


By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Compare between temperature and heat;
2. Explain thermal equilibrium;
3. Describe thermometry and different types of thermometers;
4. Determine specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid;
5. Define specific latent heat of fusion and vaporisation; and
6. Explain three types of gas laws and their applications.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
If you taste some hot curry, the energy is transmitted to your tongue because the
curry is warmer than your tongue. When you eat a scoop of ice cream, the energy
flows from your tongue to the colder ice cream. This kind of energy is called heat.
Heat is persistently transferred from warmer objects to cooler objects.

It is important to note that a substance itself does not contain heat. Hot curry
does not contain heat. Ice cream does not contain heat. Even your tongue does
not contain heat. Heat does not exist coincidently or purposely in any substance.
Although there is energy in many substances, that energy is not heat. Only if the
energy is transferred from a warmer substance to a colder substance then the
energy ceases to be heat (refer to Figure 5.1).


Figure 5.1: Heat

If a substance does not contain heat, is there any other energy in it? And, what
kind of energy is contained in a substance? Yes, there are kinetic energy and
potential energy which form the overall internal energy in a substance.

We have seen that the moving molecules of an object have internal energy. When
an object is heated, its internal energy increases. Like all forms of energy, internal
energy is measured in a unit called the joule (usually written as J).

We always hear about calories in commercials, especially if it is about a weight
loss programme or dieting. So, what is the relationship between calories and
heat? Calorie is a common unit of heat although heat is like other forms of energy
that can be measured in joules (J). However, calorie is a heat unit that is
popularly used as an indicator of energy released by burning food. One calorie is
equal to 4.184 joules.

5.1
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Calorie means the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1 degree Celsius (1 Kelvin).

Now try this simple activity. Take an eraser and rub it for a minute and then
touch the surface of the eraser. What do you feel? Is it warm? How warm was it
compared with before it was rubbed? Should we measure the warmth of the
eraser before and after it was rubbed? Such questions underlie the concept of
temperature. Temperature cannot be used interchangeably with heat although
both concepts play important roles in heating and cooling processes.



Temperature has several standard scales such as Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.
To understand more about its usefulness, let us analyse the following scenario:



On the other hand, instead of using qualitative ideas of hot and cold based on
our sense of touch, we should consult more reliable sources to determine
whether we have fever. Thus, it is suggested that you find a thermometer and
record the temperature. What does this reading tell you? It indicates whether you
have normal body temperature or a fever. The thermometer shows a
quantitative measure of how hot or cold things are. It is also a basis for
comparing your current body temperature with your normal one. By referring to
the temperature, you can justify confidently that you have a fever. But you
would have to go to a clinic to obtain the correct treatment for the symptom you
have.

Calorie means the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
gram of water by 1 degree Celsius (1 Kelvin).
You have to attend a lecture today but you think you have a fever. To check
whether you have fever, you put your palm on your forehead and try to feel
whether it is hot. Then, you ask your friend to put his or her hand on your
forehead to confirm that you have a fever. If your friend agrees, you have to
go to a clinic and see a doctor for further examination.
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of certain
objects.
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We can say that almost all materials are affected by temperature change. Most
materials contract when the temperature is low and expand when it is high. You
have learnt about thermometers and how it can be used to measure temperature.

Now that you have understood the concept of temperature, explain why it is
different from heat. There are several points which show the differences between
temperature and heat. Let us look at Table 5.1 to find out the answer.

Table 5.1: Differences between Temperature and Heat
Temperature Heat
x Measurement Scale: Fahrenheit and
Celsius
x Measurement Scale: joules or calories
x Not a form of energy. x Not a form of energy.
x However, related with the kinetic
energy of molecules of material.
x Temperature is a measure of hotness
or coldness of a substance.
x The hotter the substance, the higher
the kinetic energy of the substance.
x Temperature itself does not represent
the amount of heat.
x Heat is not contained in a substance.
x Heat is energy which flows from an
object of higher temperature to an
object of lower temperature.
x The energy can be considered as heat
only if it flows from a warmer to a
colder object.

Based on the points shown in Table 5.1, we can conclude that temperature shows
us which direction the heat will flow.

We now understand clearly that if two objects have different temperatures, the
energy will flow from an object of higher temperature to an object of lower
temperature. This energy is called heat. But can you predict the direction of the
heat if those two objects are at the same temperature? Activity 5.1 will explain
more on this situation.

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If you look carefully at the thermometer, you will notice that it is partially filled
with some fluid. Usually, the fluid is mercury. The structure of the thermometer
consists of a sealed glass tube. The diameter or the stem of the tube is uniformly
small except at the bottom where it forms a bulb. The bulb is relatively larger
because it acts like a reservoir for the mercury. To get our body temperature, the
thermometer is usually placed under the tongue. It is assumed that the
temperature of the tongue represents the body temperature. In order to get an
accurate reading from the thermometer, you are supposed to wait for a few
minutes until the temperature stabilises. We can conclude that the mercury
moves due to its expansion and contraction. When the mercury in the bulb
expands, there is a rise in the thermometer. When the mercury contracts, there is
a fall in the reading.

Set up three beakers and fill half of each with water. Make sure the
beakers are small (100ml) and have enough water to only completely
cover a bolt and a nail. Measure the temperature of the water in each
beaker.

Put the nail and bolt into the water in the first beaker. Then, heat the
water until boils. Make sure that the temperature and volume of water in
the second and third beaker are same.

By using tongs, transfer the bolt into the second beaker and the nail into
the third. Record the temperature of the water in the second and third
beakers over four-minute intervals; for every 20 seconds.

With the readings, draw a graph to show the temperature change over
time. Can you see that the temperature change between the nail and the
bolt is different?

Although initially the bolt and the nail had the same temperature when
both were placed in boiling water (first beaker), but because the bolt is
bigger than the nail, it raised the temperature of the water in the second
beaker more than the nail in the third beaker.

Do you find this activity can help you and your students to see the
differences between heat and temperature?
ACTIVITY 5.1
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The mercury will rise when the temperature inside the mouth is higher than the
initial temperature of the thermometer. Why is that so? Most materials expand as
they get warmer, and mercury and many other liquids expand at a greater rate
than glass. The reason behind this is that when it gets warmer, the heat will flow
from the surrounding area to the mercury inside the thermometer.

In this case, the heat flows from the tongue, which is relatively warm, to the
thermometer which is relatively colder. As the mercury in the tube expands, the
mercury in the bulb must go somewhere. So it rises in the narrow tube. On the
other hand, if the temperature in the mouth is lower than that of the
thermometer, the mercury contracts and the reading drops.

When the mercury level stabilises, the temperature of the thermometer is
considered to have the same value as that inside the mouth. Why? When the
thermometer is in thermal contact with the tongue in the mouth, the heat will
flow from the tongue to the thermometer. This only happens when the
temperature of the tongue is higher than the temperature of the thermometer. On
the other hand, if the temperature of the thermometer is lower than the
temperature of the tongue, the heat will flow from the tongue to the
thermometer.

For example, if somebody has fever, his or her temperature is higher than
normal. Therefore, the heat will flow from his or her tongue to the thermometer
until both reach the same temperature. When physical properties are no longer
changing, the objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium. Two objects are in
thermal equilibrium if both are in thermal contact and have the same
temperature. Therefore, if we know the temperature of the thermometer, we then
know the temperature of the object which is supposed to be measured by the
thermometer.


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THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Temperature is the measure of the degree of hotness of an object. The hotter the
object gets the more internal energy it possesses. If you hold an ice cube, your
hand feels cold because the heat is transferred from your hand to the ice cube,
reducing the internal energy of your skin. On the other hand, if you place your
hand in warm water, it gains internal energy due to heat transfer.

However, if the water is the same temperature as your hand, the internal energy
of your hand remain constant as there is no overall heat transfer between the
hand and the water. When there is no overall heat transfer between two objects
of the same temperature. The two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

If two objects A and B are in thermal contact at different temperatures, they are
not in thermal equilibrium. Heat will be transferred from the hotter object to the
colder object. The hotter object will lose internal energy while the colder object
will gain internal energy. Heat transfer is always from hot to cold, provided there
is no external work done. It was also found experimentally than when two bodies
A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third body C, A and B are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other. This is called the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics.
5.2
Take a small red hot steel marble and throw it into a warm swimming
pool. Although the warm water in the swimming pool has more internal
energy than the small red hot steel marble, the heat will not flow from the
warm water in the swimming pool to the marble. As we have learnt
before, heat will flow from the marble to the surrounding water in the
swimming pool because the marble is at a higher temperature than the
water in the swimming pool.

What happens to a glass and a jar of hot milk with different volume but
same temperature? Which one will transfer more heat? Discuss and share
your idea and the reasons behind your idea with the class.
ACTIVITY 5.2
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THERMOMETRY
Thermometry, refers to temperature measurement. It is important to a wide
range of activities, including manufacturing, scientific research and medical
practice. Do you know that the accurate measurement of temperature was
developed only recently?

(a) Temperature (like mass, length, time) is a chosen fundamental quantity.
Therefore, arbitrarily chosen units (such as degrees Celsius, degrees
Fahrenheit or Kelvin) are used to measure temperature.

(b) Temperature is measured quantitatively by constructing a thermometer
which makes use of a physical property of matter that varies with
temperature.

(c) A physical property that changes continuously with temperature can be
used to measure temperature and is usually referred to as its thermometric
property.

The first thermometer was invented by Galileo in the 16th century (see
Figure 5.1).


Figure 5.1: First thermometer
5.3
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In his instrument, the changing temperature of an inverted glass vessel produced
the expansion or contraction of the air within it, which in turn changed the level
of the liquid with which the vessels long, open-mouthed neck was partially
filled. This general principle was perfected in succeeding years by experimenting
with liquids such as mercury and by providing a scale to measure the expansion
and contraction brought about in such liquids by rising and falling temperature.
For calibration of any temperature scale, it is necessary to have two fixed points.
These are standard degree of hotness that can be accurately reproduced. For
example, the melting point for pure ice is 0C, and steam point is 100C. At least
two fixed points are needed to define the scale of a thermometer. With these two
points, any thermometer can be calibrated to measure temperatures by dividing
the distance between the fixed points into equal number of intervals or degrees.
Figure 5.2 shows you how to do it.


Figure 5.2: Calibrating a thermometer
Source: http://www.physicsclassroom.com

Some common fixed points to note are:

(a) Ice point temperature when pure water ice is in equilibrium with liquid
water at standard atmospheric pressure (76mm Hg).

(b) Steam point temperature when pure liquid water exists in equilibrium
with water vapour at standard atmospheric pressure.

(c) Triple point temperature when pure water ice, pure liquid water and
pure water vapour exist in equilibrium.

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The thermometric properties of a thermometer are the physical properties which
can be used to determine temperature. Examples of thermometric properties are:

(a) Length for a liquid-in-glass thermometer where the length of liquid in the
stem of the thermometer is measured.

(b) Resistance for resistance thermometer where the electrical resistance is
measured.

(c) Voltage for a thermocouple thermometer, where the e.m.f of the
thermocouple is measured.
5.3.1 Temperature Scales Celsius Scale and Kelvin
Scale
The thermometer calibration process in the previous Subtopic 5.3.1 produced the
centigrade thermometer, or more commonly known as the Celsius scale. It is the
most widely accepted temperature scale used throughout the world. It is the
standard unit of temperature measurement in nearly all countries; only one
country does not use this scale which is the United States. Using this scale, a
temperature of 28 degrees Celsius is abbreviated as 28qC.

In the United States, the Fahrenheit temperature scale is more commonly used. A
thermometer can be calibrated using the Fahrenheit scale in a similar manner as
was described above. The difference is that the normal freezing point of water is
designated as 32 degrees and the normal boiling point of water is designated as
212 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. As such, there are 180 divisions or intervals
between these two temperatures when using the Fahrenheit scale. A temperature
of 76 degrees Fahrenheit is abbreviated as 76qF.

Temperatures in the Fahrenheit scale can be converted to the Celsius scale
equivalent using the equation below:

C = (F 32q)/1.8

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Similarly, temperatures expressed by the Celsius scale can be converted to the
Fahrenheit scale equivalent using the equation below:

F= (1.8 u qC) + 32

The Kelvin Temperature Scale
The most common scales used to measure temperature are the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales. However, there is the Kelvin temperature scale, which is the
standard metric system of temperature measurement and perhaps the most
widely used temperature scale among scientists. The Kelvin temperature scale
zero-degree mark (0 Kelvin) is equivalent to a temperature of -273.15C. The
degree symbol () is not used with this system. So a temperature of 300 units
above 0 Kelvin is referred to as 300 Kelvin and not 300 degrees Kelvin; such a
temperature is abbreviated as 300 K. Conversions between Celsius temperatures
and Kelvin temperatures (and vice versa) can be performed using one of the two
equations below:

C = K 273.15
K = C + 273.15

The zero point on the Kelvin scale is known as absolute zero. It is the lowest
temperature that can be achieved.
5.3.2 Different Types of Thermometers
A practical thermometer must have a thermometric property which varies
smoothly with temperature. A thermometer can give accurate measurements if it
is sensitive to small changes in temperature. In some situations, it needs to
respond to a quick change in temperature such as in a nuclear reactor. Main
types of thermometers and their specific uses are explained in the following
Table 5.2.

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Table 5.2: Seven Types of Thermometers
Type Description
Liquid-in-glass thermometer

Liquid like mercury or alcohol is placed inside a
bulb at the bottom of a sealed narrow glass tube.
When temperature rises, mercury expands and
rises up in the narrow glass tube. It responds to
temperature and changes very quickly whether for
recording and laboratory uses.
Resistance thermometer

Electrical resistance of a metal wire increases as
temperature increases, so that a smaller current
indicates a higher temperature measuring
temperatures from 200 degree C to 1000 degrees C
(such as engines and ovens, etc).
It can measure temperatures of over 1000 degrees
Celsius and can be used in industry to measure the
temperatures of ovens and furnaces. Resistance
thermometer measure changes in the electrical
resistance of metal materials or thermistors, made
from semiconducting material. The change in
electrical resistance is shown in the reading of the
meter.
Thermocouple thermometer

Its wires are made from two different metals. They
are joined together to form two junctions.
Temperature difference at the two junctions causes
a potential difference across the circuit.
A microvoltmeter is used to record the potential
difference. It is very sensitive and can measure a
wide range of temperatures. It can measure
temperatures of over 1000 degrees Celsius and can
be used in industry to measure the temperatures of
ovens and furnaces.
Thermistor thermometer

It is an electronic component using a thermistor.
Resistance in the thermistor decreases as
temperature increases, so that a larger current
indicates a higher temperature.
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Rotary thermometer

This thermometer makes use of a bimetallic
strip that consists of two strips of different
metals joined together surface to surface.
The strip bends as one metal expands more
than the other under temperature change.
As temperature increases, the coiled
bimetallic strip bends more to rotate a
pointer around on a scale measuring the
temperature of ovens and freezers.
Infra-red thermometer

Source: http://www.omega.com
The most basic design consists of a lens to
focus the infrared (IR) energy on to a
detector, which converts the energy to an
electrical signal that can be displayed in
units of temperature after being
compensated for ambient temperature
variations. This configuration facilitates
temperature measurement from a distance
without contact with the object to be
measured.
As such, the infrared thermometer is useful
for measuring temperature under
circumstances where thermocouples or
other probe type sensors cannot be used or
do not produce accurate data for a variety
of reasons. Some typical circumstances are
where the object to be measured is moving;
where the object is surrounded by an EM
field, as in induction heating; where the
object is contained in a vacuum or other
controlled atmosphere; or in applications
where a fast response is required.
Liquid crystal thermometer

It is for measuring the temperature of the
human body and fish tanks. The colour of
liquid crystal changes with temperature.
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SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
If you need to boil a kettle of water, you will need to heat the kettle filled with
water. Heat will be absorbed by the water to increase its temperature. To increase
the temperature of 1kg of water by 1C, a certain amount of heat must be
absorbed by the water. This heat is called the specific heat capacity.



Specific heat capacity is expressed with units Jkg
-1
C

or Jkg
-1
K
-1
. The specific heat
capacity of water is 4200 Jkg
-1
C
-1
, while iron is 452Jkg
-1
C
-1
. This means that
4200J of heat is required to increase the temperature of 1kg of water by 1C while
452J of heat is required to raise temperature of 1kg blocks of iron through 1C.
This shows that it is easier for an iron to get hot compared with water as iron has
a lower specific heat capacity.

Specific heat capacity is a physical property of a substance. Some substances have
high specific heat capacities while others have lower specific heat capacities.

Specific heat capacity (c) can be calculated from the amount of heat supplied (Q)
to the mass (m) of the substance and the increase in the temperature, . Thus,
specific heat capacity:

c = Q/m
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT
Certain substances may exist in many phases, for example, water can exist as
solid, liquid or gas. The amount of heat required to change the phase of a
substance depends on the mass and the type of material that makes up the
substance. A small ice cube melts quickly but a large block of ice melts very
slowly. 100J of heat energy can melt a large amount of wax, but the same amount
of heat can only melt a small amount of another substance say, copper.
5.5
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to increase the
temperature of a mass of 1kg by 1C.
5.4
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Specific latent heat can be represented as,

L = Q/m

where Q = latent heat absorbed or released by the substance

and m = mass of the substance.

The SI unit for specific latent heat is J/kg or Jkg
-1
. The latent heat absorbed or
released when a substance of mass, m changes from one phase to another is
represented by:





Specific latent heat can be written as

Q = ml

The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is usually smaller than the
specific latent heat of vaporisation. This is due to the extra work done against
atmospheric pressure during the change of phase from liquid to gas.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of substance is defined as the amount of
heat required to change 1kg of the substance from the liquid phase to the
gaseous phase without a change in temperature.
Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of heat required to
change 1kg of the substance from the solid phase to its liquid phase without
a change in temperature.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat that is required
to change the phase of 1kg of the substance at a constant temperature.
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GAS LAWS
In this subtopic, we are going to examine three types of gas laws which are
Boyles Law, Charless Law and Pressure Law.
5.6.1 Boyles Law
We live in 1atm of pressure, but we rarely even notice the pressure on us because
the human body is primarily made up of liquid and liquids are basically non-
compressible. However, we sometimes notice the changes in pressure, primarily
in our ears for example, when flying, driving in the mountains, or even going up
and down in elevators where our ears pop. This is because our ears have an air
space in them and air, like all other gases, is compressible.

A gas compresses in proportion to the amount of pressure exerted on it. For
example, if you have a 10cm
3
balloon and double the pressure on it, it will be
compressed to 5cm
3
. If the pressure is increased four times, the volume will drop
to 1/4 the original size etc. This theory was discovered by Sir Robert Boyle, a
17th century scientist.



From Boyles Law, at constant temperature pressure in a closed container,
pressure will decrease when the volume increases (see Figure 5.3).


Figure 5.3: Boyles Law
Source: http://www.preceden.com

Boyles Law states that if the temperature remains constant, the volume of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
5.6
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156
We can write this relationship mathematically as

f
1
P
V


or PV = constant
As we reduce the volume further, the pressure will increase appropriately, so we
can also write Boyles Law as

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2

We can use this relationship to solve problems related to Boyles Law.

Example 5.1:
The volume of the lungs is measured by the volume of air exhaled or inhaled. If
the volume is 2,400 litres during exhalation and the pressure is 101.7kPa, and the
pressure during inhalation is 101.01kPa, what is the volume of the lungs during
inhalation?

Solution:
Consider the volume during inhalation as V
1
, volume during exhalation as V
2
and the pressure during inhalation as P
1
and pressure during exhalation as P
2.

Thus, V
1
= ?
V
2
= 2.400l
P
1
= 101.01kPa
P
2
= 101.70kPa

Using Boyles relationship

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2

101.01kPa V
1
= 101.70 2.400l

l
u
1
101.70 2.400
= = 2.416
101.01
V
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Imagine if you have a balloon with a volume of 20cm
3
at the surface of the water.
This balloon is under 1atm of the atmospheric pressure. If we push the balloon
into the water, for example to a depth of 10m, it is now under 2atm of pressure
(1atm of pressure from the air, 1atm of pressure from the water). Boyle's Law
then tells us that since we have twice the absolute pressure, the volume of the
balloon will be decreased to one half. It follows then, that taking the balloon to
1. Draw a face on one side of the marshmallow and place it in the
plastic syringe so the face can be seen from the side.

2. Place your thumb over the end of the syringe where the needle is
usually located. Holding your thumb in place, push in the plunger.
Observe what happens to the marshmallow as you do so.



3. With your thumb still in place, pull the plunger out and observe
what happens.



Follow-up questions:

1. Marshmallows have bubbles of air trapped inside. What happened
to the marshmallow when you pushed in the plunger? What
happened when the plunger was pulled out?

2. Relate this demonstration to the definition of Boyle's Law. How did
this demonstration verify the accuracy of that law?

Source: http://www.education.com/reference/article/boyle-gas-law/
ACTIVITY 5.3
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158
20m, the pressure would compress the balloon to one third its original size, 30m
would make it 1/4 etc.

If we bring the balloon in the previous example back up to the surface, it would
increase in size due to less pressure acting on it, until it reached the surface and
returned to its earlier 20cm
3
volume. The air in the balloon is compressed from
the pressure of the water on it when submerged, but returns to its normal size
and pressure when it returns to the surface.

Taking Boyles Law into consideration is very important in diving.

The most important rule in scuba diving is Never hold your breath! Your lungs
act like a pair of balloons in your chest. As a breath-hold diver (skin diver), if you
fill your lungs with air at the surface, hold your breath and dive to a depth of
10m, the surrounding pressure will double to 30psi, so your lungs will be
compressed to half of their original size. And if you take a full breadth of air at
10m deep, the volume of air will double when you head back to the surface.
Thats why you have to exhale on the return trip or else your lungs will explode!
5.6.2 Charless Law
There is another way to make a balloon smaller other than pushing it
underwater. You can put it in the freezer. When you heat up a gas, the molecules
that the gas is made up of move faster. In our balloon example, this increase in
molecular motion causes the molecules to hit the sides of the balloon more often
and with more force, making the balloon expand. Cooling the gas would have
the inverse effect, making the balloon smaller. This situation can be explained by
another gas law called Charless Law.



This significant study of gases came in the early 1800s in France when hot air
balloons were extremely popular. At that time scientists were eager to improve
the performance of their balloons. Two prominent French scientists, Jacques
Charles and Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, made detailed measurements of how the
volume of a gas was affected by the temperature of the gas. See Figure 5.4.

Charless Law states that if the pressure remains constant, the volume of a
given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
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Figure 5.4: Charless Law
Source: http://www.aculator.com
Mathematically, Charless Law can be represented as

f V T

or V = kT ,
which can be rewritten as
v
k =
T
(where k is a constant)

For a fixed mass of gas, Charless Law can be written as

1 2
1 2
=
V V
T T


Example 5.2:
A 30cm
3
balloon is heated from 27C to 127C. If the pressure remains constant,
what is the final volume of the balloon?

Solution:
From the information given:

Initial volume of the balloon is V
1
=30cm
3

Final volume V
2
= ?

To use the relationship of f V T , the temperature must be in the Kelvin scale.
Convert to the Kelvin scale (K) by adding 273 to the temperature in the Celsius
scale.

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T
1
= (27 +273)K = 300 K

T
2
= (127+ 273)K = 400 K

Using Charless Law

1 2
1 2
2
=
30
=
300 400
V V
T T
V


3
u
2
3.0 400
= = 40 cm
300
V

The final volume of the balloon is 40cm
3
.



5.6.3 Pressure Law
The relationship between temperature and pressure was investigated by the
French chemist, Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) and for that, Pressure Law is also
known as Gay-Lussacs Law.



Pressure Law states that if the volume remains constant, the pressure of a
given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Take a used soda can and fill it with about 10ml of
water. Heat it on a hot plate so that steam rises from it
for a few minutes. Next, fill a large beaker with water
and set it near the hot plate. Pick up the soda can from
the hot plate and quickly invert it into the water. What
did you observe? Explain using Charless Law.
ACTIVITY 5.4
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The temperature of the gas trapped in the flask is increased gradually. The
volume remains constant and increase in pressure can be observed using a
pressure gauge. A graph of pressure versus temperature (in Kelvin) can then be
plotted as shown in Figure 5.5.


Figure 5.5: Pressure law
Source: http://www.kentchemistry.com

It shows that pressure is directly proportional to temperature, so the relationship
can be written mathematically as

f P T

P = kT (where k is a constant)

Arranging the formula,
W
P
= Constant
or

1 2
1 2
=
P P
T T


Example 5.3:
The pressure of a car tyre is 22kPa at 30C. After a long journey, the pressure has
increased to 25kPa. What is the final temperature of air in the tyre after the
journey, assuming the volume of the tyre remained unchanged?

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162
Solution:
From the information given:

Initial pressure, P
1
= 22kPa
Final pressure, P
2
= 25kPa
Initial temperature, T
1
= 30kPa = (30 + 273)K = 303K
Final temperature, T
2
= ?

2 2
2 2
=
P P
T T


Using

u
2
2
22kPa 25kPa
=
303K
25kPa 303K
= = 335.23K
22kPa
T
T


The final temperature of the air inside the tyre is 335.23 273 = 71.32C

One example of the application of Pressure Law is a scuba tank. A full scuba tank
is left in the sun; the temperature of the gas inside it will increase. This causes the
air molecules in the tank to move rapidly. Unlike the balloon which could
expand, the tank is a rigid container that will not expand or increase its volume.
This increase in motion then raises the pressure inside the tank.

In fact, a full scuba tank will gain about 35 to 40kPa for every degree of
temperature increase. This is one reason that full tanks should not be left in trunk
of a car on a hot day. If the tank is filled to a pressure of 20000kPa, it could easily
reach 25000kPa if the temperature is increased substantially. There are several
cases where full scuba tanks are involved in boat fires when they exploded.





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163


When there is no overall heat transfer between two objects of the same
temperature, the two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
Temperature is the degree of hotness of an object.
Heat is the amount of thermal energy that can be transferred from one object
to another and is measure in joules (J).
Thermometry refers to temperature measurement. Temperature can be
measured in degrees Celsius (C), degrees Fahrenheit (F) or in Kelvin (K).
There are various types of thermometers which can be used to measure
temperatures in different situations.
Different types of thermometer are liquid-in-glass thermometer, resistance
thermometer, thermocouple, thermistor thermometer, rotary thermometer,
infra-red thermometer and liquid crystal thermometer
The amount of heat that must be supplied to increase the temperature by 1C
for a mass of 1kg of the substance is known as its specific heat capacity.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of that heat required to
change the phase of 1kg of the substance at a constant temperature.
Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of heat required to
change 1kg of the substance from the solid phase to its liquid phase without
a change in temperature.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of substance is defined as the amount of
heat required to change 1kg of the substance from the liquid phase to the
gaseous phase without a change in temperature.
Boyles Law states that if the temperature remains constant, the volume of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure. Its
application can be seen in diving activity.
Charless Law states that if the pressure remains constant, the volume of a
given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. This
law's application can be seen in hot air balloons.
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Pressure Law states that if the volume remains constant, the pressure of a
given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. One
example of the application of Pressure Law is a scuba tank.


Boyles Law
Charless Law
Degrees Celsius
Degrees Fahrenheit
Heat
Kelvin
Pressure
Pressure Law
Specific heat capacity
Specific latent heat
Temperature
Thermal equilibrium
Volume



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